an independent republic, formerly one of the states of the Republic of Central America, and under the Spanish dominion, one of the provinces of the captain-generalcy, called also the kingdom, of Guatemala. The boundaries claimed by the republic of Nicaragua are those which pertained to it as a province, viz.—the Caribbean Sea on the E., from the lower or Colorado mouth of the San Juan River to Cape Gracias á Dios; and the Pacific Ocean on the W., from the mouth of the Rio Salto de Nicoya or Alvarado on the Bay of Nicoya to the Bay of Fonseca. On the N., and separating it from Honduras, its boundary extends from the mouth of the Rio Negro, falling into the Bay of Fonseca, to the head-waters of the Rio Wanks or Segovia, following down that river to the sea at Cape Gracias. Its southern boundary, separating it from Costa Rica, is claimed to be a right line drawn from the Colorado mouth of the San Juan river to the mouth of the Rio Salto de Nicoya. Nicaragua is, therefore, embraced between 83.20. and 87.30. W. Long., and 9.45. and 15. N. Lat., and, according to these claims, embraces an area of not far from 59,000 square miles.
A considerable part of this territory, however, embracing the entire Atlantic coast, with an undefined extent inland, from the River San Juan to Cape Gracias, has been claimed on behalf of the Mosquito Indians (see MOSQUITO SHORE); but the claim has never been conceded by Nicaragua. The whole territory south of the River San Juan, and below the Nicaragua, little River Flores, flowing into the Pacific, embracing the ancient department of Guanacaste, has been claimed by Costa Rica, and is at present in the actual occupation of that state. Should these claims be ultimately admitted, they will reduce by nearly one half the territorial area of the republic.
The geographical and topographical features of Nicaragua are not only remarkable, but interesting to the world at large, from the facilities which they are supposed to afford for opening a ship-canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The northern part of the republic, embracing the whole of the district of Segovia, and a portion of Chontales, borders on the high grounds or plateau of Honduras, and partakes of its mountainous character. The valleys are narrow, and the numerous streams which flow through them rapid and turbulent. The hills are clothed with pines and oaks, and the aspect and climate of the region are those of the temperate zone. Here are found numerous rich mines of gold, silver, and copper; and many of the streams carry gold in their sands, whence it is washed in considerable quantities by the Indians. To the southward of this elevated district, and between it and the high mountain group or centre of elevation in Costa Rica, is the great basin of the Nicaraguan lakes, lying transversely to the great range of the Cordilleras, and completely interrupting it. It is precisely this physical feature which has directed attention to Nicaragua, as probably the best point where the oceans may be connected by a canal. This great basin or valley is not far from 300 miles long by 150 miles wide, and consists in great part of broad, beautiful, and fertile plains. In its centre are spread out the Lakes of Nicaragua and Managua, which collect the waters flowing inward from every direction, and discharge them through a single outlet, the Rio San Juan, into the Caribbean Sea. Some of the streams flowing into these lakes, especially those from the north, are of considerable size, and furnish a supply of water which could not be sensibly affected by drains for artificial purposes. Lake Managua is a beautiful sheet of water, nearly 50 miles long by 25 broad, and with an average depth of 5 fathoms of water. It approaches, at the nearest point, to within 20 miles of the Pacific Ocean, from which it is separated on the south by a range of low volcanic hills; but between its northern extremity and the sea there are only the magnificent plains of Leon and El Congo, in the midst of which rise the regular cones of the volcanoes of El Viejo, Telica, and Axuaco. The gigantic volcano of Momotombo stands out boldly into the lake; its bare and blackened summit, which no human foot has ever pressed, crowned with a light wreath of smoke, attesting the continued existence of those internal fires which have seamed its steep sides with burning floods, and which still send forth hot and sulphurous springs at its base. Upon the northern and eastern shores of the lake, lifting their blue, rugged peaks one above another, are the mountains of Matagalpa, gradually merging into those of Segovia, rich in metallic veins. Upon the south and west are fertile slopes and broad plains, covered with luxuriant verdure, and of almost unlimited productiveness; while in the lake itself stands the Island of Momotombo, an almost perfect cone in outline, covered with a dense forest, in the deepest recesses of which are still found gigantic idols, the rude relics of aboriginal superstition. The town of Leon was first built on the north-western shore of the lake, at a place now called Moabita, which was subsequently abandoned for its present site, in the midst of the great plain of the Marabios. From this circumstance the lake is sometimes called Lake Leon. The great feature of Nicaragua, however, is the lake of the same name, the Cocibolca of the aborigines, which is unquestionably one of the finest bodies of water on the American continent. It is upwards of 100 miles in greatest length, by about Nicaragua, 40 miles in average width. Upon its southern shore, near the head of the lake, stood the ancient city of Granada, lately the rival of Leon, and once the most important commercial town in the republic. A few miles below Granada, and projecting boldly into the lake, is the extinct volcano of Mombacho, 3000 feet in height. Studying the lake at its base, is a cluster of innumerable small islands called Los Corales, of volcanic origin, rising in the form of cones to the height of from 20 to 100 feet, and covered with verdure. Upon the same shore with Granada, but 40 miles distant, is the ancient city of Rivas or Nicaragua, the capital of a large, fertile, and comparatively well cultivated district. Flowing into the lake, at its extreme southern extremity, nearly at the same point where the Rio San Juan (the ancient El Desaguadero) commences its course, is the considerable Rio Frio, which has its origin at the base of the great volcano of Cartago in Costa Rica. It flows through an unexplored region, inhabited by an unconquered and savage tribe of Indians called Guatusos, of whose ferocity the most extraordinary stories are related.
The northern shore of the lake, called Chontales, for the most part is undulating, abounding in broad savannas, well adapted for grazing, and supporting large herds of cattle. There are a number of considerable islands in the lake, the largest of which are El Tapatepo, Solentenami, and Omo-tepec. The two former are deserted, but the latter has a considerable population of Indians of the pure Mexican or Aztec stock. This island is distinguished by two high conical mountains or volcanic peaks, called respectively Omo-tepec and Madeira, which are visible from every part of the lake, and from a distance of many leagues on the Pacific. The name of the island, in the Nahuatl or Mexican language, signifies "two mountains," from one, two, and tepetl, mountain. The water of the lake, in most places, shoals very gradually; and it is only at a few points that vessels of considerable size may approach the shore. Still, its general depth, for all purposes of navigation, is ample, except near its outlet; where for some miles it does not exceed from 5 to 10 feet. There are points, however, where the depth of water is not less than 40 fathoms. The prevailing winds on the lake, as indeed of the whole state, are from the N.E.; they are, in fact, the Atlantic trades, which here sweep entirely across the continent, and encountering the conflicting currents of air on the Pacific, form those baffling revolving winds, detested by navigators, under the name of Papagayos. When the winds are strong, the waves of the lake become high, and roll in with all the majesty of the ocean. At such times the water of the lake is piled up, as it were, on the southern shore of the lake, occasionally producing overflows of the low grounds. As the trade winds are intermittent, blowing freshly in the evening; and subsiding towards morning, the waters of the lake seem to rise and fall accordingly; and this circumstance gave rise to the notion, entertained and promulgated by the ancient chroniclers, that the lake had a regular tide like that of the sea. Some of them imagined, in consequence, that it communicated with the ocean by a subterranean channel. As already observed, the sole outlet of the great Nicaraguan basin, and of the lakes just described, is the River San Juan, debouching into the Caribbean Sea, at the now well-known port of San Juan (Greytown). This river is a magnificent stream, but its capacities have been greatly exaggerated, as will be seen in the paragraphs referring to the proposed ship-canal. It flows from the south-eastern extremity of Lake Nicaragua, nearly due east to the ocean. With its windings it is 119 miles long. The body of water which passes through it varies greatly at different seasons of the year. It is, of course, greatest during what is called the "rainy season;" that is to say, from May to October. To this variation, in some degree, may be ascribed the wide difference in the statements of the depth and capacity of the river made by different observers. Several considerable streams enter the San Juan, the largest of which are the San Carlos and Serapiqui, both rising in the highlands of Costa Rica. The streams flowing in from the north are comparatively small; indicating that the mountains are not far distant in that direction, and that upon that side the valley is narrow. The Serapiqui is ascended by canoes to a point about 20 miles above its mouth, where commences the road, or rather mule-path, to San Jose, the capital of Costa Rica. About midway between the lake and the ocean, on the south bank of the river, are the ruins of the old fort or castle of San Juan, captured by the English in 1780. The expedition against it was commanded by Colonel Polson, with captain, afterward Lord Nelson, as second in command. Of 260 men under Nelson, drawn from his vessel, the Hinchinbrook, but ten returned to the coast. At one time, besides this fort, another at the head of the river (San Carlos), and a third at its mouth, the Spaniards kept up not less than twelve military stations on its banks. The width of the river varies from 100 to 400 yards, and its depth from 2 to 20 feet. It is interrupted by five rapids,—viz., Rapides del Toro, del Castillo, de los Valos, del Mico, and Machuca. The Machuca rapids are the largest, and in many respects the worst in the river. For a distance of nearly half a mile the stream is spread over a wide and crooked bed, full of large rocks projecting above the surface, between which the water rushes with the greatest violence. They are considered dangerous by the native boatmen, who are only enabled to ascend them by keeping close to the northern shore, where the current is weakest, and the bed of the river least obstructed. Here the bongos or boats are pushed up by main force. The late Transit Company lost a number of their small steamers on these rapids, which, without great artificial improvement, must remain an insuperable obstacle to regular steam navigation on the river. The rapids of El Castillo are short, and deserve rather the name of falls. Here the water pours over an abrupt ledge of rocks, falling 8 feet in but little more than the same number of yards. Bongos are unloaded here, and the empty boats trucked past by men stationed there for the purpose. The steamers of the Transit Company did not attempt to pass these rapids, the passengers and merchandise being transferred by means of a tram-road to vessels above. The remaining rapids, although formidable obstacles to navigation, do not require a special description. The banks of the San Juan, for 20 miles from the lake, and for about the same distance above its mouth, are low and swampy, lined with palms, canes, and a variety of long coarse grass called gamalote. Elsewhere the banks are generally firm, in some places rocky, from 6 to 20 feet high, and above the reach of overflows. They are everywhere covered with a thick forest of large trees, draped all over with lianas or woodbines, which, with the thousand varieties of tropical plants, form dense walls of verdure on both shores of the stream. The soil of the river-valley seems uniformly fertile, and capable of producing abundantly all tropical staples. Like the Atrato, the San Juan river has formed a delta at its mouth, through which it flows for 18 miles, reaching the sea through several channels. The largest of these is the Colorado Channel, which opens directly into the ocean; the next in size is that which bears the name of the river, and flows into the harbour of San Juan. Between the two is a smaller one called Tauro. This delta is a maze of low grounds, swamps, creeks, and lagoons, the haunts of the manati and alligator, and the homes of innumerable varieties of water-fowl. The port of San Juan (Greytown) derives its principal importance from the fact that it is the only possible eastern terminus for the proposed inter-oceanic canal, by way of the River San Juan and the Nicaraguan lakes. It is small, but well protected, Nicaragua, easy of entrance and exit, and has a depth of water varying from 3 to 5 fathoms. Upon the Pacific the best port of the republic is that of Realejo, anciently Possession, which is capacious and secure, but difficult of entrance. The little bay of San Juan del Sur, which was used as the Pacific port of the late Transit Company, is small and insecure, and scarcely deserves the name of harbour. The same may be said of the so-called ports of Brito and Tamaranda. A good port is said to exist on Salinas Bay; but this falls on that part of the coast in dispute with Costa Rica.
Next to its great lakes, the most striking physical features of Nicaragua are its volcanoes, which bristle along its Pacific coast, in nearly a right line, from the Bay of Fonseca to that of Nicoya. Commencing at the volcano of Cosequina, we come in order to El Viejo, Santa Clara, Telica, Las Pilas, Orotá, Axusco, Momotombo, Masaya or Nindiri, Mombacho, Ometepec, Madeira, Solentanami, and Oroí, of which Cosequina, Momotombo, Masaya, and Oroí are said to be vivo, or active. Besides these volcanic peaks, there are numerous ancient craters and fissures giving forth smoke and sulphurous vapours, called Infernillos. At the time of the conquest of Nicaragua, in 1520, the volcano of Masaya, then called the "Hell of Masaya," was in active eruption. Oriedo, the chronicler of the Indians, has left us a graphic account of it as it then appeared. It has had one or two violent eruptions since that period, and after more than half a century of quiescence, is now (1857) throwing out volumes of smoke, and giving other evidences of renewed activity. It is a low, broken mountain, and the country for miles around its base is covered with lava. The volcanoes on the plain of Leon, known as Los Marabios, were also active at the period of the conquest; and as late as Dampier's time, El Viejo was "a volcano or burning mountain." Momotombo to this day sends out a constant column of smoke, and an occasional cloud of ashes. The eruption of the volcano of Cosequina in 1835 was one of the most fearful on record. It commenced on the 30th of January of that year, and continued with uninterrupted violence for four days, and then suddenly ceased. For three days the clouds of smoke and sand which it sent forth totally obscured the sun for the distance of a 100 miles. Sand fell in Jamaica, in Santa Fe de Bogota, and in Mexico, over an area of more than 1500 miles in diameter. The explosions were heard 800 miles; and a ship off the coast sailed for 50 leagues through floating masses of pumice, which almost entirely concealed the surface of the water. Since 1835 this volcano has remained perfectly quiet, with no signs of activity, except a few rills of smoke and vapour, indistinguishable at a distance. The volcano of Oroí is in a state of constant activity. Besides the volcanoes themselves, and the hundred yawning craters amongst the hills, there are numerous lakes of volcanic origin, shut in by vitrified, blistered, and precipitous walls of rock, without outlets, and often of great depth. Such is the remarkable Lake of Masaya, near the volcano of the same name, which furnishes water, not only to the considerable town of Masaya, but also to the inhabitants of numerous villages in its vicinity. It is about 10 miles in circumference, and its surface 500 feet below the general level of the country. The water is reached by steep, narrow paths, half cut in the rock, and is carried up by the aquadoras in jars, supported on their heads, or on their backs, by bands passing around their foreheads. In some of these volcanic lakes the water is fresh and good; in others salt and bitter. Perhaps no equal extent of the earth's surface exhibits so many or so marked traces of volcanic action as that part of Nicaragua intervening between its lakes and the Pacific Ocean.
The climate of Nicaragua, except among the mountains of Chontales and Segovia, is essentially tropical, but nevertheless considerably modified by a variety of circumstances. The absence of high mountains towards the Atlantic, and Nicaragua, the broad expanse of its lakes, permits the trade-winds here to sweep entirely across the continent, and to give to the country a degree of ventilation agreeable to the senses, and favourable to health. The region towards the Atlantic is unquestionably warmer, more humid, and less salubrious, than that of the interior, and of the country bordering on the Pacific. The Nicaragua basin proper, and within which the bulk of its population is concentrated, has two distinctly marked seasons, the wet and the dry; the first of which is called summer, the latter winter. The wet season commences in May, and lasts until November; during which time, but usually near the commencement and the close, rains of some days' duration are of occasional occurrence, and showers are common. The latter do not often happen except late in the afternoon, or during the night. They are seldom of long continuance, and often days and weeks elapse, during what is called the rainy season, without a cloud obscuring the sky. Throughout this season, the verdure and the crops, which, during the dry season, become sere and withered, appear in full luxuriance; the temperature is very equable, differing a little according to locality, but pursuing a very nearly uniform range from 78° to 88° of Fahrenheit; occasionally sinking to 70° in the night, and rising to 90° in the afternoon. During the dry season, from November to May, the temperature is less, the nights positively cool, and the winds occasionally chilling. The sky is cloudless; and trifling showers fall at rare intervals. The fields become parched and dry, and the cattle are driven to the borders of the streams for pasture; while in the towns the dust becomes almost insufferable. It penetrates everywhere, sitting through the crevices of the tiled roofs in showers, and sweeping in clouds through the unglazed windows. This season is esteemed the healthiest of the year. Its effect is practically that of a northern winter, checking or destroying that rank and ephemeral vegetation which, constantly renewed where the rains are constant, as at Panama, form dense, dark jungles, the birth-places and homes of malaria and death. For the year commencing September 1850, and ending September 1851, the thermometer at the town of Rivas gave the following results—Mean highest, 86°45 of Fahr.; mean lowest, 71°15; mean average for the year, 77°42; mean range, 15°3. The amount of rain which fell from May to November inclusive was 903 inches; from December to April inclusive, 741 inches. None fell in February; but 2264 inches fell in July, and 1786 inches in October.
The natural resources of Nicaragua are very great. The staples of the tropics, cotton, sugar, indigo, tobacco, rice, cacao, coffee, &c., may be produced in the greatest abundance. The cotton, although as yet, from lack of sufficient labour, produced in but small quantities, is of a superior quality. The cacao of Nicaragua has long been celebrated as next only to that of Soconusco in quality and value. Its sugar is produced from a plant slenderer, but containing more and stronger juice, than the variety cultivated in the West India Islands. Two crops, and sometimes, when the fields are irrigated, three crops are taken from the same ground annually. This cane seldom requires to be replanted oftener than once in twelve or fourteen years. The crystals of the sugar are remarkably large and fine; and the sugar itself, when carefully manufactured, nearly equal in beauty to the refined sugar of commerce. The indigo is produced from an indigenous plant called juiquilité (Indigofera dispersa, Lin.), and has a high reputation in commerce. Coffee flourishes well on the higher grounds, but is not extensively cultivated. The same may be said of tobacco, which is a government monopoly, and its production not allowed, except in certain quantities. Maize grows in great perfection, and, manu- Nicaragua factured into tortillos, constitutes a principal article of food. Cattle are numerous, and hides form a large item amongst the exports of the country. Dye-woods, chiefly the braziletto, are also extensively exported. In short, nearly all the edibles and fruits of the tropics are produced naturally, or may be cultivated in great perfection; plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes, yams, arrow-root, citrons, melons of all kinds, limes, lemons, oranges, pine-apples, guavas, cocoanuts, and many other varieties of fruits and vegetables. Among the vegetable productions which enter into commerce, may be mentioned sarsaparilla, arnotta, vanilla, ginger, gum-copal, gum-arabic, copaiba, esaucthouc, dragon's-blood, &c. The mineral resources of Nicaragua are also very great. Gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron are found in considerable quantities in various parts, but chiefly in the districts of Segovia and Chontales. The production of these metals has greatly fallen off since the assertion of the country's independence; still the produce is considerable; but such is the unsettled state of the country, it is impossible to obtain any satisfactory statistics concerning it. Sulphur may be had in inexhaustible quantities, crude and nearly pure, from the volcanoes; nitre is also abundant, as also sulphate of iron. Notwithstanding the variety of its products, and the ease with which they may be prepared for market, the commerce of Nicaragua is very small. The wants of its people are few and easily supplied.
Politically, Nicaragua is divided into five departments, exclusive of the disputed department of Guanacaste, each of which is subdivided into districts for municipal and other purposes. The departments are as follows:
| Departments | Capitals | Population | |----------------------|----------|------------| | Meridional | Rivas | 20,000 | | Oriental | Granada | 95,000 | | Occidental | Leon | 90,000 | | Septentrional of Matagalpa | Matagalpa | 40,000 | | Septentrional of Segovia | Segovia | 12,000 | | **Total** | | **257,000**|
The population here given is the result of a census attempted in 1846. Making due allowance for deficiencies, we may estimate the actual population of Nicaragua at not less than 300,000; and it may be divided as follows, with approximate exactness:
- Whites: 30,000 - Negroes: 18,000 - Indians: 96,000 - Mestizos: 156,000
Total: 300,000
The people generally live in towns, many of them going 2, 4, and even 6 miles, to labour in their fields, starting before dawn, and returning in the evening. The plantations, haciendas, hattos, huertas, &c., are scattered over the country, and are often reached by paths so obscure as almost wholly to escape the notice of the travellers. The dwellings are usually of canes, thatched with palm; many of them open at the sides, with no other floor than the bare earth, and deserving of no better name than that of huts. These fragile structures, so equable and mild is the climate, are adequate to such protection as the natives are accustomed to consider necessary. Some of the dwellings are more pretending, are roofed with tiles, and have the canes plastered over and white-washed; and there are a few, belonging to large proprietors, which are roomy, neat, and comfortable. In the towns, the residences of the better classes are built of adobes or sun-dried bricks, inclosing large courts, faced by broad corridors. The churches, as usual in Catholic countries, monopolize nearly all that there is of architectural skill and beauty. Their leading features are Moresque; but there are a few, and conspicuously among Nicaragua, them the great cathedral of Leon, which are of simpler and more classical styles. This cathedral is of substantial masonry throughout. It was finished in 1743, after having occupied thirty-seven years in building. The cost is said to have been L1,000,000 sterling. Nothing can better illustrate its strength than the fact, that it has endured unimpaired the earthquakes and storms of more than a century. During the frequent revolutionary uproarisms of the country, it is used as a fortress, heavy guns being mounted on the roof. It has sustained several severe cannonades.
The project of opening a canal for ships through Nicaragua began to be entertained as soon as it was found that no natural communication existed between the oceans, as early as 1527. Since that period it has furnished a subject for much speculation; but beyond a few partial examinations, until very lately, nothing of a practical or satisfactory character had been attempted. In 1851, a careful survey was made of the River San Juan, Lake Nicaragua, and the isthmus intervening between this lake and the Pacific, by Colonel Childs, under the direction of the now extinct "Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company." Until then, it had always been assumed that the River San Juan, as well as the lake itself, could easily be made navigable for ships, and that the only obstacle to be overcome was the narrow strip of land between the lake and the ocean. Hence, all the so-called surveys were confined to that point alone. One of these was made, under the orders of the Spanish government, by Don Manuel Galisteo, in 1781. Another, and that best known, by Mr John Baily, under the direction of the government of Central America in 1838. An intermediate examination, quoted by Thompson, seems to have been made early in the present century. The following table will show the results of these surveys as regards this particular section:
| Authorities | Distance from Lake to Ocean | Greatest Elevation above Ocean | Greatest Elevation above Lake | |-------------------|-----------------------------|-------------------------------|------------------------------| | Galisteo, 1781 | 17 200 | 272 | 142 | | Quoted by Thompson, 18— | 17 320 | 226 | 154 | | Baily, 1838 | 16 730 | 615 | 487 | | Childs, 1851 | 18 588 | 159 | 474 |
As the survey of Colonel Childs is the only one which can be accepted as conforming to modern engineering requirements, it will be enough to present the detailed results at which he arrived. The line proposed by him, and on which all his calculations and estimates were based, commences at the little port of Brito on the Pacific, and passes across the isthmus between the ocean and the lake, to the mouth of a small stream called Rio Lajas, flowing into the latter; thence across Lake Nicaragua to its outlet, and down the valley of the Rio San Juan to the port of the same name, on the Atlantic. The length of this line was found to be 194½ miles as follows:
- Western Division — Canal from the port of Brito on the Pacific, through the valleys of the Rio Grande and Rio Lajas, flowing into Lake Nicaragua... 18 688 - Middle Division — Through Lake Nicaragua, from the mouth of Rio Lajas to San Carlos at the head of the San Juan River... 56 500 - Eastern Division — First Section — Slack water navigation on San Juan River, from San Carlos to a point on the river nearly opposite the mouth of the Rio Sera-pul... 90 800 - Second Section — Canal from point last named to port of San Juan del Norte... 28 505
Total as above... 194 393
The dimensions of the canal were designed to be — Depth 17 feet; excavations in earth, 50 feet wide at bottom, 86 feet wide at 9 feet above bottom, and 118 feet wide at surface of water; excavations in rock 50 feet wide at bottom, 77 feet wide at 9 feet above bottom, and 784 feet wide at surface of water.
The construction of the canal on this plan contemplates supplying the western division, from the lake to the sea, with water from the lake. It would, therefore, be necessary to commence the work on the lake at a point where the water is 17 feet deep at mean level. This point is opposite the mouth of the little Rio Lajas, and twenty-five chains from the shore. From this point, for 14 miles, partly along the Rio Lajas, the excavation will be principally in earth; but beyond this, for a distance of 5½ miles, which carries... Nicaragua, the line beyond the summit, three-fourths of the excavations would be in trap rock, that is to say, the deepest excavation or open cut would be 64 feet (summit 47 feet; depth of canal 17 feet; 84 feet), and involve the removal of 1,370,000 cubic yards of earth, and 3,378,000 cubic yards of rock. The excavation and construction on this 54 miles alone was estimated to cost upwards of £1,250,000.
After passing the summit, and reaching the valley of a little stream called Rio Grande, the excavation, as a general rule, would be only the depth of the canal. Mr Childs found that the lake at ordinary high-water is 102 feet 10 inches above the Pacific at high, and 111 feet 5 inches at low tide, instead of 128 feet, as calculated by Mr Bailey. He proposed to accomplish the descent to Brito by means of fourteen locks, each of 8 feet lift. The harbour of Brito, so to call it, is the point where the Rio Grande enters the sea; it is in fact only a small angular indentation of the land, partially protected by a low ledge of rocks, entirely inadequate for the terminus of a great work like the proposed canal, and incapable of answering the commonest requirements of a port. To remedy this deficiency, it was proposed to construct an artificial harbour of 34 acres area, by means of mole and jetties in the sea and extensive excavations in the land. If, as supposed, the excavations here would be in sand, it would be obviously almost impossible to secure proper foundations for the immense sea-walls and piers which the work would require. If in rock, as seems most likely, the cost and labour would almost surpass computation. Assuming the excavations to be in earth and sand, Colonel Childs estimated the cost of these improvements at upwards of £510,000.
Returning now to the lake, and proceeding from 17 feet depth of water, opposite the mouth of the Rio Lajas, in the direction of the outlet of the lake at San Carlos, there is ample depth of water for vessels of all sizes for a distance of about 50 miles, to a point half a mile below the Boqueron islands, where the water falls rapidly to 14 feet; for the remaining 54 miles to San Carlos, the depth averaging only 9 feet at low, and 14 feet at high water. For this distance, therefore, an average under-water excavation of 8 feet in depth would be required to carry out the plan of a canal of 17 feet deep. But if the lake were kept at high level, the underwater excavation would have an average of only about 3 feet. Colonel Childs proposed to protect this portion of the canal by rows of piles driven on each side, and supposed that when the excavation should be completed, there would be sufficient current between them to keep the channel clear.
We come now to the division between Lake Nicaragua and the Atlantic through or along the Rio San Juan. Colonel Childs carried a line of levels from the lake at San Carlos to the port of San Juan, and found the distance between those points to be 119½ miles, and the total fall from the level of high-water in the lake to that of high-tide in the harbour, 107½ feet. From San Carlos to a point half a mile below the Serapiqui River, a distance of 91 miles, Colonel Childs proposed to make the river navigable by excavating its bed, and by constructing dams to be passed by means of locks and short canals; the remaining 28 miles would pass through the alluvial delta of the San Juan, inland, and independent of the river. Of the whole fall, 62½ feet occur on that portion of the river which it was proposed to improve by dams, and on which there were to be eight locks; and the remaining 45 feet on the inland portion of the work, by means of six locks,—fourteen locks in all, each with an average lift of nearly 8 feet. It was proposed to place the first dam, descending the river, at the Castillo rapids, 37 miles from the lake, and to pass the rapids by means of a short lateral canal. By means of this dam the river was to be raised at that point 21½ feet, and the level of Lake Nicaragua 5 feet above its lowest stage; or, in other words, kept at high-water mark, to avoid the extensive submarine excavations which would be necessary to enable vessels to enter the river. The fall at this dam would be 16 feet. The other dams were to be four of 8 feet fall, one of 13½ feet, and another of 14½ feet. Between all of these it was found there would be required more or less excavation in the bed of the river or other rock. Colonel Childs also proposed to improve the harbour of San Juan by means of moles, &c., and also to construct an artificial harbour or basin, in connection with it, of 13 acres area. As regards the amount of water passing through the San Juan, it was found that at its lowest level, June 4, 1831, the discharge from the lake was 11,030 cubic feet per second; the greatest rise in the lake is 5 feet. When it stood 3-43 feet above its lowest level, the flow of water in the river, at San Carlos, was 18,059 cubic feet per second, being an increase of upwards of 50 per cent. Supposing the same ratio of increase, the discharge from the lake at extreme high-water would be upwards of 23,000 cubic feet per second. The river receives large accessions from its tributaries, which, at the point of divergence of the Colorado channel, swell the flow of water to 54,380 cubic feet per second; of which 42,050 cubic feet pass through the Colorado channel, and 12,334 cubic feet into the harbour of San Juan.
The cost of the work was estimated by Colonel Childs as follows:
| Division | Cost | |---------------------------------|------------| | Eastern division (from Port of San Juan to lake) | £2,604,656 | | Central division (through lake) | £213,682 | | Western Division (from lake to Pacific) | £2,895,196 |
Add for contingencies 15 per cent. £857,019
Total estimated cost £6,570,482
The charter of the company, under the auspices of which Colonel Childs was sent to Nicaragua, stipulated that the canal should be of dimensions sufficient "to admit vessels of all sizes." A canal therefore such as the proposed, but 17 feet deep, and 118 feet wide at the surface of the water, could not meet the requirements of the charter, nor be adequate to the wants of commerce. To pass freely large merchantmen and vessels of war, a canal would require to be at least 30 feet deep, with locks and other works in proportion, which would involve at least three times the amount of excavation, &c., of the work proposed above, and a corresponding augmentation of cost. A canal so small as to render necessary the transhipment of merchandise and passengers is manifestly inferior to a railway, both as involving, in the first instance, greater cost of construction, and, in the second place, greater expense in working, with less speed.
The surveys and estimates of Colonel Childs were submitted to the British government, and by it referred for report to Mr James Walker, civil engineer, and Captain Edward Aldrich, Royal Engineers. The report of this commission, proceeding on the assumption that the plans, measurements, &c., of Colonel Childs were correct, laid before the whole favourable. It however suggested that the amount of "contingencies" in the estimate should be increased from 10 to 25 per cent. Of all the works of the proposed navigation, it pronounces the Brito or Pacific harbour as least satisfactory. "Presuming the statements and conclusions of Colonel Childs to be correct, the Brito harbour is, in shape and size, unworthy of this great ship navigation, even supposing the Pacific, to which it is quite open, to be a much quieter ocean than any we have seen or have information of." Subsequently the plans and reports were laid before a committee of English capitalists, with a view to procure the means for the actual construction of the work. This committee, after a patient investigation, declined to embark in the work, or to recommend it to public support, on the ground—1st. That the dimensions of the proposed work were not such as, in their opinion, would meet the requirements of commerce; 2d. That these dimensions were not conformable to the provisions of the company's charter; 3d. That supposing the work not to exceed the estimated cost of £6,500,000, the returns, to meet the simple interest on the investment, at 6 per cent., would require to be at least £390,000 over and above its current expenses; or to meet this interest and the percentage to be paid to shareholders, not less than £1,673,000 over and above expenses; or, allowing £2,000,000 per annum for repairs, expenditure, costs of transportation, &c., then the gross earnings would require to be £680,000. Putting the toll at 12½ d. per ton, the collection of this revenue would involve the passage of upwards of 1,000,000 of shipping per annum; 4th. That not more than one-third of the vessels engaged in the oriental trade could pass through a canal of the proposed dimensions, even if the route which it would open were shorter than that by way of Cape of Good Hope, instead of being more than 1000 miles longer to Calcutta, Singapore, and other leading ports of British India; 6th. That the heavy toll of 12½ d. per ton on ships would generally prevent such vessels as could do so from passing the canal, inasmuch as on a vessel of 1000 tons the aggregate toll would be £1,225, or more than the average earnings of such vessels per voyage; 7th. That a work of the dimensions proposed, under the present condition of commerce, would not attract sufficient support to defray the cost of repairs and working, and could not therefore be safely undertaken by capitalists. Upon the publication of this report, the canal company obtained the privilege of opening a tramway by steamers and carriages with barges, and the prospect of a canal was definitively abandoned, and the charter allowed to be forfeited for non-use. It was obtained in 1849, for a period of eighty-five years from the completion of the work, for which twelve years were allowed; the canal was to revert to the state at the expiration of the charter; the state to receive for the first twenty years after the opening of the work 20 per cent. annually of its net profits, and thereafter 25 per cent. Other onerous restrictions were imposed, of a nature to deter so large an investment of capital as the work would require; although in these respects the charter was much more liberal than any of those which had previously been conceded for the same purpose. By the terms of the Balwer-Clayton convention of 1850, Great Britain and the United States have defined Nicaragua the principles which they agree should apply to an inter-oceanic canal, wherever and whenever constructed:
1. That neither Great Britain nor the United States will ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control over such work, nor erect fortifications commanding it, or in its vicinity, or make use of its influence or relations with the countries through which such canal may pass, to secure exclusive privileges for itself or its subjects in the same.
2. Neither party to capture or detain the vessels of the other while passing through the canal, or within — leagues of its extremities.
3. To protect the capitalists undertaking the construction of the canal from "unjust interference, seizure, and violence."
4. To use their influence to facilitate the work, and their good offices to procure the establishment of a free port at each extremity of the same.
5. To guarantee the neutrality of the canal so long as its proprietors shall not make unfair discriminations on vessels in transit, or impose unreasonable tolls.
6. To extend the same general protection to every practicable communication, whether canal or railway, across the isthmus of Central America.
The first opportunity for a compliance with the provisions of this convention was afforded in 1856, in which year Great Britain entered into a treaty with Honduras, for the protection and guarantee of the Honduras Inter-oceanic Railway; in strict conformity with the principles here laid down.
The construction of a ship-canal between the oceans through Nicaragua is unquestionably within the range of engineering possibilities; but it can be as safely affirmed that, with the present requirements of commerce, and under the laws which govern the use of capital, it is not likely to be seriously undertaken. The assumptions upon which most of the speculations regarding the utility of such a work are founded, viz., that it would shorten the distance between the ports of Europe and those of Asia in general, is erroneous, as will appear from the following table:
| From England | Via Cape of Good Hope | Via proposed Canal | Net Loss | Net Gain | |--------------|-----------------------|-------------------|----------|----------| | To Canton | 12,900 | 13,800 | 900 | | | Calcutta | 11,440 | 15,480 | 4040 | | | Singapore | 11,880 | 15,120 | 4240 | | | Sidney, via Torres | 14,980 | 12,550 | 2320 | | | From New York | 14,160 | 11,820 | 2340 | | | To Canton | 12,360 | 13,680 | 1280 | | | Calcutta | 12,720 | 1,420 | | 1280 | | Singapore | 15,720 | 9,480 | | 5240 |
It will be observed that the sole advantage which the canal would afford to Great Britain, as regards the East, would be a saving in distance (equally attainable by a railway across the isthmus) of 2320 miles in communicating with Australia. As regards the Sandwich Islands and the western coast of America, the gain in distance, both to England and the United States, would be considerable, as shown in the subjoined table:
| From England | Via Cape Horn | Via proposed Canal | Gain | |--------------|---------------|--------------------|------| | To Valparaiso | 8,700 | 7500 | 1200 | | Callao | 10,620 | 6900 | 3220 | | Sandwich Islands | 13,550 | 8640 | 4860 | | From New York | 8,550 | 4850 | 3700 | | To Valparaiso | 9,900 | 3340 | 5360 | | Callao | 13,200 | 6300 | 6900 |
NICE (Ital. Nizza, anc. Nicaea), a seaport-town of the Sardinian States, capital of the province and administrative division of the same name, is built on a small plain between the Alps and the Mediterranean, 96 miles S. by W. of Turin. It is traversed by the River Paglione, and consists of three parts, one of which, called the Quartier de la Croix de Marbre, stands to the W. of the Paglione, and is the principal residence of strangers in Nice. This part of the town derives its name from a marble cross, built here to commemorate the reconciliation of Charles V. and Francis I. in 1538, through the intervention of Pope Paul III. Near this cross stands an obelisk in memory of the two visits of Pius VII. in 1809 and 1814. In this quarter of Nice there is also a large public square, surrounded with fine buildings, and a handsome quay, which runs along the side of the river. The other two parts of the town stand on the E. side of the Paglione, and are separated from each other by a hill of limestone 800 feet high, which formerly had a castle on the summit, but is now laid out in public walks commanding a wide and beautiful prospect. Between the river and the castle-hill is the old town, consisting of several streets of no great breadth, and including, close under the hill, a dirty locality, which is the oldest part of the whole town. The quarter of the port on the other side of the castle-hill is chiefly inhabited by seafaring people, and was once a mean and crowded place, but it has recently been much improved. The harbour is small, but capable of admitting vessels drawing 15 feet of water, and is protected by two moles, one of which has at its extremity a lighthouse and battery. The entrance is difficult in stormy weather, and it is not well adapted for a harbour of refuge. The public buildings of Nice are by no means remarkable; the principal is the cathedral, an edifice in the common Italian style of the seventeenth century. There are numerous other churches, but none of them are of any great architectural merit. The national college (which has a botanic garden), the public library and zoological museum, the theatre, baths, convents, and hospitals, complete the list of the important public institutions of the town. The climate of Nice has been much praised, and although its advantages may perhaps have been exaggerated, there can be no doubt that it is remarkable for its mildness and salubrity. It is subject to no sudden variations of temperature; the changes of season occur with considerable regularity, and the differences in heat from one month to another rarely exceed 2° or 3° Fahrenheit. The mean temperature of the spring at Nice is about 64°; of the summer, about 74°; of the autumn, about 55°; and of the winter, about 50°; while the greatest heat in summer is rarely above 84°, and the cold in winter seldom below 32°. The clearness of the atmosphere during the most part of the year is one of the greatest advantages of the place; but the cold blasts of the vent de bise, as it is called, which prevails in February, are both disagreeable and injurious to invalids. The town contains several silk, cotton, paper, and oil mills; and there are also manufactories of tobacco, snuff, perfumery, soap, leather, &c. The trade of the place is in these articles, and in wine, oranges, and other fruits. The number of vessels that entered the port in 1846 was 2609; tonnage, 155,764; those that cleared in the same year, 2583; tonnage, 153,635. Nice was originally founded by the Phocrians of Marseille, and fortified by them against the native Gallic tribes. For a long time it remained subject to its parent city; and even after both were included in the Roman empire, Nice was still in a subordinate position, and does not seem to have attained to any importance under the Roman sway. The ancient town did not occupy precisely the same site as the modern; but stood further up the mountains, where there are some remains both of this town and of Cemenelum (the modern Cimiez). In the middle ages Nice was