Registers of the City, he found something of that kind had existed from a very remote period; but that it was only from the commencement of the year 1783 that they had been kept in a regular manner." The Bills extended to the suburbs as well as the city, and he stated that so early as the year 1798, more than half of the funerals were without the city. With the most laudable zeal and unwearied industry, he collected from the different registers of burials contained in fifteen folio volumes, for every one of those thirty years, the number of children under ten years of age who died in each month of that year, by each of eight different diseases, (counting fevers of all kinds as one disease only, designated by the term fever, according to the bills,) the number of the abortive and still-born, and the numbers of deaths under two years of age, between two and five, and between five and ten; and gave a separate table exhibiting these particulars for each of the thirty years; shewing also the total number of deaths during the whole of each year from each of the causes, and in each of the intervals of age above mentioned; with the whole number of deaths at all ages, and from all causes that took place in each year.

Then, dividing the whole term of thirty years into five periods of six years each, he gave a table (his 31st) shewing how many deaths took place in that period from each of the causes and in each of the intervals of age above mentioned, for every hundred in the whole numbers of deaths, including the abortive and still-born, which took place during the same period.

The following are four of the fifteen columns in that table:

| Period of six years | Smallpox | Measles | Stopping or croup | |---------------------|----------|---------|------------------| | 1783—1788 | 19·55 | 0·93 | 2·54 | | 1789—1794 | 18·22 | 1·17 | 3·33 | | 1795—1800 | 18·70 | 2·10 | 2·47 | | Gradual vaccination commenced in Glasgow in 1801. | | | | | 1801—1806 | 8·90 | 3·92 | 4·93 | | 1807—1812 | 3·90 | 10·76 | 5·18 |

Dr. Watt, in common with almost all others who have well considered the subject, was an advocate for vaccination; and if he overrated the degree in which the reduction of mortality effected by it was counteracted by the contemporaneous increase of mortality from other diseases; he has given abundant proof that it was neither from the want of an earnest desire to discover the truth, nor of persevering industry in the pursuit of it.

At the conclusion of his work he recommended scarlatina to be thenceforward carefully distinguished from other fevers in the bills, and expressed his opinion that it had been a very considerable cause of mortality among children for some years previous to the date of his publication.

Medical men in general, both in London and in Glasgow, dissent from the opinion of Dr. Watt, that the mortality from measles had materially increased since the introduction of vaccination; but it is supported by the Bills of Mortality both of London and Sweden, as well as those of Glasgow; the increase has also been observed both in Cornwall and at Plymouth, although the numbers there are small. Perhaps this increase of mortality may take place principally among the children of the poor, who, in such cases, seldom have proper medical assistance; and either from ignorance or necessity do not sufficiently protect the patients from cold whilst labouring under the disease.

The third edition of Dr. Cleland's Statistical Tables relative to the City of Glasgow, was published there (in 8vo.) in 1823, containing a good account of the population and mortality both of the city and suburbs down to that time; he there gave the bills of mortality of the city and suburbs for the year 1822, which appears to have been the first published, and continued to prepare these bills during fourteen years, 1821–1834, with great care and attention, and to publish them in the Glasgow newspapers, with the approbation of the magistracy, who cheerfully defrayed the expense.

These bills were similar to those published by Dr. Haygarth at Chester, and by Dr. Heysham at Carlisle; except that the intervals of age the numbers of deaths were given in under five years, were much less minute, and that the causes of death were not stated in Dr. Cleland's bills. That gentleman was also appointed to superintend the two enumerations of the people in the city and suburbs of Glasgow in 1821 and 1831; and having been appointed on this last occasion by the sheriff of Lanarkshire to superintend the enumeration of the county also, in a letter to the author of this article, dated February 15th 1831, he expressed his apprehensions that he should not be able to give a classification of the inhabitants of Glasgow and its suburbs according to their ages at that enumeration in the same manner as in 1821; but upon being informed, in reply, that in that case all the labour he had bestowed upon the parish registers during the ten years then elapsed would be fruitless, he answered, that notwithstanding the extra trouble, he would prepare fresh schedules, and give the number of the people of each sex in each of the same intervals of age as in 1821, which he did accordingly; and that is the only instance, except the Carlisle enumerations in January 1760 and December 1787, of its having been done in this country.

In the year 1831, Dr. Cleland published, in a folio volume, his Enumeration of the Inhabitants of Glasgow and Lanarkshire, including all the details of his labours above mentioned, and, in 1832, a second edition of nearly twice the bulk; in the first, the bill of mortality for each year of the ten, 1821–1830, is given; but in the second, only those for the first and the last of them.

The following is an extract from the folio volume, (first edition, p. 11.) "From my official situation I am enabled to state, that the books of the church-yard wardens are kept with such perfect accuracy that every reliance may be placed on the number of burials in the city and suburbs."

Since the year 1834 the Glasgow bills of mortality have been prepared by Henry Paul, Esq. convener of the Committee of Churches and Church-yards, under the superintendence of a committee of the magistrates and town council, with some material improvements upon those of Dr. Cleland. The bill for 1835 contains six tables, besides General Remarks, the principal improvements are in the third and fourth tables, which were not given by Dr. Cleland, in both of them the sexes are always distinguished; in the third, the number of still-born children, and the number of deaths in each interval of age that took place in each month of the year is given separately; and the sum of the monthly numbers shews the same thing in each case for the whole year. But the fourth table, which is still more valuable, shews the number of deaths of each sex in each interval of age, by each of the causes most easily discriminated.

Part of these two bills have been published in the Glasgow newspapers; of that for 1836, in the Scottish Gleaner. Mortality, diary of the 3d of February 1837; but only the contents of Bills of the first two of the tables above mentioned for that year had been published when this article was put to press, and the author acknowledges his obligations to Mr. Paul for the copies sent him by that gentleman of the papers already published. In these the intention of the council committee is announced, to improve as they proceed, the statements of the diseases by which the deaths were occasioned; also their intention to detail, in the future bills of mortality, the particular trades and professions of those who have died; and to give a table exhibiting the mortality among children from one month up to five years of age, with a statement of the various diseases which have proved fatal at those ages; all of which improvements are very desirable.

It is much to be regretted that only about one half of the births in Glasgow and its suburbs are registered, also that certain registers in the Barony Parish burying-grounds contain no record of the cause of death. The act passed in 1836, for registering births, deaths, and marriages, extends to England only; and the committee of the city council express their opinion that these defects cannot well be supplied without some legislative enactment.

In the bills of mortality for London, Glasgow, and too many other places, the still-born have been included among the burials, as the numbers are obtained from the burial registers; although, as was observed before, p. 525, col. 1, they never should be, for in that case they are generally included among the deaths in calculating the rate of mortality, in consequence of which, that rate comes out greater than the truth in the ratio of the whole number of the registerial burials to the number interred who had lived and breathed.

The Observations on the Mortality and Physical Management of Children, by Mr. Robertson of Manchester, were published (in 12mo.) in 1827; it is the first part only of that valuable work, namely, the observations on the mortality amongst children, which we have occasion to notice here; and we consider that no gentleman of the medical profession has treated it better, few, if any, so well. Mr. Robertson informs us that no bill of mortality is published in Manchester, and that, before the year 1812, the ages were not entered in the registers. He extracted, with great care, the numbers of deaths under ten years of age from the register of the collegiate church of Manchester, for the term of eight years, 1816-1823; and from the valuable register at the Rusholme Road cemetery there, for the term of four years, ended with April 1825. The results he has stated shortly, (p. 19,) with the proportion in each interval of age under ten, to the whole number of deaths in each register; and has given a valuable table, shewing, without distinction of sex, the number of children buried in the Rusholme Road cemetery during the four years 1821-1825, who died under one month old, between one and two, two and three, three and six, six and nine, and between nine and twelve months; also between one and two years, two and three, three and five, and between five and ten years old, with the total under ten; by each of forty-seven different diseases, and twelve other causes separately. The total number of deaths under ten having been 2056, and at all ages 3559.

We have already stated in the article Annuities, (vol. iii. p. 203,) that Mr. Finlaison's Report to the Lords of the Treasury, on the mortality among government annuitants in this country, was printed by order of the House of Commons in 1829. Government having raised money at different times by the sale of life annuities, either by way of tontines, with benefit of survivorship, or otherwise; a separate register of the nominees or annuitants on whose lives the annuities depended, was on each occasion kept; the name, and consequently the sex, also the age, satisfactorily certified, of each nominee at the time when the annuity commenced, with the day of death, and the age attained, were entered in the register. For each of these classes of nominees generally, but in some instances for two or three of the smaller ones combined, Mr. Finlaison has given a table, showing for each sex, 1. The number enrolled at each age last completed, during the observations; 2. The number alive of each age when the observations terminated; 3. The number who died at each age during the observations; and, 4. The number who passed on from that to the next greater age.

Mr. Finlaison calls each of his tables above mentioned an observation, although each records several thousands of observed facts or occurrences. Of these tables he has given twenty-one, but the recorded facts, which alone we have occasion to notice here, are contained in six only of them, the other fifteen being combinations of two or more of the six, or of selections from them.

These six are the following:

| Table | Observations on the nominees of the | |-------|----------------------------------| | I. | English Tontine, which commenced in July 1693, the last died in 1783. | | II. | Life Annuities issued at the Exchequer in 1745, 1746, 1757, 1766, 1778, and 1779. | | III. | Three Irish Tontines of 1773, 1775, and 1778. | | IV. | Great English Tontine of 1789. | | V. | Selected by the contributors. | | VI. | Drawn by lot, (Art. Annuities, p. 207). | | VII. | Life Annuities chargeable on the Sinking Fund, commenced in 1808. |

| No. of Lives | Deaths | |--------------|--------| | 1002 | 1002 | | 2552 | 2396 | | 3557 | 1993 | | 3518 | 1315 | | 4831 | 1823 | | 6892 | 1548 | | Totals | 22,352 | 10,077 |

In the article Annuities (pp. 202 and 203) we mentioned the desire of the members of the Equitable Assurance Society to ascertain the law of mortality which had obtained among them; and that the late Mr. Morgan, their then actuary, had been able to form a table which had induced him to alter his opinion on the subject; accordingly, in February 1834, the Society printed for the use of the members a folio pamphlet of "Tables showing the total number of persons assured in the Equitable Society, from its commencement in September 1762, to January 1, 1829, distinguishing their ages at the time of admission into the Society, and exhibiting the number of years during which they have continued members of it, the periods of life at which their assurances have terminated, and the ages which the surviving members had attained on the first of January 1829. To which are added, Tables of the Probabilities and Expectations of the duration of human life, deduced from these documents; a statement of disorders (as certified to the Court of Directors) of which 4095 persons assured have died, in thirty-two years, ending December 31, 1832; and a Supplement, showing the mortality of the Society for the years 1829, 1830, 1831, and 1832." With an introduction by Mr. Arthur Morgan, who succeeded his father as actuary of the Society.

By these documents it appears that, of the persons whose lives were assured in the Society during the period of 66 years from its commencement, till the end of the year 1828, The number then surviving and continuing insured, was ........................................... 6930 The number who went out of the Society during their lives, the assurances on them having been discontinued .................................................. 9324

Carry forward 16254

Brought forward 16254 The number who continued assured till death... 5144

And that the total number of lives insured was 21,398 The most valuable of these data are contained in a table, marked A, of the following form, the ages stated being those last completed:

| Age 29 | Age 30 | Age 31 | |--------|--------|--------| | | | | | | | |

The number in each column on the extreme right and left shows the age at which the lives in the horizontal line passing through it were insured; and each large column, with the age written over it, gives in its four subdivisions the information there expressed for each age of admission separately.

1. The number of lives who attained that over-written age. 2. How many of them were living of that age when the observations terminated. 3. How many went out of the Society alive, by discontinuance of insurance at that age, during the observations. 4. How many of them died insured during the same time.

And as none of the last three descriptions of lives could have entered into the next greater year of age during the observations, while all the rest of the lives of the first description must have done so; if the sum of the 2d, 3d, and 4th numbers be subtracted from the first, the remainder, being the number who entered on the next greater age, is inserted in the first division of the column for that greater age.

The numbers in each horizontal line of the table always begin with the number admitted during the observations at the age of admission standing on the same line in the marginal columns; and the number admitted is placed in the first division of the column with the same age at its head; from which it necessarily follows that the number of lives insured at any age, is always the last number in the first division of the column with that age written over it. Thus, the numbers admitted of the ages 29, 30, and 31, were 783, 762, and 785 respectively. 785, the number admitted at 31, that is, in the 32d year of age, is greater than the number admitted at any other age, which shows that to be the time of life at which assurances were most frequently effected in the Equitable Society previous to the year 1829, and may be taken as a proof that they are most generally wanted at that age, although no such inference could be safely drawn from the records of that or any other office, during a period of twenty years or more, commencing with 1829, on account of the great diversity in the rates of premium required for life assurance by different offices, and in the advantages held out by them, since about 1825 or 1830. The numbers admitted at the four ages 29-32, vary but little. The three first are given in the above specimen of the table, that for the age 32 was 780; they decrease gradually on both sides of that interval of age, so that from the commencement of the 30th to the end of the 33d year of age, appears to be the period of life in which most life assurances are applied for; probably also that in which most first marriages of men are contracted in this country.

There are in the table 70 ages of admission, beginning with 7, and ending with 88; but only ten lives were admitted after completing their 67th year. As the greatest age attained by any life assured, and that by one only, was 94 years completed, there are 88 columns with the ages from 7 to 94 written over them, each divided into four.

Thus, it appears, that in this very valuable table, which had long been wanted before it appeared, and is one of the many important benefits derived by the public from the Equitable Assurance Society; the progress of all the 21,398 lives through the different ages from seven to ninety-four, so long as they respectively remained insured, the respective ages at which they entered the society, and at which they went out of it, whether by death or discontinuance of assurance, are distinctly shewn, and the means of determining the law of mortality amongst the lives are given, even for determining it amongst those separately which were admitted at any one age, so far as their limited numbers will allow. Immediately after this, two other tables, undistinguished for reference either by number or letter, are given; the first exhibiting for each of the four divisions of every column with the age set over it, that age standing in the margin of this table on the same line, the sum of the numbers in that division set against all the ages of admission. The numbers in the first column of this table we consider to be of very little importance in comparison with those in the three other columns; they shew the number of observations of each kind obtained in each year of age, and consequently the different degrees of confidence the rates of mortality derived from them at different ages are entitled to. It shews, that between twenty and seventy-four years of age, the number of observations, or of lives passing into, and in whole or in part through each year of age, was always above 1,000; that number increased from the age of seven where it was forty, to the age of forty-three, where it attained its maximum of 7,725, and then decreased gradually to the age of ninety-four, where there was but one life left which did not reach ninety-five. But the same things were shewn, although not at one view, in table A, where the sum of the numbers in each column standing Mortality against all ages of admission were given; therefore the Bills of numbers in that first column might well have been omitted, and the number of admissions at each age substituted for them; or if the first were retained, a column for the number admitted at each age should have been added, for then that table would have exhibited at one view, and in small compass, all the data necessary for determining the law of mortality.

The other small table merely gives the same information as the first, not for each year of age separately but for the interval between seven and ten, and then for every interval of five years of age between ten and ninety-five years.

A table marked B differs much from A both in its contents and value; it is stated to show "the duration of the lives of those persons only who became members of the Equitable Society between September 1762 and January 1st 1829, and who either continued their assurances to the latter date or died during the intervening period;" all those lives the insurances on which were discontinued, having been omitted. But all of those omitted lives were, while insured in the society, subjected to the chances of mortality equally with the others which continued insured till they either survived the period in which the observations were made or became extinct. By the extract given above from table A, it appears that 783 lives were admitted at 29 years of age; but that table shews, that of these, 379 went out of the society during the observations by discontinuance of the assurances on them; the remaining 404 only are inserted in table B, as having been exposed to the chances of mortality in that year of age during the observations, and the three deaths which happened in the same year of age, are assumed to have taken place out of 404 instead of 783 persons admitted in the same year of age. The same number, 379 of those admitted at 29 years of age, also went out after the age of 30, which number being taken from 780, leaves 401; 334 of them went out after the age of 31, which, taken from 729, leaves 395; and in this manner table B has been formed from table A. The following extract from table B corresponds with that given above from table A.

| Age of admission | Age 29 | Age 30 | Age 31 | |------------------|--------|--------|--------| | | Living | Died | Living | Died | Living | Died | | 25 | 266 | 2 | 257 | 2 | 245 | 5 | | 26 | 298 | 2 | 290 | 7 | 276 | 4 | | 27 | 340 | 3 | 327 | 5 | 306 | 4 | | 28 | 386 | 2 | 376 | 4 | 365 | 4 | | 29 | 404 | 3 | 401 | 5 | 395 | 4 | | 30 | | | 435 | 2 | 433 | 4 | | 31 | | | | | 460 | 2 |

Let us now consider those lives only which were twenty-nine years of age when admitted, and since the number of deaths among them at that, and each of the greater ages was the same according to both tables, whilst the number attaining the age 29, 30, 31 was, according to table A, 783, 780, 729, B, 404, 401, 395, it is manifest that the mortality, at each age according to table B, will be greater than according to table A, in the ratio of the number attaining that age according to table A, to the number attaining the same age according to table B; that is, at these three ages nearly in the ratio of two to one. But the younger the lives are at admission the greater is the proportion of them who leave the society by discontinuance of insurance; and after the lapse of eight or ten years from the age of admission, the number of lives which leave the society in that way diminishes rapidly as the age increases, so that the two tables (A and B) approximate closer and closer as old age comes on, and differ but little after sixty.

It is also to be borne in mind that the numbers attaining the age of thirty, and dying of that age, are obtained by taking the sum of all the numbers in the first and last divisions respectively of the column in table A with 30 at its head, from seven, the least age of admission, to the age thirty, the mortality in which is the object of inquiry; and the higher in the column any number is, or the less the age of admission, the longer have the lives then thirty years of age been insured, both in table A and B. Hence it is evident that the error in excess of the mortality according to table B in any year of age (thirty for instance) will not be so great as among those lives only which were admitted at that age. And all that is shewn here, with regard to lives admitted at thirty years of age, and attaining that age, applies equally to those admitted at and attaining to any other age.

Those marked C and D are tables of mortality derived from A and B respectively; and two other tables, marked E and F, shew the expectation of life at every age from ten to ninety-seven years according to tables C and D.

After these a valuable table is given, shewing the number of deaths which took place amongst the persons insured in the society during the term of thirty-two years, 1801—1832, in each interval of ten years of age from ten to eighty and those above eighty, by each of forty-three different causes, as certified to the Court of Directors. The whole number of deaths during that term was 4,095, of which there were occasioned

- By thirty-seven different diseases...3,449 - Natural decay of age..............566 - Childbirth..........................4 - Accidents............................40 - Suicide...............................29 - Murder...............................3 - Being slain in war..................4

This table shows the comparative numbers of deaths by each disease at different ages, and from different diseases in the same interval of age; but not the rate of mortality from each disease in each interval of age; for this purpose, the annual average number of insured lives existing in the society in such interval of age during that term of thirty-two years is necessary, but unfortunately wanting. Lastly, as a supplement to Table A, a small table is given, showing for the intervals of age between 7 and 10, 90 and 97, and in each interval of 10 years between 10 and 90, the numbers living and dying in each of those intervals of age during each of the four years. Upon comparing the numbers living in the same intervals of age at the end of the year 1828 given in Table A, with those in this supplemental table, we infer that it was at the end of the year placed at the head of the column in this table that the numbers stated in that column were living in those intervals of age. But the only information given on the subject, is the word "Living" placed at the head of the column of numbers.

In the year 1832 was published a compilation in 4to, by Mr. Marshall, entitled, Mortality of the Metropolis, containing the London Bills of Mortality to the year 1830 inclu-

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Here we omit the deduction shown in the section on the Law of Mortality to be necessary for the number of lives entering the society remaining insured when the observations terminated, and leaving it by discontinuance of insurance at each age. To make and to explain it here might perplex some readers, and the false views of the subject table B is calculated to give, are here, we trust, sufficiently exposed without it. Mortality, Human.

Mortality, sive; with various statistical details taken from the enumeration and parish register abstracts of this country, with a few short notices of a similar kind relating to Spain and Portugal, Prussia, the Netherlands and Sweden, but without any distinction of ages, except for Sweden, and even for that population, only the numbers of deaths in the single year 1820, under one year of age, between one and fifteen, and those above fifteen.

Dr. Forbes's very valuable Sketch of the Medical Topography of the Hundred of Penwith, comprising the district of the Landseer in Cornwall, already quoted in this article, was published in the second and fourth volumes of the Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association," in the years 1834 and 1836. It is divided into two parts; and it is only the first chapter of the second part, which is contained in the volume of the Transactions published in 1834, that we have occasion to notice here. The progress of the population is first treated of, and the information on that subject is taken from the population abstracts at the four decennial enumerations of 1801-1831; but keeping the mining parishes separate from the agricultural. There are twenty-five small tables; in the first six, the numbers of marriages, births, and deaths, are given, and compared with those of all England, and with particular parts of it, without noticing the ages of the deceased; but in the eighteen others the number of deaths in each decade of age from birth to a hundred years, and those above a hundred are given. On these Dr. Forbes makes the following observation: "Abstracts of all the registers in the hundred were made by myself, with the utmost attention to accuracy."

The publication of bills of mortality in Paris commenced during the administration of Colbert, an epoch rendered memorable by so many useful establishments. That great minister proposed to the king to issue an order, that a bill for that city should be printed and published at the end of each month, containing in addition to what is usual elsewhere, the numbers admitted into the hospitals; there were also added short remarks on the character of the seasons, and the principal diseases which had prevailed; with the prices and weights of different kinds of bread, and some other objects of general consumption. The motive of this ordinance was thus expressed: "Estant important au public, pour la santé et pour la subsistance des habitans, d'en connoistre l'état en tout temps, et d'observer soigneusement les causes qui augment ou diminuent le peuple en chacun des quartiers de Paris, il sera fait, tous les seconds jours du mois, une feuille qui contiendra le nombre des baptêmes, des mariages et des mortuaires du mois précédent et de chacune des paroisses en particulier."

This ordinance was attended to for fifteen years, 1670-1684, but after the death of Colbert, which happened in 1683, it was neglected during twenty-four years, 1685-1708; the publication of the bills was resumed in 1709, and has been continued ever since, improvements having also been introduced into them from time to time.

This information is taken from a "Mémoire sur la Population de la ville de Paris depuis la fin du 17e siècle," in the second volume of a great and important work printed by the French Government, but not for sale, entitled, Recherches Statistiques sur la ville de Paris et le Département de la Seine; Recueil de Tableaux dressés et réunis d'après les ordres de Monseigneur le Comte de Chabrol, conseiller d'état, préfet du département.

The first volume was published in 1821, in small octavo, and contains sixty-three tables; it is stated in the introduction, that lithography was made use of by the administration in the publication of the tables in that volume, to multiply the applications, and to encourage the exercise of that new art; probably this gave occasion to its being used as above mentioned in the large Swedish tables published in 1829. Three other volumes of this work have been published in quarto, with all the tables printed by types in the usual way; the use of tables for digesting and presenting the information collected is continued throughout the work, which, as is justly observed, admits of an immense number of results being brought together, excludes superfluous dissertations, and facilitates all comparisons. Topography, population, institutions, agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and finances; are all minutely detailed in so many separate chapters; but we have only occasion in this article to attend to the population; and on that subject shall notice principally those parts of the work, where the numbers of annual births, and the numbers both of the people and of the annual deaths, with the ages of the living and those at which the deaths took place, are stated.

An enumeration of the inhabitants of Paris was made in February 1817, and in the first volume, where the results of that enumeration are given; there is also given an extract from a report made to the minister of the interior, by the Count de Chabrol, dated the 3d of July 1818, explaining the manner in which it was effected. He states, that attempts had been made on several previous occasions to ascertain the population of Paris by an effectual enumeration; but that different circumstances had contributed to render the results very inaccurate. He gives reasons for which he considers it indispensable to obtain, not only for each house, but for each separate location, a distinct list with the christian and surname of each person of whatever age, the sex, (shown by the christian name), the state of celibacy, marriage or widowhood, and the condition, profession, or occupation of each; he explains minutely the measures that were taken to carry this into effect, and the checks used to ensure a great degree of precision. To avoid including the same person twice in the enumeration, the place of residence chosen for that of inscription was the habitation during the night, which rule was always strictly adhered to; to prevent the effects of changes it was desirable to complete the work as quickly as well might be; and in one month and ten days the enumeration of 657,172 persons was made at their places of residence in the manner stated above. This is called nominative enumeration.

But a part of the population from their continual change of place, could not be enumerated so correctly. These were foreigners, or native French subjects then resident in the capital, but without any fixed habitation, travellers, the inmates of twenty-seven hospitals, civil and military, of ten prisons, of forty-three military establishments, of six hundred and ninety-two furnished hotels, of divers other establishments, and the persons with regard to whom the information obtained was insufficient; all of these persons are said to be numbered collectively, and no distinction is made either of their ages or sexes.

Of the persons enumerated nominatively, the number of each sex separately in each quinquennial interval of age from birth to thirty years completed, then in each decennial interval to a hundred, and of those above a hundred years of age was given. The whole numbers of them of all ages were these:

1 As were also those for the three last months of the year 1684; and the bills for 1676 and 1677 are wanting; so that, altogether, there were twenty-seven years from the first publication of the bills, in which their publication was either interrupted or neglected, unless the two missing bills were lost, which is probable.

2 Under which term we here include les Hospices et les Hôpitaux.

VOL. XV. Mortality, Human.

| Males | Females | Both Sexes | |-------|---------|------------| | Unmarried... | 162,843 | 175,210 | 338,053 | | Husbands... | 128,589 | 129,596 | 258,185 | | Widowers... | 13,815 | 47,119 | 60,934 | | Totals... | 305,247 | 351,925 | 657,172 |

Those enumerated collectively amounted to... | 56,794 |

and made the total population within the walls, Adding to this the population of the Hospice de Bicêtre, and of the Maison de Retraite de Mont-Rouge, which, though situated without the walls, belong to Paris... | 713,966 |

we have... | 717,212 |

the whole population of Paris on the first of March 1817. An attempt was made to class according to their ages the persons who were only enumerated collectively, the ways in which the different estimates were made, are explained, and a table (No. 7) of their results is given; but we consider them to be so uncertain, that we are not aware of any useful purpose they can be applied to, and therefore take no farther notice of them here.

It is also observed that the number of the living under five years of age, even in the nominative census, was much less than it should have been in consequence of the very great number of children which are sent to be nursed in the neighbouring villages, both by their parents and by public establishments, neither the mean number of them, nor the mean duration of their absence from Paris, could be ascertained, and any estimates that could be made on the subject were so uncertain that it would have been useless to state them.

The nominative census was also deficient in numbers after fifty years of age, on account of the number of aged poor who die in the civil hospitals. The approximations to the ages in these appear to be entitled to more confidence than in the rest of the collective census, and for those within the walls of Paris they are given in column sixth, whilst the numbers of the nominative census at the same ages are given in column seventh of table seven; and by them we find that the numbers were

| In the nominative census. | In the civil hospitals. | |--------------------------|------------------------| | At all ages... | 657,172 | | Above fifty years of age... | 134,104 |

From what has been stated above, it will be evident to those who understand the subject, or who read the next article, that this enumeration, although performed with great skill and labour, does not afford the means of determining the law of mortality in Paris, even if we had the most satisfactory accounts of the numbers of births and of the deaths that took place at all ages.

Paris being for municipal purposes divided into twelve districts called arrondissements, distinguished by so many numbers from one to twelve, and each of these into four quarters, Table III. shows for each arrondissement and for each quarter of it (giving also the names of the quarters), the numbers of houses, of families, and of persons, that were ascertained by the nominative census to be in it on the first of March 1817; also for each of the six descriptions of persons separately, mentioned above as those who were numbered collectively, how many persons were so numbered in each arrondissement and in each quarter of it. And in the last two columns of that table, the total number of persons in each arrondissement and in each quarter of it on the first of March 1817, is given; but there is no distinction of age or sex in this table.

Table IV. exhibits the number of the living ascertained by the nominative census to be then in each of the fourteen intervals of age above mentioned, with the distinction of sex and condition as to celibacy, marriage, or widowhood; the totals of which, omitting the ages, we have stated above.

Table V. shows for every 10,000 persons in each of the twelve arrondissements, how many were in each of the same intervals of age, but without distinction of sex or condition. The following tables to the tenth inclusive, relating to the numbers and proportions of the people, we do not think necessary to notice here particularly; the whole number of the tables relating to the population and extent of Paris is twelve, numbered from three to twelve, and including two as first and second supplements to table ten.

We now proceed to those parts of the work which exhibit what the French denominate the movement, but we call the progress of the population; which is shown by statements of the numbers of annual marriages, births, and deaths, during a series of years, with the ages at which the deaths happened.

The volumes these documents are contained in, and the years in which the events recorded took place, are as follow:

| No. of Vol. | Published in the year | Years reported upon | |------------|----------------------|--------------------| | I. 8vo. | 1821 | 1817 and 1818 | | II. 4to. | 1823 | 1819 — 1821 | | III. 4to. | 1826 | 1822 and 1823 | | IV. 4to. | 1829 | 1824 — 1826 |

There are able introductions and memoirs prefixed to all the volumes, which it would not be consistent with the objects of this article to notice further here; except the memoir already mentioned on the progress of the population of Paris during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries; which we now resume.

Before 1710 the numbers of foundling infants were, or at least can only now be found, recorded, for the years 1670, 1680, 1690, and 1700; but the publication of the bills of mortality having been resumed in 1709, the number of foundlings was stated in them for 1710, and every following year. The sexes were not distinguished either in the numbers of births, deaths, or foundlings, till the year 1745; after which it was always preserved; it was only from the year 1795 that the numbers of still-born children were recorded separately, and we are not informed whether they were previously included among the births or deaths, or both or neither of them. 1806 was the first year in which the illegitimate children were distinguished from the legitimate; they had previously been put together without distinction. This information is taken from the table in the second volume numbered 53, (and the notes that ac-

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1 The French word is Ménage, and to render family synonymous, we have, we believe, only to extend its meaning to the case of a single person residing and conducting all his or her domestic affairs alone; whether occupying the whole of a house or only a part of it. 2 The movement or motion of the population would be the better term if it were admissible in English, as it applies equally whether the number of the people is increasing or decreasing. Mortality, Human.

The progress of the population of Paris during each of the ten years 1817—1826, as exhibited in the four volumes above mentioned, is contained in ten tables. In the first six there is no distinction of ages.

The first shows the numbers of births, marriages, and deaths, that took place in each month of the year, without reference to place; and then those which took place in each of the twelve arrondissements of Paris, without reference to the months of the year which they happened in; the sexes being distinguished both in the births and deaths.

The second shows the same things in greater detail; the columns of the first table being subdivided in this, so as to show how many both of the births and deaths took place at home, and how many in the hospitals; also, of each of these two descriptions of births, how many of the children were legitimate and how many illegitimate.

The third is confined to natural children; and with regard to them, the same information is given as to the sexes, and the months and arrondissements in which they were born; but in addition to this, it is shown how many of them were acknowledged at their birth, and how many were not; also how many were acknowledged by celebration of marriage, and how many after birth, before a magistrate.

The fourth shows the number of still-born children of each sex, during each month, and in each arrondissement.

The fifth shows the number of marriages in each month and in each arrondissement, which were given without further particulars in the first table; but here, the number of marriages in each horizontal line of that table, is shown to consist of four different numbers of so many different kinds of marriages. Thus:

| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |-------|-------|-------|-------|-------| | | Between Bachelors and Maids. | Between Widowers and Maids. | Total as in Table I. | | | | | | | | | 6457 | 368 | 708 | 222 | 7755 | | | 732 | 60 | 83 | 26 | 901 | | | 584 | 44 | 77 | 27 | 732 | | | 7773 | 472 | 868 | 275 | 9388 | | | 8245 | 1143 | | | |

Hitherto for the sake of perspicuity, we have taken no notice of the rural arrondissements of Saint Denis and Sceaux; but we add them here, to show the way in which the numbers for them are introduced in all the first six tables, after the totals for the city of Paris are obtained; and by adding them to the totals for the city, the grand or general total is also obtained for the whole of the capital, or department of the Seine. The last four of the ten tables relate to the city of Paris only.

The sixth shows the deaths in each month and arrondissement, the same as the first; but each column in the first table is so divided in this, as to show how many of each sex died at home, also how many in the civil, how many in the military hospitals, and how many in prisons. In this and the first table of deaths, the dead bodies deposited at the Morgue within the year, are added to the sum of the deaths both in the different months of the year, and in the different arrondissements within the walls of Paris, to obtain the total number of deaths in the city.

The seventh table we consider as being the most valuable of the ten. It shows, for the city of Paris only, the numbers of deaths in the first and second quarters of the first year of age, also in the last half; consequently in the whole of that year; then in every following year of age separately, to that of ten years completed; and after that in every interval of five years of age to a hundred, and those above a hundred; always distinguishing the sexes, and showing the numbers who, in each interval of age, died unmarried, married, widowers or widows.

Were it not for the salutary practice of sending children born in Paris into the neighbouring villages to be nursed; as the numbers of births of both sexes are given, and also the numbers of deaths of both sexes separately in minute intervals of age under ten years; the law of mortality among them might be determined, even independent of enumerations of the living. But under the actual circumstances, that very desirable object cannot be attained.

The eighth shows the numbers of violent and accidental deaths, voluntary and involuntary, in each of various ways, which took place in the city of Paris in each month of the year, and in the whole year; the sexes being distinguished in each of the numbers for the whole year, but not for each month.

The ninth shows the number of suicides attempted during the year, in the department of the Seine; the number of those attempted which were effectuated, and the number of them which were prevented; with the means of destruction employed, and the presumed motives of suicide. The sexes are also distinguished, and the married from the unmarried.

The tenth shows the number of deaths from small-pox in each month of the year, and in each arrondissement in the city of Paris, without distinction of age; also the number of them that took place in each of the intervals of age employed in the seventh table, without distinction of months or arrondissements; the sexes being in all these cases distinguished. Then the number of gratuitous vaccinations during the year, in each arrondissement, is shown. The sexes of the vaccinated were distinguished for the years 1817 and 1818, but not afterwards. Each of the two tables here numbered 9 and 10, was, for the years 1817 and 1818, divided into two; so that the number showing the progress of the population in those two years, was twelve instead of ten.

In addition to these, a table numbered 37, in the first volume, is too curious and interesting to be passed unnoticed here. It was formed from extracts made by M. Benoist de Châteauneuf from the statements of deaths prepared in the mayoralties of the different arrondissements; which statements were founded on the declarations made by the physicians and surgeons who certified the deaths.

The table shows, for each of the four years, 1816—1819, the number of deaths produced in the city of Paris, by each of the following pulmonary diseases: Asthma, catarrhs, defluxions on the chest (Glucions de poitrine), and consumptions (phthisies); in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter of each year, without distinction of age; but also in each interval of ten years of age from birth to seventy years, between seventy and ninety, and between ninety and a hundred; without distinction of seasons. The total by each of these diseases in each of the four years is also Mortality, stated, with the total number of deaths in Paris from all causes during the same year; and the proportion of the mortality from each of those pulmonary diseases to the whole mortality; the sexes being distinguished throughout. No table of that kind, nor of the deaths by other diseases than the small-pox, was inserted in any of the other three volumes. Statements of the annual average progress of the population in each of the arrondissements of Paris during the five years 1817-1821 are given in the third volume, tables 42-50; and for the next following quinquennial period 1822-1826 in the fourth volume, tables 54-62. Table 102 of the second volume shows the comparative riches of the different arrondissements in the city of Paris; it was constructed from the register of personal taxes imposed in the year 1820; that table with the others above mentioned in the first three volumes, were the principal data on which M. Villermé founded his very valuable Mémoire sur la Mortalité en France dans la classe aisée et dans la classe indigente, in the first volume of the Mémoires de l'Académie Royale de Médecine, tome i. 1828.

In the introduction to the fourth volume of the Recherches Statistiques it is stated, that a fifth would terminate the work; and a short account is there given of its intended contents; but in May 1837, when this article was printed, that volume had not appeared.

Statements of the progress of population in Paris and in every department of France, are regularly published in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, also of the population of the different departments, and of their arrondissements and chief towns, but without any notice of the ages. The numbers of deaths in the city of Paris of each sex by the small-pox at the different ages, have also been inserted in the same work, for 1817 and every subsequent year; but not the numbers gratuitously vaccinated.

The ages at which the deaths happened are not given in any of the statements in the Annuaire, except those for the city of Paris.

In February 1835 was published at Troyes, the capital of the department of the Aube in France, Recueil des principaux travaux des Conseils de Salubrité du département de l'Aube, containing the same kind of information, given in the same manner, but rather more fully respecting the progress of population in Troyes, as is given in the Recherches Statistiques for the city of Paris; except that there is no mention made of still-born children, or of the deaths from small-pox, or of the numbers gratuitously vaccinated.

The statements of the deaths in all the intervals of age, are given not only for each year, but for each month of each of the ten years 1821-1830; also in one table, those in each month during the whole term.

These documents were derived from the bills of mortality by Dr. Patin, president of the council for the arrondissement of Troyes.

The population of the place at the commencement of the term was 25,076, at the end of it 23,749, of whom 10,626 were males, and 13,123 females. The ages of the people do not appear to have been distinguished at either of the two enumerations made at the commencement and at the end of the term; neither are the total numbers of the two sexes who were living at its commencement given separately. So that the law of mortality cannot be determined from the data obtained.

The three following tracts relating to the Netherlands, were all published at Brussels in 8vo:

1. In the year 1827 a Memoir on National Statistics, entitled, Développement des trente et un Tableaux publiés par la Commission de Statistique, et relatifs aux mouvements de la Population dans les Pays-bas, depuis la création du Royaume jusqu'en 1824 inclus; par Edouard Smits, Secrétaire de la Mortalité, Commission, &c., &c.

The tables shew the numbers of persons on the first of January 1815, and on the thirty-first of December 1824, residing in the towns, and in the rural communes separately, for each of the nineteen provinces in the kingdom; with the numbers of them for the whole kingdom of the Netherlands taken together. They also show what the number of the people with the same distinction of town and country residence, was on the first of January in each of those ten years; with their mean number during the first and second halves of that period, and during the whole of the same period; but in these numbers of the people there is no distinction made either of age or sex; the number at the end of 1814 is stated (p. 2) to be estimated, and that at the end of each year after it, was found by adding the excess of the births above the deaths in the same year, to the population at the end of the preceding; so that the numbers of the people there stated, are not entitled to much confidence.

The progress of the population is also shown by statements of the numbers of births, marriages, divorces, and deaths, and the differences between the numbers of births and deaths during each of the ten years for the whole of the kingdom; and for each province during the whole of the ten years, the inhabitants of towns being distinguished from those of the country, and males from females, in all that relates to the numbers of births and deaths. The proportion between the sexes in the numbers both of births and of deaths, and that of the annual births as well as of the annual deaths, and of the difference between them to the whole population, in the towns and the rural communes jointly and separately are given, for the whole term of ten years, the two periods of five years each, and for each year of the whole term.

2. In the same year (1827) Recherches sur la Population les Naissances, les Décès, les Prisons, les Dépôts de Miséricorde, &c., dans le royaume des Pays-Bas, par M. A. Quetelet, secrétaire de la commission de statistique du Brabant méridional, &c. M. Quetelet (p. 2) states the population on the 1st of January 1825, to have been estimated at 5,992,666, which falls short of 6,013,478, stated by M. Smits, by 20,812; and that this estimate was founded on two partial enumerations of the people made previously, one under the imperial government, the other about the commencement of the then (in 1827) actual government; and that from these, and the numbers of annual births, the estimate was made in the manner proposed by Laplace. He states that the data they then (in 1827) had, could only be considered as provisional and wanting rectification. There is little more in this tract that we can properly notice here, as it is chiefly on subjects not within the scope of this article; but the note A at the end, by M. Le Baron de Keverberg, contains some good observations on enumerations of the people.

3. In 1832, Recherches sur la reproduction et la mortalité de l'Homme aux différents âges, et sur la Population de la Belgique, par MM. A. Quetelet et Ed. Smits, (premier recueil officiel). An enumeration of the people in Belgium was made in November and December of the year 1829, but owing to the partial occupation of the provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg, the information obtained respecting them, especially the latter, was incomplete. The whole number of the people on the 1st of January 1830 was found to be 4,064,203, of whom 998,118 were resident in towns, and 3,066,091 in the rural communes. The people were throughout classed according to their residence in town or country, their sexes, and their state of celibacy, marriage or widowhood.

The authors state (p. 13) that in the tables of enumerations... Mortality, Human.

but although we consider this to be of much more importance than any other part of the inquiry, the information they have given on this subject is far from being satisfactory. In every other place of any considerable magnitude where this important and laborious operation has been performed; in Sweden, Spain, Carlisle, Paris, Great Britain, Glasgow, and Philadelphia, a distinct statement of the absolute number of persons found to be in each interval of age at the time of the enumeration has been published; and in some cases, as in those of Carlisle, Paris, and Glasgow, the manner of proceeding and the checks employed to ensure a considerable degree of accuracy have been explained. But in the case of Belgium, all information of this kind has been withheld, and the authors have only given us (p. 16) a table shewing the relative numbers of the people in the different intervals of age. For every million of them it shews for each sex separately, and for each of forty-seven ages from birth to one hundred years inclusive; how many were above that age, and also how many of these were in a state of celibacy, marriage, or widowhood.

Although the professed object of the authors was to treat of the mortality at the different ages of human life, they have given their readers no information whatever as to the ages at which the deaths took place; nothing in the form of bills of mortality, nor any abstracts from them; they merely state that the data from which they formed the table of mortality they have given (p. 36), were carefully collected during three years from the civil registers of the kingdom.

A very valuable memoir, the result of more than two years' labour, entitled Recherches Historiques et Statistiques sur la Population de Genève, son mouvement annuel et sa longévité, depuis le 16e siècle jusqu'à nos jours (1549-1833), by M. Edouard Mallet, was read to the Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle of that city on the 18th of November 1834. It is divided into three parts; the first contains all that is known of the population of Geneva, and the successive enumerations of its inhabitants from the sixteenth century to the present time, with some details respecting the extent of the place, its habitations, its climate, and the industry of its inhabitants. The second exhibits the progress of the population from the commencement of the registers in Geneva, in December 1549, to the restoration of the republic at the end of December 1833, a period of 164 years, especially the meritorious but hitherto unpublished labours of Drs. Cramer and Joly; the progress of the population is given year by year, viz. for the deaths from 1549, for the marriages and births from 1693; and some theoretical inferences are drawn respecting the different elements of this population, the continual increase of its longevity and decrease of its fecundity. The third part presents the detailed results of the progress of population in Geneva during the twenty years 1814-1833, from the restoration to the end of the latter year. The necessary length of this memoir prevented the whole of it being published in the second part of the seventh volume of those above mentioned; he therefore gave in that place the third part of it only, but not even that without omitting an explanation of the steps he took in making, himself, extracts from the registers, to render them available for useful purposes. This third part being the result of his own labour, and containing new facts and discussions relative to the progress of the population during that term of twenty years, 1814-1833.

The above is nearly a literal translation of the short preface to that part; although read to the society in November 1834, it was not published till the end of the year 1836; and the whole of the memoir, including what was omitted in the first publication of the third part was inserted in the Annales d'Hygiène Publique, No. 33, (being tome xvii. prem. partie.) which appeared in January 1837.

M. Mallet shews, that at a remote period the legislature of Geneva considered an exact knowledge of the population of the city a matter of importance, and he has given it at nine different periods of enumeration; the first in the year 1589, when it was 13,000, the last in 1834, when it was 27,177, of whom 12,573 were males and 14,604 females; at the same time the population of the suburbs was 9052. In these enumerations the administration took no account of the numbers of locations or of families, nor of the proportions of the people in the states of celibacy, marriage or widowhood; neither do they appear to have taken any account of the ages of the people at any of the enumerations, which is much to be regretted, as that information would have greatly enhanced the value both of the enumerations and of the extracts from the registers of births, deaths and marriages; it would have enabled us to determine the law of mortality in Geneva, which has not yet been done, although repeatedly attempted and thought to have been effected satisfactorily.

The deaths are certified by a visiting surgeon, who gives an account of them every week to the hospital where the civil registers are kept; and it is from his statements that the general mortuary registers are formed. The births, marriages and deaths that take place in the suburbs are entered in the registers with those of the city till 1791 for the marriages and births, and till 1805 for the deaths. Since 1799 for the marriages, and since 1806 for the births and deaths, those only for the population of Geneva within the walls are stated. The population of the suburbs has seldom been ascertained or stated with that of the city. In the registers of births and deaths the sexes are always distinguished; the abortive and still-born are stated separately; but before the year 1814, at which period M. Mallet took up the bills twenty years afterwards, as in too many other bills of mortality, they were also added to the number of deaths, properly so called, which took place among the living, and were therefore likely to be included among them by incautious or unskilful persons in calculating the rate of mortality.

The mortuary registers of Geneva, as M. Mallet remarks, have been the object of a great and laborious work, which the celebrated economist M. D'Ivernois has lately discovered by chance. This work, the fruit of immense researches in the old registers, for a period reaching so far back as the

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1 The author of this article happened accidentally to contribute to this. In his letter of the 20th March 1834, to Sir Francis D'Ivernois, he requested information respecting the extracts from the mortuary registers of Geneva made by the late Dr. Cramer, which M. Duvillard, in his work on small-pox and vaccination, stated were communicated to him by Dr. Butini; also respecting the labours and publications of Dr. Odier, and others there mentioned, p. 104. In answer, M. D'Ivernois was so obliging as to favour him with three letters dated respectively the 2d and 16th of April, and the 17th of May of that year, with satisfactory information as to where the publications of Dr. Odier on the subject are to be found. In the first is the following passage: "Quant aux ouvrages, ou plutôt aux manuscrits de Dr. Cramer ce n'étaient que des notes manuscrites qu'il laissait à sa mort; je lui ai fait le plaisir de faire une copie de ces notes, et de les remettre à M. Duvillard." In the second: "J'en profite aussi pour vous remercier d'une découverte bien précieuse que vous m'avez fait faire en me demandant les ouvrages du Dr. Cramer, son petit neveu le C. Cramer, vient de découvrir dans les papiers de famille un manuscrit qui est surement sans parallèle, une partie, rien moins que près de 200 tables de mortalité tenues année par année, et avec une exactitude remarquable pour Genève ville depuis l'origine de nos registres jusqu'en 1768." The third was accompanied by a printed half-sheet, in 8vo, being Proposition de M. D'Ivernois, lu au Conseil Representatif dans la séance du lundi 12 Mai 1834, in which he mentions the results of Dr. Cramer's labours as "consigné dans un manuscrit qu'un heureux hasard m'a fait découvrir depuis quelques semaines seulement." That third letter commences thus: Mortality, year 1549, and which, from 1560, when their representation of the progress of the population became regular, to the year 1760, contains no less than 115,777 deaths classified according to the ages at which they happened, was performed by Dr. Jean-Antoine Cramer. Periodical recapitulations and general tables give the results to the year 1760; Dr. Cramer continued the bills of mortality from that year till his death in 1775, and left then a continuation of them to the year 1770 inclusive. It was only from the year 1560 that the ages of the deceased were stated in the registers, and they were omitted during the twelve years 1568–1579, as were also those of 1648 individuals who died of the plague in 1615 and 1616.

Dr. Abraham Joly continued the inquiries of Dr. Cramer in the same manner during forty-one years, 1771–1811, and died himself in 1812.

Dr. Louis Odier published, in the Journal de Genève, for 9th July 1791, and in the Bibliothèque Britannique, for 1797, a General view of the Mortality at Geneva, which is nothing more than an abridged reproduction of Dr. Cramer's tables, but unfortunately left it to be inferred that they were the results of his own labours, and that was the impression produced.

But the most important work of M. Odier was a continuation of the labours of M. Cramer for the last forty years, 1761–1800, of the last century, and the first thirteen (1801–1813) of the present.

The other authors who have laboured in the same field of research, besides M. Mallet himself, are MM. De Candolle-Boissier, Serre, Dr. H. Lombard, M. Heyer.

Among many other useful and interesting tables, M. Mallet gives one which shows the progress of the population by giving the number of births, marriages, and deaths for each year, from 1549 to 1813, both inclusive, in the second part of his work; those for the next following period of twenty years in the third part.

We have here given a very imperfect account of this able memoir, which we consider highly creditable to the author's judgment and taste; almost all we have taken from it here is nearly literal translation, as we felt that we could hardly do otherwise without doing worse. Those who take interest in the subject will no doubt refer to the original, which, by being printed in the Annales de Hygiène, is easily accessible. We had gotten together the materials for a more lengthened notice of the labours of M. Odier, gathered from the Bibliothèque Britannique, but the opportune appearance of M. Mallet's memoir induces us rather to refer to it.

In M. Mallet's account of his own inquiries into the state of the population and mortality during the twenty years 1814–1833, we have the fullest information on every point, in the same manner and to the same extent for Geneva, as it has been given for Paris, in the Recherches Statistiques; but whilst these are generally confined to mere tabular statements of numbers and their proportions, with as few observations on them as can well be avoided; M. Mallet accompanies his tables with observations, reasonings, references to other authors, and the results of calculations very clearly stated, that greatly increase their value. As instances of the way in which he shows the uses of his tables, and assists his readers in drawing inferences from them, which will become much more interesting and instructive by being compared with those drawn in the same way from other tables of a similar kind; we give the two following statements: after a table showing the numbers of births of males and females separately, in each of the twenty years, and for the whole term; also distinguishing the legitimate from the illegitimate, he gives the following

**Proportion of the sexes.**

| Boys... | 5678 — 51·9725 — 100 — 108·21 — 13. | | Girls... | 5247 — 48·0275 — 92·39 — 100 — 12. |

10·925 100·0000

M. Mallet justly observes, that the proportion of boys to girls in the births at Geneva, is high in comparison with other places, and higher there in the present than in the last century, when M. Cramer estimated it to be 18:17; whilst in France since the restoration, it has been 17:16. He also states, that "M. Poisson a fait remarquer qu'il y a dans la proportion des sexes une différence notable entre les enfants légitimes et les naturels: chez ceux-ci, les naissances des filles se rapprochent plus de celles des garçons que chez ceux-la." M. le Professor Prévost a même donné une explication, si non tout-à-fait satisfaisante, du moins très-ingénieuse de ce phénomène. La plus grande proportion des mâles dans les naissances légitimes n'est nulle part plus frappante qu'à Genève. En effet, on trouve:

**Legitimate**

| Boys... | 5128 — 52·151 — 100 — 108·99 | | Girls... | 4705 — 47·849 — 91·75 — 100 |

9833 100·000

**Illegitimate**

| Boys... | 550 — 50·356 — 100 — 101·48 | | Girls... | 542 — 49·634 — 98·54 — 100 |

1092 100·000

M. Mourgue, however, had stated the numbers of births of both sexes separately, with distinction of the legitimate from the illegitimate, in the first part of his valuable memoir on the progress of population in Montpellier, published in the Mem. de la Soc. Roy. de Medicine, ann 1780 et 1781; and the whole of the memoir was read at a meeting of the French National Institute as above mentioned in 1795; but he made no remark on the difference in the proportion of the sexes between the legitimate and illegitimate births. Mr. Milne in his Treatise on Annuities, published in 1815, (article 789) has stated the proportion of the sexes at birth for several places at different times and under various circumstances; with distinction of the legitimate from the illegitimate in Sweden and Finland, and in Montpellier; he also there expressed his opinion, confirmed by subsequent observations, that the difference depends principally upon the age of the parents; the younger the parents, the nearer the proportion of the numbers of their male and female children at birth approaching to equality. What the connexion is, between the cause and effect, is a curious and interesting problem, which has not yet been solved that we are aware of.

In Wales the pressure of the population upon the means of subsistence in a way suited to the wants and habits of the people, is such as, notwithstanding their great disparity in civilization and refinement, to produce great similarity Mortality, between the inhabitants of the principality and those of Geneve intra muros, in the proportion of the annual marriages to the population, and of the sexes at birth; which M. Mallet appears not to have been aware of. Whence we infer a similar resemblance in the advanced age of marriage, and the small average number of children to a marriage (in Geneva during these 20 years 23); the very defective state of the British registers of births rendering them of no use in this inquiry, except in determining the proportion of the sexes at birth, for which they may be used, as, however defective these registers may be, there is no reason to suppose they are more so for one sex than the other.

| In Wales. | |-----------| | During the years | No. of persons to one annual marriage | No. of males born for every 100 females | | 1811 — 1820 | 141-636 | 109-500 | | 1821 — 1830 | 143-039 | 110-916 | | 1811 — 1830 | 142-334 | 110-207 |

In Geneva.

| 1814 — 1833 | 141-593 | 108-900 |

In England.

| 1811 — 1830 | 121-342 | 104-277 |

Dr. Casper's Contribution to Medical Statistics, was published at Berlin in 8vo in 1825; it is divided into three parts: the first treats of suicide and its increase in our time; the second, of the poor and of the sick poor in Paris; the third, of the mortality among children in Berlin. The last part contains a variety of tables shewing the numbers of births in different years, distinguishing the legitimate from the illegitimate, and of the deaths that took place among them under fifteen years of age. The numbers of deaths by small pox, and a few other diseases of children, (but not each of those others separately,) both before and after the introduction of vaccination, are given; but no mention is made of their ages, and we need not notice them farther here.

A second volume by the same author was published at Berlin in 8vo in 1835 with two title pages, one being the same as that of the work above mentioned, published ten years before, with the addition of "vol. ii."; the other, An Inquiry into the probable Duration of Human Life amongst different classes of the people.

The second volume contains a great many tables in the text, and seventeen at the end; most of them copied from other works, but some that appear to be original; of which, those most material to notice here, are, 1st. The number of deaths in every year of age, from birth to 104 years completed, of males and females separately, which took place in Berlin during the twelve years 1818–1829, amounting to 36,895 males, and 32,467 females, of both sexes 69,362; these are given in his table of mortality for Berlin at the end of the work, numbered II. 2d. A table given in the text, (p. 106), showing the number of deaths that took place in Hamburg during the seven years 1819–1825, without distinction of sex, in the first and second years of age separately, then those between 2 and 5 and between 5 and 10; after that in every decade of age from 10 to 90, and those above 90 years of age. But the numbers of the people in the different intervals of age not being given in Mortality, either of those cases, any tables of mortality constructed from the numbers of deaths alone, at the different ages, can be of no value.

In vol. i. part 1, of The Transactions of the Statistical Society of London, recently published, there is A statistical view of the births and deaths in the Prussian States, during the fifteen years 1820–1834, translated from the German of M. Hoffman, Director of the Statistical Bureau in Berlin, the numbers of births and deaths, with distinction of the sexes, and the mean number of the people without that distinction during that term of fifteen years are given; also the number of deaths during the same term, with distinction of the sexes, between birth and one year of age completed, between 1 and 3, 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 7 and 10, and then in each quinquennial interval of age to 90, and those above 90. But the intervals of age into which the people were distributed in the Prussian enumerations appear never to have been sufficiently minute to admit of their being available for determining the law of mortality. There is a good deal of interesting information in this paper; but the above is all we can with propriety notice here; especially as the translation must be easily accessible to most of our readers; and throughout this article it has been our object to give the most minute accounts of such interesting publications as, to many readers, may be difficult of access; that those who take interest in them may see whether it may be worth their while to procure the perusal of them; and also to assist others in perfecting similar labours which they may be engaged in.

In the first volume (which is statistical) of the work of the Baron of Sedlitz, On the power of the Prussian Monarchy under Frederic William III., there is given (p. 284) for each of the seven years 1816–1822, including the military but excluding the inhabitants of Neufchatel, the number of inhabitants of the kingdom, the number of marriages, the whole number of births, and the number of illegitimate births separately, also the number of deaths; but without distinction of age or sex. He also gives the number of inhabitants for two of these years under 14 years of age, between 14 and 60, and above 60, which, however, are included in the statistical view of M. Hoffman.

One of the best bills of mortality we have seen, is prepared by the Board of Health at Hamburg, and published under the name of a Table of Mortality, covering all the four sides of a large folio sheet; and consist in fact of five tables regularly numbered.

I. The first shows the total number of interments and the daily average number, also the total number that took place at each of fifteen different burying places, during each month of the year separately, and during the whole year; without distinction of age or sex.

II. The second shows the same during each month for the abortive and still-born separately; then the deaths properly so called, which took place amongst the living, during each of the four quarters of the first year of age, in the second year, between the ages of 2 and 5, and of 5 and 10 years, then in each decade of age to 100, and those above 100; with the total for each month and for the whole year, of each sex separately, and for both sexes without distinction. There is also a column set apart for those whose ages were not known.

III. The third table consists of two parts, both of which are abstracts from the second; the first showing for each month the number of the abortive and still-born, and also of the deaths under and above ten years of age. The second,

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1 Beiträge zur medizinischen Statistik und staatsarzneikunde. 2 Die wahrscheinliche Lebensdauer des Menschen, in den verschiedensten bürgerlichen und geselligen verhältnissen, nach ihren bedingungen und hauptsächlich untersucht vom Dr. J. L. Casper. 3 Die Staatskräfte der Preussischen Monarchie unter Friedrich Wilhelm III. 1er band. Berlin, 8vo, 1828. Mortality, besides the number of abortive and still-born, shows the number of deaths in each of the above-mentioned intervals of age. The sexes are distinguished throughout.

IV. The fourth table, besides the abortive and still-born, shows the number of deaths of each sex, and of both without distinction, that took place within the year, both under and above ten years of age, by about eighty different causes, besides those by suicide in various ways, and other violent deaths.

V. The fifth table shows the number of children born in each month of the year, and during the whole year, both alive and dead at birth, with distinction of the sexes of those born alive, but not of the others; that, however, is given for them both in the 2d and 3d tables; the number of twin and triple births are also stated in separate columns.

The only fault we see in this bill of mortality, which, in other respects, may well serve as a pattern for others, is the most improper practice of including the abortive and still-born children in the totals both of the births and the deaths; they should always be stated, but kept separate, both from those born alive, and from the deaths that took place among the living. The distinction of the legitimate from the illegitimate births with that of their sexes, would also be an improvement, if it could well be made; but we consider it to be much more curious than useful. The author is only in possession of one of these Hamburgh bills, which is for the year 1836. The totals were as follow:

| Births | Males | Females | Both sexes | |--------|-------|---------|------------| | Abortive and prematurely still-born | 85 | 56 | 141 | | Still-born at the full time | 96 | 81 | 177 | | Totals | 181 | 137 | 318 |

Born alive | 2109 | 1951 | 4060 | Deaths | 2138 | 1837 | 3975 |

No attentive reader can fail to be struck with the difference (so ill understood) in the proportion of the sexes among the three kinds of births; those born alive, the still-born, and the abortions. This bill is but for a single year, but the same kind of difference prevails generally; and can hardly be contemplated by a philosophical mind without exciting curiosity and the desire of further information as to the difference between the sexes, first, in the difficulty of fully entering upon life, and afterwards in retaining it, more strongly marked, as we approach nearer to the period of conception.

In October 1836 appeared, in the 32d number of Annales d'Hygiène (tome xvi. part 2), Considérations Statistiques sur le Royaume de Naples, addressed to the Royal Institute of France by Dr. Salvatore de Renzi, in which he shews why the population of the kingdom, and consequently the rate of mortality among the people, could not be determined previous to the year 1818. He gives four tables. The first shews for each of the sixteen years 1818–1833, the number of the people, and the numbers of births and deaths which took place among them, in each of the fifteen provinces of the kingdom separately, without distinction of the sexes, and without including Sicily, being able, he states, to assure his readers of their exactness and precision during that period being incontestible.

The number of inhabitants in 1818 was 4,990,380, and at the end of 1833 it was 5,883,273. In his second table, he gives for each of the provinces, and for the whole of the kingdom, the proportions of the annual average numbers of births and of deaths to the number of the people. The following are a few of them:

| Province | No. of inhabitants out of which one was born annually | died annually | |----------|------------------------------------------------------|--------------| | Capitanata | M. 21 | 26 | | Principato citra | m. 29 | m. 48 | | Abruzzo ultra, 1st | m. 29 | 45 | | ultra, 2nd | 28 | 43 | | citra | 24 | M. 21 | | The whole kingdom | 25 | 36 |

M. set against a number denotes that the mortality or fecundity is there a maximum, and m. that it is a minimum, not of those above mentioned only, but of all the provinces in the kingdom. The third table shews in what proportions 1000 inhabitants, and the fourth in what proportions 1000 deaths were, in each province separately, and in the whole kingdom taken together, distributed into the following intervals of age—between birth and one year completed, between 1 and 8, 8 and 19, 19 and 26, 26 and 41, and those above 41 years of age.

A bill of mortality is published annually for the city of Naples, which contains most of the information contained in other bills of that kind; but is defective in one important point, the statement of the ages at which the deaths took place, those of the inhabitants are not even mentioned, which indeed is too common elsewhere. It states the number of the people at the end of the year it reports upon, and also at the end of the preceding year. The sexes are always distinguished in the enumerations of the people, as well as in the births and deaths; the legitimate are also distinguished from the illegitimate births; the number of twin births, with the sexes, are stated, and how many of them were pairs of boys, how many of girls, also how many of the pairs were children of different sexes; as was also done by M. Mallet and M. Hoffman, in their statements for Geneva and the Prussian states respectively.

The numbers of immigrants into and emigrants from the city, are stated, distinguishing native Neapolitan subjects from those of foreign states; the number of marriages contracted is given, but without any information as to the ages or previous conditions of the contracting parties. The number of deaths at home, and those in the hospitals and other public establishments are stated separately. The proportions also are always stated: as of the births, deaths, and marriages to the population, and of the annual births to the contemporaneous annual marriages, but not minutely; they are expressed in vulgar fractions, instead of decimals, having always the same denominator, as 100 or 1000, which is a great fault. No information is given as to the ages of the people, and the deaths are only stated in the following intervals of age—between birth and 1 year completed, between 1 and 11, between 11 and 18, 18 and 26, 26 and 41, and those above 41. The only bill for the city of Naples in the author's possession is for the year 1822; it was inserted in the Giornale del Regno delle due Sicilie, of the 8th of February 1823. The population at the end of 1822 was 344,716, of whom 163,059 were males, and 181,657 females; at the end of 1821 the number of inhabitants was 341,143. The total number of births in 1822 was 14,233; of deaths, 12,195. The number of deaths in 1822 at ages above 100 years, was 17, and of the deceased 6 were males, and 11 females; the names, residences, and ages of them all are stated; they were all citizens of Naples but three, who came respectively from Procida, Salerno, and Venice, which last, Rosa Romanzo, was the oldest of all, having at-

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1 Unzeitige und frühzeitige todtsgeborene, that is, untimely and early still-born, by which we presume are meant, the abortive which had never quickened, to use a more common than well defined term, and those which died between the time of quickening and the full period of gestation. Mortality, Human.

In the same Journal, for the 23d of April 1823, a bill of mortality for the city of Palermo during the year 1822, compiled by Dr. Francesco Calcagni, is given. The number of inhabitants at the end of 1821 is stated to have been 160,051, and at the end of 1822, 161,735; but this last was derived from the first number, only by adding to it the excess of the births above the deaths during the year 1822. No useful information is given as to the ages of the deceased, and this bill is in other respects inferior to that for Naples; it differs from that, and all others we have seen, in tracing persons born out of wedlock to their graves, whatever age they may attain, and distinguishing the legitimate from the illegitimate in the numbers of deaths as well as of births. In 1822 the number of deaths of the legitimate was 4476, of whom 2294 were males, and 2182 females; that of the bastards, as they are called, was 418, of whom 151 were males, and 267 females. Of the illegitimate children born in that particular year, 256 were boys, and 307 girls. Out of the 4894 deaths, 16 of the deceased are stated to have attained ages from 97 to 105 years; but no information is given as to the distribution of those 16 persons into or among those last nine years of age.

For these two Italian bills of mortality, the author is indebted to Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was so good as to send them to him from Naples, when they were published; and he is happy to avail himself of this opportunity to acknowledge his obligations to that gentleman, for the facilities he has afforded him of procuring information from abroad on other occasions.

Of all the statements derived from bills of mortality and enumerations of the people, which we have mentioned, only those for Sweden and Finland, Dr. Heysham's for Carlisle, and Dr. Cleland's for Glasgow, have been given in the proper form, and with sufficient correctness to afford the information, which is the most important object of them all, viz., that which is necessary for determining the law of mortality.

To effect this, it is only necessary to know the mean number of the living and of the annual deaths, in sufficiently small intervals of age, throughout the extent of life, for a period of time sufficient to allow of the accidental fluctuations arising from more or less fruitful years, and other causes, compensating each other: such periods, probably, should not be less than eight or ten years; but the necessary length will depend upon the climate, the number of the people, their general modes of life, and their political circumstances.

These data being obtained, it is not difficult to determine the proportion of the annual deaths to the number of the living in each year of age. Then, assuming any number of births, as 1000 or 10,000, it is easy to show how many would die in each year of their age; and, consequently, how many would survive that year; which numbers of survivors and of annual deaths, when arranged in the order of the ages, constitute the desired table of mortality, by which all the most important questions respecting the duration of human life may be easily resolved.

For want of understanding the principles upon which the proper construction of such tables depends, most of the writers on this subject, many of them men of great merit and industry, have taken much pains to little purpose, and after excessive labour, have arrived at false conclusions. Hardly any of them appear to have been aware of the necessity of obtaining the number of the living, as well as of the annual deaths in each interval of age, or that that would greatly enhance the value of Bills of Mortality, by extending their useful applications.

Dr. Price's Essays on the proper Method of constructing Tables of Mortality, already mentioned in this article, was intended to show how such tables might be constructed from registers of the deaths only at all ages; but the hypotheses he proceeded upon can hardly obtain in any real case; and even if they did, his method would only determine the number of the living in the place, at every age; therefore, if it could be put in practice (which it never can), it would only supersede the necessity of actual enumerations; and, with the numbers so obtained, we should have to proceed as above.

That Essay of Dr. Price was an amplification of what Mr. Simpson had previously advanced on the subject, with his accustomed accuracy, and contains many just observations on the defects of the tables of mortality that had previously been published; but so far as it contributed to induce a belief that the determination of the number of the living in every interval of age, by actual enumeration, was not necessary to the construction of accurate tables, it must have done harm.

What is here stated will be found demonstrated in the third chapter of Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities.

It is desirable that a bill should be published for each year separately, to show how the rates both of mortality and fecundity, vary with the circumstances of the people in different years; and, from these yearly bills, nothing is more easy than to derive others for longer periods.

According to the form A, the births of both sexes in each year will be distinguished, and the born alive from the still-born; the number of marriages will also be given.

In this, and all other cases where those who undertake the formation of such bills are either unable or unwilling to distinguish all the particulars indicated, the reasons for the omissions should be inserted in the spaces set apart for the numbers omitted. The number of still-born children should always be stated separately, and should never be included in the number either of the births or deaths with those who had lived and breathed.

The numbers of deaths of the two sexes in each interval of age, during any year, may, as they are collected from the registers, be conveniently disposed according to the form B; the intervals between five years of age and an hundred, being each five years; and the number dying at each age above an hundred should be particularly specified.

But some persons, who would not take the trouble of forming bills of mortality in which the ages are to be so minutely distinguished, might yet be willing to furnish them with the requisite care, according to the form b, which might still be very useful; and, indeed, from twenty to sixty years of age, intervals of ten years each might do very well.

The value of Bills of Mortality would be greatly enhanced, by inserting in them the contemporaneous wages of labourers in agriculture, and of the workmen employed in the more common kinds of trade and manufacture carried on among the people they relate to; also the prices of the necessaries of life which persons of these descriptions consume the most of; together with anything uncommon in the seasons or the crops, and every material change in the circumstances of the people.

Enumerations.

The number of the people in the several intervals of age, which we have stated above to be of so much importance, may be disposed in tables exactly similar to B or b, recommended for the deaths; but it is not necessary that the duration of life should be divided into the same intervals for the living as the dead. It is always desirable that the intervals should, in both cases, be small; but yet not so small, as by the increase of labour, to occasion the numbers being determined with less exactness, or to deter many from engaging in the work. Such intervals should not, however, exceed ten years.

When the bills are given for a certain period, if there be Mortality, but one enumeration of the people, it should be made at the middle of the period; if two, at its extremities; and if more than two, it is desirable that they should be made at equal intervals of time throughout the period.

We give no forms here of Bills of Mortality and Fecundity, designed to distinguish legitimate from illegitimate children, or the mortality or fecundity of each month of the year, nor the number of women delivered annually at the different periods of life, nor the diseases the deaths were occasioned by. Neither are the forms here recommended for enumerations of the people, calculated to distinguish the numbers in the different states of childhood, celibacy, marriage, or widowhood; nor the ranks, or professions, or occupations of the people. All these things are curious, and of some use, although, if we except the diseases which the deaths of each sex at the different ages were occasioned by, they are of little value in comparison with the information the forms here given are calculated to convey. And it is of so much importance that that information should be given correctly, that we would willingly forego these minor objects, to avoid dividing and fatiguing the attention of those who undertake the more important part of the task, which is of itself sufficiently laborious.

And those who may be disposed to keep registers, and form bills and enumerations, on a scale so much extended as to include all these particulars, or most of them, and have also the requisite qualifications, will find no great difficulty in preparing the most convenient forms of tables for the purpose. Several forms of that description, with references to others, will be found in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, and in many other works referred to in this article.

A.

| During the year 18 | Males | Females | Both | |-------------------|-------|---------|------| | Born alive | 449 | 431 | 880 | | Still-born | 13 | 9 | 22 | | Whole number born | 462 | 440 | 902 |

Number of Marriages, 251.

B.

| Between the Ages of | Males | Females | Both | |---------------------|-------|---------|------| | 0-1 | 210 | 152 | 362 | | 2-5 | 180 | 149 | 329 | | 5-10 | 390 | 301 | 691 | | 10-15 | | | | | 15-20 | | | | | 20-25 | | | | | 25-30 | | | | | 30-35 | | | | | 35-40 | | | | | 40-45 | | | | | 45-50 | | | | | 50-55 | | | | | 55-60 | | | | | 60-65 | | | | | 65-70 | | | | | 70-75 | | | | | 75-80 | | | | | 80-85 | | | | | 85-90 | | | | | 90-95 | | | | | 95-above | | | | | Totals | 881 | 959 | 1840 |

The first, second, and fourth of the following tables are Mortality Bills of good examples of that kind; but for insertion of the deaths of children, we prefer the intervals of age between one and two, and between two and five, to those used in the Swedish tables, viz. between one and three, and between three and five; because the greatest mortality prevails at the earliest ages; and that from small-pox is greatest in the first year of age, while the mortality from measles is greatest in the second year. It is, therefore, desirable to have the means of comparing the rates of mortality in the first and second year of age in registers kept both before and after the prevalence of vaccination.

Information on the diseases and mortality of children is highly desirable; and as their ages at death can generally be stated correctly, if accurate registers were kept of the numbers born alive, and of the numbers of annual deaths at all ages, with the causes of them, the rate of mortality amongst children at every age might thence be determined, and even that produced by each of the principal diseases at each age. It will be seen by our account of the Parisian Recherches Statistiques, or by the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, that the numbers of deaths of children are given for Paris in much more minute intervals of age than is usual in this country; and by the Jaarboekje of M. R. Lobatto, published at the Hague, that for Amsterdam, and also by the Annuaire de l'Observatoire de Bruxelles, by M.A. Quetelet, that for that city, they are given in intervals of age still more minute than for Paris. This indeed is the case for more advanced ages, but we consider it as being there of less importance.

The expression we have adopted of the interval of age in which any lives were prolonged, or in which any deaths took place, we consider as at once the most simple and free from ambiguity; yet it has been stated to be ambiguous, an opinion which we conceive can only be held by those who do not clearly comprehend the exact import of the expression. We therefore trust we shall be excused for giving an explanation here, of what we thought could have required none.

The age of every individual being the time that has elapsed since the moment of birth, is at that moment nothing; we therefore express it by 0; and whatever portion we assume for the unit of time, whether an hour, a day, week, month, or year, the age at the expiration of that time from birth will be exactly one such portion; and all individuals of a less age than that, may be properly stated to be between the ages of 0 and 1. Except in infancy, one year is generally taken for the unit of age; a man at the moment of the 25th anniversary of his birth, is precisely 25 years of age, and until the 26th anniversary, he is between the ages of 25 and 26; or, in other words, in his 26th year; although, it being sufficient for common purposes, he is usually stated to be 25 years of age till he attains 26. At the 30th anniversary of the moment of birth, he will be precisely 30 years of age, but cannot continue of that or any other age during any assignable portion of time, however small. So that at the moment a man is enumerated amongst the living, or dies, the probability of his being precisely of any one age that can be expressed by a whole number of years, is infinitely small; and he may always with the greatest strictness and propriety be stated to be between two such ages. Thus, in the case last mentioned, of a man who has attained the 25th anniversary of his birth but not the 30th, he may be properly stated to be between the ages of 25 and 30. ### TABLE I

*Showing the number of the people in Sweden who were in each of the under mentioned intervals of age, at the end of each of the four years, 1805, 1810, 1820, and 1830.*

| Year | Males | Females | Total | Between the Ages of | Males | Females | Total | |------|-------|---------|-------|---------------------|-------|---------|-------| | **1805** | | | | | | | | | | 32,591 | 32,505 | 65,096 | 0 and 1 | 33,821 | 33,342 | 67,163 | | | 60,435 | 60,945 | 121,380 | 1 — 3 | 52,006 | 52,650 | 104,656 | | | 57,100 | 57,436 | 114,536 | 3 — 5 | 53,741 | 54,439 | 108,180 | | | 123,547 | 122,850 | 246,397 | 5 — 10 | 120,157 | 120,295 | 240,452 | | | 121,946 | 120,767 | 242,713 | 10 — 15 | 118,711 | 117,954 | 236,665 | | | 105,016 | 107,896 | 212,912 | 15 — 20 | 112,241 | 114,644 | 226,885 | | | 96,072 | 104,481 | 200,553 | 20 — 25 | 92,534 | 106,073 | 198,607 | | | 91,427 | 98,236 | 189,663 | 25 — 30 | 85,065 | 97,104 | 182,169 | | | 76,675 | 85,189 | 161,864 | 30 — 35 | 82,641 | 91,589 | 174,230 | | | 72,516 | 81,966 | 154,482 | 35 — 40 | 68,454 | 76,515 | 144,969 | | | 70,116 | 78,810 | 148,926 | 40 — 45 | 65,434 | 75,753 | 141,187 | | | 61,845 | 69,239 | 131,084 | 45 — 50 | 61,056 | 69,913 | 130,969 | | | 57,012 | 64,790 | 121,802 | 50 — 55 | 54,173 | 63,155 | 117,328 | | | 43,692 | 51,531 | 95,243 | 55 — 60 | 47,040 | 55,700 | 102,740 | | | 34,077 | 41,149 | 75,226 | 60 — 65 | 35,227 | 44,184 | 79,411 | | | 23,394 | 31,679 | 55,073 | 65 — 70 | 23,671 | 30,390 | 54,061 | | | 16,506 | 23,647 | 40,253 | 70 — 75 | 15,914 | 20,382 | 36,296 | | | 9,000 | 13,076 | 22,076 | 75 — 80 | 8,480 | 12,311 | 20,791 | | | 3,903 | 6,087 | 9,990 | 80 — 85 | 3,399 | 5,371 | 8,770 | | | 1,053 | 1,746 | 2,799 | 85 — 90 | 937 | 1,711 | 2,648 | | | 235 | 371 | 606 | 90 — 95 | 184 | 310 | 494 | | | 38 | 49 | 87 | 95 — 100 | 18 | 51 | 69 | | | 4 | 7 | above 100 | | 4 | 7 | 11 | | | 1,158,300 | 1,254,472 | 2,412,772 | Total. | 1,134,008 | 1,243,849 | 2,377,851 |

| Year | Males | Females | Total | Between the Ages of | Males | Females | Total | |------|-------|---------|-------|---------------------|-------|---------|-------| | **1810** | | | | | | | | | | 37,079 | 36,052 | 73,131 | 0 and 1 | 40,983 | 40,132 | 81,115 | | | 67,287 | 67,287 | 134,574 | 1 — 3 | 79,054 | 79,407 | 158,461 | | | 64,873 | 64,974 | 129,847 | 3 — 5 | 72,528 | 72,812 | 145,340 | | | 130,351 | 131,518 | 261,869 | 5 — 10 | 170,878 | 169,870 | 340,748 | | | 115,187 | 115,626 | 230,813 | 10 — 15 | 145,150 | 145,247 | 290,397 | | | 115,465 | 116,868 | 232,333 | 15 — 20 | 130,358 | 132,925 | 263,283 | | | 110,730 | 114,758 | 225,488 | 20 — 25 | 107,122 | 110,585 | 217,707 | | | 105,308 | 111,270 | 216,578 | 25 — 30 | 106,353 | 110,261 | 216,614 | | | 88,116 | 97,591 | 185,806 | 30 — 35 | 102,105 | 106,088 | 208,193 | | | 77,979 | 87,492 | 165,471 | 35 — 40 | 93,658 | 100,661 | 194,319 | | | 73,443 | 83,021 | 156,464 | 40 — 45 | 76,441 | 87,263 | 163,704 | | | 57,873 | 66,806 | 124,679 | 45 — 50 | 64,762 | 76,528 | 141,290 | | | 53,463 | 63,969 | 117,432 | 50 — 55 | 58,901 | 70,808 | 129,709 | | | 46,413 | 57,715 | 104,128 | 55 — 60 | 43,507 | 54,435 | 97,942 | | | 37,409 | 48,001 | 85,410 | 60 — 65 | 36,505 | 48,968 | 85,463 | | | 28,438 | 38,206 | 66,644 | 65 — 70 | 28,246 | 39,092 | 67,338 | | | 17,469 | 24,436 | 41,905 | 70 — 75 | 18,765 | 27,008 | 45,773 | | | 8,334 | 12,251 | 20,585 | 75 — 80 | 10,459 | 16,028 | 26,487 | | | 3,157 | 5,151 | 8,308 | 80 — 85 | 3,934 | 6,794 | 10,728 | | | 911 | 1,699 | 2,610 | 85 — 90 | 1,009 | 1,824 | 2,833 | | | 167 | 362 | 529 | 90 — 95 | 164 | 362 | 526 | | | 22 | 58 | 80 | 95 — 100 | 27 | 62 | 89 | | | 2 | 4 | above 100 | | 2 | 11 | 13 | | | 1,239,475 | 1,345,215 | 2,584,690 | Total. | 1,390,921 | 1,497,161 | 2,888,082 | ### TABLE II.

Shewing the annual average number of deaths that took place in each of the undermentioned intervals of age in Sweden during each of the five quinquennial periods undermentioned.

| Between the ages of | During the years 1806-1810. | During the years 1811-1815. | During the years 1816-1820. | During the years 1821-1825. | During the years 1826-1830. | |---------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------| | | Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | Total | | 0 and 1 | 8443 | 7104 | 15547 | 8345 | 6958 | 15303 | 8209 | 6754 | 14963 | 8316 | 6887 | 15203 | 9125 | 7563 | 16688 | 0 and 1 | | 1 - 3 | 3514 | 3323 | 6837 | 3256 | 3078 | 6334 | 3048 | 2735 | 5783 | 2798 | 2550 | 5348 | 3164 | 2883 | 6047 | 1 - 3 | | 3 - 5 | 1647 | 1564 | 3211 | 1164 | 1130 | 2294 | 1144 | 1096 | 2240 | 1001 | 975 | 1976 | 1279 | 1218 | 2497 | 3 - 5 | | 5 - 10 | 1949 | 1774 | 3723 | 1213 | 1168 | 2381 | 1205 | 1099 | 2304 | 981 | 954 | 1935 | 1350 | 1222 | 2572 | 5 - 10 | | 10 - 15 | 1179 | 1023 | 2202 | 740 | 687 | 1427 | 615 | 592 | 1207 | 548 | 549 | 1097 | 647 | 606 | 1253 | 10 - 15 | | 15 - 20 | 1030 | 979 | 2009 | 741 | 753 | 1494 | 673 | 675 | 1348 | 667 | 578 | 1145 | 636 | 626 | 1252 | 15 - 20 | | 20 - 25 | 1288 | 1014 | 2302 | 980 | 855 | 1835 | 905 | 851 | 1756 | 830 | 691 | 1521 | 940 | 760 | 1700 | 20 - 25 | | 25 - 30 | 1228 | 1095 | 2323 | 949 | 859 | 1808 | 886 | 852 | 1738 | 909 | 779 | 1688 | 1142 | 881 | 2023 | 25 - 30 | | 30 - 35 | 1213 | 1158 | 2371 | 1063 | 1012 | 2075 | 871 | 893 | 1764 | 953 | 831 | 1784 | 1355 | 1052 | 2407 | 30 - 35 | | 35 - 40 | 1234 | 1213 | 2447 | 1084 | 1042 | 2126 | 1025 | 1057 | 2082 | 933 | 876 | 1809 | 1418 | 1143 | 2561 | 35 - 40 | | 40 - 45 | 1386 | 1370 | 2756 | 1178 | 1085 | 2263 | 1134 | 1055 | 2189 | 1153 | 965 | 2118 | 1477 | 1176 | 2653 | 40 - 45 | | 45 - 50 | 1567 | 1390 | 2957 | 1386 | 1142 | 2528 | 1139 | 989 | 2128 | 1180 | 896 | 2076 | 1609 | 1230 | 2839 | 45 - 50 | | 50 - 55 | 1881 | 1736 | 3617 | 1597 | 1399 | 2996 | 1422 | 1294 | 2716 | 1253 | 1033 | 2286 | 1716 | 1411 | 3127 | 50 - 55 | | 55 - 60 | 1951 | 1887 | 3838 | 1684 | 1629 | 3313 | 1505 | 1498 | 3063 | 1461 | 1314 | 2775 | 1645 | 1508 | 3153 | 55 - 60 | | 60 - 65 | 2103 | 2276 | 4379 | 1931 | 2020 | 3951 | 1819 | 1920 | 3739 | 1608 | 1744 | 3412 | 1966 | 2060 | 4026 | 60 - 65 | | 65 - 70 | 1857 | 2175 | 4032 | 1811 | 2090 | 3901 | 1827 | 2120 | 3947 | 1686 | 1885 | 3571 | 2045 | 2346 | 4391 | 65 - 70 | | 70 - 75 | 1835 | 2322 | 4157 | 1604 | 2011 | 3616 | 1683 | 2067 | 3770 | 1692 | 2002 | 3694 | 2034 | 2527 | 4561 | 70 - 75 | | 75 - 80 | 1506 | 2106 | 3612 | 1218 | 1645 | 2863 | 1177 | 1548 | 2725 | 1209 | 1573 | 2782 | 1640 | 2243 | 3883 | 75 - 80 | | 80 - 85 | 924 | 1378 | 2302 | 775 | 1150 | 1925 | 713 | 1085 | 1998 | 707 | 1001 | 1708 | 957 | 1386 | 2343 | 80 - 85 | | 85 - 90 | 378 | 619 | 997 | 303 | 511 | 814 | 310 | 510 | 820 | 259 | 443 | 712 | 322 | 561 | 883 | 85 - 90 | | 90 - 95 | ... | ... | ... | 75 | 156 | 231 | 66 | 136 | 202 | 76 | 152 | 228 | 72 | 156 | 228 | 90 - 95 | | 95 - 100 | 93 | 187 | 280 | ... | 1 | 1 | 15 | 30 | 45 | 11 | 31 | 42 | 15 | 37 | 52 | 95 - 100 | | above 100 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 6 | above 100 |

Total... 38,206 37,693 75,899 33,097 32,381 65,478 31,452 30,879 62,331 30,203 28,712 58,915 35,555 34,600 71,155 ...Total.

M. Leyonmarck observes that "the mortality during the five years, 1806—1810, was greater than it is stated in this table, owing to the lists of those who died in the service during the war, not having been so accurately made out as they ought to have been."

In the table sent to the author, from which the above has been copied, the average number of each sex in each interval of age was given in years and tenth parts of a year; and that given here in each case is the nearest whole number, whether greater or less; the difference is obviously of no importance. ### TABLE III

Shewing the number of Deaths that took place in Sweden from each of the causes, and in each of the years under mentioned.

| Year | Childbirth and miscarriage | Small Pox | Measles | Scarlet Fever | Hooping Cough | Petrid Fever | |------|---------------------------|-----------|---------|---------------|--------------|-------------| | | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | | 1806 | 646 | 745 | 717 | 219 | 227 | 18 | 18 | 2274 | 2772 | 1369 | 1328 | | 1807 | 657 | 1013 | 1116 | 251 | 249 | 35 | 30 | 1194 | 1435 | 860 | 898 | | 1808 | 643 | 920 | 804 | 1275 | 1211 | 102 | 84 | 276 | 287 | 6088 | 5371 | | 1809 | 648 | 1219 | 1185 | 825 | 749 | 201 | 191 | 313 | 315 | 6792 | 5711 | | 1810 | 700 | 425 | 399 | 163 | 157 | 48 | 42 | 435 | 523 | 4535 | 4473 | | Total | 3294 | 4322 | 4311 | 2733 | 2593 | 404 | 365 | 4492 | 5332 | 18644 | 17781 | | Average | 658-8 | 864-4 | 862-2 | 546-6 | 518-6 | 80-8 | 73 | 898-4 | 1066-4 | 3729-8 | 3556-2 |

| Year | Childbirth and miscarriage | Small Pox | Measles | Scarlet Fever | Hooping Cough | Petrid Fever | |------|---------------------------|-----------|---------|---------------|--------------|-------------| | | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | | 1811 | 761 | 337 | 361 | 140 | 161 | | | 987 | 1155 | 3578 | 3626 | | 1812 | 672 | 215 | 189 | 136 | 113 | | | 1030 | 1828 | 1050 | 1051 | | 1813 | 532 | 265 | 282 | 344 | 289 | | | 953 | 1174 | 3418 | 3195 | | 1814 | 580 | 161 | 147 | 2096 | 2107 | | | 461 | 551 | 619 | 595 | | 1815 | 636 | 250 | 222 | 885 | 883 | | | 532 | 642 | 636 | 575 | | Total | 3181 | 1228 | 1201 | 3601 | 3553 | | | 4563 | 5350 | 9301 | 9042 | | Average | 636-2 | 245-6 | 240-2 | 720-2 | 710-6 | | | 912-6 | 1070 | 1860-2 | 1808-4 |

| Year | Childbirth and miscarriage | Small Pox | Measles | Scarlet Fever | Hooping Cough | Petrid Fever | |------|---------------------------|-----------|---------|---------------|--------------|-------------| | | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | | 1816 | 606 | 343 | 347 | 240 | 186 | | | 792 | 839 | 473 | 458 | | 1817 | 644 | 125 | 117 | 243 | 234 | | | 947 | 1123 | 863 | 867 | | 1818 | 649 | 138 | 167 | 229 | 241 | | | 598 | 747 | 1564 | 1509 | | 1819 | 624 | 80 | 81 | 772 | 784 | | | 810 | 991 | 2536 | 2356 | | 1820 | 647 | 71 | 72 | 1614 | 1515 | | | 709 | 823 | 469 | 468 | | Total | 3170 | 757 | 784 | 3098 | 2950 | | | 3856 | 4523 | 5905 | 5658 | | Average | 634 | 151-4 | 156-8 | 619-6 | 592 | | | 771-2 | 904-6 | 1181 | 1131-6 |

| Year | Childbirth and miscarriage | Small Pox | Measles | Scarlet Fever | Hooping Cough | Petrid Fever | |------|---------------------------|-----------|---------|---------------|--------------|-------------| | | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | | 1821 | 695 | 22 | 15 | 3426 | 3498 | 88 | 88 | 1363 | 1627 | 499 | 531 | | 1822 | 736 | 3 | 8 | 318 | 332 | 118 | 125 | 1149 | 1301 | 467 | 447 | | 1823 | 694 | 21 | 18 | 169 | 140 | 100 | 91 | 681 | 673 | 89 | 85 | | 1824 | 534 | 348 | 270 | 190 | 175 | 178 | 172 | 723 | 790 | 324 | 312 | | 1825 | 567 | 685 | 558 | 162 | 161 | 125 | 103 | 1043 | 1228 | 128 | 117 | | Total | 3226 | 1079 | 869 | 4265 | 4306 | 609 | 579 | 4959 | 5619 | 1507 | 1492 | | Average | 645-2 | 215-8 | 173-8 | 853 | 861-2 | 121-8 | 115-8 | 991-8 | 1123-8 | 301-4 | 298-4 |

| Year | Childbirth and miscarriage | Small Pox | Measles | Scarlet Fever | Hooping Cough | Petrid Fever | |------|---------------------------|-----------|---------|---------------|--------------|-------------| | | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | Males | Females | | 1826 | 601 | 357 | 268 | 209 | 187 | 191 | 165 | 1477 | 1584 | 195 | 200 | | 1827 | 569 | 294 | 306 | 245 | 201 | 187 | 202 | 1244 | 1477 | 80 | 67 | | 1828 | 673 | 133 | 124 | 2061 | 1874 | 369 | 370 | 979 | 1138 | 108 | 79 | | 1829 | 718 | 34 | 19 | 3062 | 2933 | 110 | 111 | 1031 | 1053 | 68 | 60 | | 1830 | 623 | 58 | 46 | 285 | 239 | 70 | 59 | 1015 | 1130 | 86 | 82 | | Total | 3184 | 876 | 763 | 5862 | 5434 | 927 | 907 | 5746 | 6382 | 537 | 488 | | Average | 636-8 | 175-2 | 152-6 | 1172-4 | 1086-2 | 185-4 | 181-4 | 1149-2 | 1276-4 | 107-4 | 97-6 | ### TABLE III. (CONTINUED).

| Year | Infants stifled in Bed. | Murdered. | Executed according to law. | Suicide. | Drowned. | By various other casualties. | |------|------------------------|-----------|----------------------------|----------|----------|-----------------------------| | | | Children. | Adults. | By ardent spirits. | In other ways. | Males. | Females. | | | Males. | Females. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | | 1806 | 209 | 237 | 1 | 4 | 18 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 1 | 57 | 26 | 659 | 95 | 431 | 150 | | 1807 | 173 | 182 | 1 | 3 | 15 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 18 | 1 | 69 | 21 | 691 | 128 | 479 | 145 | | 1808 | 196 | 218 | 19 | 7 | 19 | 11 | 3 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 54 | 34 | 541 | 136 | 510 | 165 | | 1809 | 169 | 172 | 4 | 3 | 18 | 8 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 48 | 16 | 495 | 102 | 515 | 162 | | 1810 | 190 | 157 | 5 | 4 | 23 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 20 | 0 | 62 | 12 | 615 | 113 | 451 | 145 | | Total | 937 | 966 | 30 | 21 | 93 | 24 | 13 | 9 | 67 | 5 | 290 | 109 | 3001 | 574 | 2386 | 767 | | Average | 187-4 | 193-2 | 6 | 4-2 | 18-6 | 4-8 | 2-6 | 1-8 | 13-4 | 1 | 58 | 21-8 | 600-2 | 114-8 | 477-2 | 153-4 | | 1811 | 192 | 189 | 4 | 3 | 26 | 4 | 10 | 4 | 19 | 0 | 70 | 29 | 756 | 153 | 444 | 116 | | 1812 | 232 | 229 | 13 | 5 | 12 | 3 | 6 | 0 | 10 | 1 | 53 | 23 | 568 | 119 | 389 | 146 | | 1813 | 186 | 158 | 5 | 3 | 11 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 58 | 21 | 631 | 146 | 441 | 140 | | 1814 | 185 | 183 | 3 | 4 | 12 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 15 | 1 | 74 | 34 | 618 | 137 | 438 | 118 | | 1815 | 166 | 188 | 5 | 4 | 20 | 3 | 6 | 3 | 13 | 4 | 60 | 15 | 636 | 124 | 406 | 113 | | Total | 961 | 947 | 30 | 19 | 81 | 17 | 34 | 12 | 60 | 6 | 315 | 122 | 3209 | 679 | 2118 | 633 | | Average | 192-2 | 189-4 | 6 | 3-8 | 16-2 | 3-4 | 6-8 | 2-4 | 12 | 1-2 | 63 | 24-4 | 641-8 | 135-8 | 423-6 | 126-6 | | 1816 | 199 | 221 | 4 | 3 | 23 | 3 | 8 | 1 | 20 | 1 | 87 | 22 | 643 | 156 | 449 | 127 | | 1817 | 203 | 167 | 7 | 5 | 17 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 13 | 0 | 96 | 27 | 670 | 167 | 421 | 129 | | 1818 | 178 | 136 | 4 | 3 | 20 | 8 | 12 | 3 | 18 | 1 | 102 | 27 | 652 | 147 | 422 | 120 | | 1819 | 152 | 143 | 8 | 2 | 25 | 16 | 5 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 95 | 16 | 819 | 144 | 402 | 149 | | 1820 | 170 | 151 | 8 | 3 | 22 | 4 | 14 | 3 | 16 | 0 | 117 | 21 | 714 | 136 | 450 | 127 | | Total | 902 | 818 | 31 | 16 | 107 | 35 | 42 | 8 | 75 | 2 | 497 | 113 | 3498 | 750 | 2144 | 652 | | Average | 180-4 | 163-6 | 6-2 | 3-2 | 21-4 | 7 | 8-4 | 1-6 | 15 | 0-4 | 99-4 | 22-6 | 699-6 | 150 | 428-8 | 130-4 | | 1821 | 203 | 178 | 8 | 9 | 29 | 8 | 4 | 1 | 42 | 3 | 114 | 35 | 802 | 144 | 609 | 226 | | 1822 | 175 | 177 | 5 | 5 | 30 | 13 | 7 | 1 | 25 | 2 | 113 | 40 | 1059 | 174 | 500 | 176 | | 1823 | 224 | 204 | 7 | 9 | 23 | 9 | 8 | 3 | 38 | 5 | 119 | 32 | 876 | 184 | 499 | 137 | | 1824 | 174 | 191 | 3 | 4 | 30 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 28 | 5 | 122 | 30 | 1000 | 205 | 514 | 205 | | 1825 | 218 | 197 | 7 | 3 | 32 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 33 | 9 | 115 | 35 | 1006 | 179 | 574 | 134 | | Total | 994 | 947 | 30 | 30 | 144 | 34 | 30 | 9 | 166 | 24 | 583 | 172 | 4743 | 886 | 2696 | 898 | | Average | 198-8 | 189-4 | 6 | 6 | 28-8 | 6-8 | 6 | 1-8 | 33-2 | 4-8 | 116-6 | 34-4 | 968-6 | 177-2 | 539-2 | 179-6 | | 1826 | 181 | 181 | 4 | 6 | 25 | 4 | 10 | 1 | 31 | 2 | 138 | 33 | 1039 | 177 | 568 | 158 | | 1827 | 162 | 168 | 10 | 3 | 23 | 3 | 12 | 4 | 21 | 2 | 115 | 29 | 741 | 151 | 506 | 160 | | 1828 | 197 | 187 | 6 | 3 | 19 | 9 | 14 | 0 | 47 | 3 | 158 | 34 | 980 | 169 | 617 | 167 | | 1829 | 250 | 251 | 10 | 6 | 29 | 5 | 11 | 2 | 50 | 12 | 154 | 27 | 797 | 136 | 635 | 154 | | 1830 | 212 | 197 | 13 | 4 | 30 | 4 | 14 | 5 | 39 | 7 | 153 | 42 | 836 | 151 | 546 | 150 | | Total | 1002 | 984 | 43 | 22 | 126 | 25 | 61 | 12 | 188 | 25 | 718 | 165 | 4393 | 784 | 2872 | 789 | | Average | 200-4 | 196-8 | 8-6 | 4-4 | 25-2 | 5 | 12-2 | 2-4 | 37-6 | 5-2 | 143-6 | 33 | 878-6 | 156-8 | 574-4 | 157-8 |

In the copy received by the writer of this article, the deaths from ardent spirits were put between the drowned and the other casualties; and the diseases were not arranged in the order in which they stand here. ### TABLE IV.

Shewing the number of Persons who died in the Kingdom of Norway in each of the undermentioned intervals of age during the term of Nine years which commenced with 1824, and ended with 1833.

| Between the ages of | Males | Females | Both sexes | |---------------------|-------|---------|------------| | 0 and 5 | 38,362| 32,500 | 70,862 | | 5 — 10 | 3,753 | 3,349 | 7,102 | | 10 — 20 | 4,377 | 3,964 | 8,341 | | 20 — 30 | 6,589 | 5,694 | 12,283 | | 30 — 40 | 6,645 | 6,602 | 13,247 | | 40 — 50 | 6,725 | 6,431 | 13,156 | | 50 — 60 | 8,378 | 7,569 | 15,947 | | 60 — 70 | 11,023| 11,753 | 22,776 | | 70 — 80 | 11,744| 14,501 | 26,245 | | 80 — 90 | 6,396 | 9,134 | 15,530 | | 90 — 100 | 1,024 | 1,761 | 2,785 | | above 100 | 52 | 102 | 154 |

at all ages, ... The numbers, in the same time and place, of children born alive, were ... 105,068 103,360 208,428

Stillborn, ... Thus it appears that the excess of the number born alive above the number of deaths, was ... 181,712 172,784 354,496

... 76,644 69,424 146,068

---

### II.—Mortality, Law of.

The Law of Human Mortality is that which determines the proportion of the number of persons who die in any assigned period of life, or interval of age, out of a given number of persons who enter upon the same interval; and, consequently, the proportion of them who survive that interval.

Tables showing how many out of a great number of children, as 10,000, or 100,000, born alive, die in each year of their age; and, consequently, how many complete each year; exhibit this law through the whole extent of life, and are called Tables of Mortality.

This section is divided into three parts. In the first, we deliver the history of this branch of knowledge, with as much brevity as appears to be consistent with the chief object, which is that of conveying correct and useful information.

In the second part, we demonstrate the whole theory by common arithmetic.

In the third part, a new table of mortality is given, constructed on the principles previously explained; some observations are made on the comparative merits of the different tables that have been published; which were purposely omitted in the historical part, when the tables they relate to were mentioned, to avoid discouraging such readers as might not be previously acquainted with the theory; and the faults are explained, which render most of those tables really of no use, since others, more correct, have been constructed.

#### Part I.—History.

The first table of mortality was constructed by Dr. Halley, from the Mortuary Registers of Breslau, for five years ending with 1691; and was inserted in his paper on the subject in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1693, with many judicious observations on the useful purposes to which such tables may be applied.

No further information of this kind was communicated to the public, until William Kersseboom of the Hague published there three tracts on the subject (in 4to.) The first, dated March 1, 1738, was entitled, Eerste Verhandeling tot een Proeoe om te weten de probable menigte des volks in de provintie van Hollandt en Westerijslandt. The second, dated May 15, 1742, Tweede Verhandeling bevestigende de Proeoe om te weten de probable menigte des volks in de provintie van Hollandt en Westerijslandt; and the third, dated August 31, 1742, Derde Verhandeling over de probable menigte des volks in de provintie van Hollandt en Westerijslandt.

A good account of the first of these tracts has been given by Mr. Esme, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1738; and rather a meagre one of the other two, by Mr. Van Rixtel, in the same Transactions for 1743. It is therefore unnecessary to repeat here, any thing contained in those accounts; but as they give no satisfactory information concerning the construction of Mr. Kersseboom's table of mortality (which he called a Table of Vitality), it will be proper to supply so material a defect in this place.

In his first tract, the author informs us that he constructed his table from registers of many thousand life-annuitants, in Holland and West Friesland, which had been kept there from 125 to 130 years previous to the date of his publication; and showed how many of the nominees, or lives the annuities depended upon, were, at the time of their nomination, under one year old, between one and two, between two and three, and so on for all ages. An exact account was also kept of the age at which each life of every class failed; whence it clearly appeared, what degree of mortality prevailed at every age above one year. But because very few children were nominated at or near their birth, he could not, from these registers, determine the mortality under one year of age. He therefore had recourse to mortuary registers and other observations; from exact accounts of which he found, with sufficient certainty, as he says, that out of 28,000 born alive, 5500 died under one year. He also informs us, that, for this purpose, he made use of the observations of divers learned men in England and elsewhere, especially Major John Graunt's, upon the number of the people and the rate of mortality; and upon taking an average of the whole, he found it to differ but little from that just stated.

And this appears to be the only ground for the assertion made by most writers on this subject (probably copying from each other without having seen the original work), that Kersseboom's Table of Mortality was constructed from observations made upon annuitants in England as well as in Holland; also, that it was formed partly from observations made upon the inhabitants of some Dutch villages.

He first published his Table of Mortality in his second Tract, and in his third, he gave abstracts of the registers from which it was constructed. These were contained in twenty-nine tables, twenty-two of which were for the two sexes separately; in the rest the sexes were not distinguished; and the ages at which the lives failed were generally given to the exactness of half a year.

The numbers of lives, whose current year of age at the time of their nomination was given precisely in these tables, were,

| Males separately | 1843 | | Females separately | 1769 | | Males and Females, without distinction of sex | 1536 |

Total | 5148

And none of these nominees were above twelve years of age at the time of their nomination.

These, however, are only specimens of M. Kersseboom's labours. He says there were so many lives in the registers, that he had not the courage to undertake extracting the necessary particulars for more than 50,000 of them; and in that, he was greatly assisted by his friend Thomas von Schaak. Of all the lives, not more than 1 of 120 was past 55 years of age at the time of nomination.

Nicholas Struyck, in his Aanhangsel op de Gissengen over den staat van het Menschelyk Geslagt, en de Uitrekening der Leefrenten, published at Amsterdam in 1740, at the end of the quarto volume, commencing with his Inleiding tot de Algemene Geographie, gave, from registers kept at Amsterdam for about thirty-five years, two tables of observations made upon the duration of the lives of 794 males, and 876 female annuitants separately; and two tables of mortality he had constructed from them for the two sexes; both beginning with five years of age. These two, taken together, differ but little from that of Dr. Halley; they represent the mortality to be considerably greater than Kersseboom's: having been constructed from so few observations, they are not entitled to much confidence, and appear to have been very little known or attended to.

This work of Struyck gave occasion to the publication, in the same year, of a small tract in quarto, by Kersseboom, entitled, Eenige Anmerkingen op de Gissengen over den staat van het Menschelyk Geslagt, &c. wherein he accused Struyck of plagiarism, with but too much appearance of justice.

Neither Kersseboom nor Struyck gave any information as to the manner in which they formed their tables of mortality from the observations on which they were grounded. Mortality, M. Kersseboom informs us, that he submitted his table to Professor S'Gravesande, some years previous to its publication, and obtained his approbation of it for calculating the values of annuities on lives.

In the year 1742, Mr. Thomas Simpson, in his Doctrine of Annuities, (see the article Annuities) gave a table of mortality for London, being the same that had previously been constructed by Mr. Smart, at twenty-five and all the greater ages, but corrected at all ages under twenty-five years, on account of the greater number of strangers who settle in London under that age, which occasioned, till the commencement of the present century, a constant excess of the burials above the births. This correction Mr. Simpson made by comparing together the numbers of christenings and burials; and observing, by means of Dr. Halley's table, the proportion between the mortality in London and Breslaw above twenty-five years of age.

In 1746, M. Deparcieux published (at Paris in 4to,) his Essai sur les Probabilités de la durée de la Vie Humaine, in which he gave six new and valuable tables of mortality; one of them constructed from the lists of the nominees in the French Tontines, principally those of the years 1689 and 1696, and the rest from the mortuary registers of different religious houses; four of these showing the mortality that prevailed amongst the monks of different orders, and the fifth, that which obtained amongst the nuns in different convents of Paris. Those for the monks and nuns, with the exception of the tables of Struyck, mentioned above, were the first ever constructed for the two sexes separately.

The Essay of M. Deparcieux is written popularly, and with great perspicuity; he has given the most satisfactory accounts both of the data his tables were constructed from, and the manner of their construction.

In his thirteenth table, he included with the five tables of mortality of his own construction; that of Mr. Smart for London, as corrected by Mr. Simpson, Dr. Halley's, and M. Kersseboom's, together with the expectation of life at, or its average duration after each age, both according to his own and M. Kersseboom's table for annuitants, and for every fifth year of age according to each of the other tables; the fractional parts of a year being always expressed in months, and not in decimals.

Dr. Halley first, and Struyck after him, had given the probable duration of life after several ages, according to their respective tables, that is, the term at the expiration of which, the persons now living at any proposed age, will be reduced by death to one-half their present number.

But Deparcieux appears to have first given the average duration of life after any age, and showed how to calculate it correctly from tables of mortality. On account of the scarcity and value of M. Deparcieux's Tables of Mortality, Mr. Milne has reprinted them, with the expectations of life just mentioned, in his Treatise on Annuities, with a short account of their construction; it is therefore unnecessary to pursue the subject further here.

In 1760 M. Deparcieux published (at Paris in 4to) his Addition à l'Essai sur les Probabilités de la durée de la Vie Humaine, with five tables; three of them relating to life annuities deferred on a peculiar plan, we consider to be of no interest or value at this time: the two others are tables of mortality constructed from statements of the numbers of deaths that took place at different ages, without knowing the numbers of the living at the same periods of life. He obtained the data for the first of them from a clergyman on the frontiers of Normandy and Perche, whose accuracy in all he undertook, he could rely upon; and who gave him the names of the parishes from the registers of which he had extracted the information; but strictly enjoined him not to disclose his name in the event of his making use of The other table of mortality M. Deparcieux constructed from statements sent to him by M. Wargentin of the numbers of deaths of males and females separately, which took place in the different intervals of age in Sweden and Finland, during the three years 1754, 1755 and 1756. Those two tables have the same faults as others constructed from similarly defective data; and we consider them to be of no value.

M. Deparcieux states, (p. 28) that in 1744, he suggested to M. Aubert, the commissary who at that time prepared the Bills of Mortality for Paris, the expediency of distinguishing the sexes in the columns of births and deaths, which had not been done previously, but was in consequence of this commenced with the year 1745, and has been continued ever since, as we have already observed in our account of the Parisian Recherches Statistiques.

M. de Buffon, at the end of the second volume of his Histoire Naturelle, published in 1749, inserted a table of mortality that had been constructed by M. Dupré de Saint Maur, from the registers of twelve country parishes in France, and three parishes of Paris; which M. de Buffon informs his readers that he inserted in his work the more willingly, since these were the only kind of documents, or combinations of them, from which the probabilities of life among mankind in general, could be determined with any certainty. Yet this was a very faulty table, and the numbers of annual deaths were so injudiciously distributed, according to the ages, that it often represented the mortality in one year of age to be three or four times as great, and in some cases, six times as great, as in the next year. Some remarks of M. Kersseboom on this table may be seen in the Philosophical Transactions for 1753. M. de Saint Cyran corrected some of its most obvious errors, and inserted both the original and his corrected copy in his Calcul des Rentes Viagères. (Paris, 1779, in 4to.)

Mr. Simpson, in the Supplement to his Doctrine of Annuities, published in 1752, gave some further explanations of the corrections he had made in Mr. Smart's table of mortality for London; and made some very judicious observations on the difficulties that attend the construction of tables of mortality from the mortuary registers only, of large towns.

In the Nouveaux Mem. de l'Acad. Roy. de Berlin for the year 1760, there is a paper by the celebrated Euler, entitled Recherches générales sur la Mortalité, et la Multiplication du Genre Humain, wherein the subject is treated algebraically. He assumes that the population is not affected by migration, and that the annual births and deaths are always as the contemporaneous population; consequently, that the number of the people increases or decreases in geometrical progression. Then he gives several theorems exhibiting the relations that would obtain between the annual births and deaths and the population, and determines the law of mortality upon these hypotheses, but does not show how it may be deduced from actual observations independent of hypotheses; neither does he undertake the construction of any table of mortality, but, by way of example, gives that of M. Kersseboom, with the changes of the numbers which become necessary, in consequence of his altering the radix from 1400 annual births to 1000.

Süssmilch took great pains in collecting the numbers of annual deaths in the different intervals of age, which he published in his Göttliche Ordnung; and four tables of mortality formed from these data are to be found in the same work; that in the second volume (§ 461), which has many imperfections, was formed by himself; the three others, being the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd, at the end of the third volume, were constructed by his commentator Baumann, according to the more correct method of Lambert.

The first edition of Dr. Price's Observations on Rever- Mortality, Human

Mortality, as he could not determine the equation to the curve of mortality, that resource did not avail him much.

Flourencourt treated this subject algebraically in the third chapter of his Political Arithmetic, where he gave a perspicuous view of it, as it had been previously treated by Euler and Lambert; but added nothing himself that was original, except three new tables of mortality; one for males, another for females, and a third for both sexes without distinction; deriving his data in each case from the Göttliche Ordnung of Seissmich. He also gave a new copy of the table of mortality M. Deparcieux had constructed from the registers of the nominees in the French tonitres; assuming 10,000 for the radix, and inserting the numbers under three years of age, nearly according to M. Kersboom's table; this, however, does not differ materially from the original table of Deparcieux.

The fourth edition of Dr. Price's Observations on Reversionary Payments was published in the year 1783, and contained new tables of mortality for Warrington and Chester, also for all Sweden and Finland, and for Stockholm separately, in which the sexes were distinguished. Those for the whole kingdom were constructed from enumerations of the living, and registers of the annual deaths, in each interval of age, during twenty-one years; those for Stockholm during nine years. The tables for Sweden and Stockholm were the first ever constructed from the data that are requisite to determine the law of mortality among the bulk of the people, and were sufficiently accurate representations of that law, for the times and places in which the observations were made.

In a paper of M. Heinrich Nicander, inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, for the first quarter of the year 1801, he gave two tables of mortality for all Sweden and Finland, in which the sexes were distinguished, but they were not properly constructed; and the mean duration of life which he gave in them at each age, was very erroneous, especially in early life. In that paper he asserted, without offering any demonstration or proof, that, in what we have called the curve of mortality above, if an ordinate be drawn through the centre of gravity of the portion of the area cut off by the ordinate at any assigned age, on the side of the more advanced ages, the part of the base, or of the axe of the abscisses, intercepted between these two ordinates, will measure the mean duration of life after such assigned age. And the mean duration of life after each age, which he has given, was determined in this manner.

Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities and Assurances was published in the year 1815; and, in the third chapter of that work, the construction and properties of tables of mortality are fully treated of.

In the second volume of the same work, three new tables of mortality are given; one constructed from very accurate observations made at Carlisle, by Dr. Heysham, who preserved the bills of mortality of the two parishes, which include that city and its environs, and supplied their deficiencies with great care, together with correct accounts of two enumerations of the inhabitants, in which their ages were taken; and a table showing the diseases by which the deaths at all ages were occasioned, is also given.

The fourth and fifth tables in Mr. Milne's work, exhibit the law of mortality which prevailed in all Sweden and Finland, both with and without distinction of the sexes, deduced from the registers kept and the enumerations made there, during the twenty years ended with 1795; which term was subsequent to that wherein the observations were made, from which Dr. Price's tables were constructed.

The seventh table in the same work exhibits the law of mortality at Montpellier for males and females separately, and was constructed from the bills of mortality of that place for twenty-one years, ending with 1792.

The second table at the end of this article, was published in the first edition of it in 1822; the tables of mortality for the lives insured in the Equitable Office, which were constructed by Mr. Babbage and Mr. Davies, were published in 1826; and we have given some account of them as well as of those formed by Mr. Finlaison, from observations on Government Annuities in this country, and published in 1829, in the article Annuities in this work.

MM. Quetelet and Edouard Smits, in their Recherches sur la Reproduction et la Mortalité de l'Homme, in 1832, gave a table of mortality for the towns and the rural districts in Belgium separately, distinguishing males from females, and also for the whole population, without distinguishing the sexes, or the inhabitants of towns from those of the country.

Mr. Morgan, in the above mentioned publication of the Equitable Assurance Society, in 1834, gave a table of mortality for the lives insured in it, (marked C, p. 28), derived from table A of that work; another (D) derived from table B, is not worth a place there.

The second of the tables at the end of Dr. Casper's work on the Probabilities of Human Life, published in 1835, was intended to exhibit the law of mortality in Berlin, with distinction of the sexes; it was constructed from 69,362 deaths at different ages; 36,895 of males, and 32,467 of females, which took place there during the twelve years 1818-1829.

And M. Mallet at the end of his valuable Mémoire, published in 1836, has given one for Geneva, in which the sexes are distinguished; it contains both the mean and the probable duration of life after every age, and was formed from the bills of mortality there for the eighteen years 1814-1833. For males, females, and the two sexes without distinction, M. Mallet took so high a radix as 100,000 births; the number of deaths were, of males 5219, females 5588, of both sexes 10,907; and in the column of deaths, on the same line for any age, as the survivors of that age, the author has put the number of deaths in the registers in the next following year, instead of the decrement of life, or excess of the number attaining that above the number attaining the next greater age, which will probably puzzle many readers.

Part II.—On the Construction and Properties of Tables of Mortality.

1. Suppose 10,000 children to have been all born alive at the same instant of time, more than 100 years since; and that the numbers of them who completed and who died in each year of age, were correctly entered in the following table:

| Age | Number who completed that year | Number who died in their next year | |-----|--------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 0 | 10,000 | 1,888 | | 1 | 8,112 | 453 | | 2 | 7,659 | 256 | | 3 | 7,403 | 177 | | 4 | 7,226 | 130 | | 5 | 7,096 | 112 | | | | | | 90 | 49 | 15 | | 91 | 34 | 11 | | 92 | 23 | 9 | | 93 | 14 | 5 | | 94 | 9 | 4 | | 95 | 5 | 2 | | 96 | 3 | 1 | | 97 | 2 | 1 | | 98 | 1 | 1 |

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1 Abbreviatio aus der Jusstischen und Politischen Rechtsdienst, von Carl Chassot de Flourencourt. Altenburg, 1781, etc. Mortality which, then, would evidently be a table of mortality; and this mode of constructing one, were it practicable, would be the simplest possible.

2. But of 10,000 children taken indiscriminately at birth, it is manifest that the number who complete or survive any year of age, will be just the same, whether they be all born at the same time or not; and, therefore, this table might as well have been constructed by noting the times of the births of 10,000 children taken indiscriminately, and registering the time or the age at which each died; for then, after the whole were extinct, it would only be necessary to collect the sum of those who died in each year of their age, and insert it in the third column of the above table (1) against the proper age. The numbers in the second column would then be obtained by beginning with the 10,000 births, and merely subtracting the number in the third from the number in the second column, and placing the remainder in the next line below, in that second column, throughout the table.

3. It is evident that the number against any age in the second column of such a table, is equal to the sum of those in the third column against that, and all the greater ages; that is to say, that the number who complete any year of age is equal to the sum of those who die at all the greater ages.

4. Now let us suppose the population of a place to have remained invariable for one or two hundred years past, during which period 10,000 children have been born alive, at 10,000 equal intervals of time in each year. Also that, there having been no migration, and the law of mortality having been always the same, both the number of the living and that of the annual deaths in each year of age, have remained constant, the whole amount of the annual deaths at all ages, as well as the number of annual births, having been 10,000.

5. Then, if the law of mortality exhibited in the above table (1) be that which obtains in the place just mentioned, that table will represent the stream of life which flows through it, and fills the vacancies left by those who advance in age, or are carried off by death, their successors incessantly following and being followed in the same course.

6. Thus: 10,000 children being born annually at so many equal intervals of time, 7096 will annually complete their fifth year, also at equal intervals; and of these, 112 will die annually in the sixth year of their age.

7. And it is manifest that the number who annually complete any year of their age in such a place, is equal to the sum of the annual deaths at all the greater ages.

8. Let us next suppose, that the constant number of deaths which happen annually in any one year of age, take place at equal intervals of age in that year. For instance, that the four deaths which happen annually, in the ninety-fifth year of age, always takes place at the ages of

| Years | Months | |-------|--------| | 94 | 3 | | 94 | 6 | | 94 | 9 |

and 95 years; or rather, that the last individual dies at the moment before completing the 95th year.

9. Then the number constantly living in any year of age may be determined as follows:

Let us take, for example, the ninety-fourth year, which 14 persons annually enter upon, and 5 die in. Now, if no deaths happened in that year, it is obvious that the 14 persons who annually enter upon it at so many equal intervals (4 and 6), would be all constantly living at 14 equal intervals of age in that year; and if that year of age were divided into five equal intervals, there would be constantly living in each interval \( \frac{14}{5} \) persons; or, in a place similarly circumstanced, but five times more populous, 14 persons.

But when five deaths take place at so many equal intervals in the ninety-fourth year of age, (the fifth part of a year being 73 days,) the case is altered. Thus,

| Lives | Complete the age of | Number of the living during these last 73 days | |-------|---------------------|---------------------------------------------| | 14 | 93 | 73 | | 13 | 93 | 146 | | 12 | 93 | 219 | | 11 | 93 | 292 | | 10 | 94 | ... |

Or rather, the oldest life that fails in the 94th year, must be considered to expire the moment before completing that year, as only 9 survive 94.

But the numerators of these fractions being in arithmetical progression, their sum is equal to half the sum of the first and last terms multiplied by the number of terms; or \( \frac{14+10}{2} \times 5 \); which sum being divided by the common denominator, 5, we have the number of the living in the 94th year of age \( = \frac{14+10}{2} \); an arithmetical mean proportional between the numbers who enter upon the first and last of the intervals which that year of age was divided into.

10. Now, the number, 9, who survive their 94th year, is less only by unit than the number 10, who enter upon the last of the intervals that year was divided into; so that if, instead of \( \frac{14+10}{2} \), we take \( \frac{14+9}{2} \), or an arithmetical mean proportional between the numbers who annually enter upon, and annually survive their 94th year, for the number constantly living in that year, it will only be less by half a life than what has just been demonstrated to be the true number, according to the hypotheses; and the difference would still have been but half a life, although the radix of the table had been 10,000,000 instead of 10,000; the number of the living would, in that case, according to these two methods, have been 1200 and 1199½. And the number of the living in any one year of age, even according to the above table, is generally several thousands, so that this difference, which remains always the same, is quite immaterial.

Besides, it is obvious that the above hypotheses can never coincide exactly with the facts. And the above reasoning is evidently applicable to any other year of age.

11. We are therefore authorised to conclude, that in a place, circumstanced as above stated, the number of the living in any year of their age is an arithmetical mean proportional between the numbers who annually enter upon, and who annually complete that year.

12. Thus it appears that

| The number of the living in their | Is half the sum of | |----------------------------------|-------------------| | 94th year, | 14 and 9 | | 95th | 9 — 5 | | 96th | 5 — 3 | | 97th | 3 — 2 | | 98th | 2 — 1 | | 99th | 1 — 0 |

But it is to be observed, that the same numbers occur in Mortality, the first of these two series as in the second, except the first term of the first, and the last of the second, which are 14 and 0 respectively. Therefore the sum of the second of these two series falls short of the sum of the first by 14, the number who annually complete their 93rd year; so that the series of half sums falls short of the sum of the first series by 7, the half of 14. And this reasoning will apply equally to any other age than that of 93 years.

13. Whence it follows, that in a place circumstanced as we have supposed, the number of persons constantly living at any assigned age and upwards, is less than the sum of those who annually complete that and all the greater ages, by half the number who annually complete that year of their age.

14. From the supposition that the number of persons who die annually in any one and the same year of age, expire at so many equal intervals of age in that year (8), it follows, that for each of these lives which falls before the middle of that year of age, there will be another which will fall just so much after it, and, consequently, that the average quantity of existence during any year of age, for the lives that fail in it, is just half a year.

15. But in taking, for any one year of age, the sum of the numbers in the second column of the table (1) at all the greater ages, each life is counted once for every complete year it survives, after the age first mentioned; and if, to the sum of these, we add half the number in the same second column against that first mentioned age, this half number being the sum of the fractional parts of a year, by which the whole of these lives survive the last year of age they complete (14); the sum total thus obtained will evidently be the whole duration of life after the age first mentioned, enjoyed by all the lives that survive that age in any one year.

16. Therefore, if this last sum total be divided by the number who annually survive that first mentioned age, the quotient will be the mean duration of life after that age which is also called the expectation of life at the same age, being the portion of future existence which an individual at that age may reasonably expect to enjoy.

17. But, by No. 13, it appears, that the last mentioned sum total is also the number constantly living in the place, at and above the age first mentioned (15).

18. Whence, and from No. 16, it follows, that if the number of the living in the place at any age and upwards, be divided by the number who annually complete that age, the quotient will be the mean duration of life after the same age.

19. And, consequently, if the number constantly living at all ages, be divided by the number of annual births, the quotient will be the mean duration of life from birth, or the expectation of life of a child just born.

20. Hence also it appears, that the number of years in the expectation of life at any age, is the same as the number of living persons at that age and upwards, out of which one dies annually.

21. Thus, for example, the expectation of life at 40 years of age being 25-495 years, the proportion of the living in the place aged 40 years and upwards who die annually, is one of 25-495, or, which is the same, 1000 out of 25,495.

22. The numbers represented by a table of mortality to die in any intervals of age, are called the decrements of life in those intervals.

23. And the interval between any age and the utmost extent of life, according to any table of mortality, is called the complement of life at that age, according to the same table.

24. If the decrements of life be supposed to be equal and uniform through its whole extent, and the interval between birth and the utmost extremity of life be divided into as many equal parts as there are annual births, then, one of the individuals born will die at the expiration of each of these equal intervals of age; and the numbers who survive the several intervals, from birth to the extremity of life, will form an arithmetical progression.

25. Whence it will be found (11), that the number of the living at any assigned age and upwards, will be equal to the number who annually complete that age, multiplied by half the number of years in the complement of life at the same age.

26. And if this last product be divided by the number who annually complete that age, the quotient, that is, half the complement of life, will be the expectation of life at that age (18).

27. The mean numbers of annual deaths at all ages, or, which in this case is the same, the number of deaths in each year of age, that take place during any one year, in a place circumstanced as we have supposed, being given, a table may be constructed as follows, which will answer all the most interesting questions that can be put respecting the population and mortality of the place.

28. Let there be five columns, in the first of which insert the ages 0, 1, 2, 3, 4……96, 97, 98, 99, and against every age, insert in the fifth column, the given number that died in the year between that and the next greater age; then begin at the greatest age, and proceed towards the least, as follows:

1st. To the number against any age in the fourth column, add that against the next less age in the fifth, and insert the sum against that next less age in the fourth (7).

2d. To the sum of the numbers in the third and fourth columns against any age, add half the number in the fifth column against the next less age, and insert this last sum against that next less age in the third column (11).

3d. Divide the number against any age in the third column, by the number against the same age in the fourth, the quotient will be the expectation of life at that age, to be inserted in the second column (16).

| Age | Expectation of life at that age | Number of the living at that age, and upwards | Number who annually complete that year of their age | Number who die annually in their next year | |-----|--------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | 0 | 39-385 | 393,848 | 10,000 | 1888 | | 1 | | | | | | 2 | | | | | | 3 | | | | | | 90 | 2-357 | 115-5 | 49 | 15 | | 91 | 2-176 | 74-0 | 34 | 11 | | 92 | 1-978 | 45-5 | 23 | 9 | | 93 | 1-928 | 27-0 | 14 | 5 | | 94 | 1-722 | 15-5 | 9 | 4 | | 95 | 1-700 | 8-5 | 5 | 2 | | 96 | 1-500 | 4-5 | 3 | 1 | | 97 | 1-000 | 2-0 | 2 | 1 | | 98 | 0-500 | 0-5 | 1 | 1 | | 99 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |

A complete table of this kind for the two sexes separately, formed from observations made in all Sweden and Finland, during twenty years ending with 1795, will be found in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities and Assurances, being the fourth in that work.

29. Hitherto we have supposed the state of the population to continue invariable for 100 years at the least, on account of the facility with which tables of mortality might be But whether the population be stationary, or increasing, or decreasing, and from whatever causes these changes proceed, provided that they be produced gradually, and not by sudden starts during the time of the observations, the law of mortality may be determined from actual enumerations of the people, and the bills of mortality. Thus,

30. Let the number of persons in each year of their age, that are resident in a place at any one time, be taken, and let an accurate register be kept of the number that die annually in each year of their age, during a term of eight or ten years at the least, whereof the first half may precede, and the second follow the time of the enumeration.

Then, if the number of the inhabitants of every age either increase or decrease uniformly during that term, the mean number of annual deaths in each year of age thus registered, will be the same as if the population of the place had continued throughout that term what it was when the enumeration was made.

31. But if, to the number of the living in any year of age, we add half the number who annually die in the same year, the sum will be the number who annually enter upon that year of their age (11.)

And thus, from the enumerations and registers above mentioned, may be derived the ratio of the number who annually enter upon any year of their age, to the number who annually die in it.

32. But all the observations which have been made with sufficient minuteness, on the mortality during the first year from birth, concur in showing, that many more deaths take place in the first few weeks from birth, than in equal periods of time during the remainder of the first year; and that the nearer to birth, the greater is the mortality among infants. So that the number of the living in successive equal intervals in the first year of age, cannot be correctly assumed to be in arithmetical progression.

33. On this account it is desirable that the annual numbers, both of the children born alive, and the deaths under one year of age, should be correctly registered, as in Sweden.

34. Then, as the number annually born alive, is to the number of annual deaths under one year of age, according to the registers, so is the radix of the table of mortality, to the number dying under one year of age according to that table, which, being subtracted from the radix, the remainder is the number who complete their first and enter on their second year. Whence the numbers, both of survivors and annual deaths, at all the greater ages, may be determined in the order of their succession by No. 31.

35. If, instead of the number of the living in each year of age being taken only once, according to No. 30, that operation be performed several times during the term for which the mean number of annual deaths in each year of age is given;—then, the mean number of the living in each year of age throughout that term, must be deduced from the given numbers; and, being substituted for the number at the middle of the term according to No. 30, the law of mortality may be determined with more certainty, than when the people are only numbered once.

36. Both in enumerations of the people, and in bills of mortality, the numbers are, however, almost always given only for intervals of age of several years each. For the manner of interpolating the numbers in each particular year of age, the reader is referred to Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities and Assurances, arts. 180 and 181.

37. Hitherto we have only considered the determination of the law of mortality amongst the whole of the inhabitants of a place, of all ages, ranks, and conditions; and until within the last eight years, no statements of facts relating to particular classes of the people had been published, except those of M. Deparcieux, in his valuable Essai, sufficiently numerous and correct to be available for the purpose. But the inquiries made by order, and with the aid of government in this country, into the mortality amongst various classes of nominees, on whose lives annuities depended, published in Mr. Finlaison's report to the Lords of the treasury in 1829, and already noticed in the article Annuities in this work; with the publication in 1834, of the still more interesting, important, and distinctly detailed observations on the mortality that has taken place among the lives insured in the Equitable Assurance Society, form most valuable accessions to our knowledge of the subject; we therefore proceed to show how the law of mortality among those classes of persons may be deduced from these documents. We shall have compassed that object, when we have determined out of a considerable number of persons who entered upon each year of age, how many died in that year, and, consequently, how many survived it; and the Equitable Assurance documents are so disposed, as to afford great facility in effecting this. The following table is extracted from them, with the addition of the column marked B.

| Age | Number admitted of that age | Age at admission | Died of that age during the observations | |-----|-----------------------------|-----------------|----------------------------------------| | | | | | | 7 | 40 | | | | 8 | 53 | | | | 9 | 26 | | | | 10 | 31 | | | | 11 | 40 | | | | 12 | 35 | | | | 13 | 53 | | | | 14 | 48 | | | | 15 | 50 | | | | 16 | 66 | | | | 17 | 71 | | | | 18 | 149 | | | | 19 | 250 | | | | 20 | 263 | | | | 21 | 373 | | | | 22 | 438 | | | | 23 | 499 | | | | 24 | 521 | | | | 25 | 643 | | | | 26 | 615 | | | | 27 | 683 | | | | 28 | 732 | | | | 29 | 783 | | | | 30 | 762 | | |

According to the common mode of expressing the ages, which is adopted both in the government documents... Mortality, and in those of the Assurance Society, the year of age stated is always that which was last completed; but wherever that is the case, it should be distinctly stated, and kept steadily in view. We confine ourselves in this table to the 31st year of age, and mark it 30+ to avoid ambiguity; for the same reason (+) is put over the ages in column A, to show that each number in it denotes the age last completed.

39. Column B has been added for the sake of illustration; it shows at what earlier ages the different lives entered the society, which afterwards completed the 30th year of their age in it, and entered their 31st; thus, out of 40 insured in the 8th year of age during the period of the observations, only 5 entered their 31st while insured in the society, the rest having passed out of it either by death or otherwise, at earlier ages, as the preceding columns of the original table fully show; and of the 373 persons who were insured in their 22d year, 124 remained insured till they entered their 31.

40. This table shows that of 4692 persons who entered on their 31st year of age in the society, 265 went out of it alive in the same year of their age during the observations, 51 were still living and insured at the termination of the observations, and 762 came into the society in that year of their age; the individuals of those three classes amount together to 1078 persons. But of the 265 who went out of the society alive during that year of age, it may reasonably be assumed, that whatever number of them at the time of their exit exceeded 30½ years of age by any interval of time, as many would fall short of that middle age by the same interval, when they went out; and, therefore, that the whole of them on an average may properly be considered to have been exposed to the action of the Law of Mortality during one half of that year of age; so that the mortality among them must have been the same as it would have been among half the number of exactly similar lives, in passing through the whole of that year.

In the same manner it appears, that of the 762 persons who were insured at various periods of the 31st year of age, and of the 51 persons who remained alive and insured in the society at various periods of that year of age when the observations terminated; may, each of them on an average, be properly assumed to have been exposed to the action of the law of mortality in the society during one half of the 31st year of age; and we are therefore entitled to conclude that the mortality among them was the same as it would have been among half the number of exactly similar lives in passing through the whole of the 31st year of age.

But 4692, the total of the numbers in column C includes all those 1078 lives, the same as if they had all entered upon their 31st year of age in the society, and had all passed through it except those which were carried off by death. It is, therefore, manifest, that 539, the half of their number, must be substracted from 4692, and the remainder, 4153 must be taken as the number of persons entering on the 31st year of their age, and continuing exposed to the law of mortality in the society during the whole of that year, among whom thirty-two deaths take place in the same year of age.

This, when the principle is clearly understood, is certainly a very simple operation and easily performed; and its application to every other age in the original table of data is exactly the same as to the 31st year.

41. In constructing the table of mortality, supposing that in proceeding from the earliest age we have arrived at the completion of the 30th year, or the entrance on the 31st, and have determined the number of survivors at that limit to be 4305; since

\[ \frac{4153}{32} = \frac{4305}{33-1712}, \]

we find 33 to be the number of deaths which will take place in the 31st year of age out of 4305 persons who enter on it; and, consequently, that 4272 enter on their 32d year, according to the table we are constructing; the method of completing it is obviously the same throughout, and can be attended with no difficulty after the valuable documents requisite for the purpose have been obtained.

42. What has been shown here respecting the determination of the law of mortality amongst insured lives, applies also, and with rather more facility to the nominees on whose lives annuities depend. The life annuities sold by government in this country not being redeemable, are always continued during the whole of the lives they depend upon; therefore, with regard to them, column E in the above table is left blank; and in the case of the old English Tontine, which commenced in 1693 and ended in 1783 with the life of the last survivor, column D will also be quite blank.

Part III.—On the Law of Mortality as deduced by the preceding methods from actual observations; and on the comparative merits of the different Tables of Mortality that have been published.

43. When the uniformity of anatomical structure in different individuals of the human species is considered, and the great power possessed by the human body, of so adapting itself to the circumstances it is placed in, as to avoid injury from changes in those circumstances, it appears natural to expect a priori, that, where the circumstances of the people are not greatly different, the law of mortality will be nearly the same. And, from a comparison of the best tables of mortality yet constructed, we are induced to believe that this expectation will be realized, whenever a sufficient number of good observations shall have been made, under circumstances sufficiently varied.

44. We know of no observations that have hitherto been made and published, from which the law of mortality may be correctly determined, except the following:

1. Those of M. Deparcieux in France. 2. The Swedish. 3. Dr. Heysham's at Carlisle. 4. Dr. Cleland's at Glasgow. 5. Mr. Finalaisen's on the nominees of life annuities granted by government in this country. 6. Mr. Morgan's on the lives insured in the Equitable Assurance Society.

Those of Deparcieux, Finalaisen and Morgan, were made only on select classes of the people; the Swedish are incomparably the most numerous and extensive; and whilst Dr. Cleland's exhibit the mortality in a large manufacturing town, Dr. Heysham's will, we believe, be found to be best authenticated, and most correct.

45. The climate of Sweden is so unfavourable to the products of agriculture, and the number of the people is so great in proportion to the quantity of food produced, that unfavourable seasons there, are generally followed by distressing deaths, and the destructive epidemical diseases constantly attendant upon famine, which raise the mortality, when they occur, much above what it would otherwise be; and both in that way, and by weakening the constitutions of those who survive them, they materially increase the average mortality deduced from observations made during any considerable number of years. Of this the reader will find ample proofs drawn from authentic sources, in the 10th, 12th, and 13th chapters of Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities.

46. For these reasons, the mortality in Sweden deduced from many years' observations, will be found to be higher than in the more temperate and fruitful parts of Europe. And we shall probably make the nearest approach to the general law of human mortality in the temperate climates, that can be made from the Swedish observations, by selecting a period in which no remarkable epidemics prevailed. Such a period was that of five years, 1801–1805; during Mortality, which, according to a statement of M. Nicander, in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for the year 1809, the population and mortality were as stated in Table I. at the end of this article.

47. From these data, the second table at the end of this article has been formed. The numbers in the columns for males and females separately, having been determined according to Nos. 36 and 31-35; assuming that, of 20,000 children born alive, 10,219 are males, and 9,781 females, in the ratio of 275,599 to 263,812.

The numbers against each age in the columns for the whole population without distinction of sex, are arithmetical mean proportions between the corresponding numbers in the columns for males and females separately, against the same age.

48. From the table last mentioned, Table III. has been deduced by No. 16, exhibiting the expectation of life at every fifth year of age; or its mean duration after that age.

49. Vaccination commenced throughout Sweden and Finland in 1804, during which year, the number vaccinated was 38,255; and, in the year following, 42,839.

The number of deaths by small-pox there, during the year

| Year | Deaths | |------|--------| | 1801 | 6,458 | | 1802 | 2,679 | | 1803 | 8,610 | | 1804 | 3,764 | | 1805 | 1,887 |

Sum, 23,398

Annual average number, 4,680

Whilst the annual average of the ten years ending with 1803, was 6,662. (Vet. Ac. Handl. 1809, and Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, art. 698.)

50. Therefore if we assume that, had vaccination not been practised in the years 1804 and 1805, the annual average number of deaths during the five years ending with that last mentioned, would have been greater by 2,282 than it actually was, and that these 2,282 additional deaths would have all taken place under five years of age, both assumptions will be near the truth; and it will follow that the annual mortality under five years of age, which actually was but one of 13:534, would have been one of 12:629, had vaccination not been introduced. Its introduction cannot have affected the first three tables above five years of age; and under that age, not quite so much as has just been stated.

51. Of all ages, and both sexes, there actually died annually, during these five years, one of 40:901; had vaccination not been practised at all, the annual average mortality would not have been so great as one of 39:759.

52. Table IV. exhibits the mean duration of life after every fifth year of age, according to twelve different tables of mortality; the first six, A, B, C, D, E, F, having been constructed from the requisite data (30 and 38,) the last six, M, N, O, P, Q, R, from mortuary registers only.

53. The numbers in the first column A have been taken from table III. in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, and those in B from table E (p. 28) in the Equitable Assurance Society's publication.

54. Deparcieux's table C constructed from great numbers of accurate observations on the nominees in the French Tontines, resident principally in Paris and its environs, represents the duration of life too small after 60 or 65 years of age. (See Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, articles 867 and 868.)

55. Column D has been taken from the 45th table in Dr. Price's Observations, E from the 5th in Mr. Milne's Annuities, and F from the 3d table in this article. All these tables represent the duration of life in Sweden and Finland, after 45 or 50 years of age, to be less than according to the others; and it might reasonably be expected, a priori, that the excessive cold in Sweden would be unfavourable to the prolongation of life in old age.

56. Of the less correct columns, M has been deducted from the 7th table in Mr. Milne's Annuities, and N from the 42d in Dr. Price's Observations; but, as the Montpelier and Chester tables, just referred to, give the expectations of life only for males and females separately, the numbers in columns M and N against each age, are arithmetical mean proportions between the expectations for males and females against the same ages in those tables; which, though not quite correct, is fully sufficient for our present purpose.

57. The number in column O against each age has been derived from that given by M. Mallet in his table of mortality as the mean duration of life in Geneva from and after that age, by subtracting one half (0.5) from each of them; which will be found to be a necessary correction.

58. Column P has been derived from Lambert's table for mankind in general, already mentioned in the historical part of this article, in which he gives a column headed mean age. Thus, against the age of 20 in that column, stands 54:3, by which he means that persons who survive 20 years of age, do, on an average, attain the age of 54:3 years; so that their expectation of life at 20, will be 34:3. But his numbers in that column are all too great by ½, or 0.5, as he has himself demonstrated; the last, therefore, should be 33:8; and

| Against the age of | For his number. | We insert in column P. | |-------------------|----------------|-----------------------| | 0 | 29:5 | 29:00 | | 5 | 47:7 | 42:20 | | 10 | 51:4 | 40:90 | | 15 | 53:1 | 37:60 | | | | and so on. |

---

1 The author of this article in reading the note on the 4th and 5th pages of Mr. Arthur Morgan's introduction to the valuable work above mentioned, when that gentleman was so good as to send it to him on its first publication, had noted with a pencil in the margin, that the practice there stated was not quite correct; but the circumstances had long passed from his recollection, when he showed in No. 40 of the present article, how the law of Mortality in the Society might be determined from the large and valuable table marked A; therefore, by the words "age on admission," at the head of the extreme left hand column over the age in the same horizontal line with the number of lives admitted in the first division of the large column with that age at its head, he has naturally led to conclude that that was, as it ought to be, the number of lives which really were insured during the observations, when that was the age they had last completed. But by the note referred to, it appears not to be so; on the contrary, none of the lives insured during any year commencing with the first of January, are entered in these statements as having come into the Society until the first day of January next following the day of their actual admission, and then each is stated to be one year older than it was when insured; although whatever details may happen amongst them before the first of January next following the commencement of the insurances, are entered in the statements as having taken place amongst the lives previously insured. This discrepancy being wanted immediately, was in the hands of the printer, 400 miles from the author, before these circumstances were called to his recollection, by his accidently seeing his original note on the subject; he is therefore anxious to give this explanation. The principle of the method of determining the law of mortality in such cases, remains just the same. But it now appears that the number stated in Table A to have been admitted at any age, should have been stated to be so at the next younger age, and any calculator who may choose to employ himself on the subject, had better make that correction before proceeding farther. The probable error arising from the fault will not be great; but it is incumbent upon us to state the right method of proceeding. 59. The reason assigned by Lambert for voluntarily admitting this error at each age, as well as the corresponding one in the number of the living at and above the same age, into his table, was that he did not consider the data in his possession enabled him to determine the duration of life within half a year of the truth.

60. In both these errors M. Lambert has been followed by J. C. Baumann, in constructing the 21st, 22d, and 23d tables inserted at the end of the third volume of Stüssmilch's *Göttliche Ordnung* which were intended to represent respectively, the law of mortality among the country people in the churmark of Brandenburg, amongst the whole population of the churmark, and amongst the inhabitants of London.

61. The numbers in column Q were calculated by De-parcieux from Dr. Halley's table; and those in column R have been extracted from the 18th table in Dr. Price's Observations.

62. Upon comparing the numbers in the first six of these columns, which are more correct, with those in the last six, which are less so; it will be found, that at the early periods of life, its future mean duration according to the tables formed from mortuary registers alone, is less than according to those formed from the requisite data; also that the difference is greater the younger the lives are, and diminishes while the age increases, so as at 60 or 65 years of age to be little or nothing, and to continue small, and variable both in kind and magnitude, through the rest of life.

63. This appears to have arisen from the number of the people having varied but little during the first 35 or 40 years of the century that ended at or about the middle of the term in which the observations were made; and having increased considerably by procreation, during the remainder of that century; such increase having been slow at first, but gradually accelerated afterwards.

64. Table V. is calculated to illustrate this part of the subject. The columns A and B represent the law of mortality among the whole population of Sweden and Finland without distinction of sex, having been merely copied from Table II.

Column C shows the proportion of 10,000 annual deaths in Sweden and Finland that took place in each year of age, on an average of five years ending with 1805. And the number in column D against any age, being the sum of those in column C against that and all the greater ages, would be the number who annually attain to that age, if the number of the people of every age had remained stationary from the year 1700 till 1806 (7).

65. The table of mortality formed by the columns C and D therefore, is that which Dupré de Saint Maur, Stüssmilch, Lambert, Baumann, Florencourt, Muret and others, for want of the mortuary registers of a whole country, endeavoured to form by combining the registers of different town and country parishes.

Those tables also have the same faults, which have been formed in a similar way for particular towns or other comparatively small districts, from the bills of mortality alone, where the population had been increasing during the century preceding the commencement of the observations or statements in the bills of mortality which each table was formed from, and also during the period of the observations.

66. But it has been ascertained by repeated enumerations of the people in Sweden and Finland, that the hypothesis of their number having remained stationary for the last 100 years or more, is far from the truth. And by comparing columns A and B with C and D, it will be seen in what manner, and to what degree, the falsity of the hypothesis in this case, has vitiated the table derived from it.

67. To facilitate this comparison, columns E and F have been added. Taking the age of five years for an example; the numbers against that age in columns C and D show, that, according to the hypothesis, out of 5988 children who Mortality, annually enter upon their 6th year, 144 die in it; while it, Law of, appears by columns A and B, that out of 7096 children who enter upon that year of their age, only 112 die in it; and 112 : 7096 :: 144 : 9123, so that 9123, inserted against the age of five years in column E, is the number of children annually entering upon their 6th year, out of whom 144 really die in the same year of their age; and the mortality as represented by the hypothetical table in this case, is to the true mortality, as 9123 to 5988, or as 3 to 2 nearly.

Then the number in column F against any age, is always the excess of that in E above that in column D against the same age.

68. Columns B and C both containing 10,000 deaths, it will be seen that in column C, they are greatly accumulated at the early ages, in comparison with those in column B; and that in old age, the deaths in column C are much less numerous than in B; which are necessary consequences of the people increasing by procreation; the numbers of the people in a progressive population, in comparison with a stationary one, being greater in early life, and less in old age. And, while the law of mortality remains the same, the numbers of deaths at the different ages, must necessarily be distributed in a similar manner.

69. This enables us to see clearly how the principal differences have arisen between the correct and incorrect tables of mortality AB and CD; whilst the number of annual deaths at all ages (10,000) is the same in both, the proportions of that number are necessarily in column C of the increasing population greater, and the deaths are more densely distributed at the early ages, and less so at the advanced ones than in column B of the population which has consisted of the same number of persons of every age, and has produced the same number of annual births and of annual deaths at every age for 100 years past. The increasing population is necessarily attended with a corresponding increase of the annual births and of young persons; while the elderly persons are only those left by the law of mortality out of the corresponding small numbers that were born annually, 50, 60, 70, or 100 years back. And as columns A and B represent the true law of mortality that prevails among the people, columns C and D cannot do so, although constructed from observations on the same people; for in an increasing population it is not true that the sum of the deaths happening annually above a given age will be the same as the number of persons annually arriving at or completing that age; it always falls short of it, and the more so as the given age is younger, there being deficiencies at all ages above that.

Columns E and F show what the errors of the hypothetical table are at the different ages, and they are of a similar kind in all tables similarly constructed from records of the number of deaths at the different periods of life in an increasing population; and such are probably 99 out of 100 of those hitherto published; many of them for people increasing their numbers much faster than the Swedes have done, and the errors of such tables must be greater than those of the table CD.

70. Table VI., which needs no further explanation than is placed at the head of it, will also illustrate the difference between tables of mortality formed from the requisite data, and those constructed from mortuary registers only.

It is better fitted for this purpose than Table IV., with which, however, it will be found to correspond very well. But the 4th table has other uses which this has not.

71. From what has already been advanced, it would appear probable, that the number of annual births in Sweden and Finland had been nearly stationary, and rather decreasing than increasing, upon an average, from about 1700 till 1735.

The numbers both of the annual births and deaths, from the year 1749 till 1803, will be found in Milne's Treatise Mortality, Human.

72. But the statements in our 7th table corroborate the inferences just drawn from the 5th and 6th, as they show that during the 43 years ended with 1800, the total population increased, while the proportion above 90 years of age diminished through the whole term, and increased very little during the next 10 years.

The numbers in that table include both sexes, and the long continued diminution of them past 90, cannot be explained by supposing the males to have fallen in battle; for the females were reduced in the same proportion, their number throughout, having been to that of the males above 90 years of age, as nine to five nearly.

From the 7th table, therefore, it appears probable, that the annual births in the years

1698, 1705, 1710, and 1715,

were respectively proportional to the numbers

907, 637, 837, and 786.

The last number, 786, has been calculated upon the supposition that the proportion of the population in Sweden and Finland to those in Sweden alone, was the same in 1810 as in 1805.

73. It should also be observed here, that the disastrous career of Charles the Twelfth commenced with the eighteenth century, and terminated in 1718, when the country was in such a state of exhaustion as it could not have recovered from for many years; whence there appears reason to believe, that the annual births during the succeeding fifteen or twenty years, did not increase fast.

Cantzaer informs us, that between the 10th of August 1710, and the month of February 1711, near 30,000 persons were carried off by the plague in Stockholm alone. (Mém. du Royaume de Suède, t. i. p. 29.)

74. It will be seen that the numbers in col. F of Table V., in proceeding back from four years of age to birth, continually decrease, contrary to what generally obtains; and as we ascribe the general increase of these numbers, when taken in the retrograde order of the ages, to the annually increasing number of births, so will this anomalous appearance be found to arise partly from the average number of annual births having actually decreased for a few years; for

| During the five years ending with | The annual average number of births was | |----------------------------------|-------------------------------------| | 1800 | 107,690 | | 1801 | 106,929 | | 1802 | 105,504 | | 1803 | 104,644 | | 1804 | 105,430 | | 1805 | 107,882 |

But it appears to have arisen principally from the practice of vaccination during the years 1804 and 1805, by which the mortality among children, or the numbers in col. C, in a few of the first years from birth, were reduced below what they otherwise would have been (50) while those in col. D remained nearly the same (64); consequently, the numbers in col. E were reduced in nearly the same ratio as those in C (67), and the reduction in col. F was in each case nearly the same as in E (61).

75. The numbers relating to Sweden and Finland in the 7th table, have been derived from the Stockholm Transactions for the years 1766, 1801, 1809, and 1813.

Those relating to Spain and the Spanish possessions in Europe and Africa, including the Canary Islands, from the Censo de la Poblacion de España en el ano de 1797, mentioned in the first section of this article. These last have been included in this Table, to show the difference in the proportion of aged persons between Spain and Sweden, and still more between the Canary Islands and both.

76. If the population of Spain had remained invariable from 1697 to 1797, the law of mortality there, might have been easily derived from the statements above mentioned of the enumeration in 1797; but in the actual state of things, that cannot be determined without comparing these with exact accounts of the numbers that died annually in each interval of age. And, as was observed in the first section of this article, the author has obtained satisfactory information that no such returns from the parish registers throughout Spain, as are there mentioned, ever were published, nor is it probable they were ever made.

77. When what we have advanced respecting the 5th and 6th tables is clearly understood, it will not be difficult to account for the greater part of the difference between the more and less correct columns in Table IV.

Most of the observations which the German tables were constructed from, were made between the years 1720 and 1750; and those who died then between 60 and 100 years of age, must have been born between 1620 and 1690; in which period nearly the whole of the thirty years' war, ended in 1648, was included, during which, and for several years after, it is probable that the annual births increased little or nothing, if they did not decrease.

78. Amongst the less correct columns of Table IV., those for Montpellier, Chester, and Geneva, agree much better than the rest with the more correct ones, which has probably arisen in each case, partly from the mortality in these three places having really been less throughout life than in most large towns; and partly from the annual births in them, having increased less than in the other places, during the fifty or sixty years preceding the period in which the observations the tables were constructed from were made.

79. The Northampton table was constructed by Dr. Price, from the bills of mortality (from the year 1735 to 1780) of the single parish of All Saints, containing, a little more than half the inhabitants of the town; and as the deaths exceeded the births in number, the Doctor applied a correction to the table under twenty years of age, which, if it had answered the intended purpose under that age, as we are satisfied it did not, could have no effect on any of the numbers above the same age; and almost all of the useful applications of such tables, are to ages above twenty.

80. The table so formed could only be correct, provided that the numbers, both of the living and the annual deaths at every age above twenty years, had continued invariable during the 146 years that intervened between 1634 and 1780; provided also, that no migration from or to the town took place, except at twenty years of age, and that the annual increase the population received by migration at that age, was just equal to the excess of the annual deaths above the annual births.

81. But we consider it to be much more probable, that during these 146 years, Northampton partook of the prosperity and adversity that prevailed in the rest of the kingdom; and, consequently, that its population was generally progressive, though sometimes stationary, and sometimes retrograde.

82. We have not room here to support this opinion by numerical statements and calculations, but from the population abstracts, and an enumeration of the inhabitants of Northampton, given in Dr. Price's Observations on Reversionary Payments, (vol. ii. p. 94,) it will be found, that both the annual births, and annual settlers in that town, have been increasing ever since about the year 1715 or 1720; also that although the burials exceeded the baptisms till the year 1802, the supply by migration was much greater than that excess; and, consequently, that the numbers of the living have been accumulated more at the early ages, and less at the advanced ones, than they would have been had the population remained stationary. Thus it appears, that the faults in the Northampton table are of the same kind as those of the others constructed from mortuary registers only. And the civil war in the time of Charles the First, with the unsettled state of the kingdom for some years before and after it, would probably have prevented or greatly retarded, the increase of the annual births, during the time in which those persons were born, who died past sixty years of age between the years 1734 and 1781, and may account for the table after that age being near the truth; while the comparatively rapid increase of the people during the sixty years ending with 1780, appears to explain the great excess of mortality in that table at the early periods of life.

As it was only from the Carlisle and Northampton tables of mortality, that tables of the values of annuities on single and joint lives had been calculated, sufficiently copious to admit of the values of interests dependent upon the continuance or the failure of human life being accurately derived from them. When the first edition of this article was published in the year 1820, the author gave the following comparison between the mortality represented by each of these tables to take place at the different periods of life, with that which had been observed to obtain among the members of the Equitable Assurance Society.

From an address delivered at a general court of that Society, by Mr. Morgan the actuary, on the 24th of April 1800, it appears, that according to the result of an annual experience of thirty years, the decrements of life (22) among the members of the society, were to those in the Northampton table,

| Between the ages of | 10 and 20 | 20 — 30 | 30 — 40 | 40 — 50 | 50 — 60 | 60 — 80 | |---------------------|-----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| | as | 1 to 2 | 1 — 2 | 3 — 5 | 3 — 5 | 5 — 7 | 4 — 5 |

The same information may also be found in two notes in Dr. Price's Observations on Reversionary Payments, (vol. i. p. 183, and vol. ii. p. 443.)

From the preceding statement, the Carlisle table of mortality, (No. II. in Mr. Milne's Annuities, or No. V. at the end of the article Annuities in this work, and the Northampton table, (No. XVII. in Dr. Price's Observations), we have derived the following:

| Out of | Who attain the age of | There die before the age of | According to the | |--------|----------------------|-----------------------------|------------------| | | | | Carlisle Table. | | | | | Experience of the Equitable Society. | | | | | Northampton Table. | | Persons | Years. | 10 | 20 | 370 | 309 | 618 | | 6460 | | 20 | 30 | 448 | 443 | 886 | | 5642 | | 30 | 40 | 567 | 579 | 965 | | 5075 | | 40 | 50 | 678 | 652 | 1086 | | 4397 | | 50 | 60 | 754 | 900 | 1260 | | 3643 | | 60 | 80 | 2590| 2244| 2805 |

This table shows that the law of mortality exhibited in the Carlisle table is almost exactly the same as that which has prevailed among the members of the Equitable Assurance Society. And although the members of such a society, when they first enter, are select lives, they are not, even then, so much better than the common average, as many persons suppose; for the more precarious a life is, the stronger is the inducement for parties interested in its continuance, to get it insured, so that bad risks are frequently offered to such companies. And many proposals for insurance are accepted by the directors, that are not thought very eligible at the time, in cases where they are not aware of any specific objection to the life proposed.

Besides, it is to be considered, that of the number in a society at any one time, but a small proportion can have been recently admitted, and in a few years from the time of admission, the members will generally have come down to the common average of persons of the same ages.

It ought also to be observed, that most of the tables of mortality that have been published, have been constructed from observations made upon the whole population of very large towns, such as London, Paris, Vienna, and Stockholm; in each of which there are particular quarters inhabited only by the very lowest of the people, who, unfortunately, are also very numerous, badly clothed and fed, therefore exposed to serious injury from the inclemencies of the weather; extremely ignorant and vicious, indulging in the abuse of spirituous liquors, and inattentive to cleanliness both in their persons and habitations, which last are crowded, badly ventilated, and surrounded with mud and the putrid remains of animals and vegetables. These are the nests of contagious diseases, in which they are generated and kept alive, where they at all times occasion great mortality, though not so much within the last forty-five or fifty-five years as previously, and from which, when circumstances favour them, they spread amongst the rest of the people.

It is, therefore, obvious, that in such places, the average mortality at every age, must be considerably greater than that which prevails only among the middling and higher classes of society, even in such towns.

But the lives upon which leases, annuities, reversions, and assurances depend, are very seldom exposed to the influence of the causes of mortality mentioned in number 89. Whence it follows, that a table of mortality on which those causes have had no great influence, is best adapted to the valuation of such interests.

And these kind of valuations are the most important purposes to which tables of mortality can be applied.

The number of years in the mean duration of life from birth according to a table of mortality properly constructed from the necessary data, will, when the population has remained stationary for a century or more, be the same as the number of persons in the whole population, out of which one dies annually (20). When the population has been increasing, the mean duration of life, according to the table, will be less than the number out of which one dies annually in that population; but the difference will be small, except under particular circumstances, as appears by the following statement. ### Mortality, Human

| Place | Years | Term of the Observations | Died annually, one of Mean Life | Difference | Authorities | |------------------------|-------|--------------------------|---------------------------------|------------|-------------| | Stockholm, males | 9 | 1755–1763 | 16-86 | 14-25 | Dr. Price's Observations, tab. 46. | | Ditto, females | 9 | 1755–1763 | 20-93 | 18-10 | Ditto. | | Ditto, both sexes | 9 | 1755–1763 | 18-85 | 16-18 | Ditto. | | Sweden and Finland | 21 | 1755–1776 | 34-60 | 34-45 | Ditto, tab. 44. | | Ditto | 20 | 1776–1795 | 37-33 | 36-12 | Mr. Milne's Annuities, tab. 5. | | Sweden alone | 5 | 1801–1805 | 40-90 | 39-39 | This article. | | Carlisle | 9 | 1779–1787 | 40-00 | 38-72 | Mr. Milne's Annuities, tab. 2. | | Glasgow, males | 10 | 1821–1830 | 35-42 | 34-38 | Dr. Cleland's Observations, and a table of mortality formed from them by the author of this article. | | Ditto, females | 10 | 1821–1830 | 42-32 | 37-24 | | | Ditto, both sexes | 10 | 1821–1830 | 38-81 | 35-77 | |

93. The above mentioned table of mortality for Glasgow, which the author has had by him several years, he expects to publish soon.

The high number in the column of differences for females in that place, arises from the small mortality amongst them, which was occasioned principally by the great influx of healthy females between the ages of 15 and 30, at which period of life the rate of mortality amongst them was small; its minimum for them being in their 18th year.

Between the ages of 10 and 15 the numbers of the two sexes were just about equal, whilst between the ages of 15 and 30 the females were more numerous than the males in the ratio of 3 to 2; and this accounts for the great number of females (42:32), out of which one died annually there, which necessarily raises the number out of which one died annually in the whole population of both sexes, and therefore the number in the column of differences (in the line numbered 10) for the whole population of both sexes in Glasgow.

94. Similar causes probably produced similar effects, although in a much less degree in Stockholm.

95. When tables of mortality are constructed from the numbers of deaths only in the different intervals of age, without comparing them with the numbers of living persons in the same intervals; such as that formed by columns C and D of Table V. at the end of this article, and the population is increasing. The number of years in the mean duration of life from birth, according to that table, will fall short of the number of the people, out of which one dies annually, by a much greater number than in the case we have just been considering, of the table of mortality having been properly constructed from the necessary data; as the following statement will show.

| Place | Years | Term of the Observations | Died annually, one of Mean Life | Difference | Authorities | |------------------------|-------|--------------------------|---------------------------------|------------|-------------| | Sweden and Finland | 5 | 1801–1805 | 40-90 | 30-86 | Table V. C. & D.and Tab.VI. D. MM. Quetelet and Smits, Recherches, &c., Svo, 1832, pp. 29 and 36. | | Belgium | 3 | 1825–1827 | 43-00 | 32-15 | Dr. Casper; Lebensdauer der Menschen,tab.2 & §14,s.35; also Staatkräfte der Preussischen Monarchie, b.1. ss. 303 & 304. | | Berlin | 12 | 1818–1829 | 36-91 | 27-39 | M. Mallet, in the places referred to above. | | Geneva, males | 20 | 1814–1833 | 45-00 | 37-97 | Dr. Price's Observations on Rev. Payments. | | Ditto, females | 20 | 1814–1833 | 48-69 | 42-21 | | | Ditto, both sexes | 20 | 1814–1833 | 46-92 | 40-18 | | | Chester, males | 10 | 1772–1781 | 34-54 | 28-13 | | | Ditto, females | 10 | 1772–1781 | 37-27 | 33-27 | | | Ditto, both sexes | 10 | 1772–1781 | 35-97 | 30-70 | | | Montpellier | 21 | 1772–1792 | 29-56 | 25-36 | Mr. Milne's Annuities. |

96. In both of the above statements, where the sexes are not mentioned, the table is for both without distinction.

97. In places where the increase of the population was slow, the numbers set against them in the column of differences are smaller than where the population increased more rapidly.

98. In the tables of mortality for Belgium and Montpelier, the sexes were distinguished, but not in the given number of the whole population, as well as the whole number of deaths in each of those places, and for that reason the sexes could not be distinguished for those two places in this last table.

99. When what we have shewn here is clearly understood, and the proportion of the people dying annually is known, it will not be difficult to judge whether a table of mortality for that people has been constructed properly from the necessary data; or, what is much more common, and more easily effected, merely by summation of the deaths at all ages. For in the case of the correct table of mortality, the difference obtained in the manner stated above, will probably not exceed 2; nor in the case of the incorrect table, will it be likely to be less than 7, upon the supposition of the population having increased generally for a considerable number of years preceding the termination of the observations; if for a whole century, so much the better.

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1 But omitting the year 1764, in which no observations were made. 100. The probable life at birth, or the age to which half the number born attain, will also be a good criterion for enabling us to judge, by comparison, whether a table of mortality has been correctly constructed from the necessary data or not; provided that, in the places the compared tables have been constructed from, the children have been similarly circumstanced, or nearly so.

| According to the | The probable duration of life from birth, is | 10 years of age, is | |------------------|---------------------------------------------|-------------------| | Correct table for Sweden, in this article | 45 years | 53 years | | Incorrect one | 22 — 48 | 25 — 48 |

In Belgium vaccination was practised during the whole period of the observations, in Sweden only during about 1½ out of the 5 years' observations.

101. From all that has now been stated, we are entitled to conclude, that the Belgian table of mortality has been constructed either from the registers of burials alone, or only from the statements of the numbers living in the different intervals of age at the time of the enumeration; most probably from the burials alone. M. Quetelet appears now to be aware that such tables are very incorrect. In his late work sur l'Homme et le Développement de ses Facultés, ou Essai de Physique Sociale, 2 tom. Paris 1835, in 8vo, after giving the above mentioned table of mortality for Belgium, in which only the numbers attaining the different ages are given, without the decrements of life, or its mean or probable duration at the different ages, he states the mean duration of life from birth according to that table, and then proceeds thus, (tome i. p. 166):—“D'après le dernier ouvrage de M. Rickman, la vie moyenne serait en Angleterre de 33 ans (32 pour les hommes, 34 pour les femmes).” On l'estime en France de 32-2 ans d'après le chiffre des naissances. Du reste, ces calculs supposent une population stationnaire, et nous aurons occasion de voir qu'ils peuvent conduire à des erreurs assez graves.”

102. Reasoning as in Nos. 68 and 69, it will be seen that when the number of the people has been decreasing for a series of years, the deaths will be more densely distributed among the advanced ages, and more rarely in the early periods of life, than if the number of the people at every age, and the law of mortality had remained always the same. Consequently, in the table of mortality constructed from such data, merely by taking the successive sums, in retrograde order, from extreme old age to birth; those successive sums, which are the numbers of the living at the different ages in the table so constructed, will be greater at advanced ages and less in early life than if the population had remained stationary, as stated above. So that the errors of the incorrect table would, in this case, be of the opposite kind to those of the common tables, constructed in a similar way from the deaths only, in an increasing population. From the general increase of arts, manufactures, commerce, and civilization, ever since tables of mortality were first formed, the population has been increasing more or less rapidly in almost every place, for which a table of mortality has been constructed. But in Amsterdam we have an instance of the population having continued to decrease for half a century or more. We here present a view of it since the year 1622.

103. The information on this subject is scanty and difficult to procure. Kersseboom took much pains in endeavouring to make just estimates of the population from the annual births and deaths; and taking it to be 35 times the number of annual births, he estimated the population of Amsterdam in 1742 at 241,000 persons.

Three only of the six numbers stated above, viz. those for the years 1622, 1826, and 1830, were determined by actual enumerations at the times stated. Although M. Smits, the secretary of the Statistical Commission, relative to the population of the Netherlands, is not mentioned in the above table, we are greatly indebted to him. In his Statistique Nationale he gave a table, (No. 10, p. 82), shewing the number of deaths that took place in Amsterdam in each year of the 18th century. M. Lobatto has given them in the place above referred to for each of the ten years 1816-1825; and M. Quetelet, in the part of his work referred to above, has given them for each of the 17 years, 1816-1832, and states that in the year 1777 the mortality was 1 in 27; the number of deaths in that year was 8939, whence the population inserted in the table is derived. M. Lobatto states, on the authority of Professor Van Swinden and of M. Nieuwenhuyss, that from 1774 to 1813 there died annually 1 of 25; the deaths in 27 years, 1774-1800, were 233,510, the annual average number, therefore, was 8648-5, and multiplying this by 26, we obtain 224,862, the mean number of the people during these 27 years, which is stated in the above table to have been the population in 1787, the middle year of the 27.

104. The enumeration in 1622 was made in levying a capitulation tax, which was exacted with great strictness, even in every receptacle for paupers, the master or owner of it was obliged to pay the tax for each inmate. This enumeration appears not to have been known of, either by Kersseboom or by Struyck at the time of his first publication on the subject; but an original paper, with many particulars which he gives, was afterwards communicated to him. Struyck, after taking great pains with the subject, stated his opinion, that in 1753, Amsterdam did not contain 200,000 inhabitants.

105. M. Lobatto, at the end of his Beschouwing, &c., gives two tables of mortality for Amsterdam, one for males, the other for females, constructed from the deaths that took place during the ten years 1816-1825, with the expectation of life at every age, and we here give the same particulars for it as are given for some others above, but marking the difference (—) as it is of the opposite kind to those which resulted from an increasing population.

| Place | Term of the observations | Died annually, one of | Mean duration of life | Difference | |-------|-------------------------|----------------------|----------------------|------------| | Amsterdam | 10 yrs. 1816-1825 | 29-22 | 32-22 | -3-00 |

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1 Preface to the Population Abstract. 1831. 2 Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, pour l'année 1834, p. 102. 3 Beschouwing van den aard, de voordelen, en de inrichting der Maatschappijen van Levensverzekering, &c., door R. Lobatto; Amsterdam, in 8vo, 1839. Mortality. 106. This low mortality of one in 29:22 was obtained by M. Lobatto stopping at the year 1825, which he himself states was on account of the mortality having been high in the two following years, 1826 and 1827. He obtained the annual mortality of 1 in 29, by dividing the number of the people in 1826, the year after the end of the term, by the annual average number of deaths during the term. During the 12 years 1821-32, of which 1826 was the middle one, the annual average number of deaths was 7,336:18, and there died annually, on an average, one of 27:369; the difference in the above statement should therefore be —4:85, Mortality, or nearly 5; which is the true excess of the number of years in the mean duration of life, above the number of persons out of which one died annually.

107. For some of the most important applications of the facts and inferences stated in this article, the reader is referred to the article Annuities in this work, where he will find that the valuation of Assurances or Reversions dependent upon lives is also treated of.

TABLE I.

In all Sweden and Finland during the Five Years ending with 1805.

| Between the ages of | Mean number of the living. | Annual average number of deaths. | That is, Males one of. | That is, Females one of. | |---------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------|------------------------| | | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | | 0 and 1 | 44,536 | 43,847 | 11,132 | 9,238 | 4:00 | 4:74 | | 1 — 3 | 85,548 | 86,533 | 4,113 | 3,752 | 20:79 | 23:06 | | 3 — 5 | 84,854 | 85,909 | 1,857 | 1,771 | 45:69 | 48:57 | | 5 — 10 | 170,878| 171,343 | 1,919 | 1,743 | 89:04 | 98:30 | | 10 — 15 | 161,613| 160,777 | 872 | 797 | 185:33 | 201:72 | | 15 — 20 | 140,467| 144,782 | 799 | 795 | 175:80 | 182:11 | | 20 — 25 | 132,414| 143,012 | 1,018 | 927 | 130:07 | 154:27 | | 25 — 30 | 120,349| 130,183 | 977 | 978 | 123:18 | 133:11 | | 30 — 35 | 108,804| 118,978 | 982 | 1,056 | 110:79 | 112:67 | | 35 — 40 | 100,293| 111,158 | 1,078 | 1,150 | 93:03 | 96:06 | | 40 — 45 | 94,497 | 103,711 | 1,293 | 1,324 | 73:08 | 78:33 | | 45 — 50 | 82,258 | 91,932 | 1,442 | 1,255 | 57:04 | 73:25 | | 50 — 55 | 71,899 | 81,265 | 1,811 | 1,552 | 39:70 | 51:36 | | 55 — 60 | 54,543 | 64,127 | 1,768 | 1,666 | 30:85 | 38:49 | | 60 — 65 | 42,847 | 51,938 | 1,931 | 2,015 | 22:19 | 25:77 | | 65 — 70 | 30,923 | 40,414 | 1,942 | 2,242 | 15:92 | 18:02 | | 70 — 75 | 20,945 | 28,615 | 2,138 | 2,620 | 9:79 | 10:92 | | 75 — 80 | 11,009 | 15,660 | 1,627 | 2,135 | 6:76 | 7:33 | | 80 — 85 | 4,452 | 6,817 | 994 | 1,452 | 4:47 | 4:69 | | 85 — 90 | 1,214 | 1,988 | 352 | 561 | 3:45 | 3:54 | | above 90 | 268 | 468 | 102 | 207 | 2:62 | 2:26 | | Of all ages | 1,564,611| 1,683,457| 40,147 | 39,266 | 38:97 | 42:87 |

The Numbers of Births during the same Five Years were,

| Males. | Females. | Both. | |--------|----------|-------| | 275,599| 263,812 | 539,411 | ### TABLE II

Exhibiting the Law of Mortality which prevailed in all Sweden and Finland, during the Five Years ending with 1805.

| Age | Males | Females | Both | |-----|-------|---------|------| | | Number who annually complete that year | Number who annually die in that year | Number who annually complete that year | Number who annually die in their next year | | 0 | 10,219 | 2,064 | 9,781 | 1,712 | 10,000 | 1,888 | 0 | 50 | 4,540 | 103 | 4,754 | 83 | 4,647 | 93 | 50 | | 1 | 8,155 | 481 | 8,069 | 426 | 8,112 | 453 | 1 | 51 | 4,437 | 108 | 4,671 | 88 | 4,554 | 98 | 51 | | 2 | 7,674 | 266 | 7,643 | 244 | 7,659 | 256 | 2 | 52 | 4,329 | 109 | 4,583 | 88 | 4,456 | 98 | 52 | | 3 | 7,408 | 181 | 7,399 | 174 | 7,403 | 177 | 3 | 53 | 4,220 | 109 | 4,495 | 90 | 4,358 | 100 | 53 | | 4 | 7,227 | 136 | 7,225 | 125 | 7,226 | 130 | 4 | 54 | 4,111 | 109 | 4,405 | 92 | 4,258 | 101 | 54 | | 5 | 7,091 | 117 | 7,100 | 105 | 7,096 | 112 | 5 | 55 | 4,002 | 110 | 4,313 | 97 | 4,157 | 103 | 55 | | 6 | 6,974 | 89 | 6,995 | 81 | 6,984 | 84 | 6 | 56 | 3,892 | 116 | 4,216 | 102 | 4,054 | 109 | 56 | | 7 | 6,885 | 70 | 6,914 | 65 | 6,900 | 68 | 7 | 57 | 3,776 | 122 | 4,114 | 106 | 3,945 | 114 | 57 | | 8 | 6,815 | 59 | 6,849 | 52 | 6,832 | 56 | 8 | 58 | 3,654 | 127 | 4,008 | 110 | 3,831 | 118 | 58 | | 9 | 6,756 | 50 | 6,797 | 45 | 6,776 | 47 | 9 | 59 | 3,527 | 130 | 3,898 | 115 | 3,713 | 123 | 59 | | 10 | 6,706 | 40 | 6,752 | 39 | 6,729 | 39 | 10 | 60 | 3,397 | 136 | 3,783 | 124 | 3,590 | 130 | 60 | | 11 | 6,666 | 37 | 6,713 | 34 | 6,690 | 36 | 11 | 61 | 3,261 | 137 | 3,659 | 131 | 3,460 | 134 | 61 | | 12 | 6,629 | 35 | 6,679 | 31 | 6,654 | 33 | 12 | 62 | 3,124 | 137 | 3,528 | 135 | 3,326 | 136 | 62 | | 13 | 6,594 | 33 | 6,648 | 30 | 6,621 | 31 | 13 | 63 | 2,987 | 133 | 3,393 | 138 | 3,190 | 136 | 63 | | 14 | 6,561 | 33 | 6,618 | 31 | 6,590 | 32 | 14 | 64 | 2,854 | 140 | 3,255 | 142 | 3,054 | 140 | 64 | | 15 | 6,528 | 35 | 6,587 | 34 | 6,558 | 35 | 15 | 65 | 2,714 | 143 | 3,113 | 146 | 2,914 | 145 | 65 | | 16 | 6,493 | 35 | 6,553 | 34 | 6,523 | 35 | 16 | 66 | 2,571 | 142 | 2,967 | 148 | 2,769 | 145 | 66 | | 17 | 6,458 | 38 | 6,519 | 36 | 6,488 | 35 | 17 | 67 | 2,429 | 147 | 2,819 | 151 | 2,624 | 149 | 67 | | 18 | 6,422 | 36 | 6,483 | 36 | 6,453 | 37 | 18 | 68 | 2,282 | 150 | 2,668 | 155 | 2,475 | 153 | 68 | | 19 | 6,386 | 41 | 6,447 | 39 | 6,416 | 39 | 19 | 69 | 2,132 | 159 | 2,513 | 160 | 2,322 | 159 | 69 | | 20 | 6,345 | 45 | 6,408 | 39 | 6,377 | 43 | 20 | 70 | 1,973 | 168 | 2,353 | 169 | 2,163 | 168 | 70 | | 21 | 6,300 | 48 | 6,369 | 40 | 6,334 | 43 | 21 | 71 | 1,805 | 163 | 2,184 | 178 | 1,995 | 171 | 71 | | 22 | 6,252 | 49 | 6,329 | 41 | 6,291 | 46 | 22 | 72 | 1,642 | 158 | 2,006 | 177 | 1,824 | 168 | 72 | | 23 | 6,203 | 49 | 6,288 | 42 | 6,245 | 45 | 23 | 73 | 1,484 | 155 | 1,829 | 179 | 1,656 | 166 | 73 | | 24 | 6,154 | 49 | 6,246 | 42 | 6,200 | 45 | 24 | 74 | 1,329 | 153 | 1,650 | 175 | 1,490 | 165 | 74 | | 25 | 6,105 | 48 | 6,204 | 44 | 6,155 | 47 | 25 | 75 | 1,176 | 147 | 1,475 | 169 | 1,325 | 158 | 75 | | 26 | 6,057 | 48 | 6,160 | 45 | 6,108 | 46 | 26 | 76 | 1,029 | 135 | 1,306 | 156 | 1,167 | 145 | 76 | | 27 | 6,009 | 48 | 6,115 | 46 | 6,062 | 47 | 27 | 77 | 894 | 124 | 1,150 | 143 | 1,022 | 133 | 77 | | 28 | 5,961 | 49 | 6,069 | 46 | 6,015 | 47 | 28 | 78 | 770 | 113 | 1,007 | 141 | 889 | 127 | 78 | | 29 | 5,912 | 50 | 6,023 | 48 | 5,968 | 50 | 29 | 79 | 657 | 104 | 866 | 132 | 762 | 118 | 79 | | 30 | 5,862 | 50 | 5,975 | 49 | 5,918 | 49 | 30 | 80 | 553 | 97 | 734 | 125 | 644 | 112 | 80 | | 31 | 5,812 | 51 | 5,926 | 50 | 5,869 | 50 | 31 | 81 | 456 | 89 | 609 | 112 | 532 | 100 | 81 | | 32 | 5,761 | 52 | 5,876 | 52 | 5,819 | 52 | 32 | 82 | 367 | 78 | 497 | 96 | 432 | 87 | 82 | | 33 | 5,709 | 52 | 5,824 | 54 | 5,767 | 54 | 33 | 83 | 289 | 62 | 401 | 87 | 345 | 74 | 83 | | 34 | 5,657 | 54 | 5,770 | 55 | 5,713 | 54 | 34 | 84 | 227 | 53 | 314 | 70 | 271 | 62 | 84 | | 35 | 5,603 | 55 | 5,715 | 55 | 5,659 | 55 | 35 | 85 | 174 | 41 | 244 | 62 | 209 | 52 | 85 | | 36 | 5,548 | 56 | 5,660 | 57 | 5,604 | 56 | 36 | 86 | 133 | 34 | 182 | 44 | 157 | 38 | 86 | | 37 | 5,492 | 58 | 5,603 | 57 | 5,548 | 58 | 37 | 87 | 99 | 25 | 138 | 34 | 119 | 30 | 87 | | 38 | 5,434 | 60 | 5,546 | 59 | 5,490 | 60 | 38 | 88 | 74 | 21 | 104 | 25 | 89 | 23 | 88 | | 39 | 5,374 | 64 | 5,487 | 60 | 5,430 | 61 | 39 | 89 | 53 | 15 | 79 | 20 | 66 | 17 | 89 | | 40 | 5,310 | 67 | 5,427 | 62 | 5,369 | 65 | 40 | 90 | 38 | 11 | 59 | 18 | 49 | 15 | 90 | | 41 | 5,243 | 69 | 5,365 | 67 | 5,304 | 68 | 41 | 91 | 27 | 8 | 41 | 14 | 34 | 11 | 91 | | 42 | 5,174 | 70 | 5,298 | 69 | 5,236 | 70 | 42 | 92 | 19 | 6 | 27 | 11 | 23 | 9 | 92 | | 43 | 5,104 | 72 | 5,229 | 69 | 5,166 | 70 | 43 | 93 | 13 | 5 | 16 | 7 | 14 | 5 | 93 | | 44 | 5,032 | 74 | 5,160 | 69 | 5,096 | 71 | 44 | 94 | 8 | 3 | 9 | 4 | 9 | 4 | 94 | | 45 | 4,958 | 76 | 5,091 | 65 | 5,026 | 71 | 45 | 95 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 95 | | 46 | 4,882 | 79 | 5,025 | 64 | 4,954 | 72 | 46 | 96 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 96 | | 47 | 4,803 | 83 | 4,962 | 65 | 4,882 | 73 | 47 | 97 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 97 | | 48 | 4,720 | 86 | 4,897 | 68 | 4,809 | 78 | 48 | 98 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 98 | | 49 | 4,634 | 94 | 4,829 | 75 | 4,731 | 84 | 49 | ### TABLE III.

According to the Law of Mortality that prevailed in all Sweden and Finland during the Five Years ending with 1805.

| Age | Males | Females | Both | Age | |-----|-------|---------|------|-----| | 0 | 37-820| 41-019 | 39-385| 0 | | 5 | 48-987| 51-046 | 50-014| 5 | | 10 | 46-681| 48-570 | 47-629| 10 | | 15 | 42-888| 44-727 | 43-809| 15 | | 20 | 39-051| 40-905 | 39-980| 20 | | 25 | 35-486| 37-167 | 36-330| 25 | | 30 | 31-853| 33-494 | 32-684| 30 | | 35 | 28-208| 29-901 | 29-063| 35 | | 40 | 24-622| 26-353 | 25-495| 40 | | 45 | 21-189| 22-924 | 22-066| 45 | | 50 | 17-901| 19-357 | 18-651| 50 | | 55 | 14-968| 16-087 | 15-550| 55 | | 60 | 12-173| 12-978 | 12-598| 60 | | 65 | 9-606 | 10-220 | 9-933 | 65 | | 70 | 7-255 | 7-698 | 7-497 | 70 | | 75 | 5-509 | 5-784 | 5-665 | 75 | | 80 | 4-095 | 4-221 | 4-165 | 80 | | 85 | 3-230 | 3-230 | 3-230 | 85 | | 90 | 2-553 | 2-263 | 2-357 | 90 | | 95 | 1-700 | 1-700 | 1-700 | 95 |

### TABLE IV.

Showing the Number of Years in the Expectation of Life at every fifth year of age, from birth to 90 years, according to different Tables of Mortality.

| Age | A Carliole | Equitable Assurance Society | Departure's Annuitants | Sweden and Finland | Age | M Montpelier | N Chester | O Geneva | P Mankind in general | Q Brealaw | R Northampton | Age | |-----|------------|-----------------------------|------------------------|--------------------|-----|--------------|----------|---------|----------------------|----------|---------------|-----| | 0 | 38-72 | ... | ... | 1755-76 | 0 | 25-36 | 36-70 | 40-18 | 29-00 | ... | 25-18 | 0 | | 5 | 51-25 | ... | ... | 1755-76 | 5 | 45-40 | 45-32 | 46-56 | 42-20 | 41-25 | 40-94 | 5 | | 10 | 48-82 | 48-32 | 46-63 | 1755-76 | 10 | 45-45 | 43-55 | 43-67 | 40-90 | 40-42 | 39-78 | 10 | | 15 | 45-00 | 45-03 | 43-50 | 1755-76 | 15 | 41-54 | 39-70 | 40-14 | 37-60 | 37-50 | 36-51 | 15 | | 20 | 41-46 | 41-67 | 40-25 | 1755-76 | 20 | 37-99 | 36-48 | 37-07 | 33-80 | 34-17 | 33-43 | 20 | | 25 | 37-86 | 38-12 | 37-17 | 1755-76 | 25 | 34-90 | 33-39 | 34-24 | 30-50 | 30-93 | 30-85 | 25 | | 30 | 34-34 | 34-53 | 34-08 | 1755-76 | 30 | 31-89 | 30-76 | 31-21 | 27-60 | 27-93 | 28-27 | 30 | | 35 | 31-00 | 30-93 | 30-92 | 1755-76 | 35 | 28-85 | 27-62 | 27-75 | 24-90 | 25-00 | 25-68 | 35 | | 40 | 27-61 | 27-40 | 27-50 | 1755-76 | 40 | 25-75 | 24-65 | 24-33 | 22-30 | 22-33 | 23-08 | 40 | | 45 | 24-46 | 23-87 | 23-92 | 1755-76 | 45 | 22-72 | 21-85 | 20-96 | 19-60 | 19-67 | 20-52 | 45 | | 50 | 21-11 | 20-36 | 20-42 | 1755-76 | 50 | 19-79 | 19-13 | 17-80 | 16-80 | 17-25 | 17-99 | 50 | | 55 | 17-58 | 16-99 | 17-25 | 1755-76 | 55 | 15-55 | 15-90 | 15-55 | 14-86 | 14-20 | 14-83 | 55 | | 60 | 14-34 | 13-91 | 14-25 | 1755-76 | 60 | 12-60 | 12-60 | 12-60 | 11-80 | 12-42 | 12-21 | 60 | | 65 | 11-79 | 11-13 | 11-25 | 1755-76 | 65 | 9-93 | 9-93 | 9-93 | 9-93 | 9-93 | 10-88 | 65 | | 70 | 9-18 | 8-70 | 8-67 | 1755-76 | 70 | 7-50 | 7-50 | 7-50 | 7-50 | 7-50 | 7-50 | 70 | | 75 | 7-01 | 6-61 | 6-50 | 1755-76 | 75 | 5-67 | 5-67 | 5-67 | 5-67 | 5-67 | 5-67 | 75 | | 80 | 5-51 | 4-75 | 4-67 | 1755-76 | 80 | 3-85 | 4-17 | 8-56 | 5-32 | 4-72 | 4-50 | 80 | | 85 | 4-12 | 3-39 | 3-17 | 1755-76 | 85 | 2-33 | 3-23 | 3-23 | 4-07 | 4-53 | 3-68 | 85 | | 90 | 3-28 | 2-56 | 1-75 | 1755-76 | 90 | 1-05 | 3-03 | 2-36 | 3-62 | 3-46 | 5-00 | 90 | ### Table V

Exhibiting the Law of Mortality that prevailed among the whole Population of Sweden and Finland, during the five years ending with 1805, according to two different methods of constructing tables.

| Age | More Correctly | Less Correctly | |-----|----------------|---------------| | | A B C D E F | A B C D E F | | 0 | 10,000 | 1,888 | | 1 | 8,112 | 453 | | 2 | 7,659 | 256 | | 3 | 7,403 | 177 | | 4 | 7,226 | 130 | | 5 | 7,096 | 112 | | 6 | 6,984 | 84 | | 7 | 6,900 | 68 | | 8 | 6,832 | 56 | | 9 | 6,776 | 47 | | 10 | 6,729 | 39 | | 11 | 6,690 | 36 | | 12 | 6,654 | 33 | | 13 | 6,621 | 31 | | 14 | 6,590 | 32 | | 15 | 6,558 | 35 | | 16 | 6,523 | 35 | | 17 | 6,488 | 35 | | 18 | 6,453 | 37 | | 19 | 6,416 | 39 | | 20 | 6,377 | 43 | | 21 | 6,334 | 43 | | 22 | 6,291 | 46 | | 23 | 6,243 | 45 | | 24 | 6,200 | 45 | | 25 | 6,155 | 47 | | 26 | 6,108 | 46 | | 27 | 6,062 | 47 | | 28 | 6,015 | 47 | | 29 | 5,968 | 50 | | 30 | 5,918 | 49 | | 31 | 5,869 | 50 | | 32 | 5,819 | 52 | | 33 | 5,767 | 54 | | 34 | 5,713 | 54 | | 35 | 5,659 | 55 | | 36 | 5,604 | 56 | | 37 | 5,548 | 58 | | 38 | 5,490 | 60 | | 39 | 5,436 | 61 | | 40 | 5,389 | 65 | | 41 | 5,304 | 68 | | 42 | 5,236 | 70 | | 43 | 5,166 | 70 | | 44 | 5,096 | 71 | | 45 | 5,025 | 71 | | 46 | 4,954 | 72 | | 47 | 4,882 | 73 | | 48 | 4,809 | 78 | | 49 | 4,731 | 84 |

Errors of the Hypothesis:

- More Correctly: - Age 0: 3586 - Age 1: 3757 - Age 2: 4110 - Age 3: 4471 - Age 4: 4711 - Age 5: 5157 - Age 6: 5599 - Age 7: 5945 - Age 8: 6291 - Age 9: 6638 - Age 10: 6984 - Age 11: 7331 - Age 12: 7678 - Age 13: 8025 - Age 14: 8372 - Age 15: 8719 - Age 16: 9066 - Age 17: 9413 - Age 18: 9760 - Age 19: 10107 - Age 20: 10454 - Age 21: 10791 - Age 22: 11128 - Age 23: 11465 - Age 24: 11802 - Age 25: 12139 - Age 26: 12476 - Age 27: 12813 - Age 28: 13150 - Age 29: 13487 - Age 30: 13824 - Age 31: 14161 - Age 32: 14498 - Age 33: 14835 - Age 34: 15172 - Age 35: 15509 - Age 36: 15846 - Age 37: 16183 - Age 38: 16520 - Age 39: 16857 - Age 40: 17194 - Age 41: 17531 - Age 42: 17868 - Age 43: 18205 - Age 44: 18542 - Age 45: 18879 - Age 46: 19216 - Age 47: 19553 - Age 48: 19890 - Age 49: 20227

- Less Correctly: - Age 0: 3586 - Age 1: 3757 - Age 2: 4110 - Age 3: 4471 - Age 4: 4711 - Age 5: 5157 - Age 6: 5599 - Age 7: 5945 - Age 8: 6291 - Age 9: 6638 - Age 10: 6984 - Age 11: 7331 - Age 12: 7678 - Age 13: 8025 - Age 14: 8372 - Age 15: 8719 - Age 16: 9066 - Age 17: 9413 - Age 18: 9760 - Age 19: 10107 - Age 20: 10454 - Age 21: 10791 - Age 22: 11128 - Age 23: 11465 - Age 24: 11802 - Age 25: 12139 - Age 26: 12476 - Age 27: 12813 - Age 28: 13150 - Age 29: 13487 - Age 30: 13824 - Age 31: 14161 - Age 32: 14498 - Age 33: 14835 - Age 34: 15172 - Age 35: 15509 - Age 36: 15846 - Age 37: 16183 - Age 38: 16520 - Age 39: 16857 - Age 40: 17194 - Age 41: 17531 - Age 42: 17868 - Age 43: 18205 - Age 44: 18542 - Age 45: 18879 - Age 46: 19216 - Age 47: 19553 - Age 48: 19890 - Age 49: 20227 **APPENDIX.**

The following Tables will be found to contain, in a condensed form, the most important vital statistics of England published on this subject since the above article was written:

*Annual Rate per Cent. of Marriages, Births, and Deaths in England, during the Years 1847-57.*

| Year | Estimated Pop. of Eng. (in thousands) | |------|-------------------------------------| | | | | 1847 | 17,132 | | 1848 | 17,340 | | 1849 | 17,552 | | 1850 | 17,768 | | 1851 | 17,983 | | 1852 | 18,206 | | 1853 | 18,403 | | 1854 | 18,619 | | 1855 | 18,787 | | 1856 | 19,045 |

*Annual Rate of Mortality per Cent. of Males and Females at different Ages in England.*

| Year | Deaths to 100 Males Living | |------|---------------------------| | | | | All ages | 2-343 | 2-281 | 2-377 | 2-242 | 2-244 | 2-206 | 2-245 | 2-173 | 2-398 | 2-549 | 2-394 | 2-584 | 2-147 | 2-322 | | 0 | 7-041 | 7-167 | 7-542 | 6-843 | 7-048 | 6-898 | 6-984 | 6-655 | 7-760 | 7-588 | 7-401 | 7-513 | 6-695 | 7-165 | | 5 | -901 | -904 | -903 | -905 | -901 | -844 | -897 | -823 | -825 | -970 | -1043 | -1124 | -817 | -930 | | 10 | -519 | -512 | -512 | -510 | -501 | -478 | -473 | -466 | -597 | -550 | -530 | -646 | -467 | -515 | | 15 | -851 | -819 | -832 | -811 | -783 | -772 | -763 | -781 | -859 | -929 | -858 | -951 | -717 | -901 | | 20 | -1064 | -986 | -996 | -976 | -928 | -924 | -940 | -926 | -1025 | -1300 | -1088 | -1243 | -879 | -1001 | | 25 | -1342 | -1255 | -1268 | -1217 | -1157 | -1218 | -1225 | -1202 | -1272 | -1436 | -1303 | -1381 | -1165 | -1283 | | 30 | -1494 | -1798 | -1796 | -1785 | -1732 | -1722 | -1750 | -1715 | -1800 | -2055 | -1854 | -2262 | -1716 | -1843 | | 35 | -3410 | -3192 | -3142 | -3137 | -3041 | -3076 | -3051 | -2973 | -3129 | -3649 | -3266 | -3655 | -2980 | -3203 | | 40 | -6916 | -6421 | -6678 | -6482 | -6595 | -6578 | -6739 | -6491 | -6738 | -7096 | -6793 | -7244 | -6306 | -6746 | | 45 | 14752 | 13874 | 14488 | 14266 | 14578 | 14090 | 14411 | 14400 | 15070 | 17326 | 14986 | 15187 | 14019 | 14745 | | 50 | 29745 | 27923 | 30242 | 29650 | 29438 | 28758 | 31716 | 30191 | 32214 | 35533 | 30622 | 29976 | 28553 | 30353 | | 55 | 40699 | 43112 | 48498 | 46633 | 46427 | 45681 | 43298 | 45035 | 51651 | 56607 | 42435 | 42859 | 38560 | 46494 |

*Deaths to 100 Females Living.*

| Year | Deaths to 100 Females Living | |------|-----------------------------| | | | | All ages | 2-136 | 2-094 | 2-205 | 2-085 | 2-100 | 2-048 | 2-085 | 2-013 | 2-222 | 2-381 | 2-225 | 2-447 | 2-014 | 2-168 | | 0 | 6-047 | 6-138 | 6-432 | 5-881 | 6-023 | 5-897 | 5-885 | 5-657 | 6-675 | 6-543 | 6-396 | 6-488 | 5-738 | 6-138 | | 5 | -895 | -945 | -941 | -963 | -925 | -848 | -902 | -800 | -813 | -941 | -997 | -1102 | -810 | -938 | | 10 | -543 | -535 | -569 | -520 | -512 | -485 | -503 | -476 | -533 | -577 | -566 | -653 | -491 | -636 | | 15 | -854 | -848 | -868 | -842 | -838 | -784 | -810 | -815 | -870 | -919 | -978 | 1-000 | -777 | -853 | | 20 | -1046 | -1007 | -1033 | -1007 | -1052 | -976 | -1006 | -980 | -1048 | -1173 | -1090 | -1347 | -988 | -1054 | | 25 | -1313 | -1248 | -1269 | -1297 | -1220 | -1252 | -1200 | -1188 | -1242 | -1422 | -1301 | -1617 | -1169 | -1280 | | 30 | -1660 | -1549 | -1567 | -1542 | -1520 | -1544 | -1525 | -1467 | -1559 | -1789 | -1589 | -1998 | -1473 | -1594 | | 35 | -2977 | -2730 | -2829 | -2740 | -2744 | -2692 | -2773 | -2688 | -2783 | -3228 | -2860 | -3355 | -2625 | -2846 | | 40 | -5919 | -5554 | -5899 | -5841 | -6013 | -5877 | -6040 | -5856 | -6156 | -6964 | -6072 | -6596 | -5717 | -6040 | | 45 | 13281 | 12519 | 13541 | 13375 | 13684 | 13037 | 12944 | 12856 | 13794 | 15945 | 13504 | 14028 | 12848 | 13494 | | 50 | 26463 | 25242 | 28394 | 28255 | 28438 | 27655 | 28434 | 27569 | 30350 | 32104 | 27623 | 28028 | 25922 | 28037 | | 55 | 41699 | 39195 | 46199 | 45907 | 42832 | 46679 | 44616 | 42036 | 53230 | 48916 | 43323 | 49297 | 45214 | |

The Table may be read thus:—Of 100 Males living of the age of 35 and under 45, 1,342 died in 1838; 1,255 in 1839; 1,217 in 1841, and so on for other years; a correction for increase of Pop. having been made for each Age at each Year. (The data upon which these Tables are constructed appeared in the Census Report for 1851; and in the Ann. Reps. of the Reg. Gen., particularly the 6th.) ### Mortality, Countries arranged according to Mortality in Native Race, with Ratio of Deaths in every 1000 of Population per Annum.

| Country | Death Rate | |--------------------------|------------| | Montserrat | 67 | | Tortola | 9-6 | | New Zealand | 11-4 | | South Australia | 127 | | Western Australia | 132 | | Newfoundland | 132 | | Van Diemen's Land | 132 | | Ceylon | 13-6 | | Ilhaos | 13-8 | | Norfolk Island | 14-5 | | Java | 14-6 | | Ireland | 14-8 | | New South Wales | 15-2 | | Cerigo | 15-5 | | Bahama Islands | 15-9 | | Palma | 17-3 | | Venezuela | 18-3 | | Bermudas | 18-5 | | Cape of Good Hope | 18-7 | | New Granada | 19-2 | | Cephalonia | 19-3 | | Lanzarote | 19-3 | | Norway | 19-5 | | Portugal | 20-0 | | Ferreirinha | 20-1 | | Transylvania | 20-5 | | Madeira | 20-6 | | Denmark | 21-1 | | Mechlenburg-Schwerin | 21-1 | | Tenerife | 21-1 | | French Possess, in India.| 21-2 | | Canary Islands | 21-4 | | England and Wales | 21-4 | | St Helena | 21-7 | | Scotland | 22-2 | | Hawaii | 23-0 | | St Pierre and Miquelon | 23-2 | | Dalmatia | 23-2 | | Sweden | 23-3 | | Ionian Islands | 23-5 | | France | 23-6 | | Hierro | 23-6 | | Lower Canada | 23-9 | | Isle of Bourbon | 24-1 | | Barbados | 24-2 | | Malacca | 24-3 | | Santa Maura | 24-4 | | U. Canada (Indians) | 24-5 | | Switzerland | 24-5 | | Luca | 24-6 | | St Christopher | 24-6 | | Canary | 25-1 | | Belgium | 25-2 | | Hungary | 25-5 | | Carinthia and Carniola | 26-1 | | Paseo | 26-2 | | Gozo | 26-3 | | Sierra Leone | 26-3 | | Gomera | 26-4 | | Corfu | 26-4 | | Nevis | 26-9 | | Tyrol | 27-1 | | Saragossa | 27-2 | | White Russia | 27-2 | | Holland | 27-6 | | Malta | 28-1 | | Upper Austria | 28-2 | | Styria | 28-2 | | Prussia | 28-3 | | N. Russian Provinces | 28-9 | | Bohemia | 29-1 | | Sardinia | 29-1 | | Moravia and Silesea | 29-2 | | Naples | 29-2 | | Bavaria | 29-2 | | Baltic Provinces | 29-3 | | Tuscany | 29-5 | | Martinique | 29-6 | | Siberia | 30-0 | | Illyrian Coast | 30-1 | | Nova Scotia | 30-2 | | Guadaloupe | 30-5 | | Demerara | 30-8 | | Lithuania | 31-3 | | Venice | 31-3 | | Brunn | 31-7 | | Odessa and Russ. towns | 31-7 | | Manchester | 32-1 | | Hamburg | 32-2 | | Liverpool | 33-6 | | Konigberg | 34-2 | | Laibach | 34-4 | | Brussels | 35-3 | | Brunn | 36-5 | | Milan | 36-7 | | Genoa | 37-9 | | Cadiz | 37-0 | | Queretaro, New Spain | 37-9 | | Guanaxuato, do. | 38-8 | | Linz | 38-1 | | Naples | 38-8 | | Breclau | 38-8 | | Amsterdam | 39-0 | | Barcelona | 39-7 | | Stuttgart | 40-0 | | Prague | 40-0 | | Stockholm | 42-2 | | Trieste | 45-3 | | Vienna | 46-1 | | Rennes | 45-8 | | Rome | 47-4 | | Venice | 47-9 | | Vicenza | 51-3 | | Calcutta | 51-1 | | Zara | 52-0 | | Valparaiso | 53-1 | | New Orleans | 60-6 | | Limburg | 65-8 | | Alexandria | 73-0 | | Groningen | 94-0 |

### Cities arranged according to Mortality in Native Race, with Ratio of Deaths in every 1000 of Population per Annum.

| City | Death Rate | |---------------------------|------------| | St John's, Newfoundland | 13-7 | | Lowell | 14-4 | | Hobart Town, Van D. Ld. | 15-2 | | Berbice, Demerara | 19-5 | | Cork | 19-7 | | Boston | 20-3 | | Frankfort | 20-4 | | Geneva | 22-2 | | Gibraltar | 22-3 | | London | 23-1 | | St Petersburg | 24-7 | | Hanover | 24-5 | | Cologne | 25-0 | | Belfast | 25-4 | | Birmingham | 26-0 | | New York | 26-3 | | Baltimore | 26-6 | | Scottish Towns | 26-6 | | Glasgow | 28-7 | | Edinburgh | 24-9 | | Dundee | 25-5 | | Aberdeen | 21-3 | | Philadelphia | 26-8 | | Copenhagen | 25-9 | | Leipzig | 26-9 | | Turin | 27-2 | | Havannah | 27-5 | | Archangel | 28-4 | | Leghorn | 28-5 | | Berlin | 29-4 | | Stettin | 29-4 | | Paris | 29-8 | | Dublin | 30-5 | | Dresden | 30-7 | | Gratz | 30-8 | | Dantzig | 31-3 | | Cape Town | 31-3 | | Innaburch | 31-7 | | Odessa and Russ. towns | 31-7 | | Manchester | 32-1 | | Hamburg | 32-2 | | Liverpool | 33-6 | | Konigberg | 34-2 | | Laibach | 34-4 | | Brussels | 35-3 | | Brunn | 36-5 | | Milan | 36-7 | | Genoa | 37-9 | | Cadiz | 37-0 | | Queretaro, New Spain | 37-9 | | Guanaxuato, do. | 38-8 | | Linz | 38-1 | | Naples | 38-8 | | Breclau | 38-8 | | Amsterdam | 39-0 | | Barcelona | 39-7 | | Stuttgart | 40-0 | | Prague | 40-0 | | Stockholm | 42-2 | | Trieste | 45-3 | | Vienna | 46-1 | | Rennes | 45-8 | | Rome | 47-4 | | Venice | 47-9 | | Vicenza | 51-3 | | Calcutta | 51-1 | | Zara | 52-0 | | Valparaiso | 53-1 | | New Orleans | 60-6 | | Limburg | 65-8 | | Alexandria | 73-0 | | Groningen | 94-0 |

### Mortality of White Races of Mankind in Foreign Countries.

#### Troops, &c.

| Country | Death Rate | |--------------------------|------------| | New Zealand | 11-4 | | Cape of Good Hope | 13-7 | | New South Wales | 14-0 | | Van Diemen's Land | 14-0 | | Norfolk Island | 14-5 | | Nova Scotia, New Brunswic| 14-7 | | United States (North) | 15-6 | | Canada | 16-1 | | Malta | 16-3 | | Bengal Civil Servants | 21-1 | | Gibraltar | 21-4 | | Newfoundland | 22-0 | | Ionian Islands | 25-0 | | Bourbon, Isle of | 25-6 | | Mauritius | 27-4 | | French Guiana | 28-1 | | Bermuda | 28-8 | | St Helena | 33-0 | | Norfolk Island (new convicts) | 39-0 | | Tenasserim | 34-6 | | Madras (Chusan) | 37-0 | | Madras (E.I. Co.'s troops)| 38-4 | | Antigua and Montserrat | 40-6 | | Newfoundland | 41-0 | | United States (Middle) | 44-6 | | Madras (Queen's troops) | 48-0 | | United States (South) | 48-5 | | Bombay (E.I. Co.'s troops)| 50-7 | | St Vincent's | 54-9 | | West Indies | 55-1 | | Grenada | 61-8 | | East Indies | 68-9 | | Ceylon | 69-8 | | St Kitts, Nevis, Tortola.| 71-0 | | Bengal (E. I. Co.'s troops)| 73-8 | | British Guiana | 84-0 | | Morea, Greece | 84-6 | | Algiers | 87-8 | | Bengal (Queen's troops) | 90-2 | | Guadaloupe | 98-3 | | China (Hong Kong) | 97-5 | | Martinique | 102-4 | | Zealand | 103-0 | | Bombay (Queen's troops) | 105-2 | | Honduras | 105-3 | | Trinidad | 105-3 | | Somalial | 121-0 | | Jamaica | 121-3 | | Spain (British troops) | 118-8 | | St Lucia | 122-8 | | Dominica | 137-4 | | Tobago | 152-8 | | Bahamas | 200-0 | | China | 285-0 | | Burmah | 429-0 | | Sierra Leone | 483-0 | | Cape Coast | 669-0 | | St Domingo | 943-1 | | Tobago | 10-5 | | Cape of Good Hope | 13-8 | | Van Diemen's Land (excluding convicts) | 20-1 | | St Helena | 21-7 | | Malta (British only) | 22-5 |

#### Residents.

| Country | Death Rate | |--------------------------|------------| | Cumberland District, Australia (Rom. Catholics) | 22-5 | | New South Wales (with convicts) | 23-2 | | Do. (excluding convicts) | 33-0 | | Cumberland District, Australia (Protestants) | 26-1 | | Adelaide alone | 27-9 | | Antigua and Montserrat | 29-0 | | Malacca (Europeans) | 30-0 | | Cape Town | 31-3 | | Calcutta | 32-1 | | Malacca (Portuguese descendants) | 38-4 | | Barbadoes | 39-5 | | Mauritius (white and coloured pop.) | 45-3 | | Honsudans | 73-7 | | New Orleans | 82-1 | | Calcutta (Portuguese and French descendants) | 124-4 |