I.—HISTORY OF MEXICO FROM THE EARLIEST ACCOUNTS TILL ITS SUBJECTION TO SPAIN.

republic of North America, is situated between 16° and 33° N. Lat., and between 86° and 117° W. Long.; being nearly 2000 miles in length, and 1100 miles in greatest breadth.

The Toltecanas are the most ancient Mexican nation of which we know anything. They were expelled from their own country, which is supposed to have been Tollan, to the northward of Mexico, in the year A.D. 472. After leading a wandering life for 104 years, they reached a place about 50 miles to the eastward of the city of Mexico, where they settled for 20 years, giving to their new residence the name of Tollantzincoa. From thence they proceeded about 40 miles farther to the west, where they built a city, called, from the name of their country, Tollan or Tula.

After the final settlement of the Toltecanas, the government became monarchical. Their first king began his reign in 667, and their monarchy lasted 384 years. During this time they reckon only eight princes, as it was a custom amongst them to continue the name of each king for fifty-two years from the time when he ascended the throne. If he died within that period, the government was carried on in his name by regency; and if he survived, he was obliged to resign his authority. During the four centuries that the monarchy continued the Toltecanas increased very considerably in number, and built many cities; but when in the height of prosperity almost the whole nation was destroyed by a famine occasioned by drought and a pestilence. The few who survived abandoned the country of Tula about 1051.

A century later they were succeeded by the Chichimecas, succeeded by a much more barbarous people, who came from an unknown by the Chichimeca country called Amaguenecan, where they had for a long time resided. The motive of the Chichimecas for leaving their own country is not known. They were eighteen months on their journey, and took possession of the desolate country of the Toltecanas about 100 years after the famine. Though much more uncivilized than the Toltecanas, they had a regular form of monarchical government, and in other respects were less disgusting in their manners than some History. of the neighbouring nations. Their king, Xolotl, chose for his capital Tenayuca, about 6 miles to the northward of the city of Mexico, and distributed his people in the neighbouring territory; but as most of them went to the northward, that part obtained the name of the country of the Chichemezas, in contradistinction to the rest. Xolotl finding himself peacefully settled in his new dominion, sent one of his officers to explore the sources of some of the rivers of the country. Whilst performing this task he came to the habitations of some Toltecanas, who, it seems, had still kept together, and were likely once more to become a nation. As these people were not inclined to war, and were greatly esteemed for their knowledge and skill in the arts, the Chichemezas entered into a strict alliance with them, and Nopaltzin, the son of Xolotl, married a Toltec princess. The consequence of this alliance was the introduction of the arts and knowledge of the Toltecanas amongst the Chichemezas.

When Xolotl had reigned about eight years in his new territories, an embassy of six persons arrived from a distant country not far from Amacuacanec, expressing a desire of coming with their people to reside in the country of the Chichemezas. The king gave them a very gracious reception, and assigned them a district; and, in a few years afterwards, three other princes, with a great army of Acolhuans, who were likewise neighbours of Amacuacanec, made their appearance. These, also, Xolotl allowed to settle in his country, and gave in marriage his two daughters to two of the kings, and a noble virgin of Chalco to the third. As the Acolhuans were the more civilized nation of the two, the name of Chichemezas began to be appropriated to the more rude and barbarous portion, who preferred hunting to agriculture, or a life of savage liberty in the mountains to the restraints of social laws. These barbarians associated with the Otomies, another savage nation who lived to the northward; and by their descendants the Spaniards were harassed for many years after the conquest of Mexico.

As soon as the nuptial rejoicings were over, Xolotl assigned a portion of his territories to each of the three princes. Acolhuatzin, who had married his eldest daughter, had Azcapozalco, 18 miles to the westward of Tezcuco; Chicquauhtli, who had married the other, received a territory named Xaltocan; and Tzontecomatl, who married the lady of inferior rank, obtained one named Coatlichan. The country continued for some time to flourish, population increased greatly, and with it the civilization of the people; but as these advanced, the vices of luxury and ambition increased in proportion. Xolotl died in the fortieth year of his reign, at a very advanced age.

Xolotl was succeeded by his son Nopaltzin, who at the time of his accession is supposed to have been about sixty years of age. In his time the tranquillity of the kingdom, which had begun to suffer disturbance under his father, experienced much more violent shocks, and civil wars took place. The whole province of Tollantzinco rebelled, and the king himself was obliged to take the field. As the rebels were very numerous, the royal army was at first defeated, but at length the insurgents were overcome, and their ringleaders severely punished. The king did not long survive the restoration of tranquillity to his dominions. He died in the thirty-second year of his reign and ninety-second of his age, leaving the throne to his eldest son Tlotzin, who was an excellent prince, and reigned thirty-six years.

Quinatzin, the son and successor of Tlotzin, was vain and luxurious. His reign, though tranquil at first, was soon disturbed by dangerous revolts and rebellions. These first broke out in two states, named Maztillen and Totopec, situated amongst the northern mountains. The king having collected a great army, marched without delay against the rebels, and after frequent engagements for the space of forty days, gained a complete victory, and punished the ringleaders of the defection with great severity. Tranquillity, however, was not yet restored; the rebellion spread to such a degree that the king was obliged not only to take the field in person, but to employ six other armies, under the command of faithful and experienced generals, in order to reduce the rebels. These proved so successful in their enterprises, that in a short time the rebellious cities were reduced to obedience, and the kingdom enjoyed the blessings of peace during the long reign of Quinatzin, who is said to have sat upon the throne for no less than sixty years. He was succeeded by his son Teclohtlatla; but as the affairs of the Acolhuans had now begun to be connected with those of the Mexicans, it will be proper to give some account of that people.

The nation of the Aztecas, which comprised the Mexi- Migrations cans, dwelt till the year 1160 in a country called Astlan, situated to the N. of the Gulf of California, as appears by the route they pursued in their journey, but how far to the northward we are not certainly informed. Betancourt makes it no less than 2700 miles, and Boturini says it was a province of Asia. The Aztecas, when they left their original habitations, were divided into six tribes; but at Culiacan the Mexicans were left with their god (a wooden image), while the five tribes of Xochimilcas, Tepanecas, Chalcecs, Tlahuicas, and Tlascalans, continued their march. The remaining tribe was divided into two violent factions, which persecuted one another, but always travelled together in order to enjoy the company of their god. At every place where they stopped an altar was erected to him; and at their departure they left behind them all their sick, and probably also all that were not willing to endure the fatigue of such journeys. They stopped in Tula nine years, and eleven more in the neighbouring parts. At last, in 1216, they arrived at Zumpanco, a considerable city in the valley of Mexico, and were received in a hospitable manner by the lord of the district. He not only assigned them proper habitations, but even demanded from amongst them a wife for his son Ilhuicat. This request was complied with, and from this marriage all the Mexican kings descended.

The Mexicans continued to migrate from one place to another along the Lake of Tezcucio. Xolotl, who was then on the throne of the Acolhuans or Chichemezas, allowed them to settle in whatsoever places of his dominions they thought proper; but some of them finding themselves harassed by a neighbouring lord, were obliged in the year 1245 to retire to Chapapoltepec, a mountain on the western borders of the lake, scarcely two miles distant from the site of Mexico. This took place in the reign of Nopaltzin, when disturbances began to take place in the Acolhuan dominions. The Mexicans, however, did not find themselves any more secure in their new place of residence than formerly. They were persecuted by the neighbouring lords, and obliged to take refuge in a number of small islands, named Acocolco, at the southern extremity of the Lake of Mexico. Here for fifty-two years they lived in the most miserable manner, subsisting on fish, insects, roots, &c., and clothing themselves with the leaves of the amoxtili, which abounds in that lake. In this miserable plight the Mexicans continued till the year 1314, when they were reduced to a state of the most absolute slavery by the king of a petty state named Collbacan. After some years a war broke out between the Colhuans and Xochimilcas, in which the latter gained such advantages that the former were obliged to employ their slaves to assist them. The Mexicans, armed with long staves having their points hardened in the fire, with knives of the stone itztl, and with shields of reeds woven together, harassed the enemy so much by not making any prisoners, but by uniformly cutting off the ear, that the Colhuans gained a complete victory. Notwithstanding, it does not appear that the haughty masters were in the least inclined to afford their slaves easier terms than before. On a certain day, which the Mexicans had set apart for sacrificing to their god, the Colhuac prince attended with his nobility, not with a view to do honour to the festival, but to make a mockery. Their derision, however, was soon changed into horror, when the Mexicans, after a solemn dance, brought forth four Xochimilcan prisoners; and after having made them dance, cut open their breasts with a knife, and plucking out their hearts, offered them, whilst yet palpitating with life, to their sanguinary idol. This had such an effect upon the spectators, that both the king and his subjects desired the Mexicans immediately to quit their territories and go where they pleased. This order was instantly obeyed. The whole nation took their route towards the north until they came to a place named Iztacalco, near the site of Mexico.

The city of Mexico was founded in 1325 on a small island named Tenochtitlan, in the middle of a great lake, without ground to cultivate for subsistence, or even room sufficient to build habitations. To enlarge the boundaries of their island, they drove palisades into those parts of the water which were most shallow, terracing them with stones and turf, and uniting to their principal island several other smaller ones which lay in the neighbourhood. The greatest effort of their industry, however, was the construction of floating gardens, by means of bushes and of the mud of the lake; and these they brought to so much perfection that they produced maize, pepper, chia, French beans, and gourds.

During the thirteen years that the Mexicans had to struggle with extreme difficulty they remained at peace; but no sooner did they begin to prosper and live comfortably, than the inveterate enmity between the two factions broke out in all its fury. This produced a separation; and one of the parties took up their residence on a small island at a little distance to the northward, which, from a heap of sand found there, they at first named Xaltelolco, but afterwards Tlatelolco, from a terrace constructed by themselves. This island was afterwards united to that of Tenochtitlan. About this time the Mexicans divided their city into four parts, each quarter having now its tutelar saint, as it had formerly had its tutelar god. In the midst of their city was the sanctuary of their great god Mecuilli, whom they constantly preferred to all the rest. To him they daily performed acts of adoration; but instead of making any progress in humanity, they seem to have daily improved in the most horrible barbarities, at least in their religion.

In the year 1352 the Mexican government was changed from an aristocracy to a monarchy. At first the people were governed by twenty lords, of whom one had an authority superior to the rest. This naturally suggested the idea of monarchy; and to this change they were also induced by the contemptible state in which their nation still continued, thinking that the royal dignity would confer upon it a degree of splendour which otherwise it could not enjoy; and that by having one leader, they would be better able to oppose their enemies. Proceeding, therefore, to elect a king, the choice fell upon Acamapitzin, a man held in great estimation amongst them, and descended from Opochtli, a noble Aztecian, and a princess of the royal family of Colhuacan. As he was yet a bachelor, they negotiated a marriage with the daughter of Acolmiztli, lord of Coatlichan, and the nuptials were celebrated with great rejoicings. In the meantime the Tlatelecos, the natural rivals of the Mexicans, likewise chose a king. Not thinking proper, however, to choose him from amongst themselves, they applied to the king of the Tepanecos, who readily sent them his son; and he was crowned first king of Tlateleco in 1353. In this the Tlatelecos seem to have had a design of humbling their rivals, as well as of rendering themselves more respectable; and therefore it is very probable that they had represented the Mexicans as wanting in that respect due to the Tepanecan monarch, from having elected a king without his leave, though at the same time they were tributaries to him. The consequence of this was, that he doubled their tribute, and imposed upon them many whimsical tasks. They freed themselves, however, from all their difficulties by vigorous exertions, absurdly ascribing to the malevolent being whom they worshipped all the glory of every deliverance. Acamapitzin governed this city, which at that time comprehended the whole of his dominions, for thirty-seven years in peace.

Acamapitzin died in the year 1389, lamented by the Mexi-Huitzilipochtlians, and his death was followed by an interregnum of four months. As the deceased monarch had formally resigned his authority into the hands of his nobles, it was necessary that a new election should take place; and the choice fell upon Huitzilihuitl, the son of Acamapitzin. The new monarch began his reign by espousing the daughter of the King of Azcapozalco. Though this princess brought him a son the first year of their marriage, the king, in order to strengthen himself by fresh alliances, married also the daughter of another prince, by whom he had Montezuma Ilhuicamina, the most celebrated of all the Mexican kings. As the Mexicans advanced in wealth and power so did their rivals the inhabitants of Tlatelolco. Their first king died in 1399, leaving his subjects greatly improved in civilization, and the city much enlarged and beautified. The rivalry which subsisted between the two cities had indeed greatly contributed to the aggrandizement of both. The Mexicans had formed so many alliances by marriage with the neighbouring nations, had so much improved their agriculture and floating gardens on the lake, and had built so many more vessels to supply their extended commerce and fishing, that they were enabled to celebrate their secular year, answering to the year 1402 of our era, with far greater magnificence than they had ever done since they left their original country of Atzlan. In 1406 Tecotlahan, King of Acolmucan, died, after a tranquil reign of thirty years. No sooner had his son Itzilxochitl succeeded him than the Kings of Mexico, Azcapozalco, and Tlatelolco abjured their allegiance. After a disastrous contest of three years, the rebels, designing to accomplish by treachery what they had been unable to effect by force, sued for peace and obtained it.

In 1409 died Huitzilihuitl, King of Mexico, who left the Chimalpopan right of electing a successor to the nobility. They made poca, third choice of his brother Chimalpopoca; and hence it became king of Mexico, an established law to choose one of the brothers of the deceased king, or, if he had no brothers, to elect one of his grandsons. Whilst the new prince was endeavouring to secure himself on the throne, the treacherous Tezozomoc, King of Azcapozalco, employed all the means in his power, to strengthen the party he had formed against the King of Acolmucan. In this he had such success, that the unfortunate prince found himself reduced to the necessity of wandering amongst the neighbouring mountains, at the head of a small army, accompanied by the lords of Huexotla and Coatlichan, who remained faithful to him. The Tepanecans, by intercepting his provisions, distressed him to such a degree that he was forced to beg them of his enemies. At length they killed him, after they had treacherously persuaded him to hold a conference with two of their captains. This perfidious act was committed in sight of the royal army, who were too weak to revenge it. The royal corpse was saved with difficulty; and Nezahualcoyotl, the heir-apparent to the crown, was obliged to shelter himself amongst the bushes from the fury of his enemies.

Tezozomoc having now in a great measure gained his Acolmucan point, proceeded to pour down his troops upon those cities can control districts which had remained faithful to the late unfortunate monarch. The people made a desperate defence and killed great numbers of their enemies; but at last be- History. ing reduced by the calamities of war, and in danger of total extermination, they were obliged to quit their habitations and flee to other countries. The tyrant then gave Tezozomoc to Chimalpopoca, King of Mexico, and Huexotla to Tlacatl, King of Tlatelolco; at the same time placing faithful governors in others places, and appointing Azcapotzalco, the capital of his own territory, the royal residence and capital of Acolhuacan. All the rest of the Acolhuacan empire submitted; and Nezahualcoyotl saw himself for the present deprived of all hopes of obtaining the crown. Tezozomoc had now attained the summit of his ambition. But instead of conciliating the minds of his new subjects, he oppressed them with fresh taxes; and being conscious of the precarious situation in which he stood, and tormented with remorse on account of his crimes, he fell into melancholy, and at length expired in the year 1422, leaving the crown to his son Tajatzin.

Tezozomoc was no sooner dead than Maxtlaton, one of his other sons, without paying the least regard to his father's will, began to exercise the functions of sovereign, and compelled his brother Tajatzin to retire to Chimalpopoca, King of Mexico. This monarch, agreeably to the character of that age and people, advised him to invite his brother to an entertainment, and then to murder him. Unluckily for both, this discourse was overheard by a servant, who, in expectation of a reward, informed the tyrant of what he had heard. Maxtlaton therefore determined to rid himself of his brother without delay. This he soon accomplished in the very same way that had been projected against himself. Tajatzin, along with the Kings of Mexico, Tlatelolco, and several other feudatory princes, were invited by Maxtlaton to an entertainment. The King of Mexico prudently excused himself, but the unsuspecting Tajatzin came to the place of entertainment, and was instantly put to death. The company were greatly alarmed, but nevertheless proclaimed Maxtlaton king, being in this, no doubt, much more influenced by fear than by affection. The King of Mexico escaped a sudden death by his absence at this time, only to perish in a manner more slow and ignominious. His revengeful foe Maxtlaton, not content with heaping insults upon him, decoyed his favourite wife into his hands, and sent her home dishonoured. Chimalpopoca was so much affected by this misfortune that he resolved to offer himself up as a sacrifice to his god; but before the resolution could be executed Maxtlaton sent a body of troops, who, entering Mexico without resistance, carried off the king alive. Chimalpopoca was imprisoned at Azcapotzalco in a strong wooden cage, the common prison for criminals.

In the meantime the Mexicans raised to the throne Itzcoatl, the son of Acamapichtli. His election was no less pleasing to Nezahualcoyotl and his party than it was offensive to Maxtlaton. An alliance was quickly concluded between the exiled prince and the King of Mexico; and when the former commenced hostilities against the tyrant of Azcapotzalco, the latter agreed to assist him. Maxtlaton accordingly prepared to wage war with the Mexicans. The Mexican populace, terrified at engaging so powerful an enemy, demanded that their king should submit and sue for a peace. But Montezuma, the brave son of Huitzilhuitl, persuaded them to agree to a commencement of hostilities. Conditions of peace, however, were first sent to Maxtlaton by the hands of Montezuma. They were rejected, and the Mexican ambassador forthwith went through the ceremony of declaring war. The Mexican populace were again thrown into the utmost consternation by the news that war was inevitable; and they now requested the king to allow them to retire from their city, of which they supposed the ruin to be certain. The king encouraged them with the hopes of victory. "But if we are conquered," replied they, "what will become of us?" "If that happen," answered the king, "we are that moment bound to deliver ourselves into your hands, to be made sacrifices at your pleasure." Prince Nezahualcoyotl was forthwith summoned to repair to Mexico with his army. On the day after his arrival the allied forces encountered the Tepanecan troops under a general named Mazatl. After an obstinate and bloody contest, which lasted till night, the Tepanecan general fell by the sword of Montezuma, and his forces were driven into their capital city. On the following day their defeat was even more signal, and resulted in the capture of Azcapotzalco. Maxtlaton attempted to hide himself; but being quickly discovered, he was beaten to death with sticks and stones. The city was plundered, the inhabitants were butchered, and the houses destroyed by the victors. This victory proved decisive in favour of the confederates. Every other place of strength in the country was quickly reduced, until the Tepanecans, finding themselves upon the verge of destruction, sent an humble embassy to the King of Mexico, requesting to be taken under his protection, and to become tributaries to him. Itzcoatl received them graciously, but threatened them with total extirpation if they violated the fidelity they had sworn to him.

Itzcoatl, now finding himself firmly seated on the throne of Mexico, set about performing his engagements to the Acolhuacan prince. Nezahualcoyotl was accordingly seated upon the throne of Acolhuacan. Having thus accomplished the conquest of Cojohuacan, a great part of the Tepanecan country, with the title of King of Tacuba, was given by Itzcoatl to Totoquitzahuatl, a grandson of Tezozomoc. An alliance was then formed between the Kings of Mexico, Acolhuacan, and Tepaneca. The conditions were, that they should assist each other in war, and should divide all plunder amongst themselves according to certain specified proportions. About this time the Xochimilcas, fearing lest the Mexicans should now turn their victorious arms against them, determined to commence hostilities against that rising state, before it should become more formidable by new conquests. Itzcoatl was no sooner informed of this determination, than he sent Montezuma with a great army against them. The Xochimilcas met him with one still more numerous; but being worse disciplined they were quickly defeated, and their city taken a short time afterwards.

Itzcoatl died in 1436, at a very advanced age, in the height of prosperity, and was succeeded by Montezuma I., the greatest monarch that ever sat on the Mexican throne. Scarcely had he been crowned when his aid was solicited by the Tezcucans against the Chalcees. The latter were almost annihilated in one desperate battle, and their city was levelled with the ground. Montezuma, on his return, found himself obliged to encounter an enemy more formidable, on account of his vicinity, than enemies more powerful at a distance. This was the King of Tlatelolco, who had formerly conspired against the life of Itzcoatl, and finding himself disappointed in this, had tried to reduce his power by entering into a confederacy with some of the neighbouring lords. At that time his designs proved abortive, but he resumed them in the time of Montezuma; the consequence was, that he was defeated and killed. One Moquihuix was chosen in his stead; and in the election of that chief it is probable that Montezuma had a considerable share. This was followed by conquests of a much more important nature. He added to his dominions the province of Culihueca, situated to the southward, and comprehending a tract of country more than 150 miles in breadth. Then, turning to the westward, he conquered another province named Tzompaluhucan. This success, however, was for a short time interrupted by a war with Atonaltzin, lord of a territory in the country of the Mixtecas. Against this potentate Montezuma sent a considerable army, but had the mortification to be informed of its defeat. Chagrined at this first check, he determined to command his next army in person; but before he could call together another, Atonaltzin had formed a confederacy with the Huexotzincaes and Tlascalans, who were glad of the opportunity, as they supposed, of reducing the power of the Mexicans. Their numbers, however, availed them but little; as Montezuma in the first engagement totally defeated the confederate army. By this victory the Mexican monarch became master not only of the dominions of Atonaltzin, but of those of many other neighbouring princes, against whom he had made war on account of their having put to death some Mexican merchants or coursers without any just cause. The conquest of Cuetlachtlan or Cotasta, however, which he attempted in 1437, proved a much more difficult task. This province is situated on the coast of the Mexican Gulf, and had formerly been inhabited by the Olmecans, whom the Tlascalans had driven out. The inhabitants were very numerous; but dreading the power of Montezuma, called in to their assistance those of Tlascala, together with the Huexotzincaes and the Chololans. Montezuma sent against them an excellently equipped army, which, however, he did not on this occasion command in person. The Cotastecs fought with great valour, but were unable to resist the royal forces; and their allies were almost totally destroyed. Six thousand two hundred of them were taken prisoners, and soon afterwards sacrificed to the Mexican god of war in the barbarous manner already described.

During the reign of this great monarch a violent inundation happened in Mexico. The lake, swollen by the excessive rains which fell in 1446, poured its waters into the city with such violence, that many houses were destroyed, and the streets inundated to such a degree that boats were everywhere made use of. The inundation was soon followed by a famine. This was occasioned by the partial failure of the crop of maize in 1448, the cars whilst young and tender having been destroyed by frost. In 1450 the crop was totally lost for want of water; and in 1451, besides the unfavourable seasons, there was a scarcity of seed. Hence in 1452 the necessities of the people became so great, that they were actually obliged to sell themselves as slaves in order to procure subsistence. Montezuma opened the public granaries for the relief of the lower classes; but nothing could arrest the progress of the famine.

Montezuma was succeeded by Axayacatl, who, like his predecessor, instantly commenced a war, for no other reason than that he might obtain prisoners to sacrifice at his coronation. He pursued Montezuma's plan of conquest, in which, however, he was not very successful; many of the provinces reduced by that monarch having revolted after his death, so that it was necessary to reconquer them. The Mexicans sustained an irreparable loss in 1469 and 1470 by the death of their allies the Kings of Tlacuba and Acolhuacan. The King of Tlacuba was succeeded by his son Chimalpopoca, and the Acolhuacan monarch by his son Nezahualpilli. A short time after the accession of the latter the war broke out between the Tlatelocos and Mexicans, which ended in the destruction of the former. Moquihuix, King of the Tlatelocos, had entered into an alliance with a great number of the neighbouring states, in order to reduce the Mexican power. He then prepared for war with many horrid ceremonies, of which the drinking of human blood was one. A day was appointed for attacking Mexico. At the set time the attack began and lasted until night, when the Tlatelocos were obliged to retire. During the night Axayacatl disposed of his troops in all the roads which led to Tlateloco, appointing them to meet in the market-place. The Tlatelocos, finding themselves attacked upon all sides, retired gradually before the Mexicans, until at last they were forced into the marketplace. During the tumult which ensued Moquihuix was killed, and his army was compelled to submit. The Tlatelocos being thus reduced, Axayacatl next set out on an expedition against the Matlazines, a tribe in the valley of Toluca, who still refused to submit to the Mexican yoke. Having proved successful in this expedition, he undertook to subdue Xiquipiloa, a considerable city and state of the Otomies. Encountering the chief of that people in single combat, he was overmatched, and received a violent wound in the thigh. Notwithstanding this disaster, his army gained a complete victory, carrying off more than eleven thousand prisoners, amongst whom was the chief of the Otomies himself.

Axayacatl was succeeded by his elder brother, called Tizoc, Tizoc and who was shortly afterwards murdered in a conspiracy of his Ahuitzotl subjects. During the reign of Tizoc the Acolhuacans made war upon the Huexotzincaes, ruined their city, and conquered their territory. Ahuitzotl, the brother of Tizoc, succeeded him in the kingdom of Mexico. His first object was to finish the great temple begun by his predecessor; and so great was the number of workmen employed that it was completed in four years. During the time it was building the king employed himself in making war with different nations, reserving all the prisoners he took for victims at the dedication of the temple. The number of prisoners sacrificed at this dedication in 1486 is said by Torquemada to have been 72,324, and by other historians is estimated at 64,060. In 1487 there happened a violent earthquake; and Chimalpopoca, King of Acolhuacan, having died, was succeeded by Totoquilmatzin II. Ahuitzotl died in the year 1502 of a disorder produced by a contusion in the head. At the time of his death the Mexican empire had reached its utmost extent.

His successor, Montezuma Xocojotzin, or Montezuma Montezuma the younger, was a person of great bravery, and was likewise a priest, and held in great estimation on account of the gravity and dignity of his deportment. But no sooner was the ceremony of his coronation terminated, than Montezuma began to discover a pride which nobody had before suspected. He deprived all the commoners of the offices they held about the court, declaring them incapable of holding any for the future. All the royal servants were now people of rank. Besides those who lived in the palace, six hundred feudatory lords and nobles came to pay court to him. In every respect he kept up, as far as was possible, an extravagant appearance of dignity, splendour, and luxury. But in no long time his prodigality rendered him very disagreeable to a great number of his subjects, though others were pleased with the readiness he showed to relieve the necessities of individuals, and his generosity in rewarding his generals and ministers. The reign of Montezuma, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, was far from being so glorious as those of his predecessors had been. He attempted to extort tribute from Tlascala, a small republic at no great distance from the capital; but the inhabitants had already inclosed all the lands of the republic with intrenchments, to which they now added a wall six miles in length on the west side, where an invasion was most to be apprehended. Behind these fortifications so well did they defend themselves, that though they were frequently attacked by the neighbouring states in alliance with Mexico, or subject to it, they were still able to maintain their ground. Montezuma's reign was also disturbed by disastrous losses and evil omens. In 1508 an expedition against a very distant region, named Amatla, completely failed. A great part of the soldiers perished under the inclemency of the weather, and the rest were killed in battle. By this and other calamities, together with the appearance of a comet, Montezuma was so terrified that he applied to the King of Alchobuncan, who was reported to be very skilful in divination. Nezahualpilli told him that the comet presaged the arrival of a new people; but this being unsatisfactory to the emperor, he conferred with a celebrated astrologer, who confirmed the interpretation of Nezahualpilli. Mexico was first discovered by Hernandez de Cordova, who in 1517, in sailing towards the Bahamas, was driven by a succession of severe storms on the coast of Yucatan. On the 10th of February 1519 Hernando Cortez set sail for the conquest of Mexico from the Havannah, and, after touching at Yucatan, arrived in Passion-week of the same year at the harbour of St Juan de Ulua. Here he was met by two Mexican canoes, which carried two ambassadors from the emperor of that country, and showed the greatest signs of peace and amity. Their language was translated into the Yucatan tongue by a female prisoner, whom they had recently captured; after which a Spaniard named Jeronimo de Aguilar interpreted the meaning in Spanish. This slave was afterwards named Donna Marina, and proved very useful in their conferences with the natives. By means of his two interpreters, Cortez learned that the other part of the embassy was to inquire what his intentions were in visiting these coasts. He accordingly informed the ambassadors that he came to propose matters of the utmost consequence to the welfare of the prince and his kingdom. Next morning, without waiting for any answer, he landed his troops, horses, and artillery, and began to erect huts for his men, and to fortify his camp. The day following the ambassadors had a formal audience, at which Cortez acquainted them that he came from Don Carlos of Austria, king of Castile, the greatest monarch of the East, and was intrusted with propositions of such moment that he would impart them to none but the emperor himself, and therefore required to be conducted immediately to the capital. This demand produced the greatest uneasiness, and the ambassadors did all in their power to dissuade Cortez from his design, endeavouring to conciliate his good will by the presents sent him by Montezuma. But Cortez insisted on being admitted to a personal interview with their sovereign. During this conversation some painters in the retinue of the Mexican chiefs had been diligently employed in delineating, upon white cotton cloths, figures of the ships, horses, artillery, soldiers, and whatever else attracted their eyes as singular. These sketches were then despatched to Montezuma by trained couriers posted at proper stations along the road. In a few days messengers arrived from the royal residence with many rich presents to Cortez, but at the same time with the intelligence that Montezuma would not give his consent that foreign troops should approach nearer to his capital, or even allow them to continue longer in his dominions.

In a short time a deputy named Teztilte arrived with another present from Montezuma, and together with it delivered the ultimate orders of that monarch to depart instantly out of his dominions; and when Cortez, instead of complying with his demands, renewed his request of audience, the Mexican immediately left the camp with strong marks of surprise and resentment. Next morning none of the natives appeared; all friendly correspondence seemed to be at an end, and hostilities were expected to commence every moment. Cortez, without allowing his men time for reflection, immediately set about carrying his designs into execution. In order to give a beginning to a colony, he assembled the principal persons in his army, and by their suffrages elected a council and magistrates, in whom the government was to be vested. The new settlement received the name of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, that is, "the rich town of the true cross."

Before this court of his own making, Cortez did not hesitate to resign all his authority, and was immediately re-elected chief-justice of the colony, and captain-general of his army, with an ample commission, in the king's name, to continue in force till the royal pleasure should be further known. The soldiers eagerly ratified their choice by loud acclamations; and Cortez, now considering himself as no longer accountable to any subject, began to assume a much greater degree of dignity, and to exercise more extensive powers than he had hitherto done. Having strengthened himself still further by an alliance with one of Montezuma's own tributaries, the petty prince of Cempoalla, he resolved to advance into the country.

Yet, as he had thrown off all dependence on Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, who was his lawful superior, he was apprehensive of his interest at court, and thought proper, before he set out on his intended expedition, to take the most effectual measures against the impending danger. With this view, he persuaded the magistrates of his colony to address a letter to the king, containing a pompous account of their own services, of the country they had discovered, and of the motives which had induced them to throw off their allegiance to the governor of Cuba, and to settle a colony dependent on the crown alone, in which the supreme power, civil as well as military, had been vested in Cortez; humbly requesting their sovereign to ratify what had been done under his royal authority. Some soldiers and sailors, however, secretly disaffected to Cortez, formed a design to escape to Cuba, in order to give such intelligence to the governor as might enable him to intercept the vessel which was to carry the treasure and despatches to Spain. But before this conspiracy was ready for execution, the secret was discovered by one of the associates. To prevent such plots in future, Cortez, without any hesitation, burned his fleet, and thus rendered it necessary for his troops to follow wherever he chose to lead. He then began his march into the interior, with 500 infantry, 15 horse, and 6 field-pieces; and with a reinforcement furnished by the Prince of Cempoalla, consisting of 400 regular troops and 200 of those Indians called Tamaques, whose office was to carry burdens and perform all manner of servile labour.

Nothing memorable happened till the Spaniards arrived on the confines of the republic of Tlascala. As the inhabitants of that province were implacable enemies of Montezuma, Cortez hoped that it would be an easy matter for him to procure their friendship; but his ambassadors were detained, a circumstance which led him to infer that the Tlascalans were hostile. He accordingly approached the city, and soon found that his small force was surrounded by an army of 50,000 men. In the battle which ensued the discipline and equipments of the Europeans overcame this immense host. The loss of three other battles effectively subdued the valour of the natives, and at last peace was concluded to the great satisfaction of both parties. The Tlascalans yielded themselves as vassals to the crown of Castile, and engaged to assist Cortez in all his operations, in return for the protection which he guaranteed to extend to their republic.

As soon as his troops were fit for service, Cortez resolved to continue his march towards Mexico, notwithstanding the securites his remonstrances of the Tlascalans, who looked upon his de-enterprise as inevitable if he put himself into the power of such a faithless prince as Montezuma. But the emperor had informed Cortez that he agreed to receive his visit, and that he had given orders for his friendly reception at Cholula, the next place of any consequence on the road to Mexico. Cortez was received with much seeming cordiality; but 6000 Tlascalan troops who accompanied him were obliged to remain without the town, as the Cholulans refused to admit their ancient enemies within their precincts. In a short time Donna Marina, the interpreter, received information from an Indian woman of distinction, whose confidence she had gained, that the destruction of the Spaniards was concerted; that a body of Mexican troops lay concealed near the town; that some of the streets were barricaded, whilst in others deep pits or trenches were dug, and slightly covered over, as traps into which the horse might fall; that stones and missile weapons were collected upon the tops of the temples; and that the fatal hour was already at hand. Cortez, alarmed at this news, resolved to anticipate his enemies. On a signal given, his troops rushed out and attacked the multitude in front, the Tlascalans at the same time assailing them in the rear; the streets were filled with slaughter, and the temples, which afforded a retreat to the priests and some leading men, were set on fire, in consequence of which they perished in the flames. At length the carnage ceased, after the slaughter of 6000 Cholulans, without the loss of a single Spaniard.

From Cholula Cortez continued his march to Mexico with great circumspection and the strictest discipline, though without seeming to suspect the prince whom he was about to visit.

When the Spaniards drew near the city, about 1000 persons of distinction came forth to meet them, and announce the approach of the emperor himself. Preceded by all the pomp and pageantry of an oriental monarch, Montezuma appeared in a chair or litter richly ornamented with gold and feathers of various colours, surmounted by a canopy of curious workmanship. When he drew near, Cortez, dismounting, accosted him with profound reverence, after the European fashion. He returned the salutation, according to the mode of his country, by touching the earth with his hand, and then kissing it. Nothing material passed at this first interview. Montezuma conducted Cortez to the quarters which had been prepared for his reception, and immediately took leave of him with a politeness not unworthy of a more refined court. The first care of Cortez was to take precautions for his security, by planting the artillery so as to command the different avenues which led to his quarters, and by appointing a large division of his troops to be always on guard. The three subsequent days were employed in viewing the city, the appearance of which, so far superior in the order of its buildings and the number of its inhabitants to any place the Spaniards had beheld in America, and yet so little resembling the structure of a European city, filled them with surprise and admiration.

The access to the city of Mexico or Tenochtitlan was by artificial causeways or streets, formed of stones and earth, about 30 feet in breadth. As the waters of the lake during the rainy season overflowed the level country, these causeways were of considerable length; that of Tacuba, on the W., being a mile and a half; that of Tezcoco, on the N.W., 3 miles; and that of Cuoyacan, towards the S., 6 miles. On the E. there was no causeway, and the city could be approached only by canoes. As the approaches to the city were singular, so its construction was remarkable. Not only the temples of their gods, but the houses belonging to the monarch and to persons of distinction, were of such dimensions that, in comparison with any other buildings which had been discovered in America, they might even be termed magnificent. The habitations of the common people were mean, resembling the huts of other Indians; but they were all placed in a regular manner on the banks of the canals, which passed through the city in some of its districts, or on the sides of the streets which intersected it in other quarters. In this city, the pride of the New World, and the noblest monument of the industry and the art of man whilst unacquainted with the use of iron, the Spaniards reckon that there were at least 60,000 inhabitants.

As soon as Cortez had entered Mexico, he had become sensible that, from an excess of confidence in the superior valour and discipline of his troops, he had pushed forward into a situation where it was difficult to continue, and from which it was dangerous to retire. At the same time he knew that the countenance of his own sovereign was to be obtained only by a series of victories. He therefore fixed upon a plan no less extraordinary than daring. He determined to seize Montezuma in his palace, and to carry him as a prisoner to the Spanish quarters. At his usual hour of visiting Montezuma, Cortez went to the palace accompanied by Alvarado, Sandoval, Lugo, Velasquez de Cortez Leon, and Davila, five of his principal officers, and with as selves to many trusty soldiers. Thirty chosen men followed, not in seize Mon regular order, but sauntering at some distance, as if they terums in had no object but curiosity; small parties were posted at proper intervals in all the streets leading from the Spanish quarters to the court; and the remainder of his troops, with the Tlascalan allies, were under arms, ready to sally out upon the first alarm. Cortez and his attendants were admitted without suspicion; the Mexicans retiring, as usual, out of respect. He addressed the monarch in a tone very different from that which he had employed in former conferences, reproaching him bitterly as the author of a violent assault made upon the Spaniards at Cempoalla by one of his officers. Montezuma, confounded at this unexpected accusation, asserted his own innocence with great earnestness; and, as a proof of it, gave orders instantly to bring the culprit to Mexico. Cortez replied that a declaration so respectable left no doubt remaining in his own mind; but that his followers would never be convinced that Montezuma did not harbour hostile intentions against them, unless he removed from his own palace and took up his residence in the Spanish quarters. The first mention of so strange a proposal deprived Montezuma of speech, and almost of motion. At length he haughtily answered, that persons of his rank were not accustomed to give themselves up voluntarily as prisoners. At length, after he had been alternately coaxed and intimidated for the space of three hours, he complied with their request, and was carried off in silent pomp to the Spanish quarters.

In a short time Cortez had entirely gained the ascendant over the unhappy monarch; and he took care to improve his opportunity to the utmost. He sent his emissaries into different parts of the kingdom, accompanied with Mexicans of distinction, who might serve them both as guides and protectors. He urged Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of the crown of Castile; to hold his crown of him as superior; and to subject his dominions to the payment of an annual tribute. With this requisition, humiliating as it was, Montezuma complied. He then, at the request of Cortez, accompanied this profession of fealty with a magnificent present to his new sovereign; and, after his example, his subjects brought in very liberal contributions. Yet, although often importuned, he obstinately refused to change his religion, or abolish the superstitious rites which had been for so long a time practised throughout his dominions. In an ebullition of zeal, Cortez led out his soldiers in order to throw down by force the idols in the great temple; but the priests taking arms in defence of their altars, and the people crowding with great ardour to support them, the prudence of Cortez overruled his zeal, and induced him to desist from his rash attempt, after dislodging the idols from one of the shrines and placing in their stead an image of the Virgin Mary. Scarcey had he escaped from this danger when he was startled by the news that an armament sent by Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had arrived at Vera Cruz. He afterwards learned that it consisted of 18 ships and 900 men, under a brave officer named Pamphilo de Narvaez, and that their instructions were, to seize Cortez and his principal officers, to send them prisoners to Velasquez, and then to complete the discovery and conquest of the country in his name.

After attempting in vain to induce Narvaez to share with him the glory and gain of subduing the country, Cortez resolved to trust his fate to the issue of a war. He therefore left 150 men under the command of Pedro de Alvarado, to guard the capital and the captive emperor; and marched with the remainder to meet his formidable opponent, who had taken possession of Cempoalla. Even af- History being reinforced by Sandoval, the governor of Vera Cruz, the force of Cortez did not exceed two hundred and fifty men. He hoped for success chiefly from the rapidity of his movements and the possibility of surprising his enemies; and as he chiefly dreaded their cavalry, he armed his soldiers with long spears, accustoming them to that deep, compact, and solid order in which the use of these weapons becomes most formidable. At last he attacked Narvaez in the night-time, and having entirely defeated and taken him prisoner, obliged all his troops to own allegiance to himself.

A short time after the defeat of Narvaez a courier arrived from Mexico with the disagreeable intelligence that the Mexicans had taken arms, and having seized and destroyed the two brigantines which he had built in order to secure the command of the lake, had attacked the Spaniards in their quarters, and had carried on hostilities with such fury that Alvarado and his men must either have been cut off by famine or overpowered by the multitude of their enemies. This revolt had been excited by motives which rendered it still more alarming. On the departure of Cortez for Cempoala, the Mexicans had held a consultation for restoring their sovereign to liberty, and driving out the Spaniards. The Spaniards in the city suspected and dreaded these machinations; but Alvarado, instead of attempting to soothe or cajole the Mexicans, waited the return of one of their solemn festivals, fell upon them, unarmed and unsuspicous of danger, and massacred six hundred in cold blood. An action so cruel and so treacherous, filled not only the city, but the whole empire, with rage and indignation.

Cortez advanced with the utmost celerity to the relief of his distressed companions, and entered the capital without opposition. But by this time indignation and success had so intoxicated him that he refused, with strong words of contempt, a personal interview with Montezuma. His expressions being reported amongst the Mexicans, they suddenly flew to arms, and made such a violent and sudden attack, that all the valour and skill of Cortez were scarcely sufficient to repel them. After exerting his utmost efforts for a whole day, he was obliged to retire with the loss of twelve killed and upwards of sixty wounded. When the Mexicans approached the next morning to renew the assault, Montezuma, who was still at the mercy of the Spaniards, advanced to the battlements in his royal robes, and addressed his subjects in favour of the Spaniards. But they testified their resentment with loud murmurs, and at length broke forth with such fury that they wounded him with two arrows, and struck him to the ground with a stone. The unhappy monarch now obstinately refused all nourishment, and in a short time ended his days. Upon the death of Montezuma, Cortez having lost all hope of bringing the Mexicans to any terms of peace, prepared for retreat. But his antagonists having taken possession of a high tower in the great temple, which overlooked the Spanish quarters, and placed there a garrison of their principal warriors, the Spaniards were so much exposed to their missile weapons, that none of them could stir without imminent danger. In an attempt to capture this post Juan de Escobar, with a large detachment of chosen soldiers, was thrice repulsed. Cortez then caused a buckler to be tied to his arm, as he could not manage it from a wound which he had received in the hand, and rushed with his drawn sword amongst the thickest of the combatants. Encouraged by the presence of their general, the Spaniards returned to the charge with such vigour that they gradually forced their way up the steps, and drove the Mexicans to the platform at the top of the tower. There a desperate hand-to-hand struggle raged for three hours, when all the Mexicans were either slain or hurled from the battlements. As soon as the Spaniards became masters of the tower, they set fire to it, and, without further molestation, continued the preparations for their retreat.

Towards midnight, they began their march in three divisions. But they had not proceeded far before they Cortez were suddenly alarmed with the sound of warlike instruments, and found themselves assaulted on all sides by an innumerable multitude of their enemies. The Spaniards advanced with precipitation. At last, overcome with the numbers of the enemy, they began to give way, and in a moment the confusion was universal. More than four hundred Spanish soldiers perished, together with many officers of distinction. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage were lost; the greater part of the horses, and above two thousands Tlascalans were killed, and only a very small part of their treasure was saved. The first care of the Spanish general, after he had succeeded in escaping from the city, was to find some shelter for his small shattered army. At last he discovered a temple seated on an eminence, in which he found not only the shelter he wanted, but also some provisions. For six days afterwards the Spaniards continued their march through a barren, ill-cultivated, and thinly-peopled country, where they were often obliged to feed on berries, roots, and the stalks of green maize; at the same time they were harrassed without intermission by large parties of Mexicans, who attacked them on all sides. On the sixth day they reached Otumba, not far from the road between Mexico and Tlascal. Early next morning, when they reached the summit of an eminence before them, a spacious valley opened to their view, covered with a vast army of Mexicans as far as the eye could reach. At the sight of this incredible multitude the Spaniards were astonished, and even the boldest amongst them began to despair. But Cortez, without allowing time for the slightest hesitation, led them instantly to the charge. With little difficulty the small compact band pierced and shattered the mighty mass of their foes; but the broken battalions, after each successive repulse, re-formed and returned to the conflict, until the Spaniards were ready to sink under their repeated efforts, without seeing any end to their toil, or any hope of victory. At this crisis Cortez, along with four desperate cavaliers, cut his way through the chosen body of nobles that guarded the standard of the empire, bore down the Mexican general with his lance, and snatched the imperial ensign. The moment that their leader fell, and the standard, towards which all directed their eyes, had disappeared, a universal panic struck the Mexicans; every ensign was lowered, and each soldier, throwing away his weapons, fled with precipitation to the mountains.

The day after this important action, which was fought on the 8th of July 1520, the Spaniards entered the Tlascalan adopted by territories, where they were received with the most cordial friendship. Cortez now set himself assiduously to prepare for a second invasion of Mexico. He drew a small supply of ammunition, and two or three field-pieces, from his stores at Vera Cruz. He despatched an officer with four ships of Narvaez's fleet to Hispaniola and Jamaica, to engage adventurers, and to purchase horses, gunpowder, and other military stores; and as he knew that it would be in vain to attempt the reduction of Mexico unless he could secure the command of the lake, he gave orders to prepare, in the mountains of Tlascal, materials for building twelve brigantines, so that they might be carried to the water in pieces, ready to be put together and launched when he stood in need of their service. Without giving his soldiers an opportunity of caballing, he daily led them against the people of the neighbouring provinces, who had cut off some detachments of Spaniards during his misfortunes at Mexico; and as he was constantly attended with success, his men soon resumed their wonted sense of superiority. About this period an armament fitted out by Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, who had long aimed at dividing with Cortez the glory and the gain of annexing the empire of Mexico to the crown of Castile, arrived at Vera Cruz, and were soon persuaded to throw off their allegiance to their master, and to enlist with Cortez. About the same time a ship arrived from Spain, freighted by some private adventurers, with military stores; and the cargo was eagerly purchased by Cortez, whilst the crew, following the example of the rest, joined him at Tlascala. From these various quarters the army of Cortez was reinforced with one hundred and eighty men and twenty horses, by which means he was enabled to dismiss such of the soldiers of Narvaez as were most troublesome and discontented; after the departure of whom he still mustered upwards of five hundred infantry, of whom eighty were armed with muskets or cross-bows, forty horsemen, and nine pieces of artillery. At the head of these, with ten thousand Tlascalans and other friendly Indians, he began his march towards Mexico on the 28th of December, six months after his fatal retreat from that city.

As soon as Cortez entered the enemy's territories, he discovered various preparations to obstruct his progress. But his troops forced their way with little difficulty, and took possession of Tezcuco, the second city of the empire, situated upon the banks of the lake, about 20 miles from Mexico. For three months part of his troops were engaged in building brigantines, and the other part in reducing the towns situated round the lake. Meanwhile several of the cities tributary to Mexico were induced, through hatred to their oppressors, to make common cause with the invaders, and not only to acknowledge the King of Castile as their sovereign, but to supply the Spanish camp with provisions, and to strengthen his army with auxiliary troops. At length intelligence arrived that the materials for building the brigantines were completely finished, and waited only for a body of Spaniards to conduct them to Tezcuco. The command of this convoy, consisting of two hundred foot soldiers, fifteen horsemen, and two field-pieces, was given to Sandoval. This brave soldier proved worthy of the confidence reposed in him, and conducted his charge safely to Tezcuco.

Cortez determined to attack the city from three different quarters; from Tezcuco on the E. side of the lake, from Tacuba on the W., and from Cuayocan towards the S. These towns were situated on the principal causeways which led to the capital, and were intended for their defence. He appointed Sandoval to command in the first, Pedro de Alvarado in the second, and Cristoval de Olid in the third. He formed the brigantines into three divisions, allotting one to each station, with orders to second the operations of the officer who commanded there. From all the three stations he pushed on the attack against the city with equal vigour, but in a manner very different from that in which sieges are conducted in regular war. Each morning his troops assaulted the barricades which the enemy had erected on the causeways, forced their way over the trenches which they had dug, and penetrated into the heart of the city, in hopes of obtaining some decisive advantage; but when the obstinate valour of the Mexicans had rendered the efforts of the day ineffectual, the Spaniards retired in the evening to their former quarters. After this plan of attack had been followed for a month without any success, Cortez resolved to give it one trial more, and if unsuccessful, to relinquish it altogether. With this view he sent instructions to Alvarado and Sandoval to advance with their divisions to a general assault, and took the command in person of that which was posted on the causeway of Cuayocan. Animated by his presence and the expectation of some decisive event, the Spaniards pushed forward with irresistible impetuosity; broke through one barricade after another; forced their way over the ditches and canals, and having entered the city, gained ground incessantly, in spite of the multitude and ferocity of their opponents. But Guatimozin commanded the troops posted in the front, to slacken their efforts, in order to allure the Spaniards to push forward. On a signal given by him, the priests in the great temple struck; the great drum consecrated to the god of war; and no sooner did the Mexicans hear its solemn sound than they rushed upon the enemy with frantic rage. The Spaniards, unable to resist the fury of the onset by men maddened by religious zeal, began to retire, at first leisurely and in order, but as the enemy pressed on, and their own impatience to escape increased, the terror and confusion became general. Cortez himself would have been carried away captive by six Mexican captains, had not two of his officers sacrificed their own lives to save him. Above sixty Spaniards perished in the rout; and what rendered the disaster more afflicting, forty of these fell alive into the hands of the enemy, and were doomed to have their quivering hearts torn from their bosoms and offered up with barbarous rites to hideous idols. But the Mexicans did not rely on the efforts of their own arms alone. They sent the heads of the Spaniards whom they had sacrificed to the leading men in the adjacent provinces, and assured them that the god of war had declared that in eight days these hated enemies should be finally destroyed. This prediction gained universal credit amongst a people prone to superstition. The Indian auxiliaries of Cortez abandoned the Spaniards as a race of men devoted to destruction, and the Spanish troops were left almost alone in their stations. Cortez, however, resolved to falsify the prophecy; and accordingly suspended all military operations during the period marked out by the oracle. The fatal term thus expired without any disaster. His allies, ashamed of their own credulity, now returned to their station. Other tribes joined his standard; and such was the changeableness of a simple people, moved by every slight impression, that in a short time Cortez saw himself, if we may believe his own account, at the head of 150,000 Indians.

Even with such a numerous army he found it necessary to adopt a new and more cautious system of operations. He made his advances slowly and cautiously, levelling the houses and filling up the canals as he advanced, and gradually contracting the retreat of the enemy. At length all the three divisions penetrated into the great square in the centre of the city, and made a secure lodgment there. Three-fourths of the city were now reduced and laid in ruins; and the remaining quarter was wasting fast before the attacks of famine and pestilence. At this crisis the brave Guatimozin resolved to proceed in person to rouse the distant provinces of the empire to arms. With this intent he embarked in a canoe, and was speeding swiftly over the lake when he was captured by a brigantine, and delivered into the hands of Cortez. As soon as the fate of their sovereign was known, the resistance of the Mexicans ceased, and Cortez took possession of that small part of the capital which yet remained undestroyed. Thus terminated, after it had continued for seventy-five days, the siege of Mexico, the most memorable event in the conquest of America. The exultation of the Spaniards was quickly damped by the disappointment of those hopes which had animated them amidst so many hardships and dangers. Instead of the inexhaustible wealth which they expected, their rapacity could collect only an inconsiderable booty amidst ruins and desolation. Guatimozin, aware of his impending fate, had ordered what remained of the riches amassed by his ancestors to be thrown into the lake. The Spaniards, thus deprived of their expected reward, fell into a state of uncontrollable discontent. Some accused Cortez and his confidants of having secretly appropriated to their own use a large portion of the riches which should have been brought into the common stock. Others blamed Guatimozin for obstinacy in refusing to discover the place where he had hidden his treasure. To quiet this universal History. murmur, Cortez was driven to subject Guatimozin to torture, in order to force from him a discovery of the royal treasures, which it was supposed he had concealed. The unfortunate monarch bore the most refined cruelty with the invincible fortitude of an American warrior, until Cortez, ashamed of a scene so horrid, rescued him from the hands of his torturers.

The fate of the capital, as both parties had foreseen, decided that of the empire. The provinces one after another submitted to the conquerors. Small detachments of Spaniards, marching through them without interruption, penetrated in different quarters to the great Southern Ocean, which, according to the ideas of Columbus, they imagined would open a short and easy passage to the East Indies, and thus secure to the crown of Castile all the coveted wealth of those fertile regions; and the active mind of Cortez began already to form plans for attempting this important discovery. In his subsequent schemes, however, he was disappointed; but from this time until the revolutionary spirit broke out in the New World, not long after the commencement of the present century, Mexico remained in the hands of the Spaniards.

II.—HISTORY OF MEXICO FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION TO THE PRESENT TIME.

For nearly three centuries after the conquest of Cortez, Mexico remained quietly subject to the Spanish yoke; but the internal tranquillity thus enjoyed ceased with the invasion of Old Spain by the armies of Napoleon. But before proceeding to narrate the events which have terminated in the separation of Mexico from the mother country, it will be necessary briefly to review the system of colonial policy by which it was so long governed, and to point out the causes which ultimately led to the assertion of independence. It is to the complication of abuses, to which the old system gave rise, that we must mainly attribute those events which have changed the destiny of the New World.

The Spanish viceroy in Mexico was endowed with the prerogatives of royalty. He was commander-in-chief of the troops, and he regulated the military operations, and filled up all vacancies. All sentences of every description bore his signature, nor was there any appeal from his decision. The only checks which interposed between him and despotic sovereignty were the residencia, or legal investigation of his conduct, to which the king might subject him on his return to Spain, a measure which was seldom or never enforced; and the Audiencia, or the court of appeal in the last resort. This body possessed considerable power and influence. It had control over all other tribunals, ecclesiastical as well as civil, in every case where the value of the subject in litigation did not exceed ten thousand dollars. It likewise enjoyed the privilege of corresponding directly with the sovereign and with the Council of the Indies, a board at which the king was supposed constantly to preside in person, and whose sanction it was necessary to obtain before orders, decrees, or projects of reform, although emanating from the crown, could acquire the force of law. This privilege might have rendered this body an efficient check upon the conduct of the viceroy if the latter had not possessed such inordinate power. He was himself honorary president of the body, and had thus every opportunity of conciliating the members, and attaching them to his interests and those of the Europeans. They were more easily swayed in this direction, as they were always exclusively natives of old Spain.

Besides the boards already noticed, the municipal corporations, called sometimes the Cabildo, sometimes the Ayuntamiento, and sometimes the City, had a considerable share of influence. Their members, called regidores, their president, the corregidor, and their executive officers, the syndics, were chosen from the people, and originally by the people. But in a short time the situations of alcalde and regidor were disposed of to the highest bidder, the purchaser having the power of relinquishing them in favour of relatives or friends. These functionaries, however, uniformly proved the friends of the Creoles; for they were connected with them by numerous ties, and by a community of interest.

The Recopilacion de las Leyes de las Indias, or general State of collection of the laws of the Indies, was the name given to the laws that chaotic mass of contradictory statutes by which the decisions of the tribunals were supposed to be determined. These statutes were originally merely decrees upon different subjects, emanating from the king or from the Council of the Indies. But it was not long before many of these decrees were annulled by others subsequently issued, so that it was scarcely possible to know which statutes were in force, and which had fallen into disuse or been suspended. An appeal to judicial authority had thus in it all the uncertainty and hazard of a game of chance; and this was further increased by different professions and corporate bodies enjoying various special privileges or fueros. Each of these exempted the persons who chose to plead it from the jurisdiction of the ordinary authorities, and made them amenable in all civil and criminal causes to the tribunal of the head of the body to which they belonged. It thus happened that the native American was generally the sufferer (in cases) in which his opponent was a European; for the difficulty of obtaining redress in any dispute was augmented by the circumstance of the latter enjoying a double or triple fuero, as a merchant, a government officer, a dignitary of the church, or at least as holding some rank in the militia.

To complete the outline of that mighty fabric by which Ecclesiastic authority of Spain in the New World was so long supported, it is necessary briefly to advert to ecclesiastical establishments. These were altogether independent of the see of Rome, and the pope could neither fulminate bulls nor hold any sort of intercourse with Spanish America, unless through the medium of the court of Madrid and the Council of the Indies. As might have been expected under such circumstances, a traffic in bulls became an important branch of the royal revenue. The king bought of the Holy See indulgences and dispensations of all kinds, and retailed them to his American subjects at an enormous profit. The business was managed with as much strictness and regularity as an ordinary commercial transaction, the monopoly of tobacco, for example; and so jealous was the king of his right, that the most severe penalties were not only enacted, but enforced against ecclesiastics who dared to infringe the regulations.

Such is the general view of the colonial system of Spain; and when we consider that all the great offices of state, excepting the viceregal dignity itself, were open alike to Americans and Europeans, every subject of the crown being eligible, its defects, in theory at least, are scarcely so glaring as they are sometimes represented. The evils, many and grievous, consisted in the practice and in the maintenance of a system of laws by which the colonies were sacrificed to the mother country. Every situation, from the highest to the lowest, was bestowed upon Europeans. Indeed, the colonial offices were disposed of in Madrid to the highest bidder; and at one time the proceeds, like the traffic in bulls, formed a not inconsiderable item of the royal revenues. Of the fifty viceroys who governed Mexico from 1535 to 1808, only one was an American, and even he was born in Peru. But as the exclusive enjoyment of these privileges could only be preserved to the Spaniards by the ignorance of the natives, almost every species of learning was not only discouraged, but prohibited, and pains... and penalties were annexed to the infringement of the laws relating to it. The Latin grammar, the philosophy of the schools, and civil and ecclesiastical jurisprudence, were the only subjects which the Inquisition allowed to be taught. No book could circulate among the people until it had been thoroughly tested and sanctioned by the monks. But whilst ignorance was ranked amongst the virtues, some branches of industry were degraded into crimes. The Americans were prohibited, under severe penalties, from raising flax, hemp, or saffron, and growing tobacco was a government monopoly. The cultivation of the olive, the mulberry, and the vine, was also frustrated by the same blind policy; and even the growth of the more precious articles of what we term colonial produce, such as cacao, coffee, and indigo, was only tolerated under certain limitations, and in such quantities as the mother country might require annually to import. The colonists were also forbidden to manufacture anything which could be supplied by the mother country. Even foreign trade was for a long time prohibited on pain of death. At the same time licenses were granted for the introduction of any article of foreign produce during a limited period. For these enormous sums were paid by the leading commercial houses; and a share in the profits accruing from the speculation commenced with the viceroy, and extended to the meanest offices. But the exclusion of foreign vessels from the Mexican ports was not all that the capacity of Spain laid claim to. Even ships in distress were by a royal ordinance ordered to be seized as prizes, and their crews thrown into prison. Notwithstanding all the efforts of Spain, the exclusion of foreign vessels from her colonies gave rise to one of the most extraordinary systems of organized smuggling which the world ever witnessed. This was known under the name of the contraband or forced trade, and was carried on in armed vessels which often bade defiance to the coast blockades of Spain, and, fighting their way to the American ports, landed great quantities of European goods.

Such was the colonial system of Spain, which on all hands is admitted to have been worse even than that of the Portuguese or of the Dutch; and such were the evils to which it gave rise. When, therefore, in connection with these evils we further consider that the civil, fiscal, and criminal administration was tyrannical, unjust, or partial; that exactions in the shape of taxes, duties, and tithes, were levied with unexampled severity; that amongst the taxes was one which has justly been called "the horrible alcavala," and pressed heavily on all classes, being levied in infinitum on every transfer of goods; that nothing escaped tithes, and that every individual was compelled to purchase annually a certain number of the papal bulls, under a penalty of forfeiting various important advantages; that every stage of legal procedure was in the most corrupt and deplorable state, and that the administration of justice had scarcely any existence whatever; that imprisonment was the grand recipe for every malady; that in the most horrible dungeons ill diet, filth, infectious diseases, and corporal punishment, including occasional torture, all combined to unhumanize the fettered victim; and, finally, that the Inquisition bound in chains of darkness the minds of all classes of the community from the viceroy downwards—he would be a bold theorist who should venture to affirm that Spain did not deserve that fate which eventually befell her possessions in the New World.

How long an indisposition upon the part of the Creoles to assert their rights might have continued, had not the events of the year 1808 occurred, it is impossible to say; but it is generally admitted that the insurrection of Aranjuez, which led to the dismissal of Godoy, Prince of the Peace, and to the abdication of Charles VI., gave the first shock to the royal authority in America. Authentic intelligence of the resignation of the Spanish monarch arrived in Mexico on the 15th of July 1808. The inhabitants were thrown into a ferment of indignation. Crowds eagerly assembled in the squares and public walks, and threats of vengeance against France were mingled with strong expressions of adherence to the cause of the deposed monarch. The municipality and the popular party demanded the immediate creation of a junta in imitation of the mother country, composed of representatives of the different corporations of the kingdom. The Audiencia were adverse to such a course; and finding that the viceroy, Don Jose Iturrigaray, was inclined to favour their opponents, they contrived to arrest him and throw him into prison. For the time their plans proved completely successful. Hurrigaray, after remaining a short time in the dungeons of the Inquisition, was conveyed to Vera Cruz, and sent a prisoner to Cadiz charged with a design to establish himself upon an independent throne, and with having acted independently of the authority of the central junta. Not a few influential members of the Cabildo, who had voted for a Mexican junta, were arrested and either banished or otherwise disposed of. The viceregal authority was for the time confided to the Archbishop Lizana. In 1809, however, the archbishop was replaced by the Audiencia, to whom the central junta transferred the reins of government. The violent and contemptuous conduct of this body only served to bring matters more speedily to a crisis. A general feeling of hostility towards the Spaniards spread throughout the country, and on the morning of the 16th September 1810 the standard of revolt and independence was publicly unfurled by Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, curate of the village of Dolores, in the province of Guanajuato. Seven Europeans, resident in Dolores, became the first victims of the revolutionary movement. They were thrown into prison, and their property seized and distributed amongst Hidalgo's followers. The news of this first exploit spread throughout the country with the rapidity of lightning, and was everywhere hailed as a propitious omen. His force increased so suddenly, that on the 18th he found himself in possession of two towns, each containing 16,000 inhabitants, in both of which places the confiscated property of the Europeans enabled him to reward his partizans as well as to add to their numbers.

His next object was Guanajuato, the capital of the province, and also the emporium of the Spanish treasures in Guanajuato that part of the country. Little opposition was offered to him, the entrance of his troops, who were immediately joined by 1810, the whole population of the town, and carried all before them. The town was given up to pillage; the Europeans were butchered without mercy; their property was eagerly seized; and before next morning there was not left standing a single house which had belonged to a Spaniard. An enormous quantity of money, estimated at five millions of dollars, was found in the alhondiga or granary, to which the inhabitants had transported their most valuable effects. During his stay at Guanajuato, Hidalgo established a sort of government, a mint with all the appurtenances for coining money, and a foundry for casting cannon.

The intelligence of the fall of Guanajuato, whilst it gave celebrity to the name of Hidalgo, created great consternation amongst the Spaniards of the capital. The new vice-roy, however, Don Francisco Xavier Venegas, by his judgment and firmness, preserved public tranquillity in the capital. Don Felix Maria Calleja, who headed a brigade of troops stationed at San Luis Potosi, was intrusted with a command, and ordered to pursue Hidalgo. Nor was the superstition of the people overlooked; for some doubts having arisen with respect to the justice of the sentence of excommunication which had been pronounced against the leader of the insurgents, it was confirmed by Lizana and by the Inquisition. After remaining at Guanajuato until the 10th of October, Hidalgo, at the head of his army, advanced upon Valladolid, which was quietly taken possession History. of on the 17th of the same month. His army was now about sixty thousand strong, a force which he considered as sufficient to conquer the capital, and thus, by one decisive blow, to terminate the revolutionary struggle. He accordingly left Valladolid on the 19th; and at Las Cruces encountered a corps of observation under the command of Colonel Truxillo, assisted by Don Augustin Iturbide, then a Lieutenant in the service of Spain. After a sanguinary contest, the royalists were defeated, and compelled to fall back upon the capital. Alarmed at the recent success and the near approach of the insurgents, Venegas drew upon the superstition of the people in support of the Spanish cause. The famous image of the Virgin of Remedios was brought and placed in the cathedral of Mexico. Thither the viceroy went in full uniform, and with all due pomp; and after imploring the Virgin to take the government into her own hands, he wound up his appeal by laying his staff of command at the feet of her image. But the aid of the Virgin was not required, for Hidalgo, after appearing before the city, to the astonishment of every one, withdrew his troops without striking a blow, and retreated towards Guanajuato. On the 7th November he came in contact with the outposts of the royal army at Aculco. A sanguinary action ensued, in which, from the superiority of their discipline and arms, the royal forces gained a complete victory. Hidalgo retreated to Valladolid, and then proceeded to Guadalaxara, where he was received with the greatest pomp and enthusiasm.

At Guadalaxara Hidalgo proceeded with his usual activity to replenish his stores, recruit his forces, and bring cannon from San Blas, the principal Spanish arsenal on the western coast. He then advanced to the bridge of Calderon, which is 16 miles from Guadalaxara, and having fortified himself in a strong position, he awaited the approach of the royalists. On the 16th January 1811 the two armies were once more in sight of each other, and on the following day a general action took place. After various attacks, which the Mexicans repulsed with spirit, Calleja at last succeeded in carrying all their batteries; and Hidalgo was forced to withdraw them from the field. He withdrew to Saltillo, followed by about 4000 men. But on the 21st of March 1811 he was captured while setting out to the United States for the purpose of collecting arms and other necessaries. After a protracted trial he was shot on the 27th of July.

After the death of Hidalgo, a guerrilla war was carried on in various parts of the country; but as the leaders acted without concert, and no general engagement took place, it is unnecessary to follow it in its irregular course. Rayon being now left in command of the insurgent troops at Saltillo, retreated first to Zacatecas, and afterwards to Zitacuaro in the state of Valladolid, which he entered about the end of May 1811. At this period in the history of the revolution dissatisfaction towards the Spaniards had become very general. Armed bands of insurgents overrun the open country, and hardly a day passed without being signalized by a skirmish. Meanwhile Rayon was busily employed in furthering the scheme of a national junta, and on the 10th of September 1811 he accomplished his purpose. A junta, or central government, was installed, consisting of five members, who were elected by the ayuntamiento, in conjunction with the principal inhabitants of the town and district. Amongst the principles adopted by this new junta was the acknowledgment of Ferdinand VII. as sovereign of Mexico, provided he would quit his European dominions. But from documents published after the struggle for independence had terminated, we learn that these professions of adherence had no deeper origin than expediency. The intelligence of the formation of the junta of Zitacuaro excited enthusiastic hopes throughout Mexico; and from the first moment of its establishment, the Spaniards considered it as their most formidable enemy. Accordingly, towards the end of the year Calleja marched with all his forces against Zitacuaro, and arrived before it on the 1st of January 1812. On the following day he captured the town, and drove the junta to Sultepec, where it established a new seat of government; but Calleja inflicted signal vengeance on that place for affording shelter to the fugitives. He ordered the inhabitants to be decimated, the town to be burned, and the walls of the buildings to be levelled with the soil, the churches and convents alone being spared. By forced marches the royal forces now proceeded to Mexico, where they were anxiously expected by the viceroy, in order to check the progress of the curate Don Jose Maria Morelos.

In October 1810 Morelos had been appointed captain-general of the provinces of the south-western coast, and had entered upon his duties at the head of about 1000 men. Advancing with this force upon Acapulco, he surprised and routed a well-appointed body of troops under Don Francisco Paris, the commandant of the district. By this brilliant exploit Morelos obtained so much celebrity, that numbers from every quarter flocked to his standard, and amongst others, Galeana, Matamoros, and three persons of the name of Bravo, one of whom, Don Nicolas, afterwards became so famous. The whole of the year 1811 was spent in a series of skilful manoeuvres and petty engagements, in which the insurgents were generally successful.

Meanwhile intelligence reach Morelos of the arrival of the victorious royalists under Calleja; but nothing daunted by the circumstance, he determined to await the attack at Cuaulta Amilpas, which is distant about 22 leagues from the city of Mexico. On the 19th of February Calleja made a general attack upon that town, but after a conflict which lasted eight hours, he was compelled to retreat, leaving five hundred dead behind him. From this day he abandoned all thought of risking another general assault; but erected batteries, and began to cannonade and bombard the town. Disease and severe famine soon began to diminish the numbers of the besieged, so that the commander-in-chief formed the resolution of retreating; and this he succeeded in accomplishing, with equal ability and success, on the night of the 2d of May. Calleja entered Cuaulta some hours after his opponent had left it, and there, as usual, he perpetrated barbarities which will for ever leave a stain upon his reputation.

The bravery and resources which Morelos had displayed at the siege of Cuaulta extorted admiration even from his enemies, whilst they became the theme of universal praise amongst his countrymen. Leaving Izucar, he proceeded to Tehuacan, into which he made a triumphal entry on the 16th of September 1812, having defeated three divisions of the Spanish army on his way. In the beginning of November he began to execute his design of conquering the whole province, and accomplished it by the capture of Acapulco in August of the following year.

During the absence of Morelos everything had been prepared by Matamoros for the meeting of the National Congress, which took place accordingly on the 13th of September 1813 in the town of Chilpanzingo. This assembly consisted of the original members of the junta of Zitacuaro, the deputies elected by the province of Oaxaca, and others again selected by them as representatives for the provinces in the possession of the royal troops. Exactly a month after the opening of the session, an act was published, declaring the absolute independence of Mexico.

Besides the achievements already recorded, the years 1812 and 1813 had been distinguished by several other feats, victories gained by the insurgent generals, Don Nicolas Bravo and Matamoros. But the time had now arrived for Morelos attempting a more decisive blow than any which had yet been struck. With seven thousand men and a large train of artillery, he left Chilpanzingo on the 5th of November, and after sustaining incredible fatigue and privations, arrived before Valladolid on the 23rd of December. This place was defended by a formidable force under Brigadier Llano and Colonel Iturbide. Confident of success, Morelos ordered his troops immediately to advance to the attack, but they were driven back with loss. Next morning, during a general review which took place within half a mile of the walls, Iturbide made a sudden attack upon the Mexicans, and succeeded in totally routing the whole army, which lost its best regiments, and all its artillery. Morelos retired to Puruaran, where he was again completely defeated by Iturbide, on the 6th of January 1814.

Here a number of prisoners were taken by the royalists, and amongst the rest Matamoros. Some Spaniards who had been taken in former engagements were offered by Morelos in exchange for him; but Calleja, who on the 4th of March 1813 had superseded Venegas as viceroy, refused to accede to any such proposal. Matamoros was accordingly shot, and by way of reprisal the Mexicans put to death all the prisoners in their hands.

Morelos now withdrew to the southern coast, and there began to recruit his forces with his characteristic activity and resolution. But his cause was destined to experience defeat upon defeat. Oaxaca fell into the hands of the royalists on the 28th of March 1814; whilst the Congress itself, expelled from Chilpanzingo, was forced to take refuge in the woods of Apatzingan, where it continued its labours, and on the 22d of October sanctioned the constitution known by that name. Morelos resolved to undertake an expedition to Tehuacan, where Teran had assembled a considerable force, for the purpose of placing it in greater safety. With only five hundred followers he commenced a journey of 60 leagues through a country occupied by several divisions of the royalists. He was surprised by two parties of Spaniards under Concha on the 5th of November 1815. He ordered Bravo immediately to continue his march with the main body, whilst he with a few men endeavoured to check the advance of the enemy. Most of his fifty followers abandoned him when the firing became warm; but not until only one man remained by his side did the royalists venture to advance upon one so far-famed for his personal courage. He was taken prisoner, and transferred to the capital after experiencing the most brutal treatment at the hands of the Spanish soldiery. After a trial, he was condemned to be shot, which sentence was carried into effect on the 22d of December 1815. He walked to the place of execution with the most perfect serenity; and after pronouncing this short prayer, "Lord, if I have done well, thou knowest it—if ill, to thy infinite mercy I commend my soul," he bound a handkerchief about his eyes, and met death with as much composure as he had ever shown when facing it on the field of battle.

The loss of Morelos was irreparable, for he was the only patriot chief who could maintain unity of plan, concentration of purpose, and combination of movement. For several years, therefore, the history of the revolution consists only of disjointed details of a wide-spread guerilla war, in which success on either side led to no important results.

The Congress, which had escaped under the protection of Don Nicolas Bravo to Tehuacan, was dissolved by General Teran in December 1815. This step has been generally blamed as at least precipitate. There can be no doubt that it was attended by disastrous circumstances; for from that moment confusion became worse confounded; Victoria, Guerrero, Bravo, Rayon, and Teran, confining themselves each to his own separate circle, where they were crushed in succession by the superiority of the common enemy. Teran attempted to establish a government himself, but none would acknowledge it. Rayon, after he had commanded with great success in the mountainous parts of Valladolid, was taken prisoner, and confined in the capital until 1821. The fate of Don Nicolas Bravo was exactly similar to that of Rayon. Guerrero occupied the western coast, and here he maintained himself in the fastnesses of the Sierra Madre until 1821, when he joined Iturbide. Guadaloupe Victoria was driven from his strongholds in his province of Vera Cruz, was deserted by all his followers, and was forced to skulk in the forest like a wild beast. For several years he lurked in the wildest recesses, never seeing the face of man, and living on the raw fruits of the earth and the bones of putrefying animals. When every one had thought him dead, he appeared in 1821, covered with hair and emaciated almost to a skeleton.

Some facts relative to the state of the country require to be mentioned. The cause of independence had been gradually gaining ground amongst the people, particularly since 1812, when the constitution, which was sanctioned by the Cortes of Cadiz, was extended to the transatlantic dominions of the crown. By the new constitution several important privileges had been conceded to the natives; amongst the rest, the right of electing the members of the Cabildo and the deputies to the Cortes. In law, also, matters underwent so complete a reform, that a Creole might now hope for a favourable decision, provided his cause was a good one. Thus by the new constitution the reverses sustained by the Creole leaders in the field were more than counterbalanced. Under the mild sway of Admiral Apodaca, who succeeded Calleja in the viceregal authority, all was done that could be done to secure the allegiance of the natives. The arrival of fresh troops from the Peninsula enabled him to extend his military ramifications throughout the whole country, and enforce obedience even at the most distant points. Thus, as we have seen, the revolutionary chiefs were successively crushed; and the facilities afforded to all who had embarked in the enterprise for reconciling themselves with the government by accepting pardon, reduced the number of those actually in arms in 1816, and the three following years, to a very inconsiderable amount.

After her last patriotic chiefs had quitted the open field, Career of and sought refuge in the mazes of the forests, a deep gloom hung over the affairs of Mexico, which remained for a long time unbroken save by the sudden irruption of Mina. This remarkable individual landed in Mexico on the 15th of April 1817. With about 200 men he left Soto la Marina, the place of his landing; and pushing forward to the confines of the table-land, defeated a body of 400 royalist cavalry. About the middle of June 1817 he reached the Hacienda de Peotillos; and on a little eminence which commanded the plain he cut to pieces a royal army 2000 strong with a force of only 172 men. On the 24th of June he reached Sombrero, having in thirty days traversed a tract of country 220 leagues in extent, and been three times engaged with an enemy greatly superior in numbers. In conjunction with the advanced guard of the insurgents and some recruits, he advanced upon San Juan de los Llanos, and on the 29th of June totally defeated the royalists under General Castaños. On the 24th of October, at nightfall, he took Guanajuato by storm, and penetrated into the very centre of the town. At this critical moment his troops refused to advance a step farther; and time being thus allowed the garrison to arm themselves, they attacked the insurgents, who, by the general's orders, dispersed with the utmost precipitation. Mina himself was taken prisoner three days afterwards, and sent to the head-quarters of General Linan, and there he was executed on the 11th of November, in his twenty-eighth year. Not long after his death the insurgent chiefs were driven off the field, and gradually disappeared; so that in July 1819 not one remained of those who had taken any lead in the revolution.

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1 Don Xavier Mina, a famous Spanish guerilla chief, still more celebrated in Old Spain for his patriotic efforts to create a rising in favour of the Cortes at Pamplona, subsequently to the dissolution of that assembly by the king. The cause of Mexican independence seemed now to have sunk to such a low ebb, that the viceroy wrote in great confidence to the court of Madrid, representing the country as so tranquil and submissive to the royal authority, that he would answer for its safety without the assistance of a single soldier from Europe. But the appearances on which he relied proved altogether fallacious. The disbanded insurgents, mingling freely in the ranks of the Creoles, made proselytes to the principles of the revolution even in the royal camp itself. In private the bulk of the people were as warmly attached to them as ever. About the middle of 1820 accounts arrived in Mexico of the revolution in Spain, occasioned by the revolt of the army in the Isla de Leon; and it soon became public that orders had been sent to Apodaca to proclaim the constitution which Ferdinand VII. had been compelled to adopt. The era of 1812 was revived, and the public mind thrown into a ferment, which the viceroy, from his restricted powers, found it impossible to allay. Besides, the Mexicans were divided amongst themselves, one party professing a sincere adherence to the constitution, whilst another class was as strongly attached to the old system. Necessity of course compelled the viceroy to take the oath to the constitution; but he favoured those who were opposed to it, and took secret measures for effecting its subversion. General Armijo, who was partial to the constitution, was dismissed from the command of the army stationed between the capital and Acapulco, and his place offered to Don Augustin Iturbide, a native Mexican, to whom allusion has already been made. The proposal was accepted, and Iturbide left the capital in February 1821 with half a million of dollars, destined for embarkation at Acapulco, but with intentions very different from those by which the viceroy supposed him to be actuated.

Having arrived at a town called Iguala, situated about 120 miles from the capital, Iturbide took possession of the second Mexican revolution by proposing a new government, which is well known under the title of "the plan of Iguala." His force of 800 men unanimously took the oath of fidelity to the "plan," whilst a copy was transmitted to the viceroy and to all the governors of provinces. This celebrated document consisted of twenty-four articles, the principal points embodied in which were—a declaration of Mexican independence; the recognition of the Catholic religion as the national creed; the establishment of a constitutional monarchy; the formation of a junta of government; an offer of the crown to Ferdinand VII., and in the event of his refusal, to the Infantes Don Carlos and Don Francisco de Paula, provided any of them would consent to occupy the throne in person; an abolition of castes and of the despotism of military commandants; the formation of an army for the support of religion, independence, and union, and for guaranteeing these three principles, whence it was to be called the army of the three guarantees; a general amnesty to all who should give in their adhesion to the "plan;" and other provisions of less importance.

When the viceroy learned the defection of Iturbide, he concentrated a force upon the capital for the purpose of defending it; but hesitating to put himself at the head of the troops, the Europeans deposed him, and placed at the head of affairs Novelia, an officer of artillery. By this unwise proceeding a schism was created in the capital, which afforded Iturbide time for prosecuting his scheme. He effected a junction with General Guerrero, and from this moment his success became certain. On his route to the Baxio, great numbers of men and officers joined his standard. Before the month of July, the whole country had recognised his authority, with the exception of the capital. On his march to invest the city of Mexico, intelligence reached Iturbide that the new constitutional viceroy and political chief, O'Donoju, had arrived at Vera Cruz. He immediately requested an interview with this functionary, and allowed him to advance as far as Cordova, where a meeting took place. O'Donoju agreed to the plan of Iguala, and in the name of his master he recognised the independence of Mexico. Such was the treaty of Cordova, which was signed by Iturbide, "as the depository of the will of the Mexican people," and by O'Donoju, as the representative of Spain, on the 24th of August 1821. By virtue of this treaty Iturbide obtained possession of the capital, which he entered in triumph on the 27th of September. A provisional junta of thirty-six persons then elected a regency of five, with Iturbide at their head. He was at the same time created generalissimo and lord high admiral, and had assigned to him a yearly salary of L24,000.

The career of Iturbide had hitherto been triumphant; but scarcely had the first Mexican Cortes met on the 24th of February 1822, when its members split into three distinct parties: first, the Bourbonists, or those who wished to establish a constitutional monarchy with a prince of the House of Bourbon at its head; secondly, the Iturbidists, who aimed at elevating Iturbide himself to the throne; and, thirdly, the republicans, who desired a central or federal republic. The Bourbonists soon ceased to exist, the Cortes of Madrid having declared the treaty of Cordova "to be illegal, null, and void, in as far as the Spanish government and its subjects were concerned." A protracted contest ensued between the two remaining factions, and resulted in the defeat of the Iturbidists. Nevertheless, the republican party were forced to yield to the wishes of the mob and the army, and to declare Iturbide emperor on the 19th May 1822. The new monarch assumed the title of Augustin I.

Iturbide began his reign by demanding the right of appointing and removing at pleasure the judges of the supreme court; he claimed a veto upon all laws, not excepting the articles of the constitution then under discussion; and he recommended the establishment of a military tribunal in the capital, with powers very little inferior to those exercised by the Spanish commandants during the revolution. This attack upon their liberties the Congress indignantly repulsed. Such decisive conduct led at once to an open rupture. Upon the night of the 26th of August, fourteen deputies of liberal principles were, by the emperor's orders, arrested and thrown into prison. This bold step was followed by a series of reclamations and remonstrances on the part of the Congress; but Iturbide sent an officer to the hall of the Congress with a simple notification that the assembly had ceased to exist, and an order to dissolve it by force should any resistance be offered to his authority. But no compulsion was required. The deputies dissolved their sessions at once, and the doors of the chamber were closed by the officer. This took place on the 30th of October 1822. On the same day a proclamation appointed a new legislative assembly, called the Instituted Junta, consisting of forty-five members, selected by Iturbide himself. This assembly, however, never possessed any influence in the country; and the tranquillity which Iturbide enjoyed proved of short duration. Matters were brought to a crisis by the defection of General Santa Anna, governor of Vera Cruz, towards the close of the year 1822. The far-famed Victoria, quitting his hiding-place in the mountains, was invested by the rebels with the chief command, and rallied the natives in great numbers round his standard. General Echavari, who had been despatched by the emperor to invest Vera Cruz, made common cause with the garrison of that city, and induced his whole army to follow his example. On the 1st of February 1823 the act of Casa-Mata was signed, by which the armies pledged themselves to effect the re-establishment of the national representative assembly. Bravo, Guerrero, and Negrete now joined the republican History. army, and the defection became so general that Iturbide tendered his resignation on the 19th of March, and stated at the same time his intention of quitting the country. The Congress refused to accept of the abdication, as that would have implied that he had legal right to the crown; but they willingly allowed him to quit the kingdom with his family, and assigned him a yearly pension of about L5000. He set sail in a ship freighted by government to convey him to Leghorn.

His death, A.D. 1824.

The old Congress was immediately convoked; a provisional government was established; and an executive, composed of Generals Victoria, Bravo, and Negrete, was appointed. They conducted the affairs of the country until a new Congress was assembled in August 1823; and in October 1824 the federal constitution was definitively settled by the latter. Meanwhile Iturbide, the ex-emperor, had proceeded to Leghorn, had subsequently visited London, and on the 11th of May 1824 had embarked with his family for Mexico. Disregarding the sentence of the Congress which had outlawed him, he landed about the middle of July at Soto la Marina, where he introduced himself in disguise and under a feigned name. But he was apprehended by General Garza, and shot a few days afterwards.

Form of government.

The form of government adopted by the representatives of Mexico was that of a federal republic, upon the plan of that of the United States, with a few unimportant deviations. The confederation, consisting of nineteen states and four territories, was cemented into one body politic by certain general laws and obligations, contained in the federal constitution of the 4th of October 1824, of which an outline will be afterwards given. Each state and territory, however, retained the uncontrolled management of its own internal affairs. Victoria was elected president and Bravo vice-president.

Subsequent disorders and revolutions.

But the hopes which had been formed regarding the peace and prosperity of Mexico proved altogether fallacious. Repeated revolutions continued to disturb and agitate the country. From the moment at which the war of independence commenced the nation became divided into two parties,—natives and Guachapines, or European Spaniards. The former consisted of those who wished to establish the independence of Mexico; the latter were warmly attached to the dominion of Spain. To these two parties succeeded the Imperialists and Republicans; and, lastly, came the Centrists and Federalists, which went under the sobriquets of Escosses and Yorkinos, appellations derived from two masonic societies, and synonymous with aristocrats and democrats.

Pedraza elected president, A.D. 1828.

The time was now approaching when it became necessary to find a successor to Victoria as president of the republic; and General Gomez Pedraza, a very efficient member of the Mexican cabinet, was brought forward as a candidate by the Escosses party. After an arduous contest, he was elected president by a majority of two votes over Guerrero, the representative of the Yorkinos. But the disappointed party was loud in its denunciation of the successful candidate. His friends were accused of bribery and corruption, and even charged with procuring the interference of the military in some of the states. By a singular anomaly in the constitution of Mexico, a period of nearly seven months is allowed to elapse before the president who has been elected can take possession of the government; so that time was thus afforded the defeated party to collect its strength, and prepare for a vigorous effort to annul the election by an appeal to arms. It was at this time that General Santa Anna set out from Jalapa at the head of about 800 men, and took possession of Perote. There he published a manifesto charging Pedraza with having succeeded in his election by fraudulent means. He further proposed that the people and army should annul the election of Pedraza; that the Spanish residents should be banished as the primary cause of the grievances from which the Mexicans suffered, and that Guerrero should be declared president. This audacious "plan" was vigorously protested against by Victoria; and addresses reproaching the conduct of Santa Anna poured in from all quarters. The mass of the population, however, remained undisturbed, and Guerrero himself resolved quietly to await the course of events.

From a feeling of hostility towards the natives of Spain, expulsion which prevailed pretty generally throughout Mexico, of the matters were very speedily brought to a crisis. On the night of the 30th November 1828, a battalion of militia, headed by the ex-Marquis of Cadena, and assisted by a regiment under Colonel Garcia, took possession of the artillery barracks at the Acordada, surprised the guard, and seized the guns and ammunition. Next morning the insurgents were joined by General Lobato a partisan in the revolutionary war, Zavala the ex-governor of Mexico, the Yorkino deputy Cerecerio, a party of militia, and a number of officers. By the 2d of December the insurrection had made alarming progress, and a sanguinary contest ensued, which ended on the 4th in the overthrow of the government troops. The city was then given up to be pillaged. Vengeance was chiefly directed against the Spaniards; but all who were supposed to possess wealth fell victims to the rapacity of an unbridled mob. These disgraceful scenes continued for two days, and property to a very great amount was destroyed or changed owners. Pedraza formally resigned his office, and was allowed to quit the territories of the republic. At a new Congress, assembled on the 1st January 1829, Guerrero was declared duly elected, and General Anastasio Bustamante, a distinguished Yorkino leader, was associated with him as vice-president. Santa Anna was invested with the supreme military command of the republic.

The first event which disturbed the country after the elevation of Guerrero, was the arrival of an invading force Barradas, from Cuba, under Barradas, in the summer of 1829. Santa Anna, however, routed the invaders, and took Barradas himself prisoner. But Guerrero was now destined to taste the cup which he had mixed for his predecessor. Early in December 1829 Bustamante, the vice-president, flew to arms, and having placed himself at the head of the army of Mexico, which was stationed in the state of Vera Cruz, he advanced upon the capital, everywhere denouncing the abuses and usurpations of Guerrero. Guerrero appealed to the Congress for support; but it was all in vain; he was ultimately compelled to abdicate. The army then elected Bustamante as his successor; whilst Santa Anna, following the example of Guerrero, retired to his estates, and tranquility was soon restored.

At this period it required no great gift of prophecy to predict that even the shadow of the constitution of 1824 would not long survive. Mexico was now beyond all doubt subjected to a military despotism; and a pretext or cause for prostrating Bustamante in his turn could not long be wanting. It was enough that the daring, crafty, and cruel Santa Anna was living in retirement and hatching new schemes of revolt. From that period Mexico has presented a kaleidoscopic exhibition of factions and parties. It would require volumes to detail the series of manoeuvres, of grits and insurrections, which seated Santa Anna ultimately in power, and made him the representative of that amalgam of all parties which has been designated by a cant term in which the most incongruous ideas are jumbled together. In July 1832 the Ayuntamiento and people of San Felipe de Austin unanimously gave in their adherence to the plan of Vera Cruz, and to the principles of the republican party, headed by General Santa Anna. This example was followed by other states; and Santa Anna assumed the reins of government. In April following he expelled the Congress; and in 1835 Gomez Farias, who had been History. elected vice-president, was driven into exile. Santa Anna was also successful in his new "plan" and centralism, with a de facto dictatorship, succeeded to the federal republic. The states were converted into departments, and the legislatures cut down to a council of five. This new order of things was acknowledged by the whole country, with the exception of Texas, which was warmly attached to federalism. It will appear, however, from the sequel, that the disaffection of this lately settled territory led to important results.

At a meeting of the people of Texas in 1833 a constitution had been drawn up in which, amongst other important matters, they pointed out the necessity of a separation from Coahuila. The chief reasons assigned for the contemplated disunion were, the dissimilarity between Coahuila and Texas, in soil, climate, and productions, in common interests, and partly in population, so that laws happily constructed for the benefit of Coahuila, and conducive to its best interests, might be ruinous to Texas. The seat of government was also stated to be too remote, being fixed at Saltillo, and the inhabitants of that part of the state were almost exclusively of Spanish descent. Colonel Austin, who had for many years been member of Congress for Texas, was charged with the duty of submitting to the general government in Mexico the new constitution which had been formed; but finding it difficult or impossible to effect his object, he wrote a letter to some of his friends in Texas, in which he did not conceal his sentiments as to the necessity of Texas taking matters into her own hands, and doing herself justice. This letter was intercepted, and first awakened the jealousy of the Mexican government.

But before proceeding to narrate the leading incidents of the struggle with Mexico it is necessary to premise, that the unappropriated lands, although state property, could not be granted to any one without the sanction of the general government. At this time a great rage for land speculation existed, not only in Mexico, but in the United States, and an extensive system of fraud was the consequence. In 1834 a company of speculators, many of whom belonged to or had come from the latter country, induced the legislature of Coahuila and Texas to grant them 400 square leagues of public land for the sum of 20,000 dollars. The transaction was disavowed, and the grant annulled, by the Mexican government; and it led to the dispersion of the local legislature, and the temporary imprisonment of the governor Viesca.

About the same time an attempt to establish customs was forcibly resisted by the colonists. This, together with a demand for the persons of those who had been concerned in the grant of the 400 leagues of land, were the immediate precursors of hostilities. Viesca issued proclamations and addresses calling the inhabitants of the state to arms against the encroachments of that military power which threatened, he said, their very existence, not only as a state, but as a people. Santa Anna was stigmatized as a dictator, and death was denounced against all his supporters who should enter Texas. Taxes were refused; the custom-house officers were expelled; and the laws of Mexico were set at defiance. In these circumstances Santa Anna, who had succeeded in gaining all the other states of the republic, found it necessary to turn his attention to Texas.

In September 1835 General Cos, the confidential friend and brother-in-law of the central chief, landed at Campano at the head of 400 men destined to reinforce the garrison of San Antonio de Bejar. But he was foiled in his attempt to defend that city against the Texans, and was forced to retire from the province in October. Early in March 1836 a convention of delegates from the various settlements of Texas, having assembled at Washington, issued a formal declaration of independence, setting forth the grievances which impelled the people to take that step. This declaration was signed by forty-four delegates, of whom only three or four were Mexicans by birth. When this decisive step was taken, the people of Texas undoubtedly supposed that the internal divisions of the country would afford sufficient employment for the arms of Santa Anna; forgetting that there existed in Mexico an inveterate prejudice against the United States colonists, which might induce them to overlook for a time all minor differences, and unite as against a common enemy. Hence the defeat of Cos actually extended the influence of Santa Anna, and he was thus enabled to bring nearly the whole resources of Mexico to bear upon Texas. Early in February 1836 he established his head-quarters on the Nueces, to the eastward of the Rio del Norte. By his plan of operations he proposed to advance in two columns, one directed against San Antonio, and the other against La Bahia, which place was lower down the coast; intending by this means to intercept all communication between the Americans and the Gulf. His troops in the first of these enterprises were repulsed; in the second they were successful, but disgraced their triumph by massacring 500 captives in cold blood.

This military execution caused much excitement, and exasperated the Texans in the highest degree. They sullenly ceased to retreat, and General Houston, having rapidly counter-marched a distance of about 60 miles, came up with army, a.d. Santa Anna. On the 21st of April, near the banks of the San Jacinto, a fierce and sanguinary conflict took place, in which the Mexicans were defeated with great slaughter, and above 700 taken prisoners, amongst whom was the commander-in-chief himself. This unexpected event totally changed the aspect of affairs; and the success of the Texans stimulated their zeal and activity. Many of the more pacific of the colonists had sought refuge in the neighbouring states; but their place was speedily supplied by numerous adventurers from the United States. On the 15th of May a convention was held at Velasco in Texas, where it was stipulated that hostilities should cease; that the Mexican army should quit Texas; and that Santa Anna should be sent to Vera Cruz, upon condition of his agreeing neither to take up arms against the Texans, nor to exercise any influence to cause them to be taken up during the struggle for independence.

The inhabitants of Texas now set themselves to assert their distinct nationality, by electing their own officers, and asserting their own army and navy, and guarding their own frontiers. At the same time their independence was publicly recognized by Great Britain, France, and the United States. For several years Mexico was too much engrossed with internal disturbances, and with the political contests of her magnates, to attempt to reconquer her lost province. At length, in 1844, the commencement of negotiations for engrafting Texas on the American Union roused her from her lethargy. She protested loudly against the unjust attempt of the United States to rob her of part of her dominions. The president Herrera attempted, at the request of the American government, to settle the difficulty by negotiation; but so violent was the popular indignation against such lenient measures, that on the 30th December 1845 he was forced to resign the presidential chair to General Paredes, the darling of the Mexican mob.

The new president began his sway by raising money and levying troops for the invasion of Texas. To General Ampudia was intrusted the protection of the northern frontier. Accordingly, on the 11th April 1846 he settled down with a large force at Matamoros on the Rio Grande, and confronted an American army stationed, under General Taylor, on the opposite bank of the river. In a short time skirmishes between these two bodies of troops began the war, and were the signal to the United States for despatching a large force against Mexico. "An army of the West" and an "army of the Centre" were organized under the respective commands of Generals Kearney and... Wool. Commodore Conner in the Gulf of Mexico, and Commodores Stockton and Sloat in the Pacific, were ordered to co-operate with the land forces. Meanwhile General Taylor had occupied Matamoros on the 18th May, and was actively engaged in levying recruits and in establishing a base line of operations along the Rio Grande. He then advanced southward along the main highway into the interior, and sat down before the strong city of Monterey, the key of the northern provinces of Mexico. After a desperate assault, which lasted two days, his force of 7000 strong captured the town from nearly 10,000 Mexicans on the 24th of September. By this time Santa Anna, with the connivance of the American Congress, had returned to Mexico, and had supplanted General Paredes in the chief power. But contrary to the expectation of the United States, he allowed himself to be swayed by the popular feeling, and began to muster the full strength of the nation for the war. Advancing northward towards the close of 1846, he concentrated a force of 20,000 at San Luis Potosi, with the evident intent of attacking Taylor's extended base of operations in the valley of the Rio Grande. It was not long therefore before he set out with his entire army along the road to Saltillo. On the 22d of February 1847 he came up to Taylor's army of 5000, closely drawn up in the narrow gorge of Angustura, and ready to dispute his advance. A desperate attempt to outflank the American army was immediately made, and was successfully repulsed. On the morrow the mighty force of Santa Anna shattered itself by vain efforts to force the pass, and towards evening commenced a retreat to San Luis Potosi. Shortly before this California had been finally wrested from Mexico by Captain Fremont and Commodore Stockton. New Mexico had also been subdued in the preceding year by General Kearney.

In the meantime the American Congress, intent upon striking a blow at the heart of Mexico, had intrusted the command of an expedition against the Mexican capital to General Scott. With the most patient foresight, that eminent commander occupied a considerable time in mustering all the available strength of his country, and in providing resources against every possible emergency. At length, on the 9th of March 1847, he landed near Vera Cruz, and invested that city both by sea and land. After a close bombardment of eight days the besieged garrison were forced to capitulate. Scott then pressed forward towards the capital, and, as he approached Jalapa, found the army of Santa Anna entrenched within an elaborate line of defences on the wild road at Cerro Gordo. After a hard-fought assault of two days the Mexican troops were cut to pieces, and driven in a headlong flight towards the metropolis. The American general advanced without further opposition to La Puebla. There he lay for some time recruiting his forces and concerting his plans for the assault upon the city of Mexico. On the 7th of August he was again on the march. After overwhelming several attempts to check his advance at Contreras, Churubusco, El Molino del Rey, La Casa Mata, and Chapultepec, he began the final assault upon the capital on the 12th of September, and penetrated within the walls on the following day. By retreating during the night, the Mexican army left the fate of their country in the power of the Americans. On the 2d of February 1848 the war was closed, and New Mexico and Upper California were ceded to the United States by the peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Soon after the conclusion of this treaty, Santa Anna, seeing that his power was on the wane, sought an asylum in Jamaica. General Herrera was elected president of the republic. But both under him and under his successor, General Arista, the country continued in a state of the wildest anarchy. At length, in 1852, it had become a prevalent opinion among the Mexicans that a strong central government alone could save them from ruin. Santa Anna was allowed to be the fit instrument for effecting the desired change. Accordingly, in the same year, that dexterous politician and able general was recalled from exile by common consent. In December 1853 he was elected perpetual president, with the authority of dictator, and the title of Most Serene Highness. But the extraordinary powers with which he was invested failed to harmonize those discordant feelings which sprung from difference of political opinion on the one hand, and difference of race on the other. On the 22d of January 1854 a revolution, under General Juan Alvarez, broke out at Acapulco, absorbed within its ranks malcontents of every description, and spread with resistless rapidity through several states in the direction of the capital. Force and policy were alike unable to check it, and at length, on the 9th of August 1855, Santa Anna abdicated and retired to Havana. In September Juan Alvarez was raised to the provisional presidency, but resigned in December in favour of Ignacio Comonfort, who received the title of president-substitute. Scarcely had the new potentate formed his ministry, when he was assailed by conspiracy. Early in 1856 an insurrection, headed by Haro y Tamariz, enlisted in its cause a formidable number of the clergy, magistrates, and destitute workmen. It was suppressed, however, by Comonfort on the 22d of March.

III.—STATISTICS OF MEXICO.

Mexico is bounded on the N. by California, New Mexico, and Texas; E. by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; S.E. by British Honduras and Guatemala; and S.W. and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest length in a N.W. and S.E. direction, from San Diego to the extreme S. part of Chiapas, is about 1987 miles, and its greatest breadth about 1128 miles. Its area is estimated at 829,900 English square miles, and it has a coast line of about 5830 miles in length. A great portion of Mexico is occupied by the Cordilleras, which run through its whole length, rendering the surface extremely varied. On entering this country from the S. the chain divides into two great branches, the western extending along the coast of the Pacific, and the eastern along that of the Gulf of Mexico, and afterwards subsiding into the plains of Texas. The vast tract of country between these branches, comprising about three-fifths of the entire area of the territory, consists of a central table-land called the plateau of Anahuac, 6000 to 8000 feet in general elevation; and hence its climate, though mostly within the tropics, is decidedly temperate. This region is crossed in various directions, or divided into sub-plateaus by numerous chains of mountains, some of which rise to the height of 17,000 feet above the level of the sea. The surface, however, is not broken by many transverse valleys, and in some parts there are extensive districts quite destitute either of depressions or elevations. Some of the peaks rise to a great elevation, towering far above the central plateau: the principal of these are Popocatepetl, 17,785; Orizava, 17,388; Yxtacchiluhtli, 15,700 feet above the sea-level. These and many others of the Mexican mountains are volcanoes; the first is continually burning, but for centuries has ceased to eject from its crater anything but smoke and ashes. Luminous exhalations constantly irradiate the summit of Orizava. In 1545 an eruption took place, and the crater continued to burn for twenty years. In the same province (Vera Cruz) is the volcano of Tuxila, in which a considerable eruption took place in 1793, the ashes of which were carried as far as Perote, a distance of 57 leagues. On the western side of the city of Mexico are the volcanoes of Jorulla and Calima, the latter of which throws up smoke and ashes, but has not been known to discharge lava. Jorulla, which is situated between Calima and the city of Mexico, is of much more recent origin than any of the others. It was thrown up en masse from a fertile plain. Statistics, having an elevation of 2890 feet, to the height of 4149 feet above the sea-level.

Geology.

While in the Old World granite, gneiss, mica schist, and clay-slate often form the central ridges of the mountain chains; these rocks seldom appear at the surface of the Cordilleras of America, being there covered by masses of porphyry, greenstone, amygdaloid, basalt, obsidian, and other rocks of the same class. The granite, which here generally forms the lowest stratum, appears at the surface in the little chain that borders the Pacific Ocean, and which on the side of Acapulco is separated from the mass of high country by the valley of Peregrino. The beautiful port of Acapulco is a natural excavation in granitic rocks. As we ascend towards the table-land of Mexico, we see it rise through the porphyry for the last time, between Zumpango and So- pilote. Farther to the east, the mountains of Mixteca and Zapoteca, in the province of Oaxaca, are formed of the same rock, which is there traversed by veins of auriferous quartz. The great central plateau of Anahuac, between the fourteenth and twenty-first degrees of latitude, appears like an enormous dyke of porphyritic rocks, distinguished from those of Europe by the constant presence of hornblende and by the absence of quartz. These rocks contain immense deposits of gold and silver. Basalt, amygdaloid, trap, gypsum, and primitive limestone, however, form the predominating rocks. The strata succeed each other here in the same order as in Europe, excepting that syenite alternates with serpentine. The secondary rocks equally resemble those of the Old World; but hitherto no considerable beds of rock-salt or of coal have been discovered in the plateau of Mexico. In some parts the porphyry presents itself in gigantic masses, which assume extraordinary shapes, resembling ruined walls, bastions, towers, and the like. The porphyritic traps which terminate the mountains of Jalcal and Oyamel appear in columns, and are crowned with pine trees and oak, which materially add to their picturesque appearance. It is from these mountains that the ancient Mexicans obtained the obsidian, of which they formed their sharp-edged instruments. The Cobre de Perote is a porphyritic mountain, resembling an ancient sarcophagus surmounted by a pyramid at one end. The basalts of La Regla, of which the prismatic columns, 100 feet in height, have their central parts harder than the rest, form the native decorations of a very beautiful cascade.

The mines of Mexico were wrought long before the arrival of the Spaniards; the natives of Mexico, like those of Peru, being well acquainted with the use of metals. Nor were they contented with such specimens as they found scattered on the surface of the earth or in the ravines of mountain torrents, but had also learned to dig for them, and to trace the metallic veins in the interiors of the mountains. Gold and silver vases, and other specimens of jewelry, made in Mexico, were sent to Spain by the first conquerors as evidence of the mineral wealth of the country. The dependent tribes paid their tributes to the sovereign in a species of metallic currency, which, though not stamped, was yet the representative of a standard value. The mines of Mexico are nearly all on the top or on the western slope of the great Cordillera, and the mining region occupies an area of about 12,000 square leagues. On the country becoming settled after the revolutionary disturbances, especially about the year 1825, the Mexican mines were eagerly seized as objects of speculation by British and American capitalists. In consequence, however, of bad management, or the wild spirit of gambling which assumed the place of prudent commercial enterprise, the holders of stock were disappointed in their expectations, and sometimes ruined. The enormous cost of transporting heavy materials in a country where there are no navigable rivers extending into the interior, and where the usual mode of carriage is on the backs of mules, by wretched roads, over mountains, and through ravines, has often absorbed large portions of the original capital before the proprietors could even commence the working of their mines. Many of the first British and American speculators were thus ruined; but their successors are beginning to reap the benefit of their expenditure, and throughout the republic steam-engines and the best hydraulic apparatus are now employed. The annual average produce of the mines before the revolution was estimated at about L5,000,000, and between the revolution and the year 1825 at nearly L2,300,000. The annual produce of silver alone is now estimated at about L7,000,000, and of gold about L6,500,000. There are also some twenty-five quicksilver mines, yielding from 250,000 to 300,000 lbs. of metal annually. Besides the precious metals, Mexico abounds in other ores. Iron is plentiful in the states of Valladolid, Zacatecas, and Jalisco, but has hitherto been little worked. Copper is found in a native state in Valladolid, and also to some extent in Guanajuato. Tin, though obtained in mines, is principally extracted from the water-carried earth found in the deep ravines. A combination of these two metals was used by the ancient Mexicans to form their tools and weapons; and they had acquired the art of tempering them so as to render them equal in utility to iron, or even to steel. Lead is found, but the mines are very little worked. Zinc, antimony, and arsenic also exist; but neither cobalt nor manganese have as yet been discovered.

Mexico is singularly deficient in large rivers. The Rio Grande del Norte, which forms its N.E. boundary, is the largest, having a length of about 1800 miles. The principal affluents of the Rio Grande are the Conchas, the Salado and Sabinas, and the San Juan rivers. The Santander, Tampico, Panuco, and Usumacinta, are the chief of those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico; while the Rio Yompex, the Balsas or Zacatula, the Azteca, Santiago, Culiacan, and the Rio del Fuerte, fall into the Pacific. A small portion of the lower course of the Colorado is in this territory.

The lakes of Mexico are numerous, and some of them are Lakes of considerable size. Lake Chapala in Jalisco covers an area of 1300 square miles, and Lake Terminos, which, however, is more properly an arm of the sea, has an area of about 2200 square miles. Lakes Pascuara in Michoacan, and those of Mextitlan, Cayman, and Parras, are all of large size. The valley of Mexico contains five lakes, into which the various streams of the district flow. These cover an area of 160 square miles, and are drained by a canal cut through rock 12 miles in length, 150 feet deep, and 300 feet wide, having its embouchure in the Rio Panuco.

Mexico, as regards climate, is usually divided into the Climate tierras calientes, tierras templadas, and tierras frías. The first, or hot regions, include the low grounds, or those under 2000 feet elevation, on the east and west coasts. The tierras calientes of the west are less extensive than those of the east, as the western arm of the Cordilleras approaches nearer to the sea. The mean temperature of this region may be estimated at 77° Fahr. It is especially suited for the growth and cultivation of sugar, indigo, cotton, and bananas. The tierras templadas, or temperate regions, are of comparatively limited extent, and occupy the slope of the mountain chains which bound on either side the central table-land. They extend from about 2500 miles to 5000 feet in elevation, and the mean temperature is from 68° to 70° Fahr. Extremes of heat and cold are there equally unknown. The Mexican oak, and most of the fruits and cereals of Europe, flourish in this genial climate, the humidity of which produces great beauty and strength of vegetation. The tierras frías, or cold regions, include all the vast plateau elevated 5000 feet and upward above the sea, and have a mean temperature of about 62° Fahr. In the city of Mexico, at an elevation of 7400 feet, the thermometer has sometimes, though rarely, fallen below the freezing point. Statistics. In the coldest season the mean temperature of the day varies from 45° to 50° Fahr., while in summer the thermometer seldom rises above 75° Fahr. At a greater elevation than 8000 feet the climate is severe and disagreeable. Under the parallel of Mexico the line of perpetual snow varies from 14,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea-level. Vegetation here is not so vigorous as in the other two regions; and the plants of Europe do not succeed so well as in the tierras templadas. In the tropical regions, and as far north as 28° N. Lat., there are only two seasons; that of rain, lasting from June or July to September or October, and the dry season, continuing from October to the end of May. From the parallel of 24° to that of 30° the rain falls less frequently, and continues a shorter time, but the deficiency is compensated by the snow, which, from the 26th degree of latitude northwards, is deposited in considerable quantities.

The climate of the provinces denominated internas, and which are situated within the temperate zone, is distinguished by a striking inequality in the temperature of the different seasons; the winters being very cold, whilst the summers are comparatively very warm. To this, as well as to other local causes, must be attributed the aridity which characterizes a considerable portion of the plateau of Anahuac. There are few springs in the mountains; and the water, instead of collecting in little subterranean basins, filters through the earth or porous rocks, and loses itself in crevices formed by volcanic eruptions. The evils arising from aridity have increased since the Europeans first took possession of Mexico. The conquerors not only destroyed trees without supplying their place by young plants, but by artificially drying up extensive tracts of country, they occasioned a still more important evil. The muriates of soda and of lime, the nitrate of potass, and other saline substances, cover the surface of the soil. Still a great part of Mexico may be classed with the most fertile countries of the earth, for there every species of vegetable production is found, or may be successfully cultivated. On the ascent from Vera Cruz, climates, to use an expression of Humboldt's, succeed each other in layers; and the traveller passes in review, in the course of two days, the whole scale of vegetation, from the parasitic plants of the tropics to the pines of the arctic regions. In some parts, however, the climate is very insalubrious. The humidity of the coasts favouring the putrefaction of a prodigious mass of organic substances, originates diseases which attack Europeans and others not familiarized to the climate; indeed, under the burning sun of the tropics, the unhealthiness of the air is almost invariably a sure indication of extraordinary fertility in the soil. Nevertheless, excepting the seaports and some of the deeper valleys, where intermittent fever is very prevalent, Mexico ought, upon the whole, to be considered as a healthy country.

Zoology. The zoology of this interesting country has only hitherto been partially explored, and what is known relates chiefly to ornithology. Of one hundred and thirteen species of land birds ascertained to be natives of Mexico, sixty-eight seem to be peculiar to that country, eleven likewise natives of South America, and thirty-four of other parts of North America. The water birds that have been examined present no novelty, as all can be identified with the species distributed generally over North America. Among the wading birds are two beautiful species of tiger bitterns, formerly unknown to naturalists. The quadrupeds, insects, &c., are as yet little known. Deer and several varieties of antelopes are found on the table-lands, and the bison ranges in vast herds through various parts of Mexico. The domestic animals introduced by the Spaniards have increased to such a degree, that immense numbers of them run wild through the country. The wool of the sheep is of inferior quality; but this is attributable more to neglect and mismanagement than to any peculiarity in the climate. Mules are very abundant, especially in the mining districts.

From the great range of climate in Mexico, the vegetable productions must necessarily be very varied. "Indeed," says Humboldt, "there is scarcely a plant in the rest of the world which is not susceptible of cultivation in one or other part of Mexico; nor would it be an easy matter for the botanist to obtain even a tolerable acquaintance with the multitudes of plants, scattered over the mountains, or crowded together in the vast forests at the foot of the Cordilleras." The soil is in many parts of extraordinary fertility, and, where well watered, produces abundant crops with very little labour. The most important of the agricultural productions is maize or Indian corn, which constitutes the principal food of the inhabitants as well as of most of the domestic animals. This valuable grain is almost everywhere cultivated with success, and in some favourable spots its fecundity is very remarkable; eight hundred fanegas for one of seed having occasionally been obtained. Where irrigation is practicable, from three to four hundred for one is the ordinary ratio of increase; but where the crop depends upon the season it is more variable, and in some parts one good year in ten is all that is expected, the intervening years producing only forty or fifty bushels for one sown. Oats are little cultivated in Mexico, but the wheat and barley of Europe have been naturalized here. The former succeeds well throughout the table-land; but both in the tierras calientes and on the eastern and western slope of the Cordilleras, the ear does not form. The success of the crop on the table-land depends almost entirely upon the timely commencement of the rainy season; for if the dry weather continue beyond the middle of June, unless the grounds can be watered by artificial means, the crops of wheat, barley, and maize are destroyed by drought. Irrigation is therefore the great object of the Mexican farmer; and in the formation of reservoirs, canals, and the like, vast sums have been expended on the principal estates. The average annual produce of the whole of the corn lands of Mexico is estimated at twenty-five bushels for one; while in certain parts of the country, during favourable years and where the irrigation is good, from sixty to eighty bushels for one have been produced. At Chilula, near Puebla, the increase is stated at forty for one; and at Zelaya, Salamanca, and Santiago further N., in average years, from thirty-five to forty are produced. Rye and barley are raised at higher elevations than wheat, as they are less liable to be injured by cold. The potato is much cultivated in Mexico. It is not an indigenous plant, but was introduced from the mountainous parts of Peru at a very early period after the conquest of that country by the Spaniards. It grows to a large size, some of those found by Humboldt having measured from 12 to 13 inches in circumference. The banana, which flourishes up to the point where the mean temperature is 75° Fahr., produces more nutritious substance in a less space than any other plant. Humboldt calculates that an acre of ground planted with bananas is sufficient to support fifty men, whilst the same extent of land in wheat would barely supply the wants of three. It is propagated by cuttings, and requires no labour in cultivation, except that of cutting off the stems when the fruit is ripe, and occasionally digging round the roots. The same temperature necessary to the development of the banana produces also the manioca or cassava, which is also abundantly productive of aliment. Its cultivation requires more care than that of the banana, and in some measure resembles that of the potato: it arrives at maturity about eight months after the slips have been planted. Of the manioca there are two kinds, the sweet and the bitter; both are made into bread, but the consumption is not considerable. Rice is but little cultivated, and not very generally known. Before the year 1810 the cultivation of the olive was prohibited lest the interest of the mother Statistics, country should thereby be injured. During the revolution, however, a great number of olive trees were planted, and at present there are several large plantations in the country. The vine was also a prohibited plant, but now flourishes in many parts. Among the other vegetable productions of Mexico are the yam, which is confined to the tierras calientes; the capsicum, which is extensively cultivated, and universally used for seasoning food; and the sarsaparilla, tomato, pine-apple, pomegranate, guava, orange, lemon, melon, pear, apple, peach, &c. One of the most valuable plants of the country is the maguey, a species of aloe, which is by Humboldt designated the vine of Mexico. It furnishes a spirituous liquor called pulque, which is the chief beverage of all classes of the people. The maguey plantations are principally in the states of La Puebla, Mexico, Guanajuato, and a small portion of Valladolid. The most celebrated are those in the vicinity of Cholula, and in the Plains of Epam and in the valley of Toluca; but in general the plant is found wild in every part of Mexico. The plants in the plantations are arranged in rows, with an interval of 2 or 3 yards between each, and when arrived at maturity the leaves are from 5 to 8 feet in length, and the stem frequently attains a height of 20 or even of 30 feet. The maguey, however, often delays florescence for many years, when it pushes up its flowering spike with extraordinary rapidity. At the flowering season the exact time is watched when the stem of the flower is about to shoot up; the top is then cut off, and a hole scooped in the stalk for the reception of the sap, which is regularly drawn off, generally two or three times in a day. The plants are extremely productive; a vigorous one will yield as many as 150 gallons in a season of four or five months. The sap is placed in a situation to ferment, an operation which takes place in a few days, when it becomes fit to be drunk. Its taste is said to resemble that of cider, but its smell is disagreeable. A kind of brandy, called mexicool, very much resembling whiskey, is produced by the distillation of pulque. The maguey plant is useful in other respects; its fibres furnish the inhabitants with a thread called pita, and is also employed in making ropes and paper; its juice is used as a caustic application for wounds; and its prickles serve for pins and needles. The soil of Mexico is in many parts remarkably favourable to the production of sugar, which has become one of the most valuable products of the republic. A considerable quantity of rum is annually distilled from molasses. The Mexican soil has also been found well adapted for the cultivation of coffee, extensive plantations of which exist near Orizava and Cordova. The average produce of each plant is estimated at about two and a half pounds weight throughout all parts of the country where the berry is cultivated, though there are districts in Mexico in which it is said three or four pounds are yielded. The slope of the eastern Cordillera is supposed to be best adapted for coffee estates. Tobacco is a government monopoly, and grows well in a small district near Orizava and Cordova; but the best quality comes from Simojovel in the state of Chiapas, and from some districts of Oaxaca. In Yucatan and Tabasco the plant is also successfully cultivated, and produces a mild and fragrant leaf, which is not included in the national monopoly. A large portion, however, of the tobacco sold in the country is contraband. Indigo was known and cultivated by the Mexicans previous to the conquest. It is found in Yucatan, Chiapas, and about Tehuantepec, in the state of Oaxaca, and grows wild in some of the very warm districts in Tabasco. Cotton was among the indigenous products of Mexico at the time of its invasion, and formed almost the only clothing of the natives. The Aztecs possessed the art of spinning it to a very high degree of fineness, and of imparting to it beautiful and brilliant colours; but these arts have been lost. The hot regions are remarkably favourable to the growth of the plant, and it requires but little attention from the proprietor. The quantity of cotton produced in the whole country is estimated at about seven millions of pounds. Vanilla, yielding the highly esteemed spice of that name, grows wild along the eastern coast and in other parts of the republic. The cultivation, however, of this valuable product is left almost entirely in the hands of the Indians. Jalap, whose roots furnish a valuable medicine, is a native of Mexico, and grows plentifully in the neighbourhood of Jalapa, whence its name. The opuntia, or Indian fig, a species of cactus, supports here an insect from whose body the well-known cochineal is made. The female alone produces the dye; and the process of rearing is complicated, and attended with much difficulty. The plantations of the cochineal cactus are confined to the state of Oaxaca. Soon after the independence of Mexico was secured, the cultivation of the mulberry tree was attempted, for the purpose of feeding silk-worms, but without success. In 1841 an association was formed for the encouragement of silk culture, and the mulberry tree was extensively introduced, but has been found to prosper only in certain localities. The state of Oaxaca is said to be exceedingly well adapted for its culture. Flax and hemp have also been introduced into the country.

The chief exports from Mexico are cochineal and the precious metals. Of the latter of these products it is estimated that the one-half is remitted to England, and that the other is divided equally between the United States and the continental states of Europe. The greater portion of the silver is shipped from Tampico, which is the nearest port for the mineral productions of Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, and the principal mining districts of Northern Mexico. Large quantities are also sent from Vera Cruz, as well as from Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast. In 1845, before the war with the United States broke out, and when the Mexican trade was in its ordinary condition, the value of the precious metals, coined and uncoined, shipped from these ports through the regular channels amounted to L2,279,187. We have, however, no means of estimating the contraband exportation; but it may be safely said that at least one million sterling more found its way clandestinely to Europe and the United States. The value of cochineal exported is estimated at about L200,000. The other exports are principally dyewoods, vanilla, sarsaparilla, jalap, hides, horns, and a small quantity of pepper, indigo, and coffee. The imports consist chiefly of linen, cotton, woollen, and silk goods, paper, glassware, ironware, quicksilver, cocoas, wine, brandy, and gin. The aggregate value of the exports and imports does not exceed L5,000,000. For the year ending 30th June 1850 the duties on importations amounted to L1,090,227, and on exportations to L1,125,780. The total shipping in 1850 amounted to 256,692 tons. Of the vessels that arrived at the various ports 68 belonged to Mexico, 435 to the United States, 108 to England, 69 to France, 60 to Spain, 13 to Hamburgh, and 24 to Peru.

The manufactures of Mexico chiefly consist of woollen, cotton, and silk goods, glass, paper, sugar, oil, wine, and tares, brandy. In 1850 there were in the republic 4 glass factories, 8 paper mills, 72 large cotton factories, 6 large woollen factories, and upwards of 70 machines worked by the hand in the manufacture of silk. In the cotton manufacture there were also a number of hand machines for making rebozos or long cotton shawls, bed-coverings, &c. The woollen manufactures likewise employ numerous small establishments in the country, where coarse cloths are made. In the larger mills fine cloths, carpets, flannels, &c., are produced. The annual value of the manufactures is estimated at about L20,000,000. The Indians excel in working jewelry, carving, sculpture, and indeed in all the ornamental arts; they are likewise good masons, painters, and musicians. They make beautiful vases, somewhat similar in form to the Etruscan, as well as toys of all kinds, wax figures, ornamental cloths of great value, and the like.

The revenue of the republic for the year ending 30th June 1852 amounted to L1,683,000, and the expenditure to L2,405,000. The public debt, which has been steadily increasing since the year 1827, amounted in 1854 to L24,600,000, of which sum nearly a half was owing to foreign bondholders, these consisting principally of English and Americans. This wretched state of the public money is naturally owing to the long dissensions among the political parties, and the peculations of many of their leaders. The armed force is fixed by law at 26,353 men in the regular service, and 64,946 militia in actual service; but in 1855 not more than half of these were organized. The navy consists only of 9 small vessels, having in all 35 guns, and manned by about 300 men.

The government of Mexico is a representative federal republic. The legislative power is vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The Deputies are chosen every two years by the citizens of the states, in the ratio of one for every 50,000 souls, or for any fraction above 25,000. The Senate is composed of two members from each state and the federal district, while a number equal to that of all the states is elected by the Senate, Deputies, and Judges of the supreme court conjointly, the Deputies deciding the election in the case of the candidate not receiving a majority of all the votes. The executive power is vested in a president elected for four years. Judicial power resides in the supreme court of justice, and in circuit and district courts. Each state government is independent within its local jurisdiction, and, like the federal government, is composed of executive, legislative, and judicial departments.

The Roman Catholic religion was established here by the Spaniards, and is still maintained with the utmost rigour. At the time of the revolution the pope actively espoused the cause of Spain, and anathematized the revolutionists; but on the petition of the new government they were re-admitted into the bosom of the Catholic Church. The constitution of 1847 declares that "the religion of the Mexican nation is and shall be perpetually the Roman Catholic Apostolic. The nation protects it by wise and just laws, and prohibits the exercise of any other whatsoever." The ecclesiastical government is under the jurisdiction of an archbishop and eleven bishops. The dioceses contain 184 prebends and 1229 parishes, with 3223 ecclesiastics; there are besides 146 monasteries, with 1130 inmates; 59 nunneries, with 3160 inmates; and 8 colleges of the Propaganda, with 233 inmates. The revenue of the church is estimated at L4,000,000.

Education. Education is still at a very low ebb, though of late years some progress has been made. Several of the states have established primary schools, and many higher schools and private seminaries have been opened in the cities. In the city of Mexico, in 1850, there were 129 primary schools, attended by 7151 scholars. The other educational institutions are,—First, seminaries sustained and directed by the clergy; second, national colleges in the capital, sustained partly by their own funds and partly by government aid; and third, colleges and institutions in the states supported by local funds. Of the first class there are 10 distributed in the capitals of the several dioceses, and in 1850 these contained 3024 students; of the second class there are six, viz., the college of San Ildefonso, San Gregorio, and San Juan de Letran, the School of Medicine, the Military Academy, and the College of Mining; and of the third class there are 20, including six preparatory schools.

The republic of Mexico comprises 21 states, 1 federal district, and 3 territories. It has 85 cities and towns, 193 villages, 4709 hamlets, 119 communities and missions, 175 haciendas or estates, and 6092 farms. According to Statistics, the census of 1850, it contained a population of 7,661,919, and an estimate in 1854 gives it 7,853,395, showing an increase of 191,476 persons within these years.

| States | Population | Area in Square miles | |-----------------|------------|---------------------| | Chiapas | 144,070 | 18,680 | | Chihuahua | 147,600 | 97,015 | | Coahuila | 75,840 | 56,571 | | Durango | 162,218 | 48,489 | | Guanajuato | 713,583 | 12,618 | | Guerrero | 270,000 | 32,003 | | Jalisco | 774,461 | 48,590 | | Mexico | 973,637 | 15,635 | | Michoacan | 491,679 | 22,993 | | Nuevo-Leon | 132,301 | 16,688 | | Oaxaca | 525,101 | 31,823 | | Puebla | 580,000 | 13,043 | | Queretaro | 184,161 | 2,445 | | San Luis Potosi | 368,120 | 29,486 | | Sinaloa | 160,000 | 33,721 | | Sonora | 139,374 | 123,467 | | Tabasco | 63,580 | 15,609 | | Tamaulipas | 100,004 | 30,335 | | Vera Cruz | 264,725 | 27,395 | | Yucatan | 680,948 | 62,947 | | Zacatecas | 356,614 | 30,567 | | Federal District| 260,000 | 90 | | California, Lower Territory | 12,000 | 60,662 | | Colima Territory| 61,243 | 3,020 | | Tlaxcala Territory | 80,171 | 1,984 |

Total, 7,661,520

Of the total population, it is estimated that only about 1,000,000 are pure whites, 4,000,000 Indians, and 6000 negroes; the remainder consisting of Mestizos, Zambos, Mulattoes, Quadroons, Quinteroons, and other mixed races. The whites in Mexico are divided into two classes—Creoles, or those born in the country, and Gachupines, or native Spaniards. The Spanish population in this country still forms a numerous and important body, though the Spaniard no longer holds his former rank in the social scale. The Creole or native Mexican is commonly proud, indolent, and often vicious. An aristocratic feeling, founded on their complexion, which gives them distinction, prevents them from pursuing those kinds of labour which are deemed degrading to gentlemen. The consequence is, that their poverty is often even greater than that of the Indians; whilst from indolence, added to pride, they are prevented from following any employment beyond that of the gaming-table, or becoming the flatterers of the richer members of their own class. Throughout Mexico there is a universal predisposition to dependence upon others, or a blind reliance upon chance. The Indians form the next class of the Mexican population. They are the unmixed descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants, and consist of various tribes, resembling each other in colour, and in some general characteristics which seem to announce a common origin, although differing entirely in language, manners, and dress. No less than twenty languages are known to be spoken in the Mexican territory, and many of these are not dialects which may be traced to a common root, but differ as much as the languages of Sclavonic and Teutonic origin in Europe. Some possess letters which do not exist in others, and in most there is a difference of sound which strikes even the most unpractised ear. In colour the Indians of Mexico are darker than those of South America, although they live in a climate of lower temperature. They have more beard and more hair on other parts of their body than those of the southern continent, while almost all are free from personal deformity. The different tribes are scattered over the greater part of the country, and are mostly cultivators of the soil. A number of them, however, find employment in the mines; some are engaged in the manufacture of certain elegant fabrics of wool and cotton; and some in the... Statistics: formation of articles for domestic use. The Indian is remarkable for his patient endurance of fatigue and pain, and is exceedingly tenacious of old customs. After three centuries of constant intercourse with Europeans, he still keeps aloof from the foreigner, and continues to live in his native village. He speaks his hereditary language, delights in his old pastimes, and, according to the report of reliable travellers, occasionally worships in private his ancestral idols. Though the Mexican laws prohibit slavery, yet upon the plantations the Indians are in reality slaves. The tenacity with which he adheres to old habits and customs, and the strong attachment which he manifests for the place of his birth, render migration to another state or district never a voluntary act on his part. So helpless is the Indian, if placed beyond the limits of his habitual neighbourhood or accustomed haunts, that he feels himself perfectly lost and miserable if compelled to change either his residence or occupation. The Mexican planter can inflict no greater punishment on his Indian serf than to expel him from the estates on which he and his ancestors have worked from time immemorial. The Indian is also frequently mortgaged to the landed proprietor. The extravagant and licentious outbreaks in which he occasionally indulges bring him under pecuniary obligations, leading him to sell himself for a number of years, or even for life, to the landholder; and this condition the latter is ever ready and willing to bring about.

The middle races have, in process of time, become a very important part of the population of Mexico. In a country where rank depends more on the complexion than on those endowments which in other countries confer distinction, it is not surprising that almost every shade has its limits defined by terms which, though apparently only expressing the colour, do in reality signify the rank of the individual. The son of a white, whether Creole or European, by an Indian female, is called Mestizo. His colour is almost a pure white, and his skin is of a peculiar transparency. The small hands and feet, and a certain obliquity of the eyes, are more frequent indications of the admixture of Indian blood than the nature of the hair. If a Mestizo marry a white man, the next generation scarcely differs in anything from the European race. They are, however, generally accounted of a more mild character than the Mulattoes descended from whites and Negresses, who are distinguished by the violence of their passions, and the singular volatility of their tongues. The issue of Negroes by Indian females bear in Mexico the singular name of Chino, or Chinese in common language, although by law they are denominated Zambos. The term Zambo, however, is generally applied to the descendants of a Negro and a female Mulatto, or of a Negro and a female Chinese. Another gradation, called Zambo prieto, or blackish Zambo, is the offspring of a Negro and female Zambo. From the union of a white man and a Mulatto woman the class of Quadroons is derived. When a female Quadroon marries a white man, the children are denominated Quinteroos. The issue of a white man by a female Quinteroon is considered a white. Next to the pure Indians the Mestizos are the most numerous caste. It is, however, impossible to ascertain the exact proportion which they bear to the whole population, many of them being included amongst the pure whites. The proportion of the other mixed breeds to the whole population is equally uncertain.

It was the policy of Spain to foster a spirit of rivalry between the different classes of inhabitants, by creating little imaginary shades of superiority amongst them, which prevented any two from having a common interest. Whiteness of skin was the patent of nobility; and even the Creole, whom the Spaniard despised, looked with the contempt of a European upon the rest of his countrymen. The revolution, however, put an end to castes, the differences of which were all swallowed up in the grand distinction of Americans and Europeans. The Creoles were compelled to court the allegiance of the mixed classes, without whom they could make no effectual head against the Spaniards. Many of the most distinguished characters of the revolutionary war belonged to the mixed breeds; and under the system now established, all are equally entitled to the rights of citizenship, and equally capable of holding the highest dignities of the state. There is neither a pure African population nor a slave in the republic of Mexico.

Of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico some very interesting monuments remain. The work of Humboldt on New and ancient Spain first excited the curiosity of Europeans, and rescued inhabitants the antiquities of Mexico from the oblivion to which they had so long been consigned; but it was not until recently, that their value as works of art, and as indications of a considerable advance in civilization, was fully appreciated. Pyramids having even a larger base, and being otherwise scarcely inferior in magnitude to those of Egypt, are found in many parts of Mexico. Amongst the most celebrated is that of Cholula, the base of which is 1423 feet on each side, and the height 177 feet. It consists of eight graduated square towers, each rising above the other, and terminating in a species of sanctuary. Here vestiges of noble sculpture are visible, as well as at Otumba, Oajaca, Mitlan, Tlacosa, and Palenque. The ruins of the latter, in particular, have attracted a considerable degree of attention, and are worthy of description. They extend, says Colonel Galindo, of whose description we shall avail ourselves, for more than 20 miles along the summit of the ridge which separates the country of the wild Maya Indians from the state of Chiapas, and must anciently have embraced a city and its suburbs. The principal buildings are erected on the most prominent heights; and several of them, if not all, have been provided with stone stairs. The principal edifice, which has been sometimes styled the palace, is built in several squares; but the main halls or galleries run in a direction from the N.N.E. to the S.S.W.; and this position has been observed in all the edifices hitherto examined, be their situation what it may. The houses have all been substantially built of stone, cemented with mortar; but symmetry has been little studied in their construction, it is supposed less from ignorance than from design. Other ruins of considerable magnitude, and distinguished by numerous sculptures, are found upon the neighboring hills. In the vicinity there is one building in particular, apparently a religious edifice, which deserves notice. Two galleries constitute its foundation; the front one occupying its whole length, whilst the back one is divided into three compartments. Of these, the eastern has the appearance of a dungeon; the western is a small room with a chapel ornamented with elegant relieves. These consist of representations of the human figure, in various attitudes, and adorned generally with boughs and feathers. There are other very interesting ruins in this part of Mexico, but they have not as yet been sufficiently described.

The Mountain of Tezococa is nearly covered with ruins of ancient buildings. At Mitlan there are the remains of a large palace, the architecture of which possesses a stately grandeur, and melancholy beauty of a peculiar character. The roof of the portico is supported by plain cylindrical columns, and the façade of the palace is covered with a beautiful matwork, or basket scroll, such as is found in Egyptian sepulchral chambers. Many of the statues found at Otumba, Mitlan, Jochihalo, and the magnificent flower-temple of Oajaca, are sculptured in a purely classical style; whilst vases rivalling those of Egypt and Etruria have been discovered in sepulchral excavations. Roads are to be met with, not only in the vicinity of great cities, but at a vast distance from them, artificially constructed, like the Roman military roads, of large squared blocks of stone. These roads present a continued level, and may be called viaducts, in The pyramid of Cholulas," says the same writer, "exhibits a most singular identity with the model of the temple of Belus, described by Herodotus, and which, by many scholars, has been considered to be the Scriptural tower of Babel. But in the internal economy of the pyramids, the analogy between those of Egypt and Mexico is still more remarkable. In both, descending galleries, at a particular astronomical angle of declination, lead to central chambers, either for the purpose of mystery or sepulture. Amongst other marks of architectural identity may be mentioned those traced amongst the ruins of Palenque, where the well-known Cyclopean arch, consisting of receding steps of stone in a triangular form, is seen, and where a rectangular square is surrounded by cloisters built in this manner, and lighted by windows bearing the exact form of the Egyptian face.

With regard to the personal characteristics and costume, the sculptures bring to light a people of a very remarkable appearance. Their physiognomy is unlike that of any of the various families of mankind that at present inhabit the globe, or have been rendered familiar to us by ancient sculptures. Their receding forehead, their low facial angle, and the conical form of their heads, is quite unique; and the large long nose, the facial line receding in the same singular manner from the base of the nostrils to the termination of the chin, grotesquely broken off by an unsightly protrusion of the under lip, present a physiognomical outline revolting to the European standard of beauty. The costume shows some striking analogies with that of the Egyptians; but there are at the same time differences from it as remarkable. The Egyptian apron, for instance, was different. It was generally of striped cotton, and folded in a peculiar manner; a portion of it forming a girdle, and passing between the legs, resembling a similar article of dress worn by the East Indians at the present day. But the Toltecian apron resembles the Roman military apron or the Scotch phalabeg. It descends from the waist and covers the thigh down to the knee; it is, however, distinguished by one Egyptian appendage, namely, by the mimic tail of an animal, which appears to have adorned the Toltecian hero as it adorned the Egyptian demigod. The apron is supported by a baldrick, which descends from the right shoulder to the left side, and joins the girdle at the waist. The dress of the military and superior class of Egypt is not to be found in the Toltecian costume, but the following strong resemblances exist:—The breast-plate and collar of the Toltecan were sometimes decorated with a symbol of the sun; the armlets, bracelets, and anklets, are strikingly analogous to those of the Egyptian. The legs of the Toltecian heroes, however, are invested with sandals, some of them reaching above the ankle, others like greaves, covering the leg to the knee; whilst others in every respect resemble the Highland sandal. All these parts of dress would appear to have been richly ornamented; and the whole dress, it is said, may be safely described as at once gorgeous and elegant, and in these respects nowise inferior to the Egyptian. The head-dresses, however, are in general extravagantly grotesque, without regularity or taste, although, like the Egyptian, constructed out of certain combinations of symbols."

With respect to the religion and religious rites of this ancient race, a striking analogy with those of Egypt has likewise been traced. The gods of the Toltecs appear sculptured, as usual in bas-relief, in the dark inner rooms of temples. He who would appear to be the chief-god is portrayed on the inner wall of the adytum of one of the sanctuaries belonging to the great temple of Palenque, and is worshipped symbolically under other forms and in other localities. He is supposed to be identical with the Osiris of Egypt and the Adonis of Syria, or the well-known classical combination of both divinities, the ancient god Adoni Siria. The manner in which he is enthroned, the cushion... Statistics, on which he reposes, the cap, the symbols, and various appurtenances, show an analogy with the Egyptian deity. But there is a column affixed to the cap which is not found on any Egyptian head-dress; it was, however, an unquestionable symbol of Osiris. "Various characteristics of the worship of Osiris and Adonis are complete in the sculptured tablets of Mexico. A priestess kneels before the Toltec god in the attitude of adoration, and offers him a pot of flowers, not the mint offered to Osiris, but the blood-stained hand-plant or manitas, which all the monuments attest was anciently held sacred throughout Mexico. On the sculptured tablet over the head of the divinity appear, precisely in the Egyptian fashion, the phonetic characters of his name, in an oblong square, which in Egypt was devoted to the names of gods. Of the phonetic or symbolic character, however, nothing as yet is known. The same divinity is represented on one of the walls at Palenque, not in a human, but in an animal form. Instead of the hawk of Egypt, however, the Toltecs chose as their sacred bird the rainbow-coloured pheasant of Central America, which is perched on the Toltec cross, resembling the Christian, and with its lower extremity terminating in a heart-formed spade. The subject of the sculpture shows the simplicity of the worship. Two Toltec heroes, chiefs, or priests, stand beside the sacred bird; one of them supports an infant in his arms, probably for baptism, which was a rite practised by the votaries of Adonis, and at other places there are indications of a similar ceremony."

Of the temples we have already given a cursory notice. Their architecture has a theological character like that of Egypt and of Greece; and although their forms are peculiar to the country, the original type of them is extant in Syria, Palestine, and Judaea. Like those of the Egyptians, they are all distinguished by architectural peculiarities, exclusively appertaining to the people by whom they were erected. A high-place of three successive terraces or steps generally constitutes the platform of the temple. The terraces are distinguished by that sloping form which the Egyptian architects peculiarly affected, and they are generally constructed of large blocks of stone, covered with stucco equally hard and durable. On the top of the high-place was an oblong rectangular court; and in the centre of this court stood the temple, divided, like the rock temples of Nubia, into three dark rooms built of stone, and having an ark or barn-shaped roof. The innermost of these rooms constitutes the sanctuary. The apartments are occasionally decorated with painted sculptures. Sometimes the staircase ascends the high-place in front, traversing the curvilinear terraces in a straight line to the door of the temple. Occasional variety was given to the square form of the area, and to the triple form of the terraces, by staircases ascending to the sanctuary from each of the cardinal points. The high-place has sometimes a circular instead of a square ground-plan, and in that case, it may remind antiquarians of the well-known Tepees, or high-places of Syria, which is a presumptive proof of the Syrian origin of these structures.

The writer already quoted thus speaks of Palenque:—

"It may be appropriately termed an ecclesiastical city rather than a temple. It seems to be the locality of the chief cathedral church of the Toltec religion. Within its vast precincts there appear to be contained a pyramidal tower; various sanctuaries; sepulchres; a small and large quadrangular court, one surrounded, as we have said, by cloisters; subterranean initiatory galleries beneath; oracles, courts of justice, high-places, and cells or dwellings for the various orders of the priests. The whole combination of the buildings is encircled by a quadrilateral pilastered portico, embracing a quadrangular area, and resting on a terraced platform. This platform externally exhibits the same architectural model which we have described as characterizing the single temples. It is composed of three graduated stucco terraces, sloping inwards, at an angle of about seventy degrees, in the form of a truncated pyramid. Four central staircases, one facing each of the cardinal points, ascend these terraces in the middle of each lateral facade of the quadrangle; and four gates, fronting the same cardinal points, conduct from the top of each staircase into the body of the building, or into the great court. The great entrance, through a pilastered gateway, fronts the east; and descends by a second flight of steps into the cloistered court. On the various pilasters of the upper terrace are the metopes, with the singular sculptures we have described. On descending the second staircase into the cloistered court, on one side appears the triple pyramidal towers, which may be inferred, from the curious distribution of little cells which surround the central room of each storey, to have been employed as a place of royal or private sepulture. On another side of the same cloistered court is the detached temple of the chief god, to whom the whole religious building appears to have been devoted, whom we have described as bearing all the characteristics of the Syrian god Adoni-Siris, and who appears to have been the great and only god of the nations who worshipped in this temple. Beneath the cloisters, entered by well-staircases from above, are what we believe to be the initiatory galleries. These opened into rooms, one of which has a stone couch in it, and others are distinguished by unintelligible apparatus carved in stone. The only symbol described as found within these sacred haunts is, however, perfectly Asiatic and perfectly intelligible; we mean two contending serpents. The remnant of an altar, or high-place, occupies the centre of the cloistered quadrangle. The rest of the edifice is taken up with courts, palaces, detached temples, open divans, baths, and streets of priestly cells or houses in a greater or less degree of dilapidation."

It appears that the creed of this ancient people was a form of deism, which permitted some varieties of symbolic representation. From the few records of their religious rites which have come down to us, and which are principally derived from the extraordinary rolls of American papyrus, formed of the prepared fibres of the magnesia, on which their beautiful hieroglyphical system is preserved, we learn that they were as simple as their creed. No human or even animal sacrifices appear to have been offered up to the presiding divinity of their temples; nothing, indeed, but fruits and flowers. Such a religious system was therefore quite different from the hideous idols and sanguinary sacrifices which were in use amongst the Mexican people.

IV.—POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

The republic of Mexico, as has already been stated, is Mexico divided into twenty-one states, a federal district, and three territories, each of which we shall now proceed to give a short account of. Mexico, the most populous of the whole, and which also contains the metropolitan city and the federal district, extends from 18° 30' to 21° 57' of N. Lat., and from 98° to 101° W. Long., and includes an area of about 19,635 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the state of Michoacan, S.W. by the state of Guerrero, N. by that of Queretaro, E. by Puebla, and N.E. by Vera Cruz. This state is situated on the high lands of the interior, and its surface is almost entirely mountainous. Only one of its peaks, however, attains the height of perpetual snow, namely, that of Toluca, upwards of 15,000 feet above sea-level. The climate is necessarily cool and salubrious. This upland region embraces a large proportion of valuable mines. To the N. and N.E. of the central valley of the state are the great silver-mining districts of Real del Monte, Morán, and Atotonilco el Chico. Iron, lead, and carbonate of soda are also found in the state. But rich as the mines of this country are, the fertility of its soil is even more remarkable, producing every variety of plant with rapidity, and in the greatest luxuriance. The most valuable land, however, is what is called the Valley of Mexico, a splendid region, variegated with extensive lakes, and surrounded by high volcanic peaks. Its general figure is an oval of about 200 miles in circumference, and forms the very centre of the great table-land of Anahuac, elevated from 6000 to 8000 feet above the level of the ocean.

The most interesting object in the Valley of Mexico is the vast system of drainage by which the capital is protected against the periodical inundations of the Lake of Tezococo, which, during the first two centuries after the conquest, threatened it repeatedly with destruction. The Valley of Mexico serves as a receptacle for the water which filters from every part of the lofty ridge of mountains by which it is environed. Only one stream issues from it, whilst it receives the waters of several rivers, which, accumulating in the immense basin, form respectively the great lakes Tezococo, Zumpango, San Cristobal, Chalco, and Joctimilco. The city being situated on a lower level than some of these sheets of water, particularly that called Zumpango, during the rainy season they occasionally burst the dykes which inclose them, and rush towards the capital, filling the lower parts of the city with water. A rapid succession of misfortunes arising from these inundations compelled the Spanish government to adopt measures for averting the danger. Hydraulic works of immense magnitude were begun in 1607; canals were cut; and other artificial means were adopted to convey the waters of the lakes in another direction. The desagüe, or great canal which was constructed to carry off the waters of the Lake of Zumpango, is of stupendous dimensions, being 12 miles in length, 300 feet in breadth, 150 in depth, and for a distance of 1000 yards cut through the solid rock. During the revolution these works were much neglected; nor have they yet been properly finished or put in a good state of repair. In the Lake of Chalco there are a number of chinampas, or what have sometimes been called floating gardens. They are artificial islands, about 50 or 60 yards long, and not more than 4 or 5 wide, on which the finest culinary vegetables, fruits, and flowers are raised, and from which the markets of the capital are amply supplied.

In the centre of this valley stands Mexico City, capital of the republic and of the federal district. Tenochtitlan, the ancient capital of the Aztecs, was built on several islands in the Lake of Texcoco, and connected with the land by four long causeways; but the drainage of the marshes and the removal of the forests, combined with other causes, have produced a great diminution in the water of the lake; so that the modern city of Mexico, which is believed to occupy the same site, is removed from its shores by a distance of 2½ miles, although in the rainy season of the year the easterly winds occasionally cause the water to overflow the outskirts of the city, which is protected from such incursions by dykes. The city is generally reputed by travellers to be the most beautiful on the American continent, and never fails to excite the admiration of those who view it for the first time. It is regularly built in the form of a square, with its streets, which are both long and wide, intersecting each other at right angles. They are well paved, but not lighted, and often very imperfectly cleansed, though the town is well supplied with water brought by splendid aqueducts from the neighbouring hills. The houses, built of hewn stone, have a massive and sometimes rather forbidding appearance. They generally inclose an open court, round which the different apartments are situated, the entrance being by an iron gate in front. Opposite to this is placed the staircase by which access is gained to the upper storeys and to the roof, which is flat, surrounded by iron balustrades, and sometimes ornamented with bronze and mosaic work of glazed porcelain. The style of architecture in the city resembles that of southern Europe; and the public buildings are in many instances very imposing in their appearance. Mexico contains several squares, the principal of which, the Plaza Mayor, which occupies the centre of the town, is of very large extent, and is surrounded by the chief public buildings. The centre of this square was formerly occupied by a large statue in bronze of Charles IV.; but this has been removed to the quadrangle of the university. On the north side of the Plaza Mayor is the cathedral, which stands on the alleged site of the ancient teocalli, or temple of the Aztec war god Mexitli, from whom the city derives its name. The cathedral is 500 feet in length and 420 in breadth; and though the style is irregular, and not in strict accordance with any architectural order, its appearance, especially in the interior, is very imposing. The front is profusely ornamented with carving; and is partly in an inferior Gothic style and partly in the Italian. There are also two lofty towers, adorned with pilasters and statues. In the outside wall of the building is the Kellenda, a circular stone of basaltic porphyry, covered with hieroglyphical representations of the months of the year, which is supposed to have been used by the Aztecs as a calendar. The interior is very richly decorated with carved work, columns, statues, shrines, pictures, &c., but these are distinguished rather for their rich and gorgeous character than for elegance or beauty. The high altar is laden with a vast number of candlesticks, crosses, and religious relics of gold and silver, and surmounted by an image of the Virgin so richly adorned with jewels as to be valued at more than half a million sterling. From the sacristy, extending round the choir for about two hundred feet, runs a railing, between four and five feet high, composed of the precious metals, very slightly alloyed with copper. It is said to be worth its weight in silver. The east side of the great square is occupied by the National Palace or Government House, formerly the residence of the viceroy, but now that of the president. It is a large quadrangular building with four interior courts, and contains, besides the apartments of the president, the public offices, the Senate-house, the two Chambers of Deputies, the mint, two barracks, two prisons, several shops, and a botanic garden. This edifice is believed to occupy the site of the ancient palace of Axayacatl, which was allotted by Montezuma to Cortez as his residence. The remaining sides of the square are formed by private dwellings, with the exception of the south-eastern corner, which is occupied by the City Hall, part of which is used as an exchange. The university of Mexico is situated near the square, and contains the National Museum; opposite which is the extensive market constructed in 1842. The Mineria, or School of Mines, in which occasional lectures are given, is an elegant building situated a little to the west of the square. These institutions, however, as well as the Academy of Fine Arts and the public library, have been very much neglected since the revolution, and are now in a declining condition. The Acordada, or public prison, is an edifice of great size and strength, capable of containing 1200 prisoners; and there is a large and well-built artillery barracks, which was formerly used as an hospital. Besides the cathedral, Mexico is said to contain between fifty and sixty churches and convents, most of them in a mixed style of architecture, and remarkable chiefly for the richness of their ornaments. The church of San Domingo is light and elegant, with a spire and dome; and near it is situated the building formerly occupied by the Inquisition, which was abolished here in 1822. The largest and most wealthy convents are those of the Franciscans and of the Dominicans; and these, along with the convents of St Augustine and La Merced, are the most remarkable edifices of that sort in Mexico. There is also a handsome theatre, and a large circular arena for the exhibition of bull-fights, called the Plaza de Toros, which has accommodation for 2000 or 3000 spectators. At the west end of the town there is a park called the Alameda, which is a great place of public resort, and has an area of 10 or 12 acres, laid out in walks and labyrinths, and adorned with numerous fine trees. There are also two other promenades or pasos, as they are called, one on the E. and the other on the W. of the city. These consist of the roads leading from the town, which are raised several feet above the surrounding country, and lined with double rows of fine trees, thus affording delightful promenades, which are frequented by great multitudes of the inhabitants. The one which leads to the east, called the Pasco de la Viga, skirts the Lake Chalco Canal, which adds much to the appearance of the promenade. In the city also there are several covered colonnades or arcades, which form a favourite place of resort in the evening, and are often crowded long after the other promenades are deserted. The city is supplied with water by means of two aqueducts; one of which, 11,153 yards in length, extends from Santa Fé to the Alameda, and is carried for one-third of its course on arches of stone and brick. This aqueduct supplies the city with water of an excellent quality; while the suburbs to the S. are supplied by that of Chapultepec, which is 3608 yards in length.

The manufactures carried on in Mexico are remarkable neither for quantity nor for quality; the most important being those of tobacco and plate, together with that of gold and silver lace, which is well made, and sold at a very cheap rate. Jewelry, upholstery, coachmaking, as well as the manufacture of soap, and woollen and cotton stuffs, are also carried on in Mexico; but the demand for manufactured goods is chiefly supplied by the importation from Europe of articles of all sorts, and of silks from China. These constitute the staple of the import trade; and the products of the mines are the chief articles of export; indeed, the commercial as well as the manufacturing industry of Mexico is very small, and the city derives its importance almost exclusively from its being the capital of the confederation and the residence of the president. The markets are supplied with provisions by small boats, which bring them over the Lake of Tezocoo, or over the Lake and through the Canal of Chalco.

The inhabitants of Mexico City are of several different races and characters. They consist of Creoles or descendants of the Spaniards, of Mestizos or half-castes, of copper-coloured natives, of Mulattoes, and of Europeans. Of the higher classes, many have acquired considerable wealth; but the great bulk of the people are very poor; and the lower orders, in their idleness and dirty habits, as well as in their general character, have a striking resemblance to the lazzaroni of Naples. Pop. (1850) estimated at 170,000.

There are a number of other towns in the state of Mexico. Acapulco, on the S.W. coast, was once celebrated for its wealth, and is described as a very fine seaport. It was from this place that the richly-freighted Spanish galleons took their departure to distribute the spoils of the Western over the Eastern Hemisphere. It has since sunk into comparative insignificance, and now contains only about 4000 inhabitants. Zacatula is likewise a good port on the same shore, but has little trade. Teluca, the nominal capital, is a considerable town, situated at the foot of two steep barren hills, about 27 miles S.W. from the federal metropolis. It has considerable soap and candle factories, and is noted for its hams and sausages. Tezocoo, on the eastern shore of the lake of that name, 12 miles from Mexico, is now almost desolate, and only interesting for its historical associations and ancient remains. Amongst other small towns may be mentioned Otumba, once large and flourishing, but now a mere village; Lerma, which is surrounded by an extensive morass, traversed by fine raised causeways; Chalco, a pretty large town, situated in a lake of the same name, about 20 miles S.E. of the metropolis; San Augustin, at which a great annual fair is held, frequented by vast multitudes from Mexico; Tacubaya, a village about four miles from the gates of the capital, and formerly the country residence of the Bishop of Mexico; Pachuca and Coyoacan. Besides these places there are a number of farm-hamlets, of which Chapango is considered as one of the finest specimens in Mexico. It is distant about a league from Tezocoo; and the lands around it are exceedingly rich and well irrigated. The buildings erected to receive the grain are on a magnificent scale; while the vicinity of the capital, in affording a ready market for the crops, renders the estate one of great value. About 60 miles from the metropolis is Cuernavaca, a place of no importance in itself, but deriving interest from the richness of the surrounding district. In the neighbouring valley of Cuautla stands the town of Cuautla Amilpas, where Morelos made so noble a stand against the royal army. In the neighbourhood of Cuernavaca is the village of Acatzingo, entirely inhabited by Indians, who have ever kept themselves apart from the Spanish population.

Queretaro.—To the N.W. of Mexico is the small state Queretaro. Of Queretaro, the territories of which were formerly comprehended in the neighbouring intendancies of Mexico, La Puebla, and Guanajuato. They are now divided into the six partidos or districts of Amesalco, Cadereyta, San Juan del Rio, San Pedro Toliman, Queretaro, and Jalpan. Queretaro lies entirely on the central plateau of the Cordillera, and is intersected by numerous mountain spurs and elevated hills, some of which are entirely bare, while others are covered with forests of various kinds of wood. The agricultural portions of the state are chiefly confined to the valleys, in which the soil is frequently of great fertility. The chief mining district, and the only one of any note in the state, is that of El Doctor, in the district of Cadereyta. The inhabitants, with the exception of those of the capital, are mostly employed in agriculture. The wool of the sheep is highly prized; but agriculture here is not so important a speculation as it is in other parts of the republic. Queretaro, the capital, is a finely-situated and well-built town, with about 50,000 inhabitants. It contains some fine churches and convents, particularly that of Santa Clara, which is an immense building, said to resemble a little town in the interior, being regularly laid out in streets and plazas. This place has quite the air of a manufacturing town. More than half the houses contain shops; and the population is engaged either in small trades, or in the wool manufactories, which are very extensive. The town is well supplied with water by means of an aqueduct about 6 miles in length, for 2 of which it is elevated on arches 90 feet high. The only other towns of importance are San Juan del Rio, San Pedro de la Cañada, and Cadereyta.

Guanajuato.—To the westward of Queretaro is Guanajuato, the smallest state in the republic, with the exception of Queretaro, but at the same time having proportionally the greatest number of inhabitants. Large portions of the soil are of great fertility, especially the magnificent plains of the Bajío, in the southern part of the state, which extends for more than 100 miles from Apasco to beyond Leon; and in the N., where the splendid plains or llanos of San Felipe spread far and wide. The only river of any size is the Lerma or Tolotlan; and the only lake is that of Yuririapandaro, about twelve miles in length by two in width. The state contains three cities, four market-towns, and thirty-seven villages. The manufactures of wool and cotton, which formerly abounded in many of the towns, have recently much declined. Mining and agriculture now constitute the chief sources of wealth. The mineral productions are very valuable. The town of Guanajuato, in the vicinity of which the principal mines are sit-

Jalisco or Guadalajara.—To the westward of Guanajuato, and stretching along the Pacific for 450 miles, is the large state of Jalisco, formerly Guadalajara. It is divided into eight districts, viz., Guadalajara, Lagos, La Barca, Sayula, Etzatlan, Autlan, Tepic, and Cototlan; and these, again, are subdivided into 26 departments, containing in all 318 pueblos, 387 haciendas, and 2534 ranchos. The greater part of Jalisco lies on the western slope of the Cordillera; and its table-lands, which resemble those of the great plateau of Mexico, are somewhat broken up by mountain ranges. The upper regions are consequently comparatively sterile, while the low lands are rich and fruitful. The sierras of Bajona, in the N.E. of the state, are its most remarkable mountain ranges. The principal stream is the Rio Grande de Santiago; but during the six months of the dry season its waters are either extremely shallow or disappear altogether. The Lake of Chapala, about 45 miles from the city of Guadalajara, is about 100 miles in length by 15 to 25 in breadth. The city of Guadalajara, capital of Jalisco, is situated upon an extensive plain about 450 miles from Mexico. It is built with great regularity, the streets running at right angles, being well paved, and having raised pathways on each side. The houses, with the exception of those in the suburbs, are finely built. There are fourteen squares, twelve fountains, and a number of convents and churches, the principal of which, the cathedral, is still a magnificent building, although it suffered severely in an earthquake which occurred in 1818. The Alamedas, or public walk, is very prettily laid out, with a fountain in the centre, and a stream of water all round. Within the town the Portales de Comercio, erected on every side of those immense squares of houses, are the principal rendezvous; as, besides a number of handsome shops well provided with European and East Indian manufactures, they contain a number of stalls covered with a great variety of domestic productions. Considerable quantities of shawls of striped calico were formerly made here; but these home manufactures have been superseded by importations from the United States. Jalisco derives little benefit from its foreign trade, San Blas, the only seaport which it possesses, being nearly abandoned. Foreign goods are introduced overland from San Luis or Mexico. The population of the capital amounts to about 50,000 souls. The town of San Juan de los Lagos, situated in a deep ravine upon a river of the same name, is noted for an annual fair held there, which lasts for eight days, commencing on the 5th December. The town of Tepic is, next to the capital, the finest and most populous town in the state, and has a population of about 15,000. The only mining region of any note in this state is that of Bolaños.

Michoacan.—The state of Michoacan is bounded on the N. by Guanajuato, N.E. by Queretaro, S.E. by Mexico, W. by Jalisco, and S.W., for a short distance, by the Pacific. It lies chiefly on the western slope of the Cordillera, and its surface is considerably broken by mountains and valleys. The land is abundantly watered by streams and rivers, and incloses a great number of lakes. This state contains 2 cities, 3 towns, 256 pueblos, 333 haciendas, and 1356 ranchos, and is distributed into 83 parishes and 21 districts. The former riches of the state consisted almost entirely in its agricultural produce, the most ordinary manufactures being introduced from the neighbouring towns of the Bajío. But the agricultural interest is by no means so flourishing a condition as it once was, nor are the mines remarkable either for their extent or their value. The whole western declivity of the Sierra Madre, comprehended within the province of Michoacan, is noted for its insalubrity; and the sea-coast, as might be expected, is likewise very unhealthy. The tierra caliente, at the foot of the Cordillera, which is fertilized in part by the Rio Balsas, is rich in all the ordinary productions of the tropics; and even in the more elevated valleys sugar was grown to a very considerable extent before the revolution. The best sugar lands are now about 36 miles S. of Pasquaro, the ancient capital of the Indians. At the foot of the Mountain of Jorullo there are plantations of cocoa and indigo; and in several parts of the state the various productions of the table-land can be raised in abundance. The mining districts of the state are Tlalpujahua, Anganguelo, and Ozumatlan. Michoacan has been called the cradle of the revolution, from which it suffered severely.

Morelia, the capital of the state, formerly called Valladolid de Michoacan, is delightfully situated at the height of 6300 feet above the level of the sea. It consists chiefly of one long, broad street, well paved, and kept in good order. The plaza is remarkable as having broad piazzas on three of its sides, and the fine cathedral, isolated from all other buildings, bounding it on the east. Here there is a crowded market, where the vendors display their goods, as is the general custom throughout the republic, beneath the shade of rude mat umbrellas. All the houses have flat roofs, with long water-spouts projecting most commodiously over the streets. Besides the cathedral, which is crowded with a profusion of ornaments, there are several other churches, two monasteries, and four monasteries, for all which, besides an hospital and other public edifices, the inhabitants are indebted to the munificence of the bishops of the see. The population has been estimated at 25,000.

Guerrero.—This state was created by virtue of the Guerrero, 4th article of the Acta de Reformas, passed in May 1847, amending the constitution of 1847. By this article it was agreed that the state of Guerrero should be formed of the districts of Acapulco, Chilapa, Tasco, and Tlapa, and the municipality of Coyuca,—the first three of which belonged to the state of Mexico, the fourth to Puebla, and the fifth to Michoacan. The physical character and productions of this state correspond with those of the three states to which this region originally belonged. Its capital is Tixtla, and contains about 4000 inhabitants.

La Puebla.—The state of La Puebla, which is situated La Puebla, to the E. of that of Mexico, and stretches nearly across the continent, is divided into 25 districts, and possesses 5 cities and towns, 126 parishes, 590 villages, 412 haciendas, and 875 ranchos or farms. The territory of the state extends beyond the western ridge of the Sierra Madre, and down to the shores of the Pacific; consequently it produces in abundance the fruits either of the tierras calientes, or those common to the rest of the table-land. There are, however, no mines which uniformly create a home market; and as the foreign trade is comparatively of but little importance, the agricultural interest is in a depressed condition. Manufactures of wool and cotton are carried on to some extent in the state. Some parts of the state, particularly the plains of Apam, are remarkable for their fertility. La Puebla contains Po-pocatepetl, the loftiest mountain in North America, situa- The capital and largest city of this state is Puebla de los Angeles, the seat of the richest bishopric in the country, and that of the most extensive manufactures of cotton, earthenware, and wool. Glass and soap are also made; the latter to a considerable extent. The streets, like those of Mexico, are rectangular, spacious, airy, and paved with large stones in a highly ornamental manner. In the centre of the town is a large well-paved public square surrounded by portales. The houses are low, but commodious, and the apartments are mostly paved with porcelain, and adorned with paintings in fresco. There are a great number of churches and convents, religious colleges, and a magnificent cathedral, richly ornamented, and held in high veneration, in consequence of a tradition that it owes its origin to divine interference. The principal other towns in the state are Cholula, Atlixco, Guanajuato, Tehuacan de las Granadas, Tepeaca, and Huajuco. La Puebla City contains about 71,600 inhabitants.

Tlaxcala, which was declared a federal territory in 1847, has an area of about 2000 square miles, and contains 1 city, 109 villages, 18 settlements, 168 haciendas, and 94 ranchos. It is divided into 3 partidos or districts, called Tlaxco, Huamantla, and Tlascala. Its soil is of considerable fertility, and its climate mild and genial. Its productions are chiefly of a cereal character. The capital, of the same name, is situated on the Rio Atoyac or Papagallo, the only stream of importance in the territory. It is well and regularly built; and has a town-hall, bishop's palace, a tastefully-built church, and a Franciscan convent. Many relics and ruins of its former glory are still to be found in the town and vicinity. At present it contains probably not more than 5000 inhabitants.

Oaxaca.—Oaxaca is a very fine state, the southern boundary of which extends along the coast of the Pacific Ocean a distance of about 360 miles, from La Puebla to Guatemala. Agriculture is highly favoured by the fertility of the soil and the salubrity of the climate. The Cordillera, which here forms two branches, one extending along the shores of the Pacific, the other along those of the Gulf of Mexico, incloses the beautiful and fertile region termed the Valley of Oaxaca, which constitutes a great part of this state. The staple productions are,—corn, chile, agave, cotton, coffee, sugar, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco, cochineal, wax, honey, and indigo; while gold, silver, copper, quicksilver, iron, rock-salt, limestone, gypsum, &c., are found in the state. In the two mountain regions separated by the valley have dwelt two Indian races from the earliest periods, known as the Mixtecas and Zapotecas, the former of which is characterized by activity, intelligence, and industry. This state is divided into 8 departments and 23 cantons, and contains 1 city, 8 towns, 913 villages, 137 haciendas, and 235 ranchos. In ancient times this state was the seat of two independent kingdoms, viz., those of Mixteca and Zapoteca. Oaxaca, the capital, called Antequera at the time of the conquest, is a flourishing place, although it suffered severely during the revolution. It contains about 25,000 inhabitants. The best seaport in the state is Tehuantepec. About 30 miles from the capital, on the road leading to Tehuantepec, are the remains of what antiquarians have styled the sepulchral palaces of Mitla, lying in the midst of a rocky granitic region, and surrounded by sad and sombre scenery. According to tradition, they were erected by the Zapotecas as palaces or tombs for their princes. They consist of three edifices symmetrically arranged, the principal and finest having a front of nearly 150 feet. The walls are covered with figures and ornaments. The stones that compose the building are of immense size,—one of them, above one of the principal entrances, is said to be 19 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet 10½ inches broad, and 3 feet 9 inches thick, and there are others of similar dimensions. About 90 miles N. of the capital, near the village of Quiotepec, is an eminence covered in almost every direction with remains of military works of a defensive character.

Vera Cruz.—Vera Cruz comprises a narrow strip of land stretching along the Gulf of Mexico from the state of San Vera Cruz, Luis Potosi to that of Tabasco, a distance of about 400 miles, whilst its breadth on an average does not exceed 50 or 60 miles. The eastern part of the state is generally level, low, and sandy; but it gradually rises inland until the country is broken into an uninterrupted series of lofty mountains and beautiful valleys. The coasts are rich in rivers, streams, inlets, and lagoons, but unfortunately they are of little practical use in navigation. There are several mineral springs in the state; and at Atotonilco, near Calcabalco, in the district of Cordova, there are warm baths celebrated for their efficacy in nervous and rheumatic complaints. The state is divided into four departments, viz., Vera Cruz, Jalapa, Orizaba, and Acayucan.

The productions of this state are rich and varied; the differences in its altitude render it capable of yielding fruits and grains both of the temperate and torrid zone. Tobacco, coffee, sugar, cotton, corn, barley, wheat, jalap, sarsaparilla, vanilla, oranges, citrons, pine-apples, lemons, pomegranates, bananas, grapes, peaches, apricots, pears, plums, tamarinds, mahogany, ebony, cedar, oak, dyewoods, and numerous other trees, plants, and shrubs, spring almost spontaneously from the soil, and render the labour of man almost unnecessary. As the traveller ascends from the sandy tract on the sea-shore, he beholds on every side magnificent forests filled with majestic trees, and adorned by the splendid colours of flowers and blossoms. In the midst of these are farms and plantations, which gleam with the freshest verdure of cane or corn; while over the levels roam innumerable herds of cattle. There are numerous ancient remains in this state.

The city of Vera Cruz, the capital of the state, is situated on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, in Lat. 19. 11. 52. N., and Long. 96. 8. 45. W. It is well and handsomely built of maderpo; and its red and white cupolas, towers, and battlements have a splendid effect when viewed from the sea. Many of the houses are large, being built in the Moorish or old Spanish style, and generally inclosing a square court, with covered galleries. They have flat roofs, glass windows, and are well adapted to the climate. There is a tolerably good square, of which the Government House forms one side, and the principal church another. There are other churches, as well as monasteries and nunneries. Opposite the town, at the distance of about 800 yards, is a small island containing the strong castle of San Juan de Ulloa, which commands the town. The harbour lies between the town and the castle, and is very insecure. Vera Cruz is extremely unhealthy at all times; and during the warm season Europeans are exceedingly liable to become the victims of the vomito prieto, or black vomit. The city is surrounded by sand-hills and ponds of stagnant water; there is neither garden nor mill near it; and the only water fit for use is that which falls from the clouds. The trade of Vera Cruz is very considerable. Alvarado, a port about 36 miles to the S.E., and which constituted the seat of maritime commerce during the revolution, is built upon the left bank of a river of the same name, at the mouth of which there is a bar, rendering it inaccessible to vessels drawing more than 10 or 12 feet of water. Large ships must consequently be loaded or unloaded by means of lighters. The trade of Mexico, however, has either reverted to its old channel, or is shared by Tampico, a port which has risen into importance within these few years. It is situated about 120 miles N.N.W. of Vera Cruz, in Lat. 22. 15. 30. N., Long. 97. 52. W., being about 312 miles from Mexico. The population of Vera Cruz amounts to about 8000.

Another town in this state is Jalapa, from which a well- known drug takes its name. Formerly it was the great mart of New Spain for European goods, as the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz compelled traders to transfer their merchandise at once to this city, where a great annual fair was held. It has now, however, little commerce of its own, and is only a sort of resting-place between Vera Cruz and Mexico. Jalapa is indebted to the peculiarity of its position for the extreme mildness of its climate. The town stands upon a little platform 4500 feet above the level of the sea, and is protected from the N.W. winds by a ridge of mountains. The height is exactly that at which there is a continual humidity in the atmosphere; but this only imparts a balmy feeling to the air, whilst it gives a delightful freshness to the face of nature. The town is neatly built, although the streets are irregular; and the houses, without being remarkable for their size, are of a superior order. Jalapa is the seat of government for the state of Vera Cruz, and here a large garrison is kept. The population is about 16,000.

San Luis Potosi.—To the N.W. of Vera Cruz lies the state of San Luis Potosi, under which name, as a Spanish intendency, were included Coahuila and Texas, New Leon, Tamaulipas, and San Luis. The western portion of the state is quite mountainous, but towards Tamaulipas the Cordillera is somewhat broken, and a lower hilly country stretches out towards the S.E. The Panuco and the Santander are the only rivers, and the lagoons of Charriel and Chila the only two lakes of importance in the state. The climate of the mountain region and table-land is cold; while that of the lower elevations and flats towards the eastern boundary is much warmer, and at certain seasons very unhealthy. Maize, wheat, barley, and fodder are the principal agricultural productions of this state. Cattle are raised in large quantities. Wool and cotton fabrics, glass, leather, pottery, and hard wares are manufactured here to a considerable extent. The state of San Luis Potosi is divided into four departments, ten cantons, and fifty-two municipalities. In this state there are a number of rich mines, particularly those of Catorce, where a metallicorous ridge of mountains extends for many miles. Recently a profitable quicksilver mine was discovered in the jurisdiction of the hacienda of Villela, S. of the capital. With the exception of the capital, which bears the same name, it possesses no large town. San Luis, including the suburbs, contains about 35,000 inhabitants. It is well built, and contains a number of churches, monasteries, and public buildings. The exterior architecture of the sacred edifices is generally heavy, being overloaded with carved ornaments and ill-executed statues of saints; yet at a short distance they give a magnificent appearance to the town. The palacio, now the house of the provincial Congress, forms one side of the Plaza de los Armas, which has an excellent fountain of water in the centre. The parroquia, or cathedral, occupies a portion of the opposite side, and on its right are the soldiers' quarters. The two other sides are filled with shops and dwelling-houses. San Luis derives great advantage from its situation, as the natural depot for the trade of Tampico with the northern and western states. Zacatecas, Durango, and other states receive through this channel a large proportion of their foreign imports; and since the building of the new town of Tamaulipas, which, from being on a more elevated spot than the old town (pueblo viejo) of Tampico, is less subject to the vomito, there is every appearance of a rapid increase in this branch of commercial intercourse.

Zacatecas.—To the W. and N.W. of San Luis Potosi is situated Zacatecas, a state divided into eleven districts, viz., Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Sombrerete, Tlaltenango, Villanueva, Fresnillo, Jerez, Mazapil, Nieves, Piños, and Juchilpa. Zacatecas is a mountain country of the high plateau of Mexico, cut up by spurs of the Cordillera, and mostly arid and inhospitable. The region between San Luis Potosi and Sombrerete, and Mazapil and Zacatecas, is a broad plain, interspersed with a few swelling knolls and an occasional group of hills or small mountains. There are no rivers of any size in this state, and the country is unusually dry; water-tanks, draw-wells, and reservoirs are established on all the estates. The country, however, is particularly rich in its mineral productions, which constitute almost its sole wealth. Manufactures there are none, excepting in the capital, where there are a few cotton-spinners, as also at Aguas Calientes.

Zacatecas, the capital, is situated at the foot of an abrupt and picturesque porphyritic mountain, upon the rugged summit of which is perched a neat church and a small fortress. From the inequalities of the ground on which it stands the streets are short and crooked. Besides a very noble cathedral, it contains a number of churches and convents. Amongst the public buildings worthy of notice may be mentioned the mint, the finest in Mexico, and La Casa del Ayuntamiento, a magnificent edifice, where all the public offices are established, and where the Congress of the state assembles. This town contains about 25,000 inhabitants; and Veta Grande, a village in its immediate vicinity, numbers about 6000. Aguas Calientes is a small town situated on the banks of a stream of the same name, in a broad and fertile valley, 75 miles S. of Zacatecas. It is celebrated for its woollen manufactures; and in the neighbourhood are several thermal springs.

Yucatan.—The state of Yucatan occupies the greater portion of the peninsula which separates the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea. It is a vast alluvial plain, intersected by a mountain ridge which does not exceed 4000 feet in height. Upon some parts of this extensive territory maize, frijoles, rice, cotton, pepper, tobacco, and the sugar-cane are produced, besides dyewood, hides, and other articles. In the central parts the want of water is a very serious drawback to agriculture: the rainy season is very uncertain, and in many parts not even a stream is known to exist; so that in unfavourable years the inhabitants are compelled to have recourse for subsistence to the roots which the woods supply. This state contains numerous remains of ancient cities, which have been recently visited and described by Mr John L. Stephens and Mr Catherwood. The capital of Yucatan is Merida, situated on an arid plain 40 miles from the coast. It enjoys little trade, and contains only about 12,000 inhabitants. Campeachy is the principal commercial town; and here the logwood, which goes by the same name, attains its greatest perfection. The town contains about 9000 inhabitants.

Tabasco.—Adjoining Yucatan is Tabasco, one of the smallest in the confederation, and previous to the revolution a province of the intendency of Vera Cruz. A great portion of the state is extremely flat, and during the rainy season is laid under water, so that intercourse between the villages has to be carried on by canoes. The state is watered by numerous streams; but they are generally short and shallow, and have their mouths obstructed by bars. On the eastern boundary of Tabasco is the Laguna de Terminos, which is 45 miles long by 30 broad, and contains several large and beautiful islands. The climate of this state is exceedingly hot. Cacao, coffee, pepper, sugar, tamarinds, arrowroot, and some tobacco are cultivated; while indigo and vanilla grow wild in the forests. Game is very abundant, and the streams are well stocked with excellent fish. The capital, San Juan Bautista or Villa Hermosa de Tabasco, lies on the left bank of the Tabasco River, 70 miles from its mouth, and contains about 7000 inhabitants. Vessels of light draught can reach it from the sea; but its chief intercourse is carried on with the adjacent states and Guatemala.

Las Chiapas.—Between Tabasco and Guatemala is Las Chiapas. Political situated the state of Las Chianas, which formerly belonged to Guatemala, but which in 1833 joined the Mexican confederation. Comprehending the northern slopes of the table-lands of Guatemala, Las Chianas is, throughout a considerable part of its territory, cut up into successions of ridges and valleys, which are rich in many of the finest tropical productions. It is divided into four departments and nine districts. The most important of the numerous rivers flowing from the mountains near the state of Tabasco to the Gulf of Mexico, are the Tabasco River, the San Pedro, the Usumacinta, and the Pacaltun. The climate of Las Chianas is mild and temperate; and the chief productions are corn, cacao, sugar, tobacco, figs, apricots, and other fruits and vegetables; but a great part of the state is uncultivated and unexplored. The state is divided into four departments, and the capital is Ciudad Real, or San Cristóbal de los Llanos, a handsome town, containing a cathedral, two chapels, four monasteries, a nunnery, and an hospital; with a population of 6000. The state of Las Chianas, like that of Yucatan, contains many ancient remains.

Durango.—The state of Durango is bounded on the N. by Chihuahua, W. by Sinaloa, E. by Coahuila, and S. by Zacatecas and Jalisco. The main branch of the Great Cordillera runs through this state in a N.W. direction. The north-eastern portion of the state slopes gradually downwards towards the waters of the Rio Grande, while the south-western part consists chiefly of lofty table-lands and mountain spurs. The climate is healthy and cool; and its agricultural productions are similar to those of the other states in like circumstances. The chief rivers are the Rio Nasas, Rio Guanavas, and the Rio Florida; and the lagoons of Cayman and Parras are on its borders. Immense quantities of horses, mules, sheep, and cattle are reared in this state; indeed, its cattle and minerals constitute its chief wealth. Iron, silver, gold, lead, and other minerals are likewise abundant.

Durango, or, as it is often called, Victoria, the capital of the state, is situated 180 miles to the N.W. of Zacatecas, in the midst of a vast plain. Both the city of Victoria and most of the other towns of Durango, as Tamazula, Sionori, Mapimi, San Dimas, Canelas, Cuencame, and others, take their origin from the mines. Before the discovery of those of Guarisamey, Victoria was a mere village, and in 1788 it contained only 8000 inhabitants. Its population now amounts to about 22,000. The principal streets, the Plaza Mayor, the theatre, and most of the public edifices, were built by Zambrano, a wealthy proprietor, who is supposed to have drawn from his mines at San Dimas and Guarisamey upwards of 30,000,000 of dollars. The towns of Villa del Nombre de Dios, San Juan del Rio, and Cinco Señores de Nazas are almost the only considerable places in the state unconnected with the mines. The great mineral wealth of this state holds out the most encouraging prospect of ample remuneration to those who engage in mining speculations; and there can be little doubt that ere long the advantages which Durango possesses will be duly appreciated by foreign or native associations of capitalists.

Chihuahua.—The state immediately adjoining Durango to the N. is that of Chihuahua. The great mountain chain of Mexico, which forms the connecting link between the Rocky Mountains of the north and the Andes of the south, is here known as the Sierra Madre, and occupies chiefly the western part of the state, where its elevation attains a great height, and at length descends abruptly till it is lost in the plains of Sonora and Sinaloa. The highest point of the Sierra Madre is said to be 8441 feet above the level of the sea. The greater portion of the state consequently lies on the plateau of Mexico, and only a small part of it on the western slope of the Sierra Madre. It is watered by a considerable number of rivers and streams; and the principal of its lakes or lagoons are those of San Martin, Guzman, Patos or Candelaria, Encinillas, and Castilla. Large numbers of the aborigines still occupy the lonelier portions of this state, and frequently annoy the peaceful settler. Chihuahua possesses a mild and temperate climate, a fertile soil, and vast mineral resources. Agricultural operations are not much carried on here, the chief source of its wealth being the mines and cattle. The gold, silver, and copper mines are exceedingly productive. Veins of iron, cinnabar, lead, sulphur, coal, and nitre have been found and explored, but owing to the disturbed and insecure condition of the state, are altogether abandoned. (For an account of CHIHUAHUA, the capital, see the article under that head.)

Sinaloa.—The state of Sinaloa is bounded on the S. by Jalisco, E. by Durango, S.W. by Chihuahua, N. by Sonora, and W. by the Pacific and the Gulf of California, along the shores of which it extends for about 200 leagues. The River Cañas divides it from Jalisco, and the River Mayo from Sonora. It is about 540 miles in length from S.E. to N.W., and has a breadth of about 150 miles. The surface is partly mountainous and partly level coast land. The coast region is little cultivated and thinly inhabited, being scorched by a burning sun; the central and eastern parts contain numerous table-lands and valleys; while the slopes of the mountains are thickly wooded with excellent timber. In the interior the air is mild and genial; in those parts where irrigation is practised abundant crops of grain are raised. Wheat, Indian corn, and barley, with cotton, sugar, and tobacco, are its chief agricultural productions. This state is also rich in minerals. The principal town is Mazatlan, a seaport-town and a place of considerable trade. It contains about 6000 inhabitants.

Sonora is situated on the Gulf of California to the N. of Sinaloa. The western and southern portions of the state are generally flat. The eastern portion is mountainous, but contains many fine and productive valleys; this portion of the state is likewise rich in valuable mineral deposits. In the S., between the Rivers Mayo and Yaqui and the Presidio of Buena Vista, there is a fruitful region, which is also enhanced by a number of small lakes which form in different parts during the rainy season, and which are turned to good account by the agriculturists in the irrigation of their farms. The climate is warm throughout the year, but in spring is subject to rapid changes in temperature. A great portion of this state is still in the possession of the Indians, most of whom are still in a wild and savage state. The trade of Sonora is principally carried on at Guaymas, which is situated in a healthy region, and possesses one of the best harbours in Mexico. It contains about 3000 inhabitants. Petic, about 120 miles N.N.E. from Guaymas, is a larger town, containing about 8000 inhabitants. It is the depot for goods imported at the Guaymas, and designed for the northern district of Mexico.

Tamaulipas.—This state extends along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, southward from the Rio Grande del Norte, which separates it from the North American state of Texas. It has a coast-line of about 350 miles, and its breadth varies from 50 to about 160 miles. The coast is low and sandy, and fringed with lagoons varying from 4 to 18 miles in width, and divided from the gulf by banks of sand. The shallowness of the shores, and the dangerous bars which obstruct the mouths of the rivers, render navigation difficult and dangerous. In the northern part of the state, in the neighbourhood of the Rio Grande, the country is comparatively level. South of this, however, and at some distance from the coast, the surface is varied by a succession of mountains, hills, and valleys, which gradually slope westwardly to the flats and sands of the sea-coast. The Cerro de Martinez, the Cerro de Jerez, the Cerro del Coronel, and the Sierras de la Palma and del Carico, are the Political most remarkable elevations. The territory is in general divisions well watered; and fine valleys extend along the Rio Grande, the Tigre, Borbon, Panuco, and Dolores. On the coast are the lagoons of La Madre, Morales, and Tampico. The climate of the interior is mild and healthy, but on the coast an intense heat prevails during the greater part of the year, which, combined with the rank vegetation and moisture, renders this region very unhealthy. The principal ports are Tampico de Tamaulipas and Matamoros, where a large coasting and foreign commerce is carried on to supply the middle and northern states of the republic. Matamoros is situated on the right bank of the Rio Grande, about 30 miles from its mouth, and contains about 12,000 inhabitants. Tampico stands on the northern bank of the Panuco, about 5 miles from its mouth. The capital of the state is Victoria, formerly Santander, and contains about 12,000 inhabitants. Numerous remains of ancient edifices, &c., exist in this state.

New Leon.—To the westward of Tamaulipas lies the state of Nuevo Leon, which was colonized in the end of the sixteenth century by the Viceroy Monterey, who bestowed upon it the proud title of El Nuevo Reyno de Leon, or the New Kingdom of Leon. It lies among the first spurs or ridges of the Sierra Madre, and is interspersed with wide plains and fruitful valleys. The principal rivers, all of which flow easterly towards the Gulf of Mexico, are the Rio Tigre, San Juan, Rio Blanco or Borbon, and the Sabinas. The climate, except among the higher mountain ranges, is warm but salubrious. Agriculture has not been much practised in the state, the chief occupation of the landholders being the grazing of cattle. Lead and silver are said to be abundant; but mining operations are only carried on at two places, Cerralvo and Vallejillo. Salt is made at the salt mines on the banks of the Tigre. The capital of the state is Monterey, estimated to contain about 13,000 inhabitants.

Colima.—This territory lies along the shores of the Pacific, and is bounded on the other sides by Jalisco and Michoacan. Its surface is generally level, and here and there broken by ranges of hills. On the N.E. corner of the territory is the Mountain of Colima, the most western of the Mexican volcanoes, and which rises to the height of 9200 feet above the level of the sea. The climate is warm, and on the coast hot, but not unhealthy. Cotton, sugar, tobacco, and cacao are its chief agricultural productions; while on the coast large quantities of salt are made from sea-water. Rich iron deposits have recently been found here. The chief town is Colima, about 6 miles S. of the volcano, and containing about 20,000 inhabitants. Manzanillo, the port of Colima, is about 17 leagues W. of the capital, and a place of some trade.

Coahuila.—Adjoining to New Leon and Tamaulipas is Coahuila, which is generally elevated, and being well sheltered from the N.W. winds, possesses a healthy climate. A considerable mountain chain stretches across the state in a north-westerly direction, and its surface is most luxuriantly irrigated by the numberless springs and streams which, bursting from these ridges, become tributaries to the Rio del Norte. Its pastures are clothed with rich natural grasses, and are admirably calculated for breeding, rearing, and fattening cattle; whilst its forests furnish abundance of wood, which is well calculated for every kind of construction. There are mines of saltpetre, copperas, alum, lead, tin, and copper, besides some silver in Santa Rosa, and gold in Sacramento. These mineral treasures, for want of population and of capital, have been rather ascertained than explored. The inhabitants are almost wholly of the white race, or with such slight mixture of the Indian blood as to make no distinction in colour worthy of notice. The native tribes within the province have been extinguished; but on the borders towards the N. and W. are several warlike tribes of Indians. In these parts also there are droves of wild cattle and horses, and herds of buffaloes. The capital of the state is Leona Vicario, or Saltillo, a large town containing about 20,000 inhabitants. It is situated upon the side of a hill branching off from the Sierra Madre, which in this quarter presents nothing but barren rocks; whilst the intervening valleys or plains are all nearly destitute of vegetation. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in agriculture, and produce excellent wheat and barley, and great variety of fruits. The vines cultivated here make wine of very excellent flavour, and considerable strength.

Lower California.—The territory of Lower California comprehends that long narrow strip of land which extends from the northern boundary of the republic southward to Cape St Lucas, having on the E. the Gulf of Mexico and on the W. the Pacific. It is about 700 miles in length, and varies in breadth from 30 to 100 miles. The surface consists of an irregular chain of rocks, hills, and mountains, which run through its entire length, and which attain a height of nearly 5000 feet. Amid these ridges there are occasionally found a few sheltered spots of productive land; but it is for the most part a barren, dreary waste, and is one of the most unattractive countries in the warm or temperate regions. There are few streams or springs, few trees of any size; and the heavy rains, falling on the central ridges, carry down the sloping sides of the peninsula almost all the cultivable soil. Valuable mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead are known to exist in the peninsula, but only a few of these are worked, and that in a rude manner. The salt mines on the island of Carmen, in the Gulf of Mexico, are very productive. Among the islands of the gulf immense numbers of seals are constantly found, and the whaling grounds on the Pacific coast are of great value. During the sixteenth century the pearl fishery in the gulf produced a valuable revenue, but it has now dwindled into insignificance. The coasts of Lower California are flat, sandy, and irregular, frequently indented by coves, inlets, and bays; while many islands lie near and border them in the gulf. The climate is regarded as not unhealthy; the winter is short, and frost and ice are unknown. The heat of summer, however, is intense, parching the thin soil, and rendering life almost insupportable in the most exposed regions, or in the narrow and confined glens. The principal ports on the W. coast are San Quentin, which is said to afford a secure anchorage for the largest vessels, and Magdalena, which is much resorted to by whalers during the winter season. The only towns of importance in the peninsula are Loreto and La Paz; the latter the capital and seat of government. The population is almost entirely Indian or of a mixed race.

New, one of the territorial governments of the United States of America, is situated between Lat. 31.20 and 38. N., and Long. 103. and 117. W., and has a length from E. to W. of 700 miles, and an average breadth of 400. It is immediately S. of the territories of Utah and Kansas, W. of Texas and the Indian territories, and has the Mexican States to the S., and California to the W., separating it from the Pacific Ocean. Its area, including a late addition, is 234,507 square miles, being five times the extent of the state of New York.

The Rocky Mountains cross the New Mexican territory from N. to S. The mountains of Guadalupe, Sacramento, Organ, Sierra Blanca, &c., are diverging ranges from the main chain of the Rocky Mountains. Among the Sierra Madre Mountains a height of 10,000 feet is reached above the high table-lands of the Rio Grande. This river, formerly called Rio Bravo del Norte, is the largest in the territory, draining the great valleys of the Sierra Madre and the Jumanes, &c. The Pecos River drains the eastern slope of these mountains; the Gila runs directly westward to the Colorado from its source on the Sierra Madre. The other rivers are,—the Puerco, the Canadian, Salinas, San Pedro, San Francisco, Colorado; none possessing much importance for navigation, except, perhaps, the Colorado. The Rio Grande, after it enters Texas, may be navigated many hundred miles by steamers. From the great elevation of New Mexico, it has a temperate climate. Some of the mountain-peaks are crowned with perpetual snow. Rains fall between July and October; but the country is too much parched, with the exception of a few favoured valleys, to hope for much agricultural development. More thorough explorations are, however, needed to pronounce absolutely in regard to it. In 1846 a military reconnaissance was made of it by Major Emory of the United States army, which is published among the official reports of the government. The notes are very full and interesting, and the following is a digest from them:

"The country to-day is rolling, almost mountainous. Grass begins to show itself; the soil is good enough apparently, but vegetation is stunted. Our eyes for the first time are greeted with waving corn; all the intermediate country is broken and covered with a dense growth of pine, pinon, and cedar. The hills rise 1000 feet above the road. Found excellent grass on the Rio Pecos. Mountains rise from 1000 to 2000 feet above the road. Scenery wild; granitic sands and rocks in abundance on the road to Santa Fé. Cedar and pines are crowded together. Halted in a valley covered with some grama and the native potato in full bloom. On leaving the narrow valley of the Santa Fé, the country presents nothing but barren hills, utterly incapable, both from soil and climate, of producing anything useful." Referring to the Rio del Norte:—"The river impinges close to the hills below La Joya; two sand-hill spurs, overlaid with fragments of lava and trap, close the valley, just leaving space in the river to pass between. On either side is excellent grass, shaded by large cotton woods. The whole prairie is the loveliest I have seen in New Mexico. The valley of the Del Norte, as we advance, loses what little capacity for agriculture it possessed. The plants of New Mexico are,—Cacti of endless abundance and gigantic size, the disagreeable Larrea mexicana, Obione concava, Tessaria borealis, Diotis lanata, Franseria acanthocarpa, varieties of mezquite, a species of Maltea Convolvulus, an unknown shrub found in the bed of all deserted rivers, large grama nearly equal to oats, and Dalea formosa, a branched shrub, 3 feet high, with beautiful purple flowers. The table-lands to the west are covered with sand and large round pebbles. The soil of New Mexico is in general barren, but in many places adapted to the culture of the grape. On the whole, however, this territory may be regarded as an important military possession of the United States. Wherever the eye wanders huge mountains are seen, of black volcanic formation, of very compact argillaceous limestone, tinged at times with scarlet from the quantities of red felspar. Through these the Gila has cut its way with infinite labour, assisted by the influx of the Prieto, the Azul, and San Carlos rivers. The Prieto is said to flow down from the mountains freighted with gold, its sands being impregnated with the precious metal. The Gila now presents an inhospitable look; the mountains of trap, granite, and red sandstone cluster together in irregular and confused strata. The valley, not more than 300 feet from base to base of these perpendicular mountains, is deep and well grown with willow, cotton-wood, and mezquite. The Gila and San Pedro meet in a deep bottom overgrown with cotton-wood, mezquite, chamiiza, willow, and black willow. There is little or no grass; and the formation along the river is a conglomerate of sandstone, lime, and pebbles, with deep caverns. The precipices are of granite and limestone, with seams of basalt and trap; vast boulders of pure quartz at times obstruct the way. The whole of North Mexico, embracing New Mexico, Sonora, &c., as far north as the Sacramento, is the same in physical character, and differs little in climate or products. Nowhere can fertilizing showers be relied upon to any extent for the cultivation of the soil. The earth is destitute of trees, and in great part of any vegetation. A few feeble streams flow in different directions from the great mountains that traverse this region. These streams are separated by mountains, or by plains without water or vegetation, and, so far as they are useful to man, may be called deserts. Culture is therefore confined to those narrow stripes of land which are capable of irrigation, and is conducted only on the sternest principles of coercion."

The whole of the New Mexican territory probably abounds in mineral wealth, which will doubtless be rapidly developed. Gold is found frequently on the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and mines have been worked in different localities. Copper, iron, and gypsum are found, and also coal and lead. A mining company in New Mexico (1857) reports as follows:

"We are progressing well in our explorations and operations. The Aravaca rancho lately purchased for the company contains many silver mines of rich ores, besides some gold placers and copper and lead mines. We have lately discovered and occupied ten veins of silver ore near the Ceno Colorado, between Sopiri and La Aravaca, of promising richness. The principal vein, named in honour of our old friend and president 'The Heintzeleman Mine,' yields upon assay thirty marcos to the carga of 300 lb., or nearly L.20 in silver to the 100 lb. ore. The ore is abundant, and we have a force of Mexican miners employed in its extraction, but have no bellows or means of smelting and refining."

When the census of 1850 was taken, it appeared that there were 3750 farming interests in New Mexico, containing 166,201 acres of improved, and 124,370 acres of unimproved land; the farms were valued at L.350,000, and the implements at L.16,200; the average value of these interests being but L.96, or 1/4th the value of those in New Jersey, and 1/4th the value of those in Louisiana. The following were the leading agricultural products:—Horses, asses, and mules, 13,733; neat cattle, 32,977; sheep, 377,271; bushels wheat, 196,516; Indian corn, 365,411 bushels; hay, 373 tons; 15,688 bushels peas and beans; 4236 gallons molasses; 8467 lb. tobacco; 32,901 lb. wool; 2363 gallons wine. Total value of property in the territory, L.1,000,000.

The capital invested in manufactures in 1850 was L.13,000; raw material used, L.23,000; product, L.52,000. The particulars are not published. The commerce of New Mexico amounts to very little, and the annual imports for the United States were said to reach in 1846, £1,100,000. This commerce constituted what was called the Santa Fé trade, and was conducted overland from Missouri in waggons. The most of the waggons, however, continued on their way to the Mexican provinces of Sonora and Chihuahua; and the whole extent of the commerce reached several millions of dollars. Much of it is now conducted by the way of Texas and the Rio Grande. Santa Fé, the chief town, had in 1850 a population of 48,468 and San Miguel, 2008. Major Emory considered the inhabitants as the poorest in the territory, and says that the houses are built of mud or bricks, and in the Spanish style, generally of one storey, but very comfortable within. The thick walls make them warm in winter and cool in summer. The city is dependent upon the distant hills for wood. Every description of produce is dear.

In 1850 there were 73 churches in the territory, all Roman Catholic, possessing property to nearly the value of L20,000, and having accommodation for 28,160 persons. The number receiving education was 466; and 25,089 persons over twenty years of age, or 61 per cent. of persons of that age in the territory, could neither read nor write. Two newspapers were published, circulating annually 38,800 copies. Pop. (1850) exclusive of Indians—whites, 61,525; free coloured, 22; total, 61,547. The number of dwellings was 13,453. Of the total population, 58,415 were born in the territory, 772 in other parts of the United States, about 370 in Great Britain, and 215 in Germany; total foreign, 2068. The Indian population was 45,000 or 50,000.

The government of New Mexico consists of a governor appointed by the president of the United States, who is also superintendent of Indian affairs; a council of 13 members, elected every two years; and an assembly of 26 members, elected annually. The judiciary are appointed by the president.

Scattered throughout this extensive territory are many curious and extensive ruins, the relics of an advanced population of Indian or Aztec origin long since passed away. It constituted a Mexican province until conquered and purchased by the United States. In 1850 the territorial government was created; and in four years afterwards its dimensions were increased by the purchase of what is called the Wessilla Valley, embracing about 27,000 square miles. The territory has been making but small advances in population or wealth, and it will be long before it can take an important place in the affairs of the nation.