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(anciently Melita), an island in the Mediterranean, between Sicily and Africa, 52 miles S.S.W. of Cape Passaro in Sicily. Length 17 miles, breadth 9 miles, area 98 square miles; N. Lat. (of Valletta) 35° 53', E. Long. 14° 31'. It has been supposed by some that this island corresponds to one or other of those mentioned by Homer in the Odyssey, but this is exceedingly doubtful. The earliest historical information we have respecting Malta is, that it was colonized by the Phoenicians, and used by them as a station in their long trading voyages to the pillars of Hercules and the Atlantic. At a later period we find the island mentioned as a Carthaginian colony; and although there are some traces of a connection between Malta and the Sicilian Greeks, the particulars of this are not known, nor is there any reason to believe that it was ever in other hands than those of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. In the first Punic war, Malta was laid waste by the Romans in the year 257 B.C.; but it does not seem to have surrendered finally to that power till the beginning of the second Punic war, when it was taken by Tiberius Sempronius. It then became a part of the province of Sicily, and was raised to the dignity of a municipium. Under the Roman commonwealth it seems to have been in a flourishing condition. It is now established beyond all reasonable doubt, that this island was the scene of the shipwreck of the Apostle Paul. During the period of the Roman empire little is heard of Malta, but on the partition of the empire it formed part of the eastern portion, until it was conquered by the Vandals in the fifth century. The Romans, however, regained it under Belisarius in 533 A.D., and kept possession of it till it was conquered by the Arabs in 870. The Arabs engaged to a considerable extent in piratical expeditions, by which means they acquired great wealth, and they retained possession of the island till they were dispossessed by Count Roger the Norman in 1090. The government was then put into the hands of the nobles, clergy, and representatives of the people, popularly elected. The fortunes of Malta were now united to those of Sicily, which belonged to the Normans from 1090 to 1189, to the German emperors from 1189 to 1258, to France from 1258 to 1282, and to the House of Aragon from 1282 till the time of Charles V., who inherited it as King of Aragon. That monarch, in order to secure the island, which was now chiefly important as a military station, without the expense of maintaining a garrison, made a grant of Malta and Gozo, along with Tripoli, to the Knights of St John, who had shortly before been expelled by the Saracens from their former station at Rhodes. When once firmly established here, it was not long before the knights were able to render good service by frequent expeditions against the pirates from Africa which then infested the Mediterranean. This, however, did not fail to draw upon them the vengeance of the Turks, who made an unsuccessful attempt on Malta. This taught the knights the necessity of securing their position, and they accordingly constructed the extensive and strong defences which still remain. The prizes taken by the cruisers in the expeditions against pirates supplied in a great measure the funds required, and the fortifications were constructed by the joint labour of knights, citizens, and peasants. In the year 1565, while La Valette was grand master, Soliman sent against Malta a fleet of 159 vessels, with 30,000 troops, besides a great number of other ships with provisions, ammunition, &c. The whole number that could be opposed to these was 700 knights and 8500 Maltese soldiers. The attack on the castle of St Elmo, which was defended by 500 knights and 1300 Maltese, commenced on the 24th of May. The besieged defended themselves with great courage and vigour, their most formidable weapons being large hoops covered with inflammable materials, which were set on fire, and then hurled blazing from the walls among the assailants. In the first attack the Turks lost 3000 men, and the Christians only 20 knights and 100 Maltese; but the losses of the besieged were supplied by La Valette with others from the burgh and St Angelo, as long as the communication was left open. At length the furious and incessant cannonade of the Turks had levelled the walls of the castle to the rock on which they stood. On this a general assault was again made with the utmost fury; but it was withstood by the knights with equal courage and determination, and although the loss of the knights was great, they were again strengthened by reinforcements the next day. The Turks now completely isolated the castle by drawing an intrenchment between it and the other forts, and soon afterwards renewed the attack. The defence was now desperate, and a fearful contest ensued, which was only terminated by the approach of night; and after La Valette had in vain attempted to send assistance, the knights determined to die at their posts, and during the night they received the sacrament. The next day saw the end of this heroic defence; no quarter was asked or given; the knights all perished at their posts, and the Turks entered the desolated fortress over the dead bodies of its defenders. Notwithstanding the urgent necessity and the repeated request of the grand master, no assistance was sent from Sicily; yet no thought of surrender was for a moment entertained. The siege of the remaining forts was still carried on, and in order to prevent the approach of the Turkish vessels, the Maltese erected stockades, and where the water was too deep, placed booms across the harbour. The Turks sent swimmers with hatchets to cut away these obstructions; but they were met and discomfited by Maltese sailors, who swam from the forts, until, perceiving that no advantage was gained by such contests, the assailants at length desisted from this mode of warfare. The besiegers being now reinforced by a body of Algerians, under the command of the son of Barbarossa, made an attack on the forts with 4000 men, who, though they succeeded in planting their standards for a moment on the battlements, were hurled back by the knights, and all their entreaties for mercy being answered by shouts of "St Elmo," they were massacred till only 500 remained, most of whom were desperately wounded. The assaults, however, still continued, and although always unsuccessful, the numbers of the brave defenders were gradually but surely diminishing. On one occasion, when the Turks deceived their adversaries by a false attack, even the women and children shared in the defence, bringing food to the knights, and stones to repair the walls. But in spite of all, the Turks were on the very point of victory when a sally from a different part of the defences caused a panic among the assailants by the appro- tension that the Sicilians had come to the rescue. Till the end of August the attacks were carried on with the utmost fury, and repulsed with incredible courage; but when preparations were being made for the final attempt, the long-expected aid at last arrived, and the Turks not daring to abide more than one encounter with the Sicilians, raised the siege, and took refuge in their ships. During the siege the Christians lost 260 knights and more than 7000 soldiers, and the Turks 25,000. After the departure of the enemy, the handful of knights who remained commenced to rebuild their city, in which they were aided by pecuniary contributions from most of the sovereigns of Europe, and from the distant knights of the Order. The new city was begun in 1566 and finished in 1571, and was called La Valetta, after the brave defender of the island—a name which it still bears. After this time the knights distinguished themselves greatly in the battle of Lepanto in 1571. They also employed themselves in defending the coasts of the Mediterranean; and although the Turks once again (in 1601) threatened Malta, they were immediately repulsed. The knights still preserved in their original strictness the rules of the Order, and strengthened the island by new fortifications, besides building an aqueduct for supplying Valetta with water, and a lazaretto for the sufferers from the plague, which visited Malta in 1669. Great assistance was rendered by the knights of Malta to the European states against the Turks and Africans, in protecting and securing the commerce of the Mediterranean. The earthquake in Calabria and Sicily, in 1783, gave them one of the last opportunities for displaying that chivalrous humanity and benevolence which were the ancient characteristics of their Order. They set out in their ships by night, and did great service to the wretched sufferers at Messina and Reggio. But the French revolution came on, and proclaimed in word and deed that the age of chivalry was gone. The property of the Order in France, Spain, and Italy was confiscated; and finally, in 1798, the island surrendered to the fleet of Bonaparte on its way to Egypt. A garrison of 4000 men was left by the French to defend Malta; but after the battle of the Nile the inhabitants rose against the French, who were besieged in the city of Valetta. A small body of British troops subsequently arrived to the aid of the Maltese, and the French surrendered after a blockade of two years. Provision was made in the treaty of Amiens that Malta should be restored to the knights, on condition that the Maltese should be admitted to the Order; but this was strongly opposed by the Maltese themselves, and the island remained in the possession of Britain till it was finally secured to her at the general peace. Since then, Malta, with the adjoining island of Gozo, has been a part of the British empire.

The coast of Malta is steep and rocky, especially on the S.W., where there is no harbour between Marsa Scirocco on the S.E. and Antiflaga on the W. On the W. coast there is the harbour of Magiarro; but on the N.E. coast are the harbours of St Paul, St George, St Julian, and the two harbours of Valetta, which are the largest in the island, and are separated from each other by a projecting tongue of land, on which the city is built; that to the N.W. is called Marsa Muscat, in which there is a small island, used as a quarantine station; while the other, lying to the S.E., is called the Great Harbour. The surface of the island for the most part slopes from the S.W. to the N.E.; and there is a ridge of hills running across the island to the N.W. of Valetta, known by the name of Bengemma, from which numerous smaller ridges run off in various directions. Mount Bengemma, which is the highest point in Malta, reaches the height of 590 feet above the sea. On the western side the cliffs rise perpendicularly from the sea to a height of 300 or 400 feet, while on the E. the coast gradually slopes down to the water's edge. The central ridge divides the island into two parts, in the more easterly of which all the towns are situate; and besides being strong by nature, this barrier has been additionally secured by an intrenchment, known by the name of the Nasciaro Lines. There are neither rivers nor lakes in Malta, and the only places where any swamps occur are St Paul's Bay and the Great Harbour at Valetta, where the sea has retired and left a marshy tract of ground, from which unhealthy vapours are believed to arise. The geological character of the island is chiefly calcareous: there are strata of limestone of various kinds lying on calcareous freestone, and beneath the latter is found a layer of marl. Many petrified animal remains and an abundance of sharks' teeth are to be found here. The rocks of Malta belong to the tertiary formation, and to the older or newer pliocene. The rock is covered in most parts by sand and a rich red clay; but here and there the bare rock projects through the soil; and the country has in general a very dry and barren appearance, except after it has been refreshed by a fall of rain. The vegetation is scanty, and very few trees are to be seen. There are two kinds of stone found here, which are much used for building purposes,—the one is hard and the other soft, though there are many intermediate kinds. The hardest is a coarse sort of marble, remarkable for strength. The other is a soft kind of calcareous sandstone, which is found in much greater quantities, and is used for the ordinary purposes of building. It is very light, absorbent, and easily cut, but when exposed to the air it is apt to crumble away. Alabaster is found in considerable abundance in Malta, but especially in Gozo. In the steep cliffs on the sea-coast there are a great number of remarkable caves and grottos, some of them very large. Many of them are situate at the level of the sea, so that the waves dash in with great noise, while others are higher up the rocks. One of the largest of these is near the promontory called Benghisa, to the W. of the Marsa Scirocco Bay, and extends more than 200 paces into the rock. The soil of Malta is, like its rocks, calcareous, and owes much of its fertility to the porous character of the soft sandstone, which is broken up by the natives, and mixed with soil. Where the rock is too hard for this, they bring soil from other lands, and form it into terraces, using the large stones to form walls, in order to prevent the soil from being washed away. The soil, however, is very fertile, frequently yielding two crops a-year, and never requiring to lie fallow. Cotton is the principal produce of the Maltese islands. Corn is grown in sufficient quantities to supply the inhabitants. Vines are cultivated, but the wine is of inferior quality; figs and oranges are very abundant, the latter especially being of excellent quality. Of animals found in the island, the Maltese dog and hawk were formerly much sought after, but the former of these species is now believed to be extinct. Many of the domestic animals in this island are remarkable for their breed, especially mules and asses. Snakes are found in Malta, but they are harmless,—a fact which the inhabitants ascribe to the miraculous influence of the apostle Paul. The bees are famous for the excellence of their honey, and some have supposed that the island was on this account called Melite by the Greeks. Fish is got here in great abundance, and many of the kinds are excellent, especially the dory, rock cod, and a species of whiting called lupo. A remarkable shell-fish, called the Pholas dactylus, is found at Malta, which bores for itself a hole in the soft rock, so as to give to many parts of the shore a very remarkable appearance.

The climate of Malta is very warm, and in summer the heat becomes oppressive. The greatest heat is between 80° and 90°, while the thermometer never falls below 46°. The radiation of the sun's rays from the rocks tends to increase the heat, and the stones and walls get sometimes so heated during the long days as to retain a high temperature during the night, and render the nights in summer exces- sively hot and oppressive. The winter at Malta, which extends from October to May, is very pleasant and salubrious. There are no regular land and sea breezes, owing probably to the fact that the temperature of the land remains so high during the night. The most frequent winds are those which flow from the S.E. and N.W.; but the former, the siroccos, are very hot and unhealthy, and generally prevail between August and October. Sudden gusts of heated air occasionally blow across from the coast of Africa, which would be exceedingly dangerous and destructive were they not very limited in duration, in most cases not exceeding half a minute. Snow is unknown in Malta, but hail frequently falls during the winter months. Between the months of December and February rain falls frequently, and often in violent storms; in March the weather is more dry and settled. In April and May the island is refreshed by occasional showers; while during the summer there is not a cloud to darken the clear sky, or mitigate the fierceness of the sun's rays. September and October are the most agreeable months; the temperature is then cool, and the air calm and bracing. This period is called by the Maltese the little summer, or St Martin's summer. Thunderstorms are not frequent, and occur chiefly in spring. The sky is generally clear, sometimes so much so that the summit of Etna, at a distance of 128 miles, is distinctly seen.

The capital of the island is Valetta, situate between the two harbours of Marsa Muscat and the Great Port, on the E. coast of the island. The promontory on which it stands, which was anciently called Mount Sciberras, is nearly 2 miles long, and about three-quarters of a mile broad, and forms a sort of ridge, like the back of an animal, sloping down to the sea on either side, and at the further extremity. At its point stands the fort of St Elmo, with one of the best lighthouses in the Mediterranean. The principal streets run along the ridge, and others, shorter, branch off at right angles; while a carriage drive runs round the whole city between the houses and the fortifications. The ground on which the city is built is so steep that the principal streets in Valetta consist of flights of stairs; but this contributes greatly to facilitate the cleaning of the thoroughfares. The houses are built of stone, with flat roofs, after the eastern fashion. Wood is little used in the houses of Valetta. The streets are well lighted, and paved with the hard stones of the island and lava from Mount Etna. Water is supplied by the aqueduct built by the knights; but every house has a tank for collecting the rain water, and there are numerous wells. The fortifications are exceedingly strong, and almost impregnable; so that at the last siege it could only be reduced by famine. The land side of the town is defended by five lines of fortifications, mounted with 1000 pieces of ordnance; and it is calculated that it would require 25,000 soldiers to man the entire defences in their whole extent. Of the public buildings of Valetta, one of the most remarkable is the cathedral or collegiate church of St John, which contains the tombs of some of the grand masters, as well as the chapels of the knights of the different nations. The pavement of this church is inlaid in marble with the arms of the grand masters; and there is a remarkable silver railing, which owes its preservation, during the French possession of Malta, to its having been disguised by paint. The church is also remarkable for a series of paintings representing the chief events in the life of St John the Baptist, one of which is by Caravaggio, but is not in good preservation. Another remarkable building is the church of San Pubblio, which contains under it a large catacomb, in which are to be seen many skeletons and bones of the ancient friars. Besides these, the other public buildings are,—the palace, which contains several fine pictures and an armory; the lodges or auberges of the knights; the government library; the university, treasury, palace of justice, &c.; all of which, and especially the library and the lodges of Castile and Provence, are well built, and distinguished by great taste and simplicity in architecture. The library consists of about 100,000 volumes; and adjoining it there is a museum, which contains many remains of antiquity. The harbours of Valetta are very good. That called Marsa Muscat is now used as a quarantine harbour. The Great Harbour is very much frequented, and is so strongly fortified that no ship could force a passage in past the batteries which stand on each side of the entrance. A large dry dock has recently been added at an expense of L.100,000, which is capable of receiving the largest ships and steamers.

The only other town of importance in the island is Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, anciently called Medina, which was formerly the capital, and stands near the centre of the island about 6 miles W. of Valetta, on a high ground overlooking nearly the whole of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a handsome modern cathedral; but the chief interest of the place is derived from the catacombs, which are of considerable extent, about 15 feet below the surface. There are some remarkable ancient remains at a place called Casal Crendi, near the S. coast, but little or nothing is known of their origin. The island of Gozo is situate about 4 miles to the N.W. of Malta. Its form is oval, its greatest length is 10 miles, greatest breadth 5 miles; area 16 square miles. It was originally called Gaulos by the Greeks, and Gaulum by the Romans; but the Arabs corrupted this name to Gaudese, from which has come its modern appellation. The coasts, especially to the S., are steep and rugged. The geological structure of the island is the same as that of Malta, but the soil is better and it is more highly cultivated. The surface is undulating, with several conical hills, apparently of a volcanic nature. In the N.W. some of the hills attain a considerable elevation. Gozo contains no town, but the inhabitants dwell in six small villages. There are two principal forts,—Rabato in the centre, and Chambray in the S., near to the latter of which is the best landing-place and anchorage. Sailing and rowing boats ply daily between Valetta and Gozo, the passage being only 8 miles in length. Between the two larger islands lies Comino, abounding in rabbits, and several other islets and rocks, all of which belong to Malta and Gozo.

The Maltese are of middle stature, strong, and dark in complexion, and the women are remarkable for their oriental style of beauty. The character of the country people resembles that of the Spanish; but in the towns a union of the qualities of the French and Greek nations may be observed. The men are active and industrious, being chiefly employed in agriculture and stone-cutting. They also make the best sailors of any in the Mediterranean. The dress of the lower orders consists of a loose shirt, above which they wear a jacket adorned with silver or gold buttons, and a long scarf wound round their waist. They have also short drawers reaching to the knee, and shoes somewhat resembling the sandals of the ancients. In winter they wear woollen caps, with hoods falling down behind, and in summer large straw hats. The dress of the women is extremely picturesque, consisting of a cotton under-garment, a blue petticoat, a corset with sleeves, and an upper garment which opens at the side. Their usual head-dress consists of a black silk veil, called faldetta; but many of the higher classes, both of men and women, have adopted the English and French fashions of dress. The manners of the Maltese are not refined, but they are in many respects superior in their moral character to the other inhabitants of southern Europe. Drunkenness is almost unknown; and the favourite beverages of all classes are coffee and iced water. Tobacco is smoked to a considerable extent. Music and dancing, along with horse and boat races, are the principal amusements in the island.

The government of Malta is exercised by a governor appointed by the crown, with a salary of £1,480 per annum, along with a council of eighteen members, eight of which are elected by the Maltese. The governor presides in the council, in which he has two votes, and a veto on all its proceedings. This constitution was first established in 1849. The total number of acres under cultivation in the three islands in 1854 was, 45,182, of which 7,545 were wheat, 6,753 meschiato, and 7,873 cotton. The quantity of uncultivated ground was 14,274 acres. In the same year there were in the islands 3,748 horses, 4,396 head of cattle, 9,489 sheep, and 3,323 goats. The number of ships that entered the port in 1854 was 4,783, with a tonnage of 886,790; and of those that cleared in the same year, 4,551, with a tonnage of 844,242. There are no returns of the value of the imports and exports of Malta.

The amount of public revenue and expenditure since the year 1850 is as follows:

| Year | Revenue | Expenditure | |------|---------|-------------| | 1850 | £129,293 | £125,362 | | 1851 | 123,689 | 119,307 | | 1852 | 127,729 | 123,068 | | 1853 | 123,305 | 138,034 | | 1854 | 123,772 | 141,304 |

Of the total revenue for 1854, £76,493 was derived from customs, and £17,311 from rents, exclusive of land. Of the expenditure in the same year, £47,927 was employed on the fixed establishment; £13,744 on pensions, retiring allowances, &c.; £16,297 on hospitals and charitable allowances; £694 on education; £28,429 on public works, buildings, roads, &c.; and £6,200 on military expenses. The number of schools in the islands in 1854 was 32, containing a total of 4,969 scholars. The number of births in the year 1854 was 4,698; of deaths, 3,981; of marriages, 711. Pop. (1854) 131,401.