a maritime county of England, bordering on South Wales, is bounded on the N. and N.E. by Hereford, N.W. by Brecknock, E. by Gloucester, S. by the estuary of the Severn and the Bristol Channel, and W. by Glamorgan. It is 34 miles in length from E. to W., by 28 miles in greatest breadth, and contains an area of 368,359 statute acres. The coast line, which is 20 miles long, extends from the Rumney to the Wye, and includes the two harbours of Chepstow and Newport. These are respectively formed by the mouths of the rivers Wye and Usk, which here debouch into the Bristol Channel. The scenery of Monmouthshire is highly picturesque and varied, uniting the beauty of Devon with the grandeur of Wales. The language spoken is partly Welsh, partly English. The latter is the ordinary language of the districts abutting on Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, and Welsh of the rest; though, owing to the establishment of schools, there are now few persons who do not understand both languages, especially in the towns. The Welsh spoken is the Gwentian, one of three dialects prevalent in Wales.

Monmouthshire has an irregular surface, encircled by a chain of heights, some of which attain the altitude of mountains. This ridge commences near Wentwood Forest on the south-east, and extends to the neighbourhood of Newport on the south-west. The sea-shore, however, is skirted by two extensive levels, called Caldecot and Wenloog levels, protected from the sea by strong embankments, which are kept in repair by the landowners of the district. The geological structure of the county is interesting. Devonian rocks prevail east of a line drawn between Abergavenny and Newport, and is pierced by an under-stratum of Silurian near Usk, in the centre of the county; while the South Wales coal-field occupies the western half of the county, and becomes rich in iron as well as coal in the vale of Crickhowell, on its north-west border. The coal measures are skirted by a narrow strip of carboniferous limestone—useful as a flux with iron ore, as well as for building and manure. A tongue of carboniferous limestone also enters the county at Chepstow from the Dean Forest coal-field, and is bor- Monmouthshire is bounded on the south by a strip of Permian formation, which forms the Monmouthshire shore of the Severn.

The surface in the southern or maritime district of the county consists of large tracts of moorland, having a rich, loamy soil, which occasionally is highly favourable to the growth of trees. In the east the soil is of a reddish colour, which, when carefully cultivated, is very productive, and this district extends along both sides of the River Usk. The soil of the western and most mountainous parts, on the other hand, is generally thin and peaty, and covers strata of sandstone, under which the coal and iron are found.

Agriculture is comparatively backward in Monmouthshire; the farms are small, ranging from 20 to 100 acres, and are held almost universally from year to year. The farm buildings are likewise inferior, though quite equal to the capabilities of the present class of tenantry. The produce of wheat averages 20 bushels an acre; and, where skill has been applied, as many as 35 bushels have been obtained. The soil resting on the red sandstone, when kept clean and drained, is here admirably adapted for the growth of wheat; but the crop is taken too often. Many farms where barley is raised, being unweeded and undrained, produce no more than 10 to 15 bushels an acre of that cereal, but, with better cultivation, would yield twice the quantity. Nor are the green crops very luxuriant, owing to the general want of drainage—although on some estates 20 tons per acre of Belgian carrots, and 40 tons per acre of mangel-wurzel, have been produced. Efforts are being made by the landlords to stimulate improvement; and the Duke of Beaufort, the owner of a large part of the county, has shown that, by skill and management, good crops may be obtained from the worst land. One of the results of this recent interest taken in agriculture is the adoption by many farmers of the light fences in place of the old-fashioned jungles, which, however much they add to the picturesque, diminish the breadth of land and injure the crops. The county contains many dairy farms, for which cows of the Durham and Gloucester breeds are preferred. Hereford cattle are common; and the Radnor breeds improve wonderfully on the pastures here. Of sheep, the prevalent breeds are Rylands and Leicesters, and a smaller number of South Downs. The rearing of mules is carried on perhaps to a greater extent than in any other county, and Spanish asses are imported for the purpose. The animals produced are well-formed and capable of bearing great fatigue. They are employed in carrying coal on their backs in the more hilly districts.

Monmouthshire, however, is a mining rather than an agricultural county, and the chief commerce flows from its staple productions—coal and iron. There are twelve beds of the former, which vary in thickness from 3 to 9 feet. The area of the Monmouthshire coal-field is about 90,000 acres; the seams which can be profitably wrought averaging a thickness of 50 feet, and the yield being nearly 73,000 tons an acre. The principal seams lie at a considerable depth below the ground, and they are reached by digging what are called in this country "levels," which are passages driven through the sides of the hills, instead of perpendicular shafts. The quantity of coal exported from Newport in the year 1856 was 681,442 tons; and, in addition, a large quantity was carried into the interior of the country by railway, or found an outlet at the port of Cardiff, in the neighbouring county of Glamorgan. The ironstone of Monmouth occurs both in beds and in large detached masses, and yields from 18 to 55 per cent. of iron. The ore is the common clay-ironstone. The iron-works are situated in the neighbourhood of Pontypool, which is perhaps one of the first places in which iron was fabricated in this kingdom. A family named Grant were the first ironmakers at Pontypool. They were succeeded about the year 1565 by Mr Richard Hanbury, citizen and goldsmith of London, who held a third part of the immense tract of mineral property in the neighbourhood at a rental of 3s. 4d. a year, the whole of it having been let by the owner, the Earl of Abergavenny, for 9s. 4d. only. Mr Hanbury greatly increased the works; and they were extended still more by his grandson, Mr Capel Hanbury, the first great ironmaster of his age. At that time (the reign of Elizabeth) the ore was smelted with charcoal; and to prevent the destruction of timber in making it, a statute was passed prohibiting the erection of iron-works except in certain districts; of these Monmouthshire was one. Yet in 1740, nearly 150 years afterwards, when coal was first successfully employed in iron-smelting, Monmouthshire contained only two iron furnaces, making 900 tons annually; while the invention of the steam-engine in 1788 only led to the erection of a third furnace, by which the "make" was increased to 2100 tons. In 1790, however, three new furnaces were erected at Blaenavon, and others at Blandare and Ebbw Vale. Five years later the Nantyglo works were commenced, but at first did not succeed, and were suspended for a year. Under the management of the Bailey family, however, they have now come to be ranked among the greatest works of the kind in the United Kingdom. A great impulse was given to the Monmouth iron trade by the success of that of Blaenavon, and a perfect range of furnaces sprung up along the valleys that run towards Merthyr-Tydfil. In 1803, the Beaufort, Ebbw Vale, Clydach, and Varteg works were put in operation; then followed the Tredegar in 1805, the Nantyglo in 1811, the Coalbrook Dale in 1821, the Blaina in 1824, the Pentewan in 1825, the Abersychan in 1827, the Bute in 1828, the Golyos, afterwards united with Pentewan, in 1837, and the Victoria works in 1838. These are all very extensive furnaces; but there are besides many minor works, some of which have been recently opened. The South Wales system of iron-works commence at Clydach, 4 miles from Abergavenny, and extend in an unbroken line to Merthyr, a distance of 20 miles. The Monmouthshire coal and iron trade is greatly facilitated by a succession of valleys, with a gradual inclination towards Newport, whence the produce is exported.

A group of mountains in the north, neighbouring on Abergavenny, called the Blorcenge, or Grayridge, possesses great beauty of outline. The northern extremity of the chain is 1720 feet high; while its loftiest peaks, the Sugar-Loaf and Holy Mountain, are respectively 1856 and 1498 feet high.

The chief rivers of the county are the Wye, the Monnow, the Usk, the Rumney, and the Ebbw. The first is universally pronounced one of the most beautiful of the English rivers, meandering, as it does, through a rich as well as picturesque country, its banks overhung with trees, and occasionally darkened by some abrupt and lofty cliff. Rising from the sides of Plynlimmon in Montgomery, the Wye separates Brecknock from Radnor, and enters Hereford, which it traverses in a S.E. direction, till it forms the boundary between that county and Gloucester. It then takes a southerly course, dividing the counties of Monmouth and Gloucester; and after passing the towns of Monmouth and Chepstow, enters the Bristol Channel, after a course of 40 miles through the county. The river is navigable at the town of Monmouth, and is used for the export of timber and bark. The Monnow rises at Hay in Herefordshire, enters Monmouthshire near Llanga bridge, and forms the eastern boundary of the county, flowing through a beautiful valley until it joins the Wye at Monmouth. The Usk enters the county from Brecknock near Abergavenny, becomes tidal at Caerleon, and falls into the sea a little below the port of Newport. The Rumney rises in Brecknock, forms the boundary between that county and Monmouth, and after a meandering course southwards, enters the Bristol Channel 2 miles E. of The Ebbw finds its source at Ebbw Vale, on the N.E. of the county, and after a southerly course enters the estuary of the Usk. There are also some minor streams: the Sirriwy, a feeder of the Ebbw; the Avon, of the Usk; the Trothy, of the Wye; and the Hondon, of the Monnow. Of these streams, the Wye and Usk are the most abundant in salmon; while all the rivers are well stocked with trout and other fish. The fishermen here use boats called coracles, said to be of the same character as those in use among the ancient Britons. They are made of thin hoops, covered with strong canvas, thickly coated with pitch, and edged with basket-work. The seat is in the middle of the coracle, which measures about 5 feet in length, and is light enough to enable the fisher to carry it on his shoulders. Great dexterity and caution are required to avoid upsetting, for even the slightest movement in hooking a fish will be sufficient to overturn the craft.

The means of internal communication in Monmouthshire is rendered complete by the number of railways and canals which intersect it. The South Wales line, connecting London and Milford Haven, is carried along the coast of this county, and passes by Chepstow and Newport. The Newport and Abergavenny Railroad, which unites with the Hereford line, connects Monmouthshire with Shrewsbury and the north. A branch from the same also passes through Pontypool to Blaenavon, and a number of short mineral lines bring the various coal and iron stations into ready communication with the sea and the main railroads.

The population of the county has shown a steady increase for the last fifty years, and the only subject for remark is the preponderance of males over females. In 1831 there were 112,686 inhabitants; in 1841, 157,021; and in 1851, 177,130. Of the last sum 92,301 were males, and 84,829 females. The county contained in 1851 only three towns having more than 5000 inhabitants,—viz., Newport, 19,323; Tredegar, 8305; and Monmouth, 5710. Monmouthshire returns three members to Parliament,—two for the county and one for the combined boroughs. It is divided into 6 unions and 161 parishes, which afforded in the half-year ending Lady-Day 1857, poor-relief to the amount of L.19,210, or L.710 less than what was expended in the former half-year. The county is included in the Oxford circuit, and belongs to the diocese of Llandaff, with the exception of three parishes, which pertain to that of Hereford, and three to St David's. In 1851 there were 434 churches in Monmouth, of which number 159 belonged to the Established Church, 126 to the Methodists, 79 to the Baptists, 51 to the Congregationalists, 8 to the Roman Catholics, and 6 to the Mormons. Education was dispensed, at the same date, in 336 day schools, 135 of which were public, attended by 12,632 scholars, and 201 private, attended by 4548 scholars; and also in 330 Sunday schools, attended by 28,882 scholars. The number and character of the literary institutions, with their respective libraries, in 1851, are too insignificant to require notice.

The history of Monmouthshire can be carried back to the time of the Roman conquest. It formed a part of the territory belonging to a native tribe called the Silures, at the time of the second Roman invasion of Britain. Ostorius Scapula, one of the commanders of the Emperor Claudius, attempted to expel them, but the Silures, assisted by the mountainous character of the district, ultimately obliged him to retire. The general died not long afterwards of an illness caused by the fatigues of his campaign. Julius Frontinus was, however, more successful in the reign of Vespasian, and Monmouthshire became a part of Britannia Secunda,—a term applied to the conquered territory west of the Severn. After the Romans evacuated Britain A.D. 408, South Wales was divided into a number of petty states, which were either at war with each other or engaged in repelling the attacks of the Scots and Picts. Vortigern, who invited the Saxons over to Britain to expel these ruthless bands, was a king of Gwent, as Monmouthshire was anciently called. For many years after, the Angles and Welsh were at constant war, until the latter were forced to submit. In 1034 the territory of Gwent or Monmouth was invaded by Canute the Dane, and several fortresses were occupied by his forces. It remained in the possession of the English till the Norman conquest, when William, unable to spare sufficient troops to subdue the district thoroughly, incited his barons to make incursions at their own cost. The lands which they conquered became their own, and were held per baroniam, with the right of administering justice upon them. The subsequent history of the county exhibits a series of struggles between the possessors of the land and the Welsh. The natives were then little better than barbarians, and hated the English, who held their towns and castles, punished their bards as vagabonds, and excluded them from every public office. Henry II. seized and garrisoned the town and castle of Caerleon in 1174, when on his way to conquer Ireland. Henry III. defeated Llewellyn, the Welsh prince, at Grosmont Castle, and twice seized that fortress, giving it at first to Hubert de Burgh, but afterwards annexed it to the duchy of Lancaster. Henry V., when Prince of Wales, in 1405 drove Owen Glendwr, the last of the Welsh chieftains, out of Grosmont Castle, and defeated him in battle at Usk. During the Parliamentary war Monmouthshire became again a field of contest. Raglan Castle, a favourite residence of Charles I., was held for him in 1646 by Henry, Marquis of Worcester, who, although then eighty-five years of age, kept up the defence for two months, after which he capitulated to Fairfax. Chepstow Castle surrendered to the parliamentary forces two years later, being the last fortress which defied the power of Cromwell. The feudal jurisdiction, which was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1535, was succeeded by an administrative arrangement, which placed Monmouth among the English shires; and it was regularly considered an English county in the reign of Charles II., when it was included in the Oxford circuit. The last vestiges of the baronial system, however, were not got rid of until the reign of William III., when the Lord Marchers' Court, held at Ludlow, Shropshire, was suppressed by act of Parliament on the petition of the Welsh people.

Monmouthshire is rich in antiquarian remains. It contained five Roman stations—Venta Silurum, now Caerwent; Isca Silurum, now Caerleon; Gobannium, now Abergavenny; Blestum and Burrium;—the last two are doubtfully fixed at Monmouth and Usk. The remains of walls, aqueducts, subterranean buildings, mounds, and pavements, are remarkable. The county was traversed by two Roman roads,—the Via Julia, leading from the mouth of the Severn to Caerwent, Caerleon, across the Wye and Severn, to Cirencester. The former can still be traced, and is called in the Gwentian dialect Sarna-her, "the long-paved causeway." There are traces of six British and Roman encampments, and remains of no less than twenty-five Norman fortresses: these formed two lines, the first, including Skenfretth, Grosmont, Monmouth, Chepstow, and Caldecot, on the banks of the Monnow, the Wye, and the Severn; and the second, including White Castle, Usk, Langibby, Caerleon, and Newport, stretching in a diagonal line from Grosmont to the banks of the Rumney. At the time of the Reformation there were two hospitals and fifteen other religious houses in the county; but two only remain—Llanthony and Tintern abbeys—both in ruins. The former was once a distinguished priory of Cistercians, and, judging from the remains, never had been a highly-ornamented building. It was erected about 1112, but was soon afterwards abandoned by its inmates. Tintern Abbey, famous Monochoard alike for the beauty of its architecture and of the surrounding scenery, was founded in 1131, and dedicated to St. Mary. The rain, which exhibits the purest Gothic style, is roofless, but the walls are almost entire, and some of the piers are still standing.