INTRODUCTION.

The science of Numismatics treats of coins and medals. It acquaints us with the metals used in their composition, their various inscriptions and devices, their mechanical execution and artistic merit. It tells us of the different denominations of coins, with their relation to one another, and the laws by which they were regulated.

The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks, most probably in the eighth century before the Christian era. By the fourth century the whole civilized world used money, each state generally having its proper coinage. This has continued to be the case to the present time; so that now there are few nations without a metal currency of their own, and of these but a small proportion are wholly unacquainted with the use of coins. The number of varieties of coins and medals of which specimens are preserved in collections may be estimated at not less than 200,000, and future discoveries will probably greatly raise this sum. A series of monuments of such length and completeness affords, as might be expected, very important illustration to history and to kindred branches of knowledge. This is, indeed, the real value of Numismatics; and the student will do well to keep it constantly before him, for thus he will be saved from the narrow view of a mere collector, by which many have been led in a false direction, and so discredit has been brought upon the science.

Coins, although they confirm history, rarely correct it, and never very greatly. The earliest belong to a time and to nations as to which we are not otherwise wholly ignorant, and they do not afford us that precise information that would fill in any important details of the meagre sketch of contemporary history. We gain from them scarcely any direct historical information, except that certain cities or princes issued money. When, in later times, the devices and inscriptions of the coins give more detailed information, history is far fuller and clearer, so that the numismatic evidence is rarely more than corroborative. There are, indeed, some remarkable exceptions to this rule, as in the case of the Bactrian coins, which have supplied the outlines of a portion of history which was otherwise almost wholly lost. The value of the corroborative evidence afforded by coins must not, however, be overlooked. It chiefly relates to chronology, although it also adds to our knowledge of the pedigrees of royal houses. But perhaps the most interesting manner in which coins and medals illustrate history is in their bearing contemporary, or nearly contemporary, portraits of the most famous kings and captains, from the time of the first successors of Alexander the Great to the present age; whereas pictures do not afford portraits in any number before the latter part of the middle ages; and works of sculpture, although occupying, in this respect, the same place as coins in the last-mentioned period and under the Roman empire, are neither so numerous nor so authentic. There is no more delightful companion in historical reading than a cabinet of coins and medals. When we know the features of Alexander and Mithradates, of Julius Caesar and Augustus, of the Antonines and Severus, we can far more readily take ourselves back to the times in which they lived, and feel a real interest in their stories. Our belief in the truth of history is confirmed by the qualities we can perceive in their portraits. The strength and energy of Alexander, the brilliant genius of Mithradates, the philosophic calmness of Antoninus, the obstinate ferocity of Nero, and the brutality of Caracalla, are as plain on the coins as in the pages of history. The numismatic portraits of the time following the founding of Constantinople have less individuality; but after the revival of art they recover that quality, and maintain it to our own day, although executed in very different styles from those of antiquity. From this last class we can form a series of portraits more complete and not less interesting than that of the ancient period.

While coins and medals thus illustrate the events of history, they have an equally direct bearing on the belief of the nations by which they were issued; and in this reference lies no small part of their value in connection with history. The mythology of the Greeks not having been fixed in sacred writings, nor regulated by a dominant priesthood, but having grown out of the different beliefs of various tribes and isolated settlements, and having been allowed to form itself comparatively without check, can scarcely be learned from ancient books. Their writers give us but a partial or special view of it, while even modern authors, in their attempts to systematize, have often but increased confusion. The Greek coins, whether of kings or cities, until the death of Alexander, bear sacred subjects only. Afterwards, on the regal coins, the king's head usually occupies the obverse, and a sacred subject is placed on the reverse. About this period the local myths begin to lose their special character, through the destruction of the small independent states, and the centralized system of the great empire and the kingdoms which sprang from it. The earlier coins afford us invaluable evidence for the reconstruction of Greek mythology. We have nowhere else so complete a series of the different types under which the divinities were represented. There are in modern galleries very few statues of Greek divinities, including such as were intended for architectural decoration, which are in good style, fairly preserved, and untouched by modern restorers. If we add to these bas-reliefs of the same class, and the best Greco-Roman copies, we can scarcely form a complete series of the various representations of these divinities. We cannot take ruder or baser works, since we should be led into error by them. The coins, however, supply us with the series we desire, and we may select types which are not merely of good work, but of the finest. The mythology of ancient Italy, as distinct from that of the Greek colonies, is not so fully illustrated by the coins of the country, because these are for the most part of Greek design. There are, however, some remarkable exceptions, especially in the money of the Roman commonwealth, the greater number of the types of which are of a local character, including many that refer to the myths and traditions of the earliest days of the city. The coins of the empire are especially important, as bearing representations of those personifications of an allegorical character to which the influence of philosophy gave great prominence in Roman mythology.

Coins are scarcely less valuable in relation to geography than to history. The position of towns on the sea, or on rivers, the race of their inhabitants, and many similar particulars, are positively fixed on numismatic evidence. The information that coins convey as to the details of the history of towns and countries has a necessary connection with geography, as has also their illustration of local forms of worship. The representations of natural productions on ancient money are of special importance, and afford assistance to the lexicographer. This is particularly the case with the Greek coins, on which these objects are frequently portrayed with great fidelity. We must recollect, however, that the nomenclature of the ancients was vague, and frequently comprised very different objects under one appellation, and that therefore we may find very different representations corresponding to the same name.

The art of sculpture, of which coin-engraving is the off-spring, receives the greatest illustration from Numismatics. Not alone is the memory of lost statues preserved to us in the designs of ancient coins, but those of Greece afford admirable examples of that skill by which her sculptors attained their great renown. The excellence of the designs of very many Greek coins struck during the period of the best art is indeed so great, that, were it not for their smallness, they would form the finest series of art-studies in the world. The Roman coins, though at no time to be compared

---

1 This science cannot be considered to be a branch of Archaeology, since it treats not only of ancient and mediæval coins, but of modern ones also. 2 The Chinese place the commencement of their coinage at a very remote date, but this statement is unsupported by satisfactory evidence. All authentic specimens appear to be several hundred years later than the oldest Greek money. (See sect. vi., below.) 3 The collection of the British Museum now comprises upwards of 120,000 specimens; and during late years from 2000 to 5000 pieces have been annually added. to the purest Greek, yet represent worthily the Greco-Roman art of the empire. From the accession of Augustus to the death of Commodus they are often fully equal to the best Greco-Roman statues. This may be said, for instance, of the dupondius struck in honour of Livia by Tiberius, and by the younger Drusus; of the sestertii of Agrippina; and of the gold coins of Antoninus Pius and the two Faustinas, which present portraits of remarkable beauty and excellence. The medieval Italian medals are scarcely less useful as records of the progress and characteristics of art, and, placed by the side of the Greek and Roman coins, complete the most remarkable comparative series of monuments illustrating the history of the great schools of art that can be brought together. Ancient coins throw a great light upon the architecture as upon the sculpture of the nations by which they were struck. Under the empire, the Roman coins issued at the city very frequently bear representations of important edifices. The Greek-imperial coins, struck in the provinces, present similar types representing the most famous temples and other structures of their cities, of the form of some of which we should otherwise have been wholly ignorant. The little known art of painting among the ancients does not receive any great illustration from the coins. The best Greek pieces are of too severe a style to admit of an approach to pictorial treatment, although we perceive such a tendency in the works of important schools, and during the period of decline. The Roman coins sometimes present groups which have a very pictorial character, traceable to the tendency of the sculpture of the period; this is principally about the time of the Antonines. They are never, however, so pictorial in treatment as the mediæval Italian medals. The art of gem-engraving among the ancients is perhaps most nearly connected with their coinage. The subjects of coins and gems are so similar and so similarly treated, that the authenticity of gems, that most difficult of archæological questions, receives the greatest aid from the study of coins. No one whose eye is acquainted with the treatment of figures by Greek and Roman medallists could suppose for a moment such works as those of the Poniatowski collection to be productions of ancient artists. It is probable, also, that coins not unfrequently supplied subjects to the old gem-engravers.

After what has been said, it is not necessary to do more than mention how greatly the study of coins tends to illustrate the contemporary literature of the nations which issued them. Not alone the historians, but the philosophers, and the poets are constantly illustrated by the money of their times. This was perceived at the revival of letters; and during the last two centuries coins were very frequently engraved in the larger editions of the classics. A want of technical numismatic knowledge in the editors, and the carelessness of the artists, combined to deprive these illustrations of much of their value. Probably in part on this account, but chiefly in consequence of the change from historical to textual criticism, ancient coins have been little used in this manner by the new school. This neglect is beginning to be remedied, although the full value of coins and medals in illustration of the literature of modern as well as ancient times is not as yet sufficiently perceived.

The science of Numismatics took a comparatively recent origin. The ancients do not seem to have formed collections, although they appear to have occasionally preserved individual specimens for their beauty. Petrarch has the credit of having been the first collector; but it is probable that in his time ancient coins were already attracting considerable notice. The importance of the study of all coins has since been by degrees more and more recognised; so that at the present time no branch of the pursuit is left wholly unexplored. It cannot, however, be said that the actual condition of the science justifies great expectations. We shall best perceive this if we inquire what objects it has to fulfil.

Besides its bearing upon the history, the religion, the manners, and the arts of the nations which have used money, the science of Numismatics has, from its relation to art, a special modern use, at which we have already hinted. Not alone do coins display the various styles of art prevalent at different ages, but in doing so they supply us with abundant means for promoting the advancement of art among ourselves. If the study of many schools be at all times of advantage, it is especially so when there is little originality in the world. Coins and medals have therefore two main uses, the one relating to the illustration of history, and the other to the promotion of art. It is not for these purposes that collections are usually formed. It is in vain to point to the high prices now paid for rare coins, if that rarity be not always accompanied by some marked historical or artistic importance. Very few among the collectors think of anything beyond the rarity or the beauty of a coin, and of the latter they frequently judge by a vicious standard. So little have the coins themselves been thoroughly studied even by professed numismatists, that few of them have formed an opinion as to the different denominations to which many of the most common specimens correspond. The study of ancient coins, and that of ancient systems of coinage, have been more and more separated. There is also much reason to complain of the comparative neglect of various branches of Numismatics. Until equal attention be paid to all, the condition of the science cannot be called sound. Why, for instance, while the Roman money is eagerly collected and studied, is the Byzantine series, its proper continuation, and one of the most important portions of the mediæval class, generally treated with contemptuous neglect? Numismatics, thus superficially and partially pursued, demands the least labour and affords no result of importance, except the negative one of bringing into disrepute one of the most valuable aids to historical inquiry.

Sect. I.—Definitions.

The following are the most necessary numismatic definitions:

1. A coin is a piece of metal of a fixed weight, stamped by authority of government, and employed as a circulating medium.

2. A medal is a piece struck to commemorate some event or person, and having no place in the currency. Medals are frequently comprised with coins in descriptions that apply to both equally; thus, in the subsequent definitions, by the term coins, coins and medals must generally be understood.

3. The coinage of a country is usually divided into the classes of gold, silver, and copper, for which the abbreviations \( \mathcal{A} \), \( \mathcal{B} \), and \( \mathcal{C} \) are employed in catalogues. In each class are comprised not only the coins of the metal from which it takes its name, with no more than a necessary or inseparable proportion of alloy, but coins of other metallic substances, usually base, and always compound, which were generally struck in the place of the purer pieces. The principal metallic substances thus used were electrum for gold, billon for silver, brass for copper, and electrum and silver for \( \mathcal{E} \).

4. Electrum (ελέκτρον) is a compound metallic substance, consisting of gold with a considerable alloy of silver. Pliny makes the proportion to have been four parts of gold to one of silver. The metal most of early coins of Asia Minor struck in the cities of the western coast is the ancient electrum. It appears here to have first consisted of three parts of gold to one of silver; but afterwards the proportion of silver was increased, though perhaps not everywhere. Gold largely alloyed with silver, not struck by the ancient Greeks

---

This definition excludes, on the one hand, paper currencies and their equivalents among barbarous nations, such as cowries, because they are neither of metal nor of fixed weight, although either stamped or sanctioned by authority, and, on the other hand, modes of keeping metal in weight, like the so-called Celtic "ring-money," as not stamped, although perhaps sanctioned by authority. The latter has attracted so much attention, that it must not be passed by without some further notice. There seems to be no reasonable doubt that the Celtic gold rings all weigh multiples of the same unit, but very seldom multiples of one another. From their form, it is probable that most of them were used as ornaments, and as such they would probably have been generally made to weigh an exact weight without fractions on the same principle that the hoards of gold rings are supposed to have been. The Celts appear to have been the only nation who used the ring-money among the Celts, or before its general use, and one, therefore, at which precious metal must have been weighed when employed in barter. Hence an additional reason, and probably the main one, why their weight is always some multiple of the same unit. In a primitive state of society in the present day, a woman often wears her dowry in coins as ornaments; and thus these Celtic rings may have been both ornaments and substitutes for money.

Pliny distinguishes two kinds of "electrum," amber, and this metallic substance. In Greek poetry the name seems to apply to both, but it is generally difficult to decide which is meant in any particular case. Sophocles, however, where he mentions εἰς ἐλέκτρον Σοφόκλειος Ἀθηναῖος (Ant. 1057-1059), can scarcely be doubted to refer to the metallic electrum. Definitions, or their neighbours, should be termed pale gold, as in the case of some of the late Byzantine coins.

5. Billon, a term applied to the base metal of some Roman coins, and also to that of some medieval and modern coins. It is silver with a great proportion of alloy. When the base silver coins are replaced by copper washed with silver, the term billon becomes inappropriate.

6. Brass, a compound metallic substance employed for coins. It may be used as an equivalent to the orichalcum of the Romans, a fine kind of brass, of which the sesterzii and dupondii were struck, but it is commonly applied indiscriminately to the whole of their copper currency.

7. Pota, a term applied to the base metal of which some ancient coins are composed. It is softer than billon.

8. Various other metallic substances have been used in coinage. The so-called "glass money" of the Arts has not been proved to have borne any value, and if it had, it would be excluded with paper money and the like from the class of coins.

9. The forms of coins have greatly varied in different countries and at different periods. The usual form in both ancient and modern times has been circular, and generally of no great thickness.

10. Coins are usually measured by Münzen's scale, from which the greatest dimension is taken, or when they are square, the greatest dimensions in two directions. This is, however, a very unsatisfactory scale, as its divisions are of an arbitrary character, and the instruments for applying it are such as make exactness scarcely possible. A kind of gauge, graduated to inches and decimal parts of an inch, would be far more satisfactory.

11. The weight of a coin is of great importance, both in determining its genuineness and in distinguishing its identity. To ascertain exact weight to the tenth of a grain is therefore very necessary, and this can only be done by the careful use of excellent scales.

12. The specific gravity of a coin furnishes a ready means of determining the metal predominating in its composition.

13. Whatever representations or characters are borne by a coin constitute types. The subject of each side is also called a type, and where there is not only a device but an inscription, the latter may be excluded from the term. This last is the general use. No distinct rule has been laid down as to what makes a difference of type, but it may be considered to be an essential difference, however slight.

14. A difference too small to constitute a new type makes a variety.

15. A coin is a duplicate of another when it agrees with it in all particulars but those of exact size and weight. Strictly speaking, ancient coins are rarely, if ever, duplicates, except when struck from the same die.

16. Of the two sides of a coin, that is called the obverse which bears the more important device or inscription. In early Greek coins, it is the convex side; in Greek and Roman imperial, it is the side bearing the head; in medieval and modern, that bearing the royal effigy, or the king's name, or the name of the city; and in oriental, that on which the inscription commences. The other side is called the reverse.

17. The field of a coin is the space unoccupied by the principal devices or inscriptions. Any detached independent device or character is said to be in the field, except when it occupies the exergue.

18. The exergue is that part of the reverse of a coin which is below the main device, and distinctly separated from it; it often bears a secondary inscription. Thus, the well-known inscription CONOB occupies the exergue of the late Roman and early Byzantine gold coins.

19. The edge of a coin is the surface of its thickness.

20. By the inscription or inscriptions of a coin, all the letters it bears are intended: an inscription is either principal or secondary.

21. In describing coins, the terms right and left mean the right and left of the spectator, not the heraldic and military right and left, or those of the coins.

22. Bust, bust representation of the head and neck; it is commonly used of such as show at least the collar-bone, other busts being called heads.

23. A head properly means the representation of a head alone, without any part of the neck, but it is also commonly used when any part of the neck above the collar-bone is shown. In the present article we have followed custom in the use of the terms bust and head.

24. A bust or head is either facing or in profile, in which latter case it is described as to right or to left. Two busts may be placed in various relative positions which cannot be described in English without circumlocution.

25. A bust wearing a laurel-wreath is said to be laureate.

26. A bust bound with a fillet is described as with a fillet. The term diademated is scarcely permissible.

27. A bust of which the neck is clothed is said to be draped.

28. An object in the field of a coin which is neither a letter nor a monogram is usually called a symbol. This term is, however, only applicable when such an object is evidently the badge of a town or individual. The term adjemer, which is sometimes employed instead of symbol, is manifestly incorrect.

29. A mint-mark is a difference placed by the authorities of the mint upon all money struck by them, or upon each new die or separate issue. This term is properly used only with reference to some medieval and modern coins, since the mint-marks of ancient and oriental coins cannot be discriminated with any certainty.

30. A double-struck coin is one which has been struck on an older coin, of which the types are not altogether obliterated.

31. A double-struck coin is one in which the die or dies have shifted so as to cause a double impression.

32. A coin which presents two obverse types, or two reverse types, or of which the types of the obverse and reverse do not correspond, is called a smile; it is the result of either a mistake or a caprice.

Sect. II.—Arrangement of Coins.

No uniform system has as yet been applied to the arrangement of all coins. It is usual to separate them into the three great classes of ancient coins, comprising Greek and Roman; of medieval and modern coins; and of oriental coins. The details of these classes have been differently treated, both generally and specially. The arrangement of the Greek series has been first geographical, under countries and towns, and then chronological, for a further division; that of the Roman series, chronological, without reference to geography; that of the medieval and modern, the same as the Greek; and that of the oriental, like the Roman—a treatment inadmissible except in the case of a single empire. Then, again, some numismatists have separated each denomination or each metal, or have separated the denominations of one metal and not of another. There has been no general and comprehensive system, constructed upon reasonable principles, and applicable to every branch of this complicated science. Without laying down a system of rules, or criticising former modes of arrangement, we offer the following as a classification which is uniform without being servile:

1. Greek Coins.—All coins of Greeks, or barbarians who adopted their money, struck before the Roman rule, or under it, but without imperial effigies. The countries and their provinces are placed in a geographical order, from west to east, according to the system of Eckhel, with the cities in alphabetical order under the provinces, and the kings in chronological order. The civic coins usually precede the regal, as more important. The coins are further arranged chronologically, the civic commencing with the oldest, and ending with those bearing the effigies of Roman emperors. The gold coins of each period take precedence of the silver, and the silver of the copper. The larger denominations in each metal are placed before the smaller. Coins of the same denomination and period are arranged in the alphabetical order of the magistrates' names, or letters, &c., that they bear.

2. Roman Coins.—All coins issued by the Roman commonwealth and empire, whether struck at Rome or in the provinces, provided in the latter case that they are absolutely of the same character as the coinage of the city. The oldest proper Roman money is placed first, chronologically arranged; then that of the commonwealth, bearing the names of those who had the privilege of striking it, coins of all metals and denominations being placed under each family, and the families being put in alphabetical order; and, lastly, the coinage of each emperor, disposed either chronologically or geographically, according to the indications it offers, and without separation of denominations. An alphabetical arrangement of inscriptions must be resorted to in the family series and the imperial, when no other method can be followed, and in the smallest subdivisions, such as the coinage of one denomination issued in a particular year or by a particular mint.

3. Medieval and Modern Coins of Europe.—All coins issued by European states, their branches and colonies, from the fall of the Empire of the West to the present day. This class is arranged in a geographical and chronological order, as similar as possible to that of the Greek class, with the important exception of the Byzantine coins and the coins following Byzantine systems, which occupy the first place. The reason for this deviation is, that the Byzantine money may be regarded not alone as the principal source of medieval... Greek Coins.

The period during which Greek coins were issued was probably not less than a thousand years in length, commencing about the middle of the eighth century B.C., and generally ending at the death of Gallicus, A.D. 208. If classified with reference only to their form, fabric, and general appearance, they are of three principal types—the archaic Greek, the ordinary Greek, and the Græco-Roman. The coins of the first class are of silver, of electrum, and sometimes of gold. They are thick lumps of an irregular round form, bearing on the obverse a device, with, in some cases, an accompanying inscription; and on the reverse a square or oblong incuse stamp (quadranium incusum), usually divided in a rude manner. The coins of the second class are of gold, electrum, silver, and copper. They are much thinner than those of the preceding class, and usually have a convex obverse, and slightly concave or flat reverse. The obverse ordinarily bears a head in bold relief. The coins of the third class are, with very few exceptions, of copper. They are flat and broad, but thin, and generally have on the obverse the portrait of a Roman emperor. It may be observed that the common division of Greek coins into autonomous and imperial, the former comprising all except those of the Roman period which have the effigies of emperors.

In choosing the types of Greek coins (using the term in its Device-restricted sense), the first intention was, that they should indicate the city or state by which the money was issued. The necessity for distinctive devices was most strongly felt in the earlier days of the art, when the obverse of a coin alone bore a design, and, if any inscription, but the first letter, or the first few letters, of the name of the people by which it was issued. The motive which dictated the kind of type to be selected was undoubtedly a religious one. This position has been established in a conclusive manner by Mr Burgon in his Inquiry into the Motive which Influenced the Ancients in their Choice of the Various Representations which we find stamped on their Money. There are some isolated instances in which the religious character of a type is doubtful; but these, if proved, would be only exceptions to a general rule. The piety of that age adopted religious devices, and for a long time it was held to be impious to substitute any other representations for them. To the same cause may, perhaps, be partly ascribed the preference on the most ancient coins for devices of a symbolical character to actual representations of divinities; although the difficulty of portraying the human form in the infancy of art must have had considerable influence in this direction.

Greek coins, if arranged according to their types, fall into three classes—1. Civic coins and regal, without portraits of their sovereigns; 2. Regal coins bearing portraits; and 3. Græco-devices. Roman coins, whether with imperial heads or not. The coins of the first class have either a device on the obverse, and the quadranium incusum on the reverse, or two devices; and these last are again either independent of each other, though connected by being both local, or—and this is more common—that on the reverse is a kind of complement of that on the obverse. It will be best first to describe the character of the principal kinds of types of the first class, and then to notice their relation. It must be noted that a head or bust is usually an obverse type, and a figure or group a reverse one; and that, when there is a head on both obverse and reverse, that on the former is usually larger than the other, and represents the personage locally considered to be the more important of the two. We must constantly bear in mind that these types are local and religious, if we would understand their meaning. An observation of Mr Burgon, in the essay to which reference has just been made, puts this in a very clear light. "I do not believe," he says, "that the types of coins are, on any occasion, original compositions, but always copied (from the earliest to the lowest times) from some sacred public monument. Thus, when we find what is called a Boeotian buckler on coins, we are not to look upon the representation as a Boeotian buckler, but as the buckler of some Boeotian hero well known to the ancient inhabitants of that country, and accounted to be sacred by them. In like manner, when we find Minerva represented on coins, we are not to understand the type as a Minerva, but the Minerva of that place; and, in some cases which might be brought forward, the individual statues which are represented on coins, or ancient copies, will be found to exist. The only example of originality of composition apparent on coins is where types have been doubled or halved, to express similar modifications of value."

Sect. III.—Greek Coins.

There are some matters relating to Greek coins in general which may be properly considered before they are described in geographical order. These are their general character, their devices and inscriptions, the art of such as are not barbarous, the mode of striking, and the chief denominations, with the different talents of which they were the divisions.

General character.

It is extremely difficult to fix the age of the earliest coins known to us; but on the whole it seems most reasonable to assume for them the approximate date we have given. They may be somewhat older, but it is scarcely possible that they can be much later.

Numismatic Journal, vol. I, p. 97, supra.

Id., note 70, pp. 115, 116. The doubling of a type is also indicative of two sovereigns reigning together, or of a king and his queen, examples of both of which cases occur on the Ptolemaic coins. In the following list we have classified the types of Greek coins of cities, and of kings, not having regal portraits, in a systematic order, without referring to their relative antiquity:

1. Head or figure of a divinity worshipped at the town, or by the people, which issued the coin,—as the head of Pallas on coins of Athens, and the figure of Hercules on coins of Boeotian Thebes.

2. Sacred natural or artificial objects.

a. Animal sacred to a divinity of the place,—as the owl (Athens), and the tortoise (Argos).

b. Sacred tree or plant,—as the siphium (Cyrene), and the olive-branch (Athens).

c. Arms or implements of divinities,—as the arms of Hercules (Erythrae), the tonge of Vulcan (Aegea).

It is difficult to enumerate many objects comprised in this class with local divinities. The reason of this appears to be, that the Hellenes, wherever they colonised, and nowhere more than in Greece, found an earlier system of low Nature-worship, and endeavoured to incorporate it into their own more intellectual mythology, sometimes with but partial success.

3. Head or figure of a local genius.

a. River-god,—as the Gelas (Gela).1

b. Nymph of a lake,—as Camarina (Camarina).

c. Nymph of a fountain,—as Arethusa (Syracuse).

4. Head or figure of a fabulous personage, or half-human monster,—as Medusa (Neapolis Macedonice), the Minotaur (Cnossus).

5. Fabulous animal,—as Pegasus (Corinth), a griffin (Panteppeus), the Chimera (Sicyon).

6. Head or figure of a hero or founder,—as Ulysses (Rhodes); the Lesser Ajax (Locri Opuntii); Taras, founder of Tarentum (Taranto).

7. Objects connected with heroes.

Animal connected with local hero,—as Calydonian bear or its jaw-bone (Eoelians). Arms of heroes also occur as portraits, but their attribution to particular personages is difficult or impossible.

8. Celebrated real or traditional sacred localities,—as a mountain or hillock (Apollonia Ilyrici), the Labyrinth (Cnossus).

9. Representations connected with the public religious festivals and contests,—as a chariot victorious at the Olympic games (Syracuse).

The relation of the types of the obverse and reverse of a coin is a matter requiring careful consideration, since they frequently illustrate one another. As we have before observed, this relation is either that of two independent objects, which are connected only by their reference to the same place, or the one is a kind of complement of the other. Among coins illustrating the former class we may instance the beautiful silver didrachms of Camarina, having on the obverse the head of the river-god Hipparis, and on the reverse the nymph of the lake carried over its waters by a swan; and those of Sicyon, having on the obverse the Chimera, and on the reverse a dove. The latter class is capable of being separated into several divisions.

When the head of a divinity occurs on the obverse of a coin, the reverse is occupied by an object or objects sacred to that divinity. Thus the common Athenian tetradrachms have on the one side the head of Pallas, and on the other an owl and an olive-branch; the tetradrachms of the Chalcidians in Macedonia have the head of Apollo and the lyre; and the copper coins of Erythrae have the head of Hercules and his weapons. The same is the case with subjects relating to the heroes; thus there are drachms of the Aetolians which have on the obverse the head of Atalanta, and on the reverse the Calydonian boar, or its jaw-bone and the spear-head with which it was killed. In the same manner the coins of Cnossus with the Minotaur on the obverse, have on the reverse a plan of the Labyrinth. Besides the two principal devices, there are often others of less importance, which, although always sacred, and sometimes symbols of local divinities, are generally indicative of the position of the towns, or have some reference to the families of the magistrates who used them as badges. Thus, for example, besides such representations as the olive-branch, sacred to Pallas, on the Athenian tetradrachms, as a kind of second device dolphins are frequently seen on coins of maritime places; and almost every series exhibits many symbols which can only be the badges of the magistrates with whose names they occur. Regal coins of this class are usually of a local character, owing to the small extent of most of the kingdoms, which were rather the territories of a city than considerable states at the period when they were issued.

The second great class—that of coins of kings bearing portraits—is necessarily separate from the first. Religious feeling regal portraits affords the clue to the long exclusion of regal portraits. It was not the result of that native horror of despotic power which made the early Greek kings or tyrants, from necessity or through policy, ape the character of citizens; but it was owing to a yet stronger feeling—the belief that it would be profane for a mortal to take a place always assigned hitherto to the immortals. Were there any doubt, it would be removed by the character of the earliest Greek regal portrait, that of Alexander, which occurs on coins of Lysimachus. This is not the representation of a living personage, but of one who was not alone dead, but had received a kind of apotheosis, and who having been already called the son of Jupiter Ammon while living, had been treated as a divinity after his death. He is therefore portrayed as a young Jupiter Ammon. Probably, however, he would not have been able, even when dead, thus to usurp the place of a divinity upon the coins, had not the Greeks become accustomed to the oriental "worship" of the sovereign which he adopted. This innovation rapidly produced a complete change; and every king of the houses which were raised on the ruins of the Greek empire could place his portrait on the money which he issued, and few neglected to do so, while the sovereigns of Egypt and Syria even assumed divine titles.

The reign of Alexander produced another great change in Greek coinage, very different from that we have noticed. He suppressed the local types almost throughout his empire, and compelled the towns to issue his own money, with some slight difference for mutual distinction. His successors followed the same policy; and thus the coins of this period have a new character. The obverses of regal coins with portraits have the head of the sovereign, which in some few instances gives place to that of his own or his country's tutelary divinity; while figures of the latter sort almost exclusively occupy the reverses. Small symbols on the reverses distinguish the towns in this class.

The Graco-Roman coins commence, at different periods, Greece with the seizure by Rome of the territories of the Greek Roman states. They are almost all copper; and those in that metal coins are the most characteristic and important. In their types we see a further departure from the original religious intention of those of earlier times, in the substitution of representations not alone of eminent persons who had received some kind of apotheosis, such as great poets, but also of others, who, although famous, were not, and in some cases probably could not have been, so honoured. We also observe on such of these coins as are Greek imperial many Roman types of an

---

1 The head of a river-god, supposed to be the Achelous, is represented on coins of Oenaeus as that of a bearded man covered with the skin of the head and neck of a bull. Col. Leake (Numismata Helladica, Eur. Greece, pp. 79, 80) notices how this illustrates a passage in the Telemachus of Sophocles, where Dejanira describes the forms under which the Achelous appeared as her suitor.

---

The scholiast alludes to a passage in the description of the contest of Achilles with the rivers, in the Iliad, where the Scamander throws forth the slain, bellowing like a bull, μαστον ἄρης κείης (xxi. 257.) The whole is very illustrative of the feeling which gave rise to the representations of vases and coins. Homer stands before the period of these designs, whereas the tragedians lived long after its commencement. He is original, while they may but reflect in their writings the subjects which they saw everywhere portrayed. It may be observed, that the first and third forms of the Achelous mentioned by Sophocles occur as those of rivers on vases and coins, besides that the third is varied by being represented without a beard, and that the second is found on vases, as that of the Achelous. A bull is the most common symbolical form of a river on the coins. allegorical character. The following principal kinds of types may be specified, in addition to those of the two previous classes:

1. Head or figure of a famous personage who either had received a kind of apotheosis, as Homer (Smyrna), or had not been so honoured, as Herodotus (Hallicarnassus), and Laïs (Corinth).

2. Pictorial representations, always of a sacred character, although occasionally bordering on caricature. We may instance, as of the latter sort, a very remarkable type representing Pallas playing on the double pipe, and seeing her distorted face reflected in the water, while Marsyas gazes at her from a rock,—a subject illustrating the myth of the invention of that instrument (Apamea Phrygiae).

3. Allegorical Roman types, as Hope, &c., on the coins of Alexandria of Egypt, and many other towns. These were of Greek origin, and owed their popularity to the sculpture executed by Greeks under the empire; but the feeling which rendered such subjects attractive was that of truth and truthfulness, and they are essentially characteristic of the lower school, which attained its best condition at Rome under the early emperors. Of this sort of type we must again speak in noticing the Roman coinage.

Those kinds of types which were common to this and the older classes were also considerably developed in their subjects. Thus, for instance, groups frequently took the place of single figures; and the representations of sacred localities acquired a great prominence—the most common being of buildings, which are generally temples. In the architectural types, a tendency to pictorial representation is evident in the constant endeavours to depict edifices in perspective.

There is a class of coins which is always considered as part of the Greek imperial, or Græco-Roman with imperial effigies, although in many respects distinct. This is the colonial series, struck in Roman colonies, and having almost always Latin inscriptions. As, however, these colonies were towns in all parts of the empire, from Emerita in Spain (Mérida) to Niniva Clandiopolis (Nisibis) in Assyria, in the midst of a Greek population, and often of Greek origin, their coins help to complete the series of civic money, and, as we might expect, do not very markedly differ from the proper Greek imperial coins, except in having Latin inscriptions, and showing a preference for Roman types.

We have now to speak of the meaning of the inscriptions of Greek coins. These are either principal or secondary; but the former are always intended when inscriptions are mentioned without qualification, since the secondary ones are non-essential. The inscription of civic money is almost always the name of the people by which it was issued, in the genitive plural, as ΑΘΗΝΑΙΩΝ, on coins of the Athenians; ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΩΝ, or coins of the Syracusans. The inscription of royal money is the name or name and title of the sovereign in the genitive, as ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΤ, or ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΤ, on coins of Alexander the Great. It has been hitherto always supposed that the word understood is "money" (μετάλλιον); so that the inscriptions were read "money of the Syracusans," "money of Alexander," &c. Mr Burgon has, however, formed a different opinion; and although he has not yet made public the results of his inquiry, he has very generously communicated them to us, with permission to use them, without of course entering into details. He supposes the inscription to relate to the type, and that the word understood is the name of that type. It should be remarked that the type of the reverse of a coin being usually a complement of that of the obverse, there is in general virtually but one type—that of a tutelary divinity of the place or sovereign. The Athenian coins we have mentioned with the inscription ΑΘΗΝΑΙΩΝ have the type of a head of Pallas; and the meaning is therefore, according to Mr Burgon's explanation, not "the money of the Athenians," but "Pallas of the Athenians." When the name of the divinity represented is written, the word understood is supplied. Thus on coins of Syracuse, with the head of Arethusa as the type, we read ΑΡΕΤΟΣΑ—ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΩΝ; and on others, with the head of Jupiter, ΖΕΤΣ ΕΛΕΟΠΙΟΣ—ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΩΝ. We should not be justified in further discussing this explanation; but we must add, that its fitness to all inscriptions, and its congruity with the religious meaning of the types, as first discovered by Mr Burgon, afford the best arguments for its correctness. The secondary inscriptions either describe secondary types, as ΑΓΩΝ, accompanying the representation of the arms given to the victor in the exergues of Syracusan decadrachms; or are the names of magistrates or other officers; or, in regal coins, those of cities, or those of the engravers of the dies, of whom sometimes two were employed, one for the obverse, and the other for the reverse; or are dates. These inscriptions are often but abbreviations or monograms, especially when they indicate cities on the regal coins.

The importance of Greek coins as illustrating the character Art of contemporary art cannot be easily overrated. We would coins here speak of them in this relation in a general sense, without inquiring as to their bearing on particular branches of art. We would endeavour to assign them their true place as records of art, rather than to discuss their illustration of kindred monuments. It is indeed most desirable that something of this kind should be attempted. The question that is here proposed has not received a proper consideration; and the partialities of a period of bad taste, themselves founded on partly spurious merits, have been handed down as traditions not to be questioned to those who receive with too blind a reverence all the productions of Greek art. Not alone discriminating praise, but the most jealous observation of faults, characterizes the highest kind of regard. All human art must be faulty; and blind admiration indicates nothing better than a weak judgment. The Greek artists, indeed, by making beauty the first quality in art, and by forming a system which, while it forbade extravagance, checked development, committed fewer faults than any others; but they did commit some faults. Notwithstanding the geometrical severity of their temples, the rigid exclusion of historical subjects from their sculpture of the best period, and the tameness of their use of colour in ceramic art, they have been in some things guilty of bad taste. Nothing could be more barbarous than to represent not only a human figure, but that of a woman, sustaining a vast weight, and sustaining it with difficulty. If it be excusable to represent giants thus supporting great masses, can it be to put women in their place as the columns on which a building rests? So, too, in sculpture—in a higher sense, and therefore as deserving far stronger censure—is false taste shown in the exclusion of historical subjects, because they were not capable of ideal treatment. Who can forgive a nation which was content to commemorate the battle of Marathon in a perishable painting, when meaningless combats of Greeks and Amazons, sculptured in enduring marble, adorned the walls of its temples? Great Pericles must be represented in a helmet, because his head was too long to be symmetrical. Thus the Greeks, with their love of material beauty, could not fully perceive the intellectual beauty of truth. In ceramic art, we find even in the best period faulty forms and exaggerated designs. We must the more carefully look for such things since the general excellence and uniformity of Greek high art is apt to deaden the power of discrimination. So long, however, as we know that this was a human art, worked out by human hands, which, like all other art, had its infancy, its manhood, and its decline and death, we know that it cannot have been perfect, and mistrust our judgment if for a time we think it so. Feeling thus, we come to the consideration of any monuments of Greek art, not without earnest admiration and respect for its high beauties and excellencies, yet conscious of its defects and shortcomings; expecting to see in it, as in all human things, the mysteriously-blended good and evil, and carefully maintaining such an independence as may enable us to avoid blind admiration, and such an interest as may preserve us from cold criticism.

Excellence in art is not perceived at the first search, nor does it shine out in the boldest objects. So in nature the highest beauty often demands the greatest toil, and is found at last, not flaunting in the glare of sunlight, but hidden in some untrodden recess. We must not look to size, nor regard boldness, nor think of the value of the material. We must even set aside the mechanical fineness of execution, seeking only that pure excellence that requires no adventitious aid, and is seen, at least in its intention, through a rude exterior. A few lines by the hand of a master have more meaning than the most elaborate work of a copyist. It is also needful carefully to separate the subject from the artistic execution. A fine head will often give a medal a supposititious excellence, while another difficult to treat will produce an equally supposititious badness.

The art of Greek coins, strictly so called, is separated into three great periods—the period of advance, that of excellence, and that of decline. The first period extends from the time of the earliest coins to about the commencement of the administration of Pericles, n.c., 440; the second period extends for about a century from this era to the overthrow of Greek liberty, which we may date at the battle of Charoneia, n.c. 338; and the third period extends downwards to the cessation of the Greek coinage, at the death of Gallicius, A.D. 268. The last age might be held to conclude with the commencement of the Roman empire, since about that time the decline of pure Greek art had been completed, and the later coins are rather to be considered as Greco-Roman in art, as in all else, than Greek.

Here, however, we limit ourselves to the works of the second period, that of excellence, to which we have assigned a duration of about a hundred years, from n.c. cir. 440 to 340. These may be considered as extreme limits, since in some Greek cities the coinage did not attain its highest beauty until somewhat after the rise of Pericles to power, and in none, before his time; and in the same manner, the decline appears in some cities to have commenced considerably before the reign of Alexander, but nowhere at a later period. It seems probable, judging from the chronological and historical indications of coins, as well as from the relative number of those of different styles, making, in the latter case, some necessary allowances, that in no city or state did the period of excellence last more than a century, and that its usual duration was from fifty to seventy years.

The finest Greek coins may be separated into two great classes, distinguished by a marked difference of style: those struck in Greek cities of Asia, of eastern Europe, and of the islands of the Ægean Sea; and those struck in Italy and Sicily. The former class has far finer designs than the latter, but is frequently deficient in execution, partly, no doubt, on account of its having been issued by less opulent cities. The difference is not unlike that which we observe in ancient and modern gems, although it is not nearly so wide. An ancient gem of good time is characterized by an excellence of design, usually combined with an execution which is, however, powerful, poor and rude. A modern gem rarely fails in skilful execution, although its design is generally, in comparison, either tasteless or in bad taste. The coins of Greece Proper and its eastern colonies during the best period, although often indifferently executed, show an unequalled vigour of drawing; while those of the Italian and Sicilian cities display far inferior art, of which the details are worked out in the most elaborate and delicate manner. The obverse-type of a coin of the Greek class looks like the copy of a head from the sculptures of the Parthenon; that of one of the Italian class, like a carefully-wrought gem. The former will bear magnifying rather than the latter, which has, nevertheless, the advantage in the execution of its details. We may thus separate two great schools, which may be compared to those of Phidias and Lysippus, as possessing like them these main characteristics: that the one aimed at reality,—the other at effect; the one at representing things as they are, either in reality or in the imagination,—the other at representing them so as to be seen to the best advantage.

While the two schools endeavoured to attain the same result,—a representation of what was most beautiful,—they did so with a very different feeling. The nobler school set before it the perfection of various kinds of beauty, the vigorous as well as the delicate, and thus did not suffer itself to be entangled by that narrow pursuit of one class of objects which infallibly produces mannerism. The inferior school, by requiring all beauty to be soft, and delicate, and rich, fell into the error of neglecting many noble subjects, and soon acquired a mannerism that rapidly destroyed its best elements, so that its decline (as shown by coins of known date) was far more rapid than that of the other. The difference between the two schools is best perceived when we recollect that the one contains examples of all that is finest in the other, with the addition of many beauties which it does not possess. The Greek school represents, in fact, all high Greek art; while the Italian is but eclectic, and is almost limited to one kind of excellence. We therefore only call the former a school for the sake of clearness.

The coins of the pure Greek school have scarcely been pure enough studied for us to be able to point to one well-known series as typical of the class. This is, however, partly owing to a cause to which allusion has been already made—the farness of fine coins of this school in comparison to those of the Italian school of the same time, resulting from the relative poverty of the towns by which they were issued. The rude archaic types of the Athenian coinage of the time of the Persian invasion were maintained until art had far declined, probably from commercial reasons; and the art of the chief trading cities of the west coast of Asia Minor was checked by their conquest or government by the Persians at the time of its excellence. Corinth alone, of the great maris, sent forth a consistently beautiful coinage. The Italian and Sicilian towns, on the other hand, had wealth and leisure enough to carry out efficiently their coinage their highest idea of beauty. The series which, as a whole, best illustrates the excellences of the Greek school, is one not deservedly known to numismatists, while it is absolutely unknown to students of art. This is the series of electrum coins of Asia Minor, in so far as it was issued during the period of the best art. The rest of the finest coins of this school are almost exclusively silver; gold or electrum not having been generally common in the Greek cities before Philip's time, and the copper money having been usually neglected. As among the most beautiful Asiatic coins, we must particularize those of Clazomenae in gold and silver, of the early part of the best period, which bear heads of Apollo, facing, in the boldest and grandest style. In Europe, many of the cities of Macedon, Thrace, and Greece Proper, issued pieces of the highest merit. Nothing in the whole range of Greek art is more beautiful than the head of Apollo in profile on coins of the Chalcidians; nor anything bolder than that of Bacchus in profile on a coin of Thasos, and that of Mercury, facing, on coins of Eams. In Greece itself, we may notice, as among the finest coins, those of Elis, with the head of Juno, and those of the Locri Opuntii, with that of Proserpine. After a careful review of the best specimens of this school, we perceive that it is identical with the highest school of sculpture, more remarkable for its fidelity, breadth, and boldness, than for its minuteness of execution, and equally happy in purely ideal subjects and in the simple portrayal of natural objects. There are no finer representations of the Greek divinities than those borne by the coins; as a series there are none as fine. Of the portraits the same can be said, but in a lower sense, since there is but one that belongs to the period of the highest art, that of a Persian ruler of Asia Minor, whom there is much reason for supposing to be Cyrus the Younger, on a coin of a Greek mint. The decline of this school was, however, so gradual, that some of the portraits on coins of the earlier part of what we have called the third period, issued in Greece and the East, give an excellent idea of what the best Greek medallic art could have effected in this direction. The representation of natural objects in general is characterized by an equal degree of force and vigour, although there is no attempt to idealize the animals; a lion is a lion, and nothing more.

---

1 It is interesting to compare the duration of the highest Greek art in other branches, and that of other art in different ages. The period of the Greek coins is, however, the only one which appears very nearly to correspond to that of the best numismatic art in place and duration, though probably it was a little earlier both in its commencement and its conclusion. The age of the best painting seems to have been even more nearly contemporary with that of the finest coins. The greatest sculptors and painters after the time of Philip, if we may judge from the copies of their works and the descriptions that are extant, stood very much in the same relation to their predecessors that the later Italian painters did to Raphael. The best Greco-Roman art, in coins as well as in sculpture and architecture, had a longer duration, a circumstance which is explained by its comparative stability; but its utmost limit is less than two hundred years. In music, as in the highest Egyptian art in architecture and sculpture, it is likewise limited to a term of about sixty years, and its life and decline were of an extraordinary gradual character. The vast variety of the developments of Christian architecture makes it difficult to determine its best periods; but if we separate it into styles, we shall find that the highest excellence of no one style exceeded a century and a half. The same is still more true of the modern schools of painting and sculpture, and of the art of modern coins and medals. If we turn to the East, we observe the same law in the different styles of Mohammedan architecture. The brief duration of the highest art of Greek coins is therefore in no way remarkable; especially when we recollect that its excellence was the result of a very rapid development, and was thus naturally, so to speak, as advanced as it was possible for it to be.

2 The finality of the old Athenian types is not so long as is supposed; as the production of the coins for purity and weight among the barbarians. For the same reason the Athenian government not long ago re-issued the dollars of Maria Theresa for the trade of the Levant. The Abyssinians in general would lately take no money but one variety of three dollars. (Lemberg's Academic Dictionary, p. 86).

3 It might seem unreasonable to suppose that the lower animals could be treated in art in an ideal manner; but it must be remembered that the The most beautiful coins of the Italian school, unlike those just noticed, are well known to every one. They have come to be regarded as examples of the highest Greek medallic art; and hence, perhaps, in some measure the unworthy estimate of that art shown by the neglect with which it is treated. The two most beautiful series are unquestionably those of Tarantum and Syracuse, the wealthiest of the Grecian colonies in the West. Many of the gold coins of both cities belong to the best period of art, and for their rich beauty and exquisite workmanship deserve a high place in the scale of artistic excellence. Their silver coins are still more worthy of careful study, as indicating the growth and decline of art, and as sometimes excelling the gold. The same praise cannot be given to the decadrachms of Syracuse, commonly called the Syracusan medallions. These, though certainly beautiful, display a considerable decline of taste, showing a first development of those faults which amount to caricature in many of the coins of the Carthaginians of which the obverse is similar. Scattered throughout the class there are coins of extreme beauty, especially some of the towns of Heraclea and Thurium in Lucania, perhaps the most vigorous of all in design and treatment; and others of Neapolis, Metapontum, Veii, and Terrina, as well as of the Sicilian town of Camarina. These coins, and many others, are undoubtedly extremely beautiful; but as a class they lack the force which characterizes the purer school, and in their rich and profuse detail show a taste which must be pronounced false. We are apt to be dazzled in judging them by the fineness of their metal, the clearness of the execution, the accuracy of the work, and the richness of the designs; but when we come to examine them critically, we look in vain for the bolder excellence of the Greek school; we see not alone very few things that are vigorously treated, but scarcely any that would bear vigorous treatment. Stripped of their ornamentation, many of the designs would be weak, and scarcely any of them, tried by this test, would be for a moment comparable with those of the Greek school.

It is important to study the mode in which Greek money was coined, because the forms of the pieces thus receive explanation, and true coins are discriminated from such modern falsifications as have been struck, and in some degree from those which have been cast. Our direct information on the subject is extremely scanty; but we are enabled by careful inference to obtain a very near approximation to the truth on all the most important points.

It is generally supposed that a certain Roman family coin, issued in the time of Augustus, bears a representation of the instruments of coining. It is a denarius of the family Carisius, and sometimes bears the name of T. Carisius, who was a triennarius monetarius of Augustus. On the obverse is the head of Juno Moneta, with sometimes the name MONETA; on the reverse we see an anvil, above which is the cap of Vulcan, bound with a laurel-wreath, while on the right is a hammer, and on the left a pair of tongs. The cap is but little different in form from that which is worn on the head of the bearded Vulcan on the coins of Lipara, and that of the young Vulcan on those of Æscrenia; the latter of which has a wreath like the cap of the denarius under discussion. It is also to be noted, that on some coins of Lipara, Vulcan is portrayed holding his hammer in his right hand, and in his left a vessel he has just formed; while on those of Æscrenia already mentioned the pair of tongs is placed behind his head as an appropriate symbol. Homer in two passages—the second of which Eckhel quotes—mentions the anvil, tongs, and hammer, as the implements of Vulcan, or of a worker in metal. First in the Iliad, when he describes Vulcan making the armour of Achilles, he says—

Greek text:

In the Odyssey the same are mentioned as the special implements of a worker in metal, and therefore, of course, of Vulcan:—

Greek text:

There could be no better description than these two passages afford of the implements represented on the denarius in question: there we see the anvil with the projections by which it would be fitted in the anvil-block, the hammer, and the tongs; nothing is omitted by the poet but the cap, which indeed, stands for Vulcan. With this explanation Eckhel perfectly agrees; but of late it has been usual to consider the type as representing the implements of coining. The cap has been supposed to be a die placed above the anvil, and the hammer and tongs to be here coining instruments. The form of the cap, however, would have been most inconvenient for a die, and the hammer is far better suited for beating out metal than for striking a very heavy blow. Just as the head of Juno Moneta is represented on the obverse because she was held to protect the coinage, so the symbols of Vulcan, the tools of his craft, are placed on the reverse because he was the patron of the workers in metal. We will go further and say, that such an explanation is fully in accordance with the intention which guided the ancient medallists, whereas the other would require a departure from usage.

We are able to describe but a single ancient die of the authenticity of which we are persuaded. Mr Burgon, to whose kindness we are indebted for an account of it, saw it during his residence in the East, but failed to persuade its possessor to part with it. He describes it, from recollection, as a piece of copper or bell-metal, in the shape of a truncated cone, flat at the top and bottom, about 3½ inches in height, and from about 3 inches in diameter at the bottom to 2 at the top. In the upper surface was cut the die for the reverse of a tetradrachm of a Seleucid king of Syria, with the type of Apollo seated on a cortina. There appears to have been no trace of any method of adjusting this to the die of the obverse.

From the appearance which the coins present, it may be inferred that the Greeks placed a ball of metal, carefully adjusted to the proper weight, and cold, between two dies, and then struck the upper die a powerful blow with a very heavy hammer. There was no collar to give the coins an exactly circular form. The dies must have been of hard metal, though less so than modern ones. Some Greek coins have been found of the same die, but such as the writer has seen did not present any evidence as to the wear to which their dies had been subjected. The Roman coins appear to have been struck in the same manner, but with a more careful adjustment of the two sides, yet without a collar. Their dies, although hard, must have been, like the Greek dies, softer than those of the moderns, since, in the case of coins from the same die, we can trace the increase of imperfections through wear, and this notwithstanding the small period for which each die was used, and the relatively few coins struck from it. In the case of Greek coins, there is similar evidence, in the great number which have bad or imperfect impressions, although not worn: since all these can scarcely owe their inferiority to insufficient force having been used in striking them.

Some few Greek and Roman coins were cast and not struck; others, at least in the latter series, were first cast to give them their general form, and then struck. Both cases, however, form very rare exceptions, and are confined to particular groups of coins, and not to isolated examples.

The monetary system of which we propose now to speak is Monetary that of the Greeks and Phoenicians alone. The barbarians system, who imitated Greek coining, and whose money is therefore included in the same great class, had also monetary systems, as the general exactness of the weight of the gold and silver coins of any one people at a particular period undoubtedly shows. For the present, however, we must be content to collect evidence as to what these systems were, without attempting to form theories.

The money of the Greek cities, except those of the west of Asia Minor, which issued electrum coins, appears to have been of silver only from the origin of coinage until after the expedition of Xerxes. Subsequently both gold and copper money was issued. Silver, however, seems to have continued to be the standard, and the gold coins were struck in denominations, usually, if not always, derived from the silver ones. Silver, therefore, is the most important metal.

The denominations of silver coins were divisions of the mina or mina, which again was a division of the talent. The mina and talent were monies of account as well as weights, and therefore, in discussing the coinage, they may be treated as coins. The only reason that they were not struck must have been their great weight. Although the same system of denominations obtained, with no very great variation, in all the Greek and Phoenician cities, yet there was a relative difference of weight, owing to the use of at least four distinct talents. The ancients mention more talents than these, or else call some of them by more than one name. Mr Burgon, however, after weighing a great number of coins, found no reason to distinguish more than four talents—the Attic, the Egyptian, the Alexandrian or Ptolemaic, and the Tyrian. The Attic talent was used by many Greek cities before Alexander's time, and particularly had no rival in Italy, nor indeed in Sicily, except at two towns for a time at a very early period. Alexander adopted it, and thenceforward it became almost universal in Greek coinage. The weight of its drachm, as deduced from the best evidence, was properly about 67.5 grains troy; and that of its tetradrachm about 270. There was in general no very great depreciation of the Attic weight in subsequent times until the Roman period. The weight of the principal denominations, the drachm and the tetradrachm, we have given to show the relation of the talents. Of the other denominations we shall speak afterwards. The Egyptian talent was as ancient as the Attic, and it is possible that it was even of an earlier origin, most coins of the remotest period being adjusted to it. The Attic talent was, however, the standard of some of the oldest coins, and the instances of the change from the Egyptian to it are not, on the whole, of a character that would warrant the conclusion that it was of later origin. The Egyptian talent is frequent in Greece and the islands in early times. Its drachm weighed about 95 grams, and the didrachm about 192 grams. The Alexandrian or Ptolemaic talent might, Mr Burgon holds, be more properly termed the Macedonian. The first Ptolemy, who was attached to all Macedonian usages, abandoned the Attic weight which Alexander had adopted, and issued money adjusted to the old talent of Macedon. We find this talent to have been that of the earlier coinage of the cities of Macedon and Thrace, and of the Macedonian kings, in both cases before Alexander the Great, and to have been restored, not invented, in the coinage of the kings of Egypt. In the former case, its drachm weighs originally about 83 grams, and its tetradrachm about 322 grams; but they fall gradually to much lower weights. In the latter case, the drachm weighs originally about 55 grams, and the tetradrachm about 220 grams. The Tyrian, which might rather be called the Phoenician talent, was in use among the Persians and Phoenicians. The Carthaginians, however, adopted the Attic talent in Sicily, while still using the Phoenician in Africa, as the kings of Syria struck their general coinage on the former system, but that of their Phoenician cities on the Alexandrians. The drachm of this talent weighed, according to Mr Burgon, between 58 and 59 grams, and the tetradrachm about 235.1. The earlier Persian coins are of a somewhat heavier weight. The similarity of weight of the Alexandrian and Phoenician talents might suggest a common origin, but it would be hazardous, with the slight evidence we possess, to attempt to form any theory on the subject.

We are best acquainted with the denominations of the coinage of Athens, which followed the Attic talent. These denominations were—the drachm, with its multiples, and its sixth part, the obolus; and that division, with its multiples and its divisions. The following list is drawn out from that in Col. Leake's Numismata Hellensia (European Greece, p. 21), where the standard weight of the Attic drachm is assumed to be 67.5 grams:

| Denomination | Weight | |--------------|--------| | 1. Agyrion | 67.5 g troy = 1 drachm | | 2. Didrachm | 135 g = 2 drachms | | 3. Tetradrachm | 270 g = 4 drachms | | 4. Tetradrachm | 675 g = 10 drachms | | 5. Obolus | 11.25 g = 1/6 of drachm |

There were 100 drachms in the mina or mina, and 60 minae in the talent.

In the civic money for which the Attic talent was used the most common piece was either the tetradrachm or the didrachm. Thus, at Athens the great currency was of tetradrachms, at Corinth of didrachms. In the money of the kings the tetradrachm was the chief coin. The smaller pieces were numerous, though fewer than these two most important denominations, except in the lesser cities, which did not frequently strike the latter. A smaller coin that is very frequent in the later period appears to have been an Attic tetrobolon, but was probably also considered to be an Egyptian hemidrachm, since it was introduced not long after the general abandonment of the system of the latter, and when its weight would have been preferred, from its near approach to that of a well-known coin of that system. Those cities which used the Egyptian talent are not known to have issued any larger piece than the didrachm, which is their principal coin. The drachm and hemidrachm are, however, also frequent. In the Alexandrian talent the most common pieces, during the early period, when it should rather be called Macedonian, were the tetradrachm, didrachm, and drachm. At first octodrachms were struck. Under the Ptolemies the common coins were tetradrachms, but decadrachms were also issued. The system of the denominations of the Tyrian or Phoenician talent was somewhat different from that of the other talents, though not essentially so. The principle of division into thirds, seen in the Attic talent in the case of the obolus, which is the sixth part of the drachm, is more fully developed in the Phoenician talent. The Carthaginian coins are principally tetradrachms and didrachms, but dodecadrachms and decadrachms also occur, as well as drachms and smaller pieces. In the cities of Phoenicia tetradrachms were the largest and the most important coins. In the Persian series the principal pieces are tetradrachms and coins of a third of their value, with different types, which are usually called silver Darics. It is probable that this system tended to produce the issue of the pieces called cistophori by the cities of the west of Asia Minor at a late period. These coins must originally have been struck as Attic tridrachms; but they appear afterwards to have been considered to be tetradrachms, and if this be established, they are examples of a fifth system. It is probable that the names of most denominations were the same among the Greeks, and that the Persians and Phoenicians had a different nomenclature, although the Greeks would have called their coins, in so far as they agreed with their own, by Greek appellations.

The gold and electrum coinage appears to have been every-Gold where based upon the silver in its denominations; for, although money in many cases it is very difficult to arrive at even a probable conclusion, from the fewness of specimens, all the direct evidence seems to be in favour of this opinion. The oldest coins are the electrum staters of the west of Asia Minor, commonly called in ancient times Cyzicene staters. Their weight is about 248 grams, which is a little in excess of that of the Phoenician tetradrachm. It contains, however, only about 186 grams of pure gold, three-fourths of the whole weight, the remaining fourth being of silver, and as the latter appears not to have been taken into account, the relation seems rather to have been to the Egyptian didrachm. There were smaller denominations, of which one, the hecta, which was the sixth part of the Cyzicene stater, was very common. Other pieces appear to have the weight of the third of the stater. The Persian staters, anciently called Daric staters, and now gold Darics, are of pure gold, and are in weight equivalent to rather light didrachms of the Attic talent. In European Greece there is little gold money before the time of Philip of Macedon. He issued staters of the weight of Attic didrachms. Subsequent kings struck distaters, or gold tetradrachms; hemistaters,

---

* Thomas Conolly, Greek, &c., Coins, p. 57. Greek coins; and smaller coins. The largest known coin of the cities which was struck in gold is the stater, and it is usually less common than lower denominations. The system upon which this coin, which may be considered to be the basis of the gold money, was subdivided, has not yet been fully determined. The Ptolemaic struck staters, adjusted to the Alexandrian talent, as well as octadrachms and pentadrachms.

There are at least two distinct systems of denominations of Greek copper money anterior to the Roman domination, which we may term the Greek and the Italian. Of the former system the principal coin was the chalca, or piece of brass, of which eight went to the obolus of silver. There was a smaller piece called a lepton, of which the chalca is said to have contained seven. The coins have usually been so carelessly struck that it is difficult to separate them by weight. The Italian system, which was used in Italy and Sicily, and does not seem to be of foreign origin, is better known. The weight is more accurate, and the value is frequently marked upon the coins. The highest denomination was the as, according to the Roman nomenclature, which was at first nominally, the pound coined, and was thence called as librae; and the unit was the uncia, or ounce, its twelfth part. The common divisions were the semissis or semis, the half of the as; the triens, or third; the quadrans, or quarter; the sextans, or sixth; and the uncia. Although originally these were coined at near their full weight, they were afterwards rapidly reduced, until at length the as contained but half an ounce of metal.

(The most important works on the entire class of Greek coins may be here mentioned. The account of Greek coins in Eckhel's "Doctrina Numorum Veterum," will be found to contain the condensed result of the studies of the author's predecessors, with much valuable matter of his own. Although not equal to the part relating to Roman coins, this treatise is of very high merit, and has not yet been superseded. Sestini, in his "Classes Generales," has published an excellent companion and supplement to Eckhel. Following that author's arrangement, he has enumerated the principal inscriptions of Greek coins, and has thus afforded great assistance to those who are engaged in their classification. Mionnet's voluminous "Description de Médailles Anciennes," &c., is very useful, but of little antiquity. Leake's catalogue of Greek coins, compiled with much industry by one who had great practical knowledge, but who was not otherwise qualified to attain a high place as a numismatist. Colonel Leake has lately published a catalogue of examples and electrotypes in his possession of coins of the Greek series, excluding most of those struck by barbarians. The notices given in this work of the geographical, historical, and mythological references of the coins are of high value. The most important work on the weights of Greek coins is Böckh's "Metrológische Untersuchungen.")

We may now pass on to notice the Greek coinage of each country, following Eckhel's arrangement.

The series commences with Spain, Gaul, and Britain, three countries of which the money presents a general resemblance, constituting the only great class of barbarous Greek coinage. It must not be supposed that the money of the whole class is of one general character; on the contrary, it has very many divisions, distinguished by marked peculiarities; it has, however, everywhere one characteristic in common,—that its devices are corrupt copies of those of Greek and Roman coins. The earliest of these barbarous coins appear to be the best imitations of the gold and silver money of Philip II., King of Macedon. Next in order of time come the imitations of Roman family coins, and then the copper of the commonwealth, in both Spain and Gaul, and the copper money of the former country which followed its silver imitated types. There are in these coinages evident imitations of Greek designs, besides the Macedonian ones we have mentioned, to which it is not easy to assign a chronological place, though they are probably anterior to the imitations of the Roman coins, but not to the more accurate money of Greek colonies, especially Massilia in Gaul. It is useless to attempt a very minute classification of the subjects of these barbarous types, since the artists by whom they were executed did not properly understand them; and we must be contented if we can perceive the general though accidental principles to which they owe their origin.

The coinage of Hispania or Spain, corresponding to the modern Spain and Portugal, was issued during a period of not more than three hundred years, from about B.C. 250 to A.D. 1. The earliest Spanish coins can scarcely be carried further back than B.C. 250, and probably were issued long subsequently; while the latest are of the reign of Caligula, during, or at the close of which, the coinage was evidently stopped. The division of this period was of four classes, —the Celtiberian, or native; that of the Phoenician, and that of the Greek colonists, and the Roman. To the Celtiberian class belong the earliest of the earliest period of Spanish coinage undoubtedly belonging; so that its commencement was about, or probably after B.C. 250. Its cessation must have been caused by the subjugation of Spain to the Roman commonwealth in the middle of the second century B.C. The coins are of silver and copper, no gold pieces being known. In form they are flat, and, in the case of the copper, rather thick. The silver have the general appearance of Roman family denarii, of which, indeed, they are imitations; while the copper again are imitations of the silver. The most common obverse-type of the coins in both metals is the head of a divinity, and the reverse-type a horseman or two horsemen. The inscriptions are in Celtiberian characters, and appear to be always the names of the cities, and perhaps also tribes, by which the coins were issued. The Celtiberian alphabet is manifestly of Phoenician origin; but the language which it was employed to express appears to have been that of the aboriginal inhabitants, represented by the modern Basques. The style is barbarous. With reference to their denominations, it must be remarked that the most common silver pieces have about the same weight as the Roman denarii of the period, and the Greek-Attic drachmas, their nearly equal to the denarii. It is not easy to decide from which of the two it was adopted, but the balance of evidence seems to predominate in favour of a Roman source.

The change from the Celtiberian to the Latin coinage does not seem to have been abrupt. We find certain coins with inscriptions indicating a transition, while in art and types they show a relation to the later Celtiberian pieces, as well as to the earliest Roman. Their inscriptions are either bilingual, in Celtiberian and Latin, or else they are written partly with Celtiberian and partly with Latin characters. Phoenician and Greek colonies issued money of their own during the period of the Celtiberian coinage. The Phoenician coins, such as those of Gades, have types which are not without meaning, but their execution is very barbarous. The Greek coins, as those of Emporia, have types which show a distinct meaning, although they are executed with a coarseness often amounting to barbarism.

The Roman coinage of Spain, besides those which bear inscriptions in Latin and Celtiberian, of which we have already spoken, are of two periods, that of the commonwealth, and that of the empire. The money of the former class differs little in type or intention from the Celtiberian coinage, which it superseded; but that of the latter shows a considerable change in the character of the types. The imperial coins were all issued by Roman coloniae. Their art cannot be said to indicate any important progress, but their inscriptions are accurate, and the types display a distinct intention. Their obverses bear the head of the emperor, or of some imperial personage, while the reverses have types usually referring to the foundation of the colony by which they were issued. Among the most common reverse-types may be specified the emperor or a priest guiding a plough drawn by two oxen, a subject representing the ceremony of describing the extent of the walls; an ox, intended to convey the same idea; an altar, sometimes called in the inscription the altar of Augustus, the founder; and a temple.

The following are the most important coins in the three provinces of Hispania.—In Lusitania, we may notice the Imperial money of its capital, Augusta Emerita, which took its name from its having been the settlement of persecuted Jews (see p. 46). The denarii of the legate of Augustus P. Carinas, which bore the name of this place, were perhaps struck at Rome. In Baetica, the series of the Phoenician colony Gades is especially worthy of note; and in Tarraconensis those of the Greek colonies Emporiae and Rhoda. The money of the Spanish island of Ebusus is of a remarkably Phoenician character.

(The principal books upon Celtiberian coins are M. de Saulcy's "Essai," and two works by M. Boudard, the second of which, now in Greek Coins.

The progress of publication promises to be a very complete treatise. There is also an excellent sale-catalogue by M. Gaillard, of a large collection of Spanish coins and coins current in Spain in ancient and modern times, formed by Don García de la Torre.

The coins commonly called that of Gaul should rather be classed in the Gauls, since it belongs to the people more properly than to the country; for, in addition to the money struck in the territory called after them, it comprehends pieces issued by the Gauls or other barbarians near Macédonia and Illyricum, and in the south of Germany. The Gaulish coinage appears to have generally extended over a period of less than four centuries; for the oldest pieces, as far as we can ascertain, are those which follow the types of Philip II. of Macedon, and the latest are the Roman of Augustus. Some of the Greek coins of Massilia may be of a time somewhat anterior to that of Philip. There are two principal classes—the true Gaulish coinage, and that of Gaul under the Romans.

The ancient Gaulish coins are of gold (often greatly alloyed with silver or copper), of silver, of copper, and of potin. They are usually convex, and, in the case of the gold and potin, generally thick and heavy. The earliest designs are copied from those of Greek money, the gold and silver coins being imitations of the staters and tetradrachms of Philip II. of Macedon. At a later time the silver and copper coins of the Gaulish chiefs and tribes chiefly follow the designs of Roman denarii of the commonwealth and the beginning of the empire. The early class is uninscribed, except when part or whole of the Greek legend is imitated; but the later class bears Latin inscriptions. The art of both is barbarous, although that of the later class is better than that of the earlier in this respect. There appear to be two monetary systems, but they are not clearly made out; although it is most reasonable to consider them to have been imitations, the one of the Macedonian system, and the other of the Roman.

The money of the important Greek colony of Massilia forms a separate class with that of the far less noted towns of Antipolis and Beterrae, in the same division of Gaul. It was issued during at least three full centuries preceding the subjugation of the country by the Romans. Its metals are silver and copper; gold coins not having been discovered. The designs and inscriptions are purely Greek, and the art, in the case of Massilia, is not unworthy of an isolated colony. The denominations appear to follow the Attic talent.

The proper Roman coinage of Gaul is, as far as is known, of copper only, although there is silver as well as copper money of some regalit protected by the Romans before the complete reduction of the country. This Roman money is of a few colonies alone. Like the contemporary Spanish pieces of the same class, the coins are large and coarsely executed. On the obverses there are commonly two heads,—either those of Augustus and Julius, or Augustus and Agrippa, back to back. The designs of the reverses appear usually to relate directly or indirectly to the establishment of the colony. The inscriptions are in Latin, and the denominations seem to follow the Roman system.

Some of the more important or interesting coins may be now indicated in the order of their proper arrangement. Here we deviate from the example of those contemporary numismatists who contemplate all the coins found in Gaul under Gaul. While admitting the common general character of the money of the various countries, and that some coins virtually identical may have been struck on both sides of the Channel, we perceive a sufficient difference in the majority of specimens found in England and on the Continent to render a distinction necessary. Besides this, many of the coins found in our own country bear names which are undoubtedly those of British towns or chiefs, such as Verulamium and Cunobelinus. It is not easy to define in a few words the main particular, in which early Gaulish and British coins differ; but it may be said that the former are generally in a style either somewhat better or much worse, especially in the quality of grotesqueness, than that of the latter. Passing by Gallic Aquitanica, as numismatically uninteresting, we may notice in Gallic Narbonensis the coins of the Greek city of Massilia, some of which, in the silver series, are of great beauty, although the larger proportion are below the average of Greek money of the period in their art. The Roman colonies Nemausus and Vienna, in the same division of Gaul, are represented by copper coins of some interest. Those of the former place have for their type of reverse a crocodile chained to a palm tree, in commemoration of the subjugation of Egypt by Julius or Augustus, and those of the latter bear the device of a bull's head, similar to the coins of the town of Gallic Lugdunensis. Lugdunensis (called on the coins of the empire Cepia) may be pointed out for its autonomous and imperial money. Besides these coins of cities, there are many having the names of Gaulish chiefs and tribes. Some of these are classed with the cities, because the position of the territories they ruled or occupied in one of the great divisions of Gaul is known; but others cannot be so placed, and are therefore arranged alphabetically, after the geographical series. Among the last are many uncertain names, which may be of towns, tribes, or chiefs. Especial caution is needed in any attempts to find the historical places of Gaulish chiefs. The information to be derived from their coins is so meagre that there is great danger of mistake in such endeavours. If, for example, the name of a chief is read, and the position of his territories ascertained, it does not follow that he is identical with one bearing the same name, and holding the same territories, mentioned by an ancient author; yet the contrary supposition is not unnatural. At the end of the Gaulish series are placed the uninscribed coins, some of which are among the earliest pieces issued by the Gauls, while others are probably of various times in the subsequent periods of their native coinage until its very conclusion.

The principal works upon the coins of Gaul and the Gauls are—the learned treatise of M. Leluel, the accurate catalogue raisonné of Gaulish coins in the French Collection, by M. Duchalais, the account of the money of Gallic Narbonensis, by M. de la Sausaye, the essay on that of the north-west of France, by M. Lambert, and the papers of the Marquis de Lagoy on various Gaulish coins.

The ancient coinage of Britain is of the period before the complete subjugation of the country by the Romans. It is manifest that it was derived from that of Gaul, but it is not possible to say how long after the origin of the latter. There are no coins of which we know the date until the time of the struggle with the Romans. Taking into consideration the general persistence of the types, and the regularity of the weight and fabric, of the whole gold coinage, it seems reasonable to suppose that it was issued during a period of about two centuries, closing c. A.D. 45. It would therefore appear that the Britons had a metal currency at the time of Caesar's Invasion. The received text of Caesar's Commentaries, indeed, states the very contrary; but Mr Hawkins has shown that the manuscripts, however they differ in the passage in question, agree in relating that the use of either gold or copper money obtained among the Britons, and has traced the existing corruption to the editors of the middle of the seventeenth century. He cites a manuscript of about the tenth century, in the British Museum, which reads as follows:—Utuntur aut sunt aut nummo aureo aut annulis ferreis ad certum pondus examinati pro nummo," a statement, as far as the money is concerned, entirely consistent with numismatic evidence. The silver coinage, it must be observed, is not known to have been issued until after Caesar's time, no specimen which can be considered to be much anterior to Caracalla, who is believed to have been contemporary with Augustus; and the earliest coins which have been found. British coins are properly of, but one class, since there is no money but that of the natives. The metals used are gold, silver, copper, and potin. The coins greatly resemble those of Gaul in form and general appearance, as already noticed. They are thick and convex, the gold being the most remarkable for their thickness. The types of the gold coins are taken from those of the Gaulish in the same metal; the obverses bearing some device based on a degraded form of the head of Hercules on the money of Philip II., which has become a pattern, or even an ear of corn; while the reverses have a horse, with a wheel or other symbols, standing in like manner for the chariot on the Macedonian pieces. The inscriptions are always in Latin. The art of the coins is barbarous, though it often displays a kind of conventional neatness of execution. The monetary system appears to be the same as that of the earlier native Gaulish money.

In arranging the British series, we place first coins bearing the names of known princes or towns; then those bearing unknown

---

1 Description des Monnaies Espagnoles et des Monnaies Étrangères qui ont eu cours en Espagne, &c., par Joseph Gaillard, 4to, Madrid, 1832. 2 Strabo (lib. iv., cap. iii.), as Eckhel notices (Oct. Num., vol. i., p. 65), speaking of his own time,—that is, of about the close of the reign of Augustus and the beginning of that of Tiberius,—mentions the striking of gold and silver money by the Roman prefects of Lugdunum. No coins, however, have been found which have the head of any one later than Augustus; and the known Roman imperial money of Gaul is of copper alone. 3 Description des Médailles Gauloises, suivie par les Collections de la Bibliothèque Royale, par J. Duchalais, 1811 (with a volume of plates). 4 Description des Médailles Gauloises, suivie par les Collections de la Bibliothèque Royale, par J. Duchalais, 1811 (with a volume of plates). 5 Numismatique de la Gaule Narbonnais, par M. de la Sausaye, 4to, Paris, 1844. 6 Essai sur la Numismatique Gauloise du Nord-Ouest de la France, par Ed. Lambert, 4to, Paris, 1844. 7 Description de Quelques Médailles inédites de Marcellis, &c., par M. le Marquis de Lagoy, 4to, Aix, 1834; Notice sur l'Attribution de Quelques Médailles des Gaulois, &c., 1837; Mélanges de Numismatique, &c., 1845; Essai de Monographie d'une Série de Médailles Gauloises d'argent, &c., 1847. 8 Bell, Gal., lib. v., cap. 12.

VOL. XVI. Greek Coins.

names; and last, those which are uninscribed. Coins in the second division may be constantly transferred to the first by the careful observation of the places of their finding. The coins of the third division are probably the oldest. They occupy in type a middle place between the coins of Gaul of the same kind and the earliest inscribed British coins of which the date is known, and which are of about the time of Julius Caesar or Augustus. There are no inscribed coins which can be referred with certainty to any chief mentioned by Caesar. The earliest of known date are of Tasciovanus or Tasciovanus, the father of Camulodunum. He must have reigned about the time of Augustus, for we cannot place him earlier, since one of his silver coins shows a manifest imitation of a type of denarii of that emperor in its obverse and reverse; nor do we suppose his reign to have extended much later, since he was the grandfather of the famous Caratacus. The coins of Camulodunum, the son of Tasciovanus, and Shakespear's Cymbeline, are the most interesting in the British series. He is supposed to have been a contemporary of Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula, an opinion which cannot be far wrong, since he was the father of Caratacus, and to have ruled over a territory extending from the Severn to the east coast, and comprising the country of the Catuvellauni, Trinobantes, and Dobunni. His coins are of gold, silver, and copper; the gold pieces following the old barbarous types, with some improvement in execution; and the silver and copper having types derived from those of Roman coins, or at least showing Roman influence. They have the names of the king and his father, both generally abbreviated, and sometimes those of two towns where they were struck,—Camulodunum, his capital, probably represented by Maidon in Essex, and Verulamium or Verulam, where are coins bearing the inscription SERGO and TASC, which have been ascribed to the Segontian mint, by Cassell, but Mr Evans assigns them, with more reason, to the tribe of the Segontians. This tribe he supposes to have been ruled by a chief called Epaticcus, known only by his coins, whom he conjectures to have been a son of Tasciovanus, and on his death to have shared his kingdom with Cunobelinus. Other coins have been ascribed to Bodicace, because they bear the inscription BODYO; but this must be considered to be a purely conjectural attribution.

There is no general account of British coins which can be called complete. This is partly owing to the circumstance that their proper explanation has been the result of recent inquiries; but it is to be hoped that this deficiency will soon be supplied. The works of Ruding and Hawkins give a concise notice of these coins; there is an essay on those of Camulodunum by the Marquis De Lagoy, and the Numismatic Chronicle contains several most important papers on British money by Mr Evans.

Italy.

The ancient coins of Italy occupy the next place in Eckhel's arrangement. They appear to have been struck during a period of more than 500 years, the oldest being probably of the beginning of the sixth century B.C., and the latest somewhat anterior to the time of Julius Caesar. The larger number, however, are of the age before the great extension of Roman power, which soon led to the use of Roman money almost throughout Italy. There are two great classes, which may be called the proper Italian and the Graeco-Italian; but many coins cannot be referred to either, since they present peculiarities of both. The proper Italian coins are of gold, silver, and copper. Of these, the gold coins are extremely rare, and can never have been struck in any large numbers. The silver are comparatively common, but the copper are very numerous and characteristic. Some of the silver coins have an incuse device on the reverse, which almost always is a repetition of that on the obverse; these are of Greek cities, but their fabric is nearly peculiar to Italy. There are also a few with a design on the obverse and a perfectly plain reverse. The most remarkable copper coins of this class are of the kind now called as granae, some of which must be considered to be the early proper coinage of Rome, although others are known to have been struck by other Italian cities. These are very thick coins, some of which are of great size, while more have a rude appearance. The designs of the Italian coins are generally, if not always, of Greek origin, although the influence of the native mythology may be sometimes traced. The inscriptions are in Latin or Oscan, and follow a native orthography; sometimes on the earlier coins they are retrograde. The art of this class is generally poor, or even barbarous. The denominations appear to be Greek, except in the case of the copper money, which follows a native system. Of this system there are almost nothing but the early provincial Roman coins afford the best known examples. The Greek-Italian coins are of gold, silver, and copper. The silver and copper are very common, and the gold comparatively so, although struck by few states or cities. In form the silver and copper coins are thicker than those of Greece of the same period, but there is not the same difference in the gold. The designs are of Greek origin, although here, as in the proper Italian coins, but less markedly, can native influence be detected. This influence is evident in the frequent occurrence of types symbolically representing rivers, showing a bias towards the old nature-worship; and still more in the use of Latin inscriptions, with half-Etruscan forms of the letters on coins otherwise purely Greek. Of the best art of ancient Italian money we have already spoken, and we shall have occasion to mention some of its most beautiful examples. The denominations of the gold coins are unquestionably derived from those of Greece, according to the weight of the Attic talent, the heaviest being a talent of that talent. The lower denominations require to be carefully studied before they can be satisfactorily explained. The silver denominations are mostly Greek, and follow the Attic talent; there are few tetradrachms, the didrachms are extremely common, and smaller denominations are usually met with. We thus learn that the silver currency was chiefly of didrachma, smaller pieces being less used, and larger ones scarcely used at all.

Commencing in the north of Italy, the first coins that strike us are those of Populonia in Etruria. The silver money of this place is especially remarkable for being generally of a peculiar fabric, already noticed, in which the reverse is left perfectly plain. In Umbria we may notice the six grave of Tudor, and in Picenum that of Asculum and Hadria together, and that of Hadria alone. In Latium would be placed the early coinage of Rome, were it not included in the separate class of Roman money, with the exception of the pieces issued by the Campanian towns with the name of the city. In the province of Samnium we observe a very remarkable series of coins issued during the Social or Marsic War by the Italian states confederate against Rome. They rose to obtain the rights of Roman citizenship, but their league was gradually broken by the conclusion of separate treaties by the senate with individual states. The earliest coins are of a type which is probably that of the eight persons who are probably relatives of the eight stars which are placed in the original legend, and certainly stand for those states, taking an oath over a sacrificial pig. The series, as it continues, commemorates the gradual violation of this engagement. The eight persons are reduced to six, the six to four, and the four to two. That these changes should be represented is the more remarkable, if we recollect that the war lasted but three years, from B.C. 90 to 88 inclusive. Some of the coins have Oscan, and others Latin, inscriptions.

In the money of Campania we observe fine Greek work, combined, in some cases, with inscriptions showing an Italian orthography and form of letters. The coins of Caere afford examples of good art in both silver and copper; their inscription is CAENO, apparently a genitive plural form. Those of Cumae are generally of coarse design and execution; among them are some of an early time. The money of Hyria comprises didrachms of good work of the best period of art, and bearing very archaic retrograde inscriptions, as ANIY. Neapolis, the modern Naples, is represented by an extensive series, including fine silver coins, particularly di-

---

1 Ruding's Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain, 3d ed., vol. I, p. 68. 2 Annals of the Coinage, &c., p. 97, et seq. 3 Essai sur les Monnaies Antiques de Camulodunum, Roy de la Grande-Bretagne, &c., par M. le Marquis de Lagoy, 4to, Aix, 1828. 4 Silver Coins of England, p. 8, et seq. 5 On the Art of British Coins, Numismatic Chronicle, vol. xii., p. 127. 6 On the Roman Coins attributed to Dubnovellanus, vol. xiv., p. 97. 7 Remarks on the Art of Camulodunum, vol. xviii., p. 18. 8 On the Art of Ancient British Coins, vol. xviii., p. 18. 9 On the Art of Ancient British Coins, vol. xviii., p. 44. 10 On the Art of Ancient British Coins, vol. xviii., p. 155. 11 On the Art of Ancient British Coins, vol. xviii., p. 64. 12 On a Gold Coin of Epaticcus (in the press). 13 When the names or symbols of two or more towns appear on a coin, it is understood to commemorate an alliance, called on the Greek Imperial money, Opinion. Greek Coins.

drachms, and copper coins as excellent in design, and usually coated with the beautiful blue or green patina produced by the soil of the neighbourhood. The coinage of the great Greek cities of Italy may be considered to begin with Neapolis, though that of the Italian cities does not here cease. In Numismatics it is impossible to separate money according to a strictly geographical or historical order.—The earliest coins sanctioned by the Roman state are classed as uncertain coins of Campania. Of these we shall speak in treating of Roman money; those in it which historically belong although most of them are purely Greek in their art, and they are all rightly assigned to be of the Greek class. In Calabria, Tarentum affords the largest series of any city of Italy, and one which is, for extent and beauty combined, second alone to that of Syracuse in all the West. The gold coins are extremely fine, and those of silver, which are principally didrachms, are interesting on account of the early style of some, and the exquisite work of others, the latter being of the best period. The usual types of the didrachms are, on the obverse Taras, son of Neptune and founder of the city, carried by a dolphin, and on the reverse a horseman, who, as we shall show in speaking of the coins of Sicily, appears to represent a victor in the horse-race at the Olympic games. The copper coins are few, and not remarkable. The money of the cities of Lucania is very interesting. Among the coins of Hieraclea are didrachms of exquisite work, having on the obverse a head of Pallas, with the monster Scylla on the helmet, and on the reverse Hercules strangling the Nemean lion, a design of great vigour, and showing perfect anatomical knowledge. The series of Metapontum, or, to follow the Greek orthography, Metapontion, is interesting in its silver to that of Tarentum in extent, and is as beautiful in its finest coins, the didrachms, which are in turn better adapted for that delicate treatment in which the Italian and Sicilian artists especially excelled. The great majority of these coins are didrachms, although the tetradrachm has been discovered. They commence at an early time with didrachms of a class that we have already mentioned as almost peculiar to Italy. The type of the obverse, an ear of bearded wheat, as a symbol of Prosperity, is repeated on the reverse, but is there incuse instead of being in relief. The didrachms of the best period have on the obverse the head of Prosperine, or that of some other divinity, and on the reverse the ear of bearded wheat. Some of these are of extreme beauty. Of Posidonia, afterwards called Pastusa, there are archaic coins of the incuse class just mentioned, with the type of Neptune striking with his trident. The famous Sybaris, afterwards called Thurium, is represented, under its first name, by early didrachms with incuse reverse, probably of the sixth century B.C.; and, under its second name, by a very fine series of silver coins of about 400 B.C. Sybaris having been twice overrun by the Crotonians, the new city Thurium was founded in its stead by colonists from Athens, B.C. 444. The coins are chiefly didrachms, but there are a few tetradrachms. Examples of both denominations are of very fine work. Some of the tetradrachms are superior in the quality of boldness, which is rare in Italy and Sicily, and equal in execution to any other coins of those countries. They are nearest, though yet inferior, to the finest coins of Greece and Asia. On the obverse they have the head of Pallas, with Scylla on the helmet, and on the reverse a bull butting. Among the coins of Velia, which are principally didrachms, we notice many of beautiful work. Their common reverse-type, a lion seizing a stag, carries us to Asia, and reminds us that this town owed its origin to a colony of the Phocceans of Ionia, whose native place was taken by the Persians. This and similar types are almost wholly found on Asiatic coins, particularly those issued under Persian rule. They are evidently adopted from eastern symbolism, but with a change of meaning; the original signification seems to have been the strength of regal power, the later one, the strength of a divinity, probably always Hercules. It should be remembered that the difference of feeling among the easterners and the Greeks as to the kingly dignity would render a change easy to preserve the religious meaning of these types. Passing on to the province of the Bruttii, we observe the coinage of that people, or of the province in general, to be fine in the three metals, though not of the best Italian style, the earliest pieces being probably not anterior to the time of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. The money of Cassanum comprises early didrachms of the incuse class, with a type not yet satisfactorily explained, representing some divinity. The town of Croton is represented by a series of much interest. It commences with incuse didrachms of an early period, some didrachms and smaller coins of a time somewhat later are remarkable for having on the obverse, instead of a repetition of the tripod, which is the type of the other coins, images of spears or spears. The didrachms of the period of good art are extremely beautiful. Two of their types are of especial interest; one represents Bellerophon on Pegasus, slaying the Chimera; and the other portrays, on either side of the tripod, which is the most common type of the place, Apollo drawing his bow, and the serpent Python which he is about to destroy. The coin last mentioned exhibits very admirable work. The money of the Locri Epizephyrii is fine, but not of an early period; it probably commenced just after the time of Pyrrhus. The town of Pandosia is represented by rare silver coins of great beauty. The series of Rhegium comprehends archaic tetradrachms, and others, as well as didrachms and copper pieces, of the best time, and of fine design and execution. The most interesting of these coins are some of the earliest. They are tetradrachms, having on the obverse a victor in a biga, and on the reverse a hare running. This is the type of tetradrachms of Messana of the same period so similar in work to these that they can only be distinguished from them with certainty by their inscription. The type ceases at Rhegium, but continues at Messana, and we perceive by the later coins of each place that the chariot-race was omitted. At Rhegium two mules (αράβατα) are seen. Aristotle cited by Pollux, relates the Anaxilus of Rhegium, having introduced horses into Sicily, and having conquered in the chariot-race of males at the Olympic games, placed on the money of the people of Rhegium a male-chariot and a hare. The types relating to victories in chariot-races always refer to the success at the Olympic games of a citizen or tyrant of the place which struck the coin, as we shall be able to show. The pieces of Rhegium and Messana in question can only relate to a contest during the period at which the chariot-race of males prevailed, that is, during the years from B.C. 500 to 448, inclusive. The earlier coins of Messana, and all of Rhegium of this type, must also be of a time when the two towns were under a united government. In the case of Messana, the coins follow a Samian influence, if not domination, since there is a piece of that town with the Samian types, which immediately precedes them. These particulars all point to the time of Anaxilus, tyrant of Rhegium, who first invited the Samians permissively to seize Messana, then called Zancle, about B.C. 494, and afterwards expelled them, and ruled the two cities until his death. His reign, reckoned from his accession at Rhegium, is probably dated from B.C. 500 to 476. This period corresponds to the style of the coins, which would point of itself to the earliest part of the fifth century B.C. We may therefore consider that these coins of Rhegium, and the coins of Messana of the same time, bearing the same types, were issued by Anaxilus after his victory at the Olympic games, of which Simonides sang the triumphal ode. While we accept the explanation which Aristotle gives of the chariot, we cannot take that of the hare, since there is nothing the least resembling it in Greek numismatics. We would rather consider the latter type to be a relic of the old nature-worship, which was especially prevalent in Italy and Sicily, but of which the Greeks in Aristotle's time had but an indistinct knowledge. We will conclude this notice of ancient coins of Italy with those of Terina, of which the didrachms are of extreme beauty and delicacy. On the obverse they bear the head of a female divinity, called on a copper piece of the same place Pandima; and on the reverse, the figure of a local genius, or of the same divinity, usually, but not always, winged. In one case the figure is represented filling a jar at a fountain issuing from a lion's head in a wall; and in another, resting seated on a jar, from which flows water; and it is worthy of note that, in the latter type, a dove springs out near the mouth of the jar. Pandima (Πανδίμη) is probably a name of Hecate.

---

1 It has been suggested that the name Thurium, "impetuous" or "warlike," might be indicated by the bull, as a speaking type; but it is far more consistent with correct criticism to suppose that the latter refers to the rushing forth of a fountain, or rapid course of a river; a river, as we have seen is frequently represented as a bull, and a fountain might be with equal appropriateness.

2 The series of the Olympic games was a chariot drawn by mules.

3 Αράβατα ἢ Περιπολοῦσιν, κύνες δὲ προσκατέχονται τῶν ἀγώνων, ὡς ἂν ἔχῃ ἐν τῇ Ἀλεξανδρείᾳ ἀναγραφῆναι, ἐν τῷ ἀγώνι τοῦ Ἀλεξανδρείας.

4 There are also coins of Rhegium with the Samian types, which were probably struck at the same period; whence it is reasonable to suppose that some of the Samians settled at Rhegium at the time of the taking of Zancle.

5 The Syracusean decadrachms, called diassarca, which were struck in one of the three years B.C. 480-478, are certainly of better art than these coins of Rhegium and Messana; but this might be owing to the wealth and importance of Syracuse.

6 Millington's excellent paper "On the Date of some of the Coins of Zancle or Messana," in the Transactions of the R. Soc. Lit., vol. I., part II., p. 93 et seq., is here our chief authority. Greek Coins.

(The most useful works on ancient Italian coins are Caralli's plates; the account of the Ae Grave of the Kircherian Museum by MM. Marchi and Tesseiri, and Millingen's Considerations.)

The coins of Sicily are among those of Italy. They appear to have been issued during a period of about six centuries or a little more. The oldest cannot be carried further back than the commencement of the sixth century B.C., and the latest are Roman colonial pieces of the reign of Tiberius. The earliest coins are silver; the gold money commences with the period of the best art in Sicily, but is not common during the earlier part of that time; and the copper coinage probably begins during the fifth century B.C. The gold and the silver money cease at the subjugation of the island to Rome; but the copper continues later, some having been issued under the Romans. The latest coins are Greek Imperial of Segesta and Roman colonial of Agrigentum, struck in each case under Augustus, and Roman colonial of Panormus, struck under Tiberius. In form the silver and copper pieces are compact and thick.

The types of Sicilian coins most resemble those of coins of Italy, especially of the south. They show the same partiality for representations of rivers, which are not unfrequently accompanied by their names. The most common and important device on the coins of the greatest cities, usually occurring on the reverse, and sometimes on the obverse of the latter silver pieces, decadrachms of Syracuse, and tetradrachms and didrachms of that and other places, and on the reverse of some of the gold coins of Syracuse and its kings, represents a victor in a chariot-race. Its exact meaning never having been properly determined, we must give some space to its consideration. The same device, and others that belong to its class, occur on coins of cities out of Sicily; but as they are not so closely related to the Sicilian representation as the various types of that representation are to one another, we will not at present notice them. This device is found on coins of the Sicilian cities of Agrigentum, Camarina, Catana, Gela, Himera, Leontini, Messana, as well as Rhegium in Italy, with the same types as Messana, Segesta, Selinus, and Syracuse, and on coins of kings of the last town. The earliest and latest of these, of which the dates are most nearly known, were struck, respectively, in the year B.C. 480-28, during the reigns of Hiero II., King of Syracuse, in 275-68. These coins are of two classes. The first and more ancient class comprises all the early coins with this device, and closes at the commencement of the period of the best art, about B.C. 430; it is distinguished by the victor being a man. The second class extends through the periods of the best art, and of decline, to the time of the latest coin with the device; in it the victor is a goddess, and latterly usually Victory. On coins of one city, Selinus, of both classes, Apollo and Diana are represented together in the car; in the older coins Diana drives, in the later Apollo; and on tetradrachms of one type of Syracuse, a winged male genius acts as charioteer. The oldest coins of the first class generally have the type of a chariot drawn by two horses; others have a chariot drawn by two mules; and there are also triges and quadriges of horses. The later coins of the same class have almost always a quadriga of horses. On the earlier pieces the beasts are usually represented in slow action, probably through the unskillfulness of the artists; but on the later ones they are generally in full course. One of the metes (victors) is sometimes seen beyond the chariot, showing that at the close of the race he is intended, when the driver had to avoid disaster by the adroitness with which he turned. Victory hovers above, with a wreath, about to crown the charioteer, or as if intending to crown the horses. Beneath, in the exergue, on the later coins, we notice symbols, usually dolphins or other marine animals, or objects proper to the sea. On the coins of the second class, the chariot is always a quadriga, either in rapid course, or proceeding slowly as if in triumph. The place of the charioteer is taken by a goddess, as already mentioned, who is either a divinity of the place, as Proserpine at Syracuse and Segesta, and Minerva at Camarina, or Victory; and, except in the last case, Victory hovers above with a wreath, about to crown the victor. As we have already mentioned, on coins of Selinus, Apollo and Diana are represented in the car together, the former driving on those of this class; and on coins of Syracuse, a winged male genius is charioteer: these are exceptional examples. In the exergue are either marine objects or tripods, but not the wreath, with sometimes at Syracuse the inscription ΑΘΑΝΑ, leaving no doubt as to their meaning. These prizes are a suit of armour on coins of Syracuse, and two jars on those of Camarina.

These types plainly refer to victories in the chariot-races of public games which had reflected honour upon the great towns of Sicily. From the marine symbols, we should infer that they were celebrated on the sea-shore, or were in some manner connected with the sea. The religious character of the types of Greek coins shows that these must have been sacred games; and the substitution of Sicily, divinities for the charioteers proves that they were held in the highest reverence. In the Iliad, when the divinities personally assist the heroes, as especially where Minerva acts as charioteer to Diomed, it is only on some occasion of the greatest importance, in accordance with the Horatian maxim. Usually they aid their favourites less directly, as at the games at the funeral of Patroclus, where the poet makes Hesmades about to succeed through the help of Apollo, until Minerva secures the victory for Diomed. In both cases the idea is the same as that intended to be conveyed by the later types of the coins. It might be contended that games held in such high honour could scarcely have been local celebrations at the towns on the money of which they are commemorated; but there is direct evidence to show that they were not such. One of the metes is repeated on coins of Selinus about B.C. 350, and on others of Gela, of about fifty years earlier, and is in each case an heroic column; although the treatment of the chariots and the general style is very different. The types, therefore, refer to chariot-races of two different kinds, celebrated at games held in the highest reverence. To no games will these particulars so well apply as to the Olympic. They were the most revered and famous of all the Greek games, being the chief of the four called sacred; and at them, during the periods at which the various types first occur, were held races of the very four kinds which they represent, the chariot-race of mules having lasted, as previously noticed, only fifty-three years, a period including that during which the first coin relating to such a contest was struck. A victory at the Olympic games was held to be no less glorious to the city of the victor than to himself. It is probable, indeed, that the highest honours were paid to the victor in the foot-race, after whom the Olympiad was distinguished; but there is no doubt that success in other contests, and especially in the chariot-race, was considered as not much less glorious. Nothing, therefore, could be more proper than the commemoration on coins of victories in the Olympic chariot-race; and we have only to inquire whether the cities of Sicily with types relating to such races were successfully engaged in the contests. The remaining odes of Fidias, which are of the very period of the earliest of the Sicilian coins, considering, give no doubtful answer. Fourteen of these ode-songs relate to the Olympic games, and of these, again, six celebrate success in chariot-races, every one of which was gained by a Sicilian,—two by an Agrigentine, two by a Camarinian, and two by Syracusan,—all of cities which struck coins with the chariot-type. If we look at the lists which have been made of victors in the Olympic games mentioned by ancient writers, we perceive that not only these cities, but others of Sicily of which the coins have chariot-types, were successful in the Olympic chariot-race or at other contests of those games.

If any doubt remained as to the correctness of this explanation, it would be removed by the direct statement of Aristotle, already noticed, that Amazilas, tyrant of Rhegium, placed the type of a male-charioteer on the coins of that place when he had been victorious at the Olympic games; and that of Plistarch, that Philip II. of Macedon commemorated his success in the Olympic chariot-race by placing the representation of a chariot on his money. The former story we have seen to be confirmed by coins of Rhegium and Messana, and the latter is shown to be correct by the representation, on the reverse of Philip's gold pieces or staters, of a victorious barge, as not seen on the coins of earlier kings of Macedon.

This explanation of the chariot-type in the case of Philip's staters leads us to the discovery of the true meaning of a kindred device, occurring on his coins and those of several Greek cities. Philip is also related to have gained the prize in the horse-race at the Olympic games; and, accordingly, the common reverse-type of his largest silver coins, which are tetradrachms, represents a horseman holding a palm. The palm is not the only indication that a race is here referred to; for if we compare this type with the less common one representing a mounted traveller, probably some hero, we observe that the rider in the former case is smaller than in the latter, and the horse perhaps larger. There can, therefore, be no doubt that Philip commemorated his victory in the horse-race, as he did that in the chariot-race, on his coins. This result leads us to examine the common reverse-device of the didrachms of Tarentum, which represents a horseman, naked or armed, generally either crowned or about to be crowned with a wreath by Victory, flying above him, or crowning himself, or crowning his horse.

1 Francesco Carilli's Numerorum Italici Victoris Tabulae editis, edidit Carolus Carolus, 4to, Leipzig, 1830 (best ed.).

2 L'Ace Grave del Museo Kircheriano accanto il Monte Primavera dell' Antica Italia, Roma, 1839.

3 Considerations sur la Numismatique de l'Antique Italie, par James Millingen, Svo, Flor., 1841. Suppl. 1844.

4 Soph., Electr. 730-722 and 743-748. The whole of this description, the locus classicus on the Greek chariot-races, deserves careful study in connection with the coins, although it must be remembered that it relates to the Pythian games.

5 It would seem, from the description of Sophocles (Electr., loc. cit.), that the metes at the Pythian games were objects like posts, perhaps columns. The importance of the horse is shown not alone by his being crowned by the rider; in another type he is embraced, or at least welcomed, by Victory standing to receive him, as if after a race; and again, in another, a small figure, apparently a genius, raises one of his fore-feet and examines the hoof, as if to extract a stone. Another type shows two horses, the rider of one of which leads the other.

In the exergue of these coins there are symbols, often of a marine character. All these representations evidently relate to games held in high honour, at which the horse-races were of two kinds,—one the usual contest with single horses, the other that at which every rider had two horses, one of which was always able leading the other. There must also have been some connection with the sea. Here, as in the case of the chariot-race, the particulars entirely agree with the Olympic games, at which there were the two kinds of horse-races represented—the common one, and that with two horses. If to all save all doubt, a similar type to those of Tarentum occurs on the coins of Syracuse and Leontini smaller than the didrachms. In the case of the former town, a rider is represented on the reverse of didrachms, drachms, and hemidrachms, and in that of the latter, of didrachms and drachms; in each case of the earlier period. In one of the Syracusan examples, Victory flies above the horseman, while in the exergue there is a marine monster; two particulars which complete the parallel with some examples of the chariot-type on coins of the same place. If the explanation of the chariot-type be correct, it cannot be doubted, especially when we recollect the minute agreement in the instance last mentioned, that the similar type which we are considering must be explained in the same manner. It should, moreover, be borne in mind that the two types occur in Philip's coinage, with strong evidence of their meaning, and that it is therefore probable that they have the same signification on the other coins mentioned above; in each case referring to two kinds of contests at the Olympic games. The gold coins of Cyrene, which we have already mentioned, have the two types. They present difficulty. The chariot is always a quadriga, bearing in the earlier examples a figure seeming to represent a traveller or charioteer, but in the later, a Victory driving. The horseman has, in one instance, the traveller's hat, or causa, hanging from his neck behind; and here he might possibly be a hero, as on coins of Macedonian kings. As in the case of the Sicilian cities, we find from ancient writers that Cyrene was successful at the Olympic games. It is probable that, at a comparatively late period, perhaps from the early part of the third century B.C., these types lost their proper meaning, and were no longer used with reference to any victory of the city or king issuing the coins bearing them, but were copied in a careless manner from the earlier coinage, or continued with a kind of heraldic intention.

Some objections which are likely to occur to any one considering this question may be here noticed. A similar explanation of the chariot-types was offered by the older writers, and has been abandoned by numismatists, except in the case of Philip's sisters. Why, it may be asked, has this explanation fallen to the ground if it be near the truth? We reply, because it was founded on bad criticism, and wantonly developed. It is no matter for surprise that the earlier numismatists should have supposed that these types referred to famous games, for they were always striving to discover some reference to whatever was celebrated in ancient times. Thus far they happened to be right; but the next step led them into error, for, with their accustomed carelessness in such matters, they fixed in any case upon that one of the four sacred games to which the character of a particular device seemed at first sight to point. Such mere guesses, supported by no sound reasoning, were often necessarily erroneous, and the explanation fell into contempt. Nothing but a knowledge of the religious meaning of the types of Greek coins, and of the appropriateness of all their details, could establish a correct explanation. Another objection wears at first sight a more serious aspect. It seems unreasonable that the Olympic games should be commemorated on coins struck in Sicily in Italy, in Macedonia, and in the Cyrenaica, and not on coins of Greece Proper. We must remember, however, that an Olympic triumph would have been of much greater far-reaching importance in remote places than those near the scene. The difficulties of the voyage or journey, the long absence of the competitors, and their great expenses, would, in the case of distant cities, forbid any but the most wealthy from engaging in the contest, and raise public expectation to the highest pitch while expecting the event. These conditions would, indeed, scarcely be those of the kings of Macedon; but they had a special motive for feeling pride in an Olympic success; their country was out of the limits of Hellas, and as none but Greeks could join in the great contest, it was only by proving a Greek ancestry that they obtained, with difficulty, this privilege. The Greeks of Italy, of Sicily, and of Africa, may have felt a similar pride in being able to contend, while their neighbours, often not only little inferior to them in civilization, but far excelling them in power, were rigorously excluded.

In adopting the explanation given above of two classes of types of Greek coins, we must be careful to avoid an error into which the earlier writers fell. It would be natural to suppose that the coins Sicily, bearing these types celebrate directly certain victories, or even victories, at the Olympic games, but the principles which regulated the choice of types for such a purpose, while the coins show no direct indication of any relation to individual victories, but in the latest period the very contrary. The types were first adopted on occasions at which the city or sovereign acquired distinction at the Olympic games, but not with the intention of a direct historical or personal reference, although there is necessarily such reference of an indirect character. The nature of the difference is well explained by the absence, as far as we know, of any types referring to the foot-race, the successful contender in which was the especial Olympic victor, or to other contests besides the horse-race and chariot-race. In these other contests the victor was personally engaged, whereas in the chariot-race and horse-race this was not necessarily the case, and apparently very unusual; indeed, as to the latter, the evident light weight of the riders represented on the coins proves that, at the period to which they belong, the owners could not have generally ridden their horses. The victors could not, therefore, be directly commemorated by these types. It would be interesting to pursue this inquiry, but we cannot do so in the present article. We would, however, in conclusion, caution students against hastily supposing some apparently similar types to have the meaning of those we have explained. Instances of this kind must be proceeded with the utmost caution, and coins or types must never be considered singly until after every effort has been made to gain the illustrative light afforded by similar examples.

The inscriptions of Sicilian coins, particularly the older, are interesting with respect to palaeography and for their orthography. We may especially point out the inscription ARKAPANTOX, written in the boustrophedon manner on tetradrachms of Agrigentum of the best period. Other instances will be mentioned when we speak of the coinage of the principal towns. We have already noticed the art of Sicilian coins, which may be regarded as on the whole more typical of the western school than that of the coins of Italy. The denominations are, in the case of gold, the same as those of Italy,—Greek in origin, though not wholly identical with any Greek system; in the case of the silver, purely Greek; and in that of the copper, Italian. The silver coins are of very heavy Attic weight, excepting only those of Zanclae before it was called Messana, and the earliest of Himera, both which follow the Zanclean standard. The principal silver coin is the tetradrachm, which takes the place of the didrachm of Italy. Although the Sicilian money is adjusted to the native Italian system, its use as with the rest of the coinage, is Greek. The first coins to be noticed in the series of Sicily are those of Agrigentum. They include gold as well as silver pieces of the period of good art. The most remarkable of the silver are tetradrachms, some of which have on the obverse two eagles devouring a hare, and on the reverse a successful chariot at the Olympic games driven by Victory; while others, as well as didrachms, have on the obverse an eagle standing, and on the reverse a crab. The copper coins are on the Italian system; many of them are of the good period, and of good work. The type most worthy of note is the head of a river-god, with the name Acragas, which was that of the river of the town. The success of Agrigentum at the games is attested by Pindar; while Virgil (Ene. iii. 704), Grattius (Cyneg. 526), and Silius Italicus (Punic. xiv. 208-210), mention its ancient renown for horses. Its lofty site (ardens Acrapai), overlooking the sea, and on the bank of the stream of the same name, makes the eagles, the crab, and the river, appropriate devices, showing that Greek types have a local fitness, while charged with a religious intention. The coinage of Camarina is of especial beauty and interest. The fifth of Pindar's Olympic odes, that to Peamnis the Camarinian, B.C. 452, affords an excellent commentary upon it. The earliest coin we know is a didrachm of about this time; whereas there are many pieces of from fifty to a hundred years earlier of most of the other important cities of Sicily. Camarina, however, was then but lately inhabited (since 396), having been recently twice devastated by the Syracusans. If there be any older coins, they are probably of a different type. This has on its obverse a helmet upon a round shield, and on its reverse a pair of greaves, between which is a dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis). The arms are perhaps those of Minerva, kept here, as Virgil (Ene. i. 16) and Ovid (Fast. vi. 46) say the arms of Juno were at Carthage; and the palm might represent the sacred grove (Ares Agyri) in which the temple of the goddess probably stood. This piece is followed by tetradrachms and didrachms of the best period and of most beautiful work, varying a little in their style. The tetradrachms have on the obverse... the head of Hercules in the lion's skin, and on the reverse Minerva, as a victor at the Olympic games, in a quadriga, a type of which we have already spoken. It was Minerva, protector of the city (σωτήρις Ἑλλάδος) whose sacred grove was made more illustrious by the success of Peanum. The didrachms have on the obverse the head of a river-god, portrayed as a young man with small horns, and with his hair wet. Of the two rivers of Camarina, the Oanis and the Hippars, the latter is here represented, for in one case the name is given on the coin. Pindar seems likewise to show the same preference; for while he merely mentions the Oanis (σώματος...θερα), he speaks of the sacred channels in which the Hippars watered the city (κατάλυσιν ἐπιβαίνει, ἰχθύς ἀνάλημμα ἐγκατέστη). On the reverse the nymph Camarina (τῆς καμαρίνης Ἀγριάνη...Καμαρίνη) is seen carried across her lake (ἐπιβαίνει...ἀλόγου) by a swan swimming with expanded wings, while she aids it by spreading her veil in the manner of a sail. Some of these didrachms have on either side, around the chief device, fresh-water fishes. The copper coins of Camarina are on the Italian system.

The series of Catana comprises fine archaic tetradrachms and others of the time of the best art, which are handsome, though mannered. The reverse-type of the latter is a victor at the Olympic games in a quadriga, and is one of the finest, while it is a colossus of the Ionic order. Gela is represented by coins in the three metals. The archaic tetradrachms and didrachms must not especially be mentioned. The former have on the obverse the fore-part of the river-god Gelas, whence the city took its name—

"Immanique Gelas flavil cognomine dicta."

(Σκ. III. 702), as Agrigentum did from the Acragans, and Camarina from its lake. The Gelas is represented as a bull, having the face of a bearded man. On the reverse is a victorious biga at the Olympic games, in some examples represented passing a meta, which is an Ionic column, and resembles that on coins of Catana. A tetradrachm of the later portion of the time of good art, with the types of the fore-part of the Gelas and the victorious chariot, here a quadriga, is represented as having above the charioteer a double-headed eagle, taking the place of Victory. A tetradrachm of the commencement of the period of good art, and of the highest western style, characterized by a slight severity of treatment, has on the obverse the head of the Gelas, as a young man bearded, surrounded by three fresh-water fishes; and on the reverse Victory in a biga, with a wreath above. The accompanying inscription is ΠΕΑΝΙΩΝ. Some of the copper coins are beautiful, but not of the finest style. The money of Himera is of great interest. The earliest pieces are didrachms, which, like the series of Zancle, follow the Eginetan talent. No other Sicilian cities are known to have struck coins on this weight. The oldest didrachms of Himera, which probably commenced in the sixth century B.C., bear on the obverse a cock, and on the reverse an incuse type. They are succeeded by archaic tetradrachms, which bear on the one side a victorious chariot, and on the other a nymph sacrificing, near whom a little Pan, or Paniscus, stands beneath the stream of a fountain issuing from a lion's head in a wall. The fountain no doubt represents the hot spring of the place, from which it was afterwards called Thermae. Leontini is chiefly represented by archaic tetradrachms and didrachms; but there are a few tetradrachms of the early part of the time of good art. The type of the chariot at the Olympic games occurs on these coins, of both periods. The series of Messana is one of particular value. It commences when the town was called Zancle, or, as it is written on the coins, Dande, and consists of archaic drachms and smaller pieces of the Eginetan weight, and of very curious work. On the obverse is a dolphin, and around it a sickle; and on the reverse is a shell in the midst of an incuse pattern. The place is said to have derived its name on account of its resemblance in form to a sickle (ξύλανα, or ξύλανα), like the town of Drepanum, or Drepana, in Sicily, and probably the promontory of Drepanum of the Peloponnesus. If there were no religious meaning attached to these names, this early design of Zancle would be an instance of what is termed a speaking type. It is more reasonable, however, to suppose that in each case there was a primary religious meaning in the names, and indeed later writers say that the sickle of Saturn was buried here, and at the Sicilian Drepanum, the descriptive character offering a secondary meaning. Next to these first coins of Zancle may be placed, as the oldest piece of the Attic weight, a tetradrachm with the Samian types,—a lion's scalp on one side, and on the other the head of a bull, and bearing the inscription ΜΕΣΣΗΝΙΩΝ (for Μεσσηνίων). This coin was doubtless struck during the rule of the Samians, who took the place about B.C. 494, at the instigation of Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, to whom they were subsequently expelled. (Plutarch, Life of Thucydides.) The Sicilian pieces are the varieties of those which have on the obverse a chariot drawn by two mules, and on the reverse a running hare. They most closely resemble coins of Rhegium, with the same devices, and must be assigned, like them, to the rule of Anaxilaus. As we have already mentioned, the period at which this tyrant governed the two towns is thus indicated, particularly as these types cease in the coinage of Rhegium, although they continue at Messana, some of the tetradrachms bearing them being of the period of fine art. The copper coinage is of good work. When the town had been seized by the Mamertini, its name was changed to theirs, which is accordingly borne by the later coins, which are of copper. They are good, but not of the best style. Naxos is represented by handsome archaic tetradrachms and others of the fine period, and by smaller silver pieces, chiefly of the earlier time.

There are some coins of the city of Panormus, but most of those which have been classed to it are of the Carthaginians, issued both in Sicily and Africa. Nothing is more probable than that many of these pieces were struck at Panormus, but there is no means of distinguishing any such, and if there were, the mere fact of their having been issued at the place would not justify us in classing them to it. The Carthaginian coins of Sicily are the best noticed after the Greek coins. Segesta is represented by tetradrachms and didrachms of the archaic and of the good period. One of the tetradrachms of the early part of the latter time has on the obverse the Olympic victorious quadriga, driven by Proserpine, who carries ears of bearded corn, while Victory flies above, about to crown her. The reverse-type represents a hunter, that is, some divinity or mythical hero in that character.

The series of the city of Selinus next demands notice. The first coins are didrachms, bearing on the obverse a leaf, and on the reverse an incuse square, either having several divisions, or else containing a repetition of the leaf. The representation of the leaf is not, either on these or later coins, very exact. The city and its river no doubt derived their name from the plant ελάτη, the leaf of which must be here intended. There is some difficulty as to its identification; for in this case, as in those of many other natural objects, the Greeks may have given the same appellation to very different plants. The plant sacred at Selinus appears to be, as Colenso Lecleux supposed, wild celery (Apium graveolens); but it does not follow that the leaf of the plant must have been the viscus of the Ithamian and Nemean games were written on the reverse the same. Tetradrachms of a later time, either of archaic style or of that of the earliest part of the period of good art, have devices of more than usual interest. The obverse bears a biga with Apollo and Diana, the latter of whom drives—a type doubtless referring to the Olympic games; and the reverse exhibits a river-god, the Hypas, sacrificing at the altar of Δεκαλίωνας, while a wading bird is sometimes seen behind him, as if departing. The latter subject appears to allude to the draining of the marshes into the river, by which the place was rendered more healthy. A tetradrachm of the best Sicilian style is important in connection with the opinion we have put forward as to the meaning of the chariot-types. It has on the obverse a quadriga, with two personages, doubtless Apollo and Diana, the former of whom appears to be driving; above them is a wreath, and below an ear of bearded wheat,—the former plainly indicating a victory, the latter connecting the type with a Syracusan one of the same period relating to the Olympic games. The reverse represents the Hypas sacrificing, as usual.

The illustrious city of Syracuse is worthily represented by its coins. Its early and long-continuing greatness in commerce and in arms, its luxuriance and its love of the arts, are attested alike by these monuments as by the voice of history. They do not indeed ever display the breadth and grandeur, and rarely the simplicity, that characterize the highest examples of the medallic art of Greece and her Asiatic colonies, but rather err in an excess of richness and a use of tricks of art; yet the intrinsic beauty of many, and the fine execution of almost all, command great admiration, while the historical value of the series gives it an additional interest. The system of the gold coins of the Syracusans, like that of those of the Greek cities of Italy, is fundamentally on the Attic standard, but presenting some remarkable differences. Thus, although there are gold drachms and hemidrachms, there are also pieces respectively

---

* On the early coins of Messana compare Millingen's paper in Trans. R. Soc. Lit., vol. i., pt. ii., pp. 353, &c., seq.; and p. 363, supra.

* Numismata Helvetiae, " Sicily," &c.; Oxford Essays, 1857, " Sicily," p. 79.

* Plutarch, Life of Timoleon, which illustrates this question, relating that when he was marching from Syracuse to encounter the Carthaginians, as his soldiers were going up a hill, on the other side of which they expected to see the enemy, they met mules carrying parsley (σκόλοπα). This they took as a bad omen, because of the Greek custom to crown the sepulchres with parsley, which occasioned the proverb, of one dangerously ill, that he should have parsley. But their leader encouraged them by saying that Fortune had brought them their crowns before victory, because the Corinthians had lost their crown of parsley sacred, and then decorated with it the victors at the Isthmian games. (Plut. Timoleon, cap. xxvii.) Greek Coins.

as heavy as one and a half of each of these denominations. The oldest examples are of the early part of the period of good art, and therefore date from about the middle of the fifth century before the Christian era; and the latest probably immediately precede the reign of Agathocles (B.C. 317), the first tyrant whose name we find on the coins. There are some of these pieces which show marks of decline, but the greater number are of good work. One of the finest has on the obverse a head of Apollo, and on the reverse one of Diana, very differently treated,—the former having an ideal character, but the latter resembling a portrait. Other coins present on the obverse heads of the young Hercules and of other divinities, while the most important reverse-type is a victorious biga. The silver coinage of Syracuse, which follows the Attic talent, presents many denominations. The decadrachms, though rare, are more common than those of any other city. The tetradrachms are extremely numerous, and evidently formed, at almost every period until about the time of Agathocles, the bulk of the silver coinage, the smaller denominations being of less frequent occurrence. The earliest coins are tetradrachms, and didrachms of very rude work, which may be assigned to the later part of the sixth century B.C. The tetradrachms bear on the obverse a charioteer in a biga, and on the reverse a horseman, square of four divisions, having in the centre a female head, probably that of Proserpine. The didrachms have a rider on the obverse, and the same reverse-types as the tetradrachms. A little later we find coins of much better execution, having a female head on the obverse, with dolphins, usually four in number, around it; and on the reverse Victory above the chariot or the horseman. Next in time to these are the famous decadrachms, believed to be the coins known as demarettia, struck by Damaretta, wife of King Gelon, on receiving a present of a hundred talents of gold, which the Carthaginians gave her when she had negotiated peace for them, after their defeat by her husband at the battle of Himera. As this battle was fought in the year B.C. 480, and Gelon died B.C. 478, the date of these coins is very nearly fixed, and may be considered to be B.C. 479. They afford an example of the highest archaic style, a style not without its excellences and promise. The resemblance to Egyptian art is most remarkable, and far greater than we observe in the money of Greek Proper. The reverse presents a female head, probably that of Proserpine, bound with a wreath; it occupies a circle, indicated by a fine line, without which are four dolphins, as though swimming round. The reverse-type represents a chariot, apparently drawn by three horses, in slow action, and driven by a man. Victory flies above, and below is a lion running. The style of the face of the goddess, with the slightly rounded nose, the eye as if seen in front, and the placid expression, no less than the treatment of the horses, at once recalls to one's mind the colossal and battle-scenes of the temples of Egypt. There are tetradrachms of so exactly the same work as these larger pieces that they must have been issued with them. After this time we perceive a rapid change to a much freer style, but yet one that already shows mannerism. The hair of the goddess, now undoubtedly Proserpine, is either partly covered with a kind of bag, or is variously arranged, sometimes in almost a fantastic manner; and the dolphins around are less regularly placed than before. The period of good art may be considered to begin about B.C. 450, and to terminate with the coming of the tyranny of Agathocles (B.C. 317). The length of this time is perhaps due to an accident which happened here towards its close—the introduction, when metallic art was fast declining, of coins with the types and style of those of Corinth, where that art had but little decayed; so that there was a kind of recovery, very unusual in ancient money. At the commencement of the period of the best art, we observe some admirable tetradrachms, which, for the beauty of the face of Proserpine, the treatment of her hair, and the vigour shown in the drawing of the horses, now and always henceforward on the civic coins represented at full speed, are in their class quite unexcelled. The finest of these coins known to us is one in the British Museum. It has on the obverse a most beautiful head of Proserpine surrounded by three dolphins, and on the reverse a victorious quadriga, driven by a bearded charioteer. Victory hovers above, holding in her right hand a wreath, and in her left a label bearing the inscription ETAINETO, supposed to be the name of an artist. The names of artists begin to appear on these coins about this time; and the distinction given to this word is by no means a proof that it is not one. Another, but little later, has on the obverse a head of Proserpine with ears of bearded wheat in her hair, and on the reverse a chariot drawn by a winged genius, while Victory hovers above, crowning him. On the obverse is EYM, the beginning of the name of another artist, showing that different hands were employed to design the two sides. Several coins, still somewhat later than this, have on their reverse Proserpine, with a flaming torch in her hand, driving the victorious quadriga. One of these has for the obverse-type a helmeted head of Minerva. To the same time belongs a tetradrachm with a very beautiful head of the fountain-nymph Arethusa, whose name is sometimes written above in the form ΑΡΕΘΟΣΑ, as in Lord Northwick's admirable specimen, which has also the name of the artist, KIMON, on the fillet. The head is represented facing, but somewhat turned to the left, with the hair loose and as if wet, though skilfully arranged. The reverse bears Proserpine in a victorious quadriga. The name of Cimon also occurs on more than one of the decadrachms of the fine period, which we might otherwise have supposed to have been struck a little later. There may, however, have been two artists of the same name, or one may have worked at different periods of his life in styles varying as much as these. The later decadrachms are not, however, like the earlier, all of the same time; for there are some of an inferior style, which must be referred to a lower date. All were, however, probably struck during the tyranny of the first Dionysius (B.C. 405-365). Their obverse-type is that of a quadriga with horses variously harnessed, sometimes partly contained in a bag of net, sometimes bound with corn leaves, and surrounded by four dolphins. The reverse displays the same goddess in a victorious quadriga, at full speed, while Victory above is about to crown her; and the reward, a suit of armour, sometimes with the word ΑΘΛΩΝ, is seen below. These coins have been commonly considered the finest in the Greek series; but the best of them are excellent in design and in execution by tetradrachms of the same place, and even these cannot be compared to the productions of the pure Greek school, as we have already endeavoured to show. There are other tetradrachms, besides those already mentioned, of about the time of these decadrachms; and some of a later period and inferior work, which are probably of the reign of Dionysius II., and of the republic established by Dion and overthrown by the tyrant. All these have types very similar to those of the decadrachms. The figure in the quadriga of the latest is, however, Victory. After these it is most reasonable to place these didrachms and smaller coins, which, although of Syracusan fabric, have in the former case wholly, and in the latter partly, Corinthian types. They are of good work; and the didrachms so closely resemble those of Corinth, that their date can only be determined by the supposition of some extraordinary influence on the part of the present city. This condition is perfectly fulfilled by what occurred at Syracuse on the final overthrow of the second Dionysius by Timoleon the Corinthian (B.C. 344). The depopulated state of the city accounts for the inferiority of those coins which we suppose to have been struck a little before this event; while a large issue of Corinthian coins at Syracuse would agree with the policy of Timoleon. He replenished the population with a body of Corinthian colonists, and sold houses to them, depositing the proceeds in the treasury; and in accordance with his endeavours to connect the town as much as possible with Corinth, he would naturally, on issuing a new coinage from the sum thus obtained—said to have been a thousand talents (of silver)—have adopted the Corinthian types. There is a kind of hybrid coinage, half Corinthian and half Syracusan in character, which probably succeeded this, and lasted until the reign of Agathocles. The copper coinage of Syracuse anterior to Agathocles does not commence before the period of good art. It is on the Italian system, often of fine design and work, and well deserves the most careful study.

The regal coins of Syracuse are of far inferior interest to those struck in the name of the people. Some of them are beautiful, but none in the highest style of Sicilian art. The series is important on account of the weight of the silver pieces after the time of Agathocles. For these the Ptolemaic talent seems to have been used, their weights being in accordance with it; while the treatment of the portraits is similar to those of the Greek kings of Egypt. Of Hiero II., there are octodrachms, of Queen Phillis, tetradrachms and smaller pieces, and of Hieronymus pentadrachms. It is to be observed that the drachms of Phillis have a low Attic weight. It is possible, from the rarity of these silver coins, that they were struck rather as medals than to form the bulk of the coinage. The money of Agathocles is in gold, silver, and copper; that of Hicetas in gold; and that of Hiero II. and Hieronymus, again, in the three metals. Queen Phillis is only known from the coins and an inscription. She must have been the wife of Hiero II., towards the end of his reign or of one of his sons. Her coins have fine though mannered designs; that of the obverse being a helmeted head, and that of the reverse a victorious chariot. The later Gelon is probably a son of Hiero III., of that name, who may have been admitted to some share of royal power.

The town of Tauromenium, represented by five pieces in the three metals, closes the series of those Greek cities of Sicily, which are of high numismatic interest. We must, however, mention the main characteristics of the true Siculo-Punic coins—that is, those actually struck by the Carthaginians in Sicily. It has been usual to place together a large class of Greco-Punic coins, on account of their general similarity. A careful examination, however, shows that they must be separated into two distinct divisions, representing the coinage of the Carthaginians in Sicily and in Africa, as Mr Burgon pointed out in his catalogue of the Thomas Collection. These classes are mainly to be distinguished by their weight, the Sicilian coins being adjusted to the Attic talent, like those of the Greek cities of the island, while the African follow the Phoenician talent; but there is also a general difference in the types and style, which in the former are far more Greek than in the latter, in which Egyptian, or at least African, characteristics may be perceived. The Sicilian silver coins are in little copper, for there are no gold coins belonging undoubtedly to this series. Tetradrachms are the most numerous of the silver pieces. The most frequent types are, for the obverse, the head of Proserpine, and for the reverse a horse or horse's head, both, especially the horse, being sometimes accompanied by a date-palm. The horse was probably sacred at Carthage, and thus came to be the favourite symbol of the city. In late times the head appears to have become the prevailing form of the symbol. It may be worth while to remind the reader that both Virgil and Silius Italicus mention the digging up of a horse's head—the symbol, says the former, of the future nation—at the foundation of Carthage; and that the form of this tale given by Eustathius is still more illustrative of the coins. The last writer relates that the founders having discovered the head of an ox, took it as a bad omen, and left off digging; but commencing again about a cultivated date-palm, like that of the coins (palma sphaeropoda), as distinguished from a new one, found the head of a horse. This version of the story may be the origin of the combination of the date and date-palm upon the Carthaginian money. We may also notice that there are Sicilian-Punic tetradrachms with the head of Proserpine and a victorious quadriga, struck in imitation of coins of Syracuse of the same denomination.

The principal work upon the Sicilian coinage is that of G. L. Castell, Prince of Torremurza, which, although published towards the close of the last century, has not yet been superseded.4

The islands near Sicily struck copper coins which are often singular, and always of some interest. Those of Cosura are Phoenician, with an Egyptian character; those of Gaulos are Greek and Phoenician; and those of Melita, Phoenician, showing both Egyptian and Persian influence. Of Lipara there is heavy copper money on the Italian system, having on the obverse a head of Vulcan, and sometimes on the reverse a figure of the same divinity seated, holding a hammer, and a vase which he seems to have just formed.

In the Tauric Chersonese there are interesting coins of the city Chersonese, of Pantikapaeum, the modern Kerch, in the metals. Their obverse usually bears the head of a Pan, and the reverse a griffin or its head on a cornucopia. The Roman Empire of Eastern Saxonia, of Dacia, and of Upper and Lower Moesia, is chiefly copper of the Greek imperial class. The few coins of earlier times are generally of a coarseness not far removed from barbarism. In European Saxonia we may notice the autonomous and imperial pieces of Oescopolis, and in Dacia the series bearing the name of the province. The Roman colonia Viminacium, in Upper Moesia, is represented by numerous coins of a late time. Of Istrus, in Lower Moesia, there are drachms and drachms having a strange type on the obverse, representing two beardless heads side by side, the one upright and the other upside down. On the reverse is an eagle devouring a fish. The former type has not been explained: It probably relates to some Greek myth. The style of these coins, it may be noticed, is in general fair, though it sometimes approaches to barbarism. There are abundant Greek imperial coins of Marcianopolis and Nicopolis; while Tomis, the place of Ovid's banishment and death, is not unrepresented in this class.

The coins of Thrace are of high interest. The oldest are probably of the sixth century B.C., and there are others of all subsequent times, both while the country was independent, and while it was subject to the Romans, until the cessation of Greek coinage. Some of the best period are of the highest artistic merit. So long as they maintain any general distinctive peculiarities of fabric and design—that is, from their commencement until the age of Philip—the Thracian coins resemble those of Macedon. They also follow the same talent, that of Macedon, commonly called the Alexandrian or Ptolemaic. The heaviest tetradrachms are the earlier, which weigh about 323 grams; those issued at later times are generally much lighter. The money of Abdera comprises tetradrachms and smaller coins of the period of archaic and fine art. The principal type is a seated gryphon. Enns is remarkable for the great beauty of some of its coins. These are tetradrachms of the earliest part of the time of the best art. They bear on the obverse a head of Mercury, facing, in his cap, and on the reverse a goat. The broad, free treatment of the head can be sufficiently praised; and it is worthy of remark that it is here far finer than in many of the later and artificial style. There are drachms of a period subsequent to that of these coins, which enable us to make this comparison. The money of the ancient city of Byzantium commences with early tetradrachms and smaller coins, having on the obverse a bull above a dolphin, and on the reverse an incuse square of four divisions. Tetradrachms of the late part of the time of good art, bearing the head of Ceres veiled, and with corn in her hair, on the obverse, and Neptune seated, on the reverse, should also be noticed, as well as the long series of copper coins issued under the empire. Of Coa there are Greco-Roman aurei, which were probably struck by Brutus during the short time that he maintained himself against the triumvirate. They bear on the obverse an eagle holding a wreath in one claw, and on the reverse a figure in a toga between two lictors, with the Greek inscription KOΣΤΙΝ. There is sometimes in the field of the reverse a monogram of the letters ΛΕ, which is supposed to indicate the name of Lucius Brutus, whom we know to have struck Roman money with the more famous Marcus Brutus. The Roman colony of Dealium is represented by many coins; and the city of Hadrianopolis by a long series comprising fine pieces. The Romans were anciently famous for what there is an interesting series of coins beginning with the early drachms. After these we notice tetradrachms of the fine period, having on the obverse a horse, and on the reverse a vineyard, conventionally represented by a vine in a square. There are also large tetradrachms of a late time, with, on the one side, the head of an androgynous Bacchus, and on the other the standing figure of a young Bacchus. The Greek imperial coins of Pantalia and Perinthus are worthy of notice. Among those of the latter town we may mention very fine pieces of Antoninus Pius and Severus, and large coins, commonly called medallions, of Caracalla. In the Thracian Chersonese the most important series is one of autonomous silver coins, probably of the town of Chersonesus. The money of the island of Thasos is of much interest. It commences with extremely old silver coins, which appear to be on the Egyptian system. There are followed by a series on the Attic weight, ranging from a very early time to the commencement of the period of good art, some of the latest being of fine style. The obverse-type represents a youth carrying a female, and the reverse-type is an incuse square, divided into four lobes, or into four parts. Among the most obvious coins bearing for their device are the heads of Bacchus. Some of these are of the best period of art, and one, a tetradrachm, is among the very finest Greek coins. The head of Bacchus is treated in a sculptural style that is remarkably broad and grand. The massive, powerful features, and the formal hair nearly falling to the neck in regular curls, like those of the full beard, are relieved by a broad wreath of ivy leaves designed with great delicacy and simplicity. The reverse bears a Hercules kneeling on one knee and discharging his bow, a subject powerfully treated. Of a far later period there are large tetradrachms much resembling those of Maronea. They were probably struck, in both places, in the early days of the Roman rule. The money of Lysimachus is of far higher importance than that of any other king of Thrace. The most common pieces are, in gold, staters, and in silver, tetradrachms. The earlier coinage follows the types of that of Alexander the Great. The later coinage, of which the examples are far more numerous, bears as the obverse-type what is considered to be the first Greek royal portrait, the head of Alexander with garb, but handled as a young Jupiter Ammon; the reverse-type is a seated Minerva holding a little Victory. There are coins of the kings of Paonia, which are chiefly silver, and have a resemblance to those of the Macedonian sovereigns, although they are somewhat barbarous.

The coinage of Macedonia, both civic and regal, is of great Macedonian variety and interest. It commences at an early time, probably towards the end of the sixth century B.C. The oldest pieces are of silver, copper, and not long afterwards gold, having come into use... for coinage during the fourth century B.C. The types are of a Greek character, with, in the earliest class, a tendency to barbarism. Their art, although at first slow in its development, attained great excellence. The standard of the earlier coins is that of the old Macedonian talent, which is better known as the Alexandrian or Ptolemaic, from its restoration to use in the coinage of Egypt by the first Ptolemy. The weight of its drachmas was at first about 58 grains.

The heaviest denominations in Macedonian coinage are octadrachms. The coins of this denomination are of an early period, all dating about the time of Alexander I., and indicate the monetary policy of the country rather than the success of its trade at that time, since they are more likely to have been coined from the produce of the mines than from silver acquired in commerce. Philip II. adopted for gold money, which he was the first Macedonian king to issue, the Attic weight, striking staters on that system, while he maintained the old standard for his silver coinage. Alexander the Great made the weight of the gold and silver money the same by using the Attic system for both; and from his time no coins of kings of Macedon, in these metals, were struck on any other.

The series of Macedon commences with coins of the kingdom or province bearing the name of the Macedonians. Some of these seem to have been issued under the kings, but others are of the Roman domination. The money of Acanthus comprises fine archaic tetradrachms, and others of the commencement of the period of good art. The type of their obverse is a lion seizing a bull. There are smaller pieces of various kindred types. The money of Amyntas is chiefly interesting from representing the head of the hero-Eumenes. The money of Amyntas is represented by a long series. There are tetradrachms having on the obverse a head of Apollo facing, which are of fine work, but not in the severe and best style. The reverse-type is a torch in an incuse square. Other silver, as well as copper coins, display good art. There are also many Greek imperial copper pieces of this place. The territory of Chalcidice is pre-eminent for the high excellence of some of its silver coins. These are tetradrachms of the best period, and of an admirable style. The more important design is that of the obverse, representing a head of Apollo in profile, crowned with laurel. It is in very high relief, and treated with great simplicity, though not with the severity of somewhat earlier pieces. The delicacy of the features is balanced by the shortness of the hair, and the broad, heavy wreath of laurel. On the reverse is a lyre of seven strings. Other tetradrachms are of comparatively coarse work. There is an early series of coins of Leete. Some are of a remote date, and none later than about the time of Alexander L. The obverse-type is a Fame holding a cornucopia, though the reverse is of uncertain type. These coins are nearly all tetradrachms. Of Neapolis there are archaic silver and copper coins, with, on the one side, a Gorgon head, and on the other a head of a female. The coins of Philippi are in the three metals. The gold pieces are fine staters, with the head of Hercules in the lion's skin on the obverse, and on the reverse a tripod. The silver and early copper pieces have the same types. The style of all points to the reign of Philip II., who, having discovered or gained possession of a rich gold mine near Crete, changed its name to Philippi. Pydna is represented by copper money of the best period, sometimes fine, and, in the case of one specimen we have seen, very beautiful. There is a long series of Greek imperial coins of Thessalonica. Trebizond must also be mentioned on account of its archaic silver coinage, and for the excellence of some of its copper money of the best time. The class of uncertain coins of Macedonia is deserving of careful study. It comprises very early silver pieces, among which octadrachms of the Macedonian type would be included probably. One of the latter, and a smaller piece, bear inscriptions which have caused them to be attributed to the Orestae, but both Millingen and Colonel Leake assign them to a people of Thrace, not otherwise known to us, whom they call the Orestae, from the inscriptions of the coins. There are also two coins of Geta, King of the Edoni, a prince of whom we have no other record. They are octadrachms of about the period of Alexander I. On the obverse is represented a hero wearing a cuirass driving two bulls, and the reverse bears an incuse square of four divisions, having around it on one coin ΠΕΤΑΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΗΔΡΝΑΝ, and on the other ΠΕΤΑΣ ΗΔΡΝΑΝ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ. The difference, not alone in construction, but in orthography, and the use of long and short vowels, is very remarkable, and seems to indicate barbarism, since the coins are unquestionably of the same period. Both were found in Babylonia by Mr. Rich,—a circumstance that finds its explanation either in the commercial importance of the Macedonian silver at this time, or in the probability that the remains of the armies of Darius and Xerxes carried away with them some Greek money taken as plunder.

The coinage of the Macedonian kings, since it includes the money of Philip II. and that of Alexander the Great, is equal in interest to any other Greek regal series. The oldest pieces are of Alexander I., the contemporary of Xerxes. These are octadrachms, resembling those of Geta, King of the Edoni, but having on the obverse a hero by the side of a horse; and coins of a lower denomination which are similar. The first king known by his coins is Archelaus (B.C. 413-399), whose reign may have silver coins, some of which are of archaic, and others of fine work, as well as the earliest copper money of the series. Of Amyntas II. (B.C. 397-371) there are coins of fine work, both in silver and copper. The money of subsequent reigns is not remarkable until that of Philip II. His gold pieces are staters and a small division. The abundance of the former is attributable to his having possessed the gold mines of Philippi. The staters are Attic didrachms, and are of fine, but not of the highest art. They bear on the obverse the head of young Hercules,—not of a sufficiently manly cast, and resembling that of Apollo, though rightly attributed to the former divinity by Mr. Bargon. On the reverse is a goddess in a victorious Olympic biretta, a type we have already explained: in one case Victory sits before the horses. These coins were afterwards known as Ἀλεξάνδρου, and the gold money of Alexander as Ἀλεξάνδρου—appellations which probably did not include larger or smaller pieces. Horace calls the gold coins of Philip "Philippi" ("regale nomina, Philippum"). (Epist. ii. 2, 23.) The silver coinage of Philip is exclusively composed of tetradrachms of the Macedonian talent. Their type of obverse is a head of Jupiter; and of reverse either a mounted hero wearing a cuirass, or a victor in the horse-race with a palm, a design already discussed. There is a difficulty in deciding as to the copper money of Philip.

The coinage of Alexander the Great, both in the number of the cities where it was issued, and in its abundance, excels all other Greek regal money; but its art is, without being despicable, far below excellence. The types are not remarkable in themselves, and there is a great sameness characterizing the entire series. The system of both gold and silver is Attic, Alexander having made the money of these metals uniform in weight by substituting the Attic for the Macedonian silver talent. The gold coins are distaters or gold tetradrachms, hemiasters or drachms, with their half, and a smaller denomination. The types of the distaters and staters—the latter of which were the most common pieces—are, for the obverse the head of Minerva, and for the reverse Victory bearing a standard. The largest silver piece is the decahemerion, of which there is a large silver example, now in the British Museum. The type of the tetradrachm and most of the lesser coins are, on the obverse the head of young Hercules in the lion's skin, and on the reverse Jupiter seated, bearing on his hand an eagle. The head has been supposed to be that of Alexander; but this is not the case, although there is probably some assimilation to his portrait. The great currency was of tetradrachms, which were struck in different cities, distinguished by proper symbols and monograms. The classification of these coins is difficult, and has not been sufficiently studied. The copper money is not remarkable. (There is an essay upon Alexander's coinage by M. Muller of Copenhagen, which will be found of service in its examination.)

The coinage of Alexander is followed by that of Philip Arrhidæus, in gold and silver. To Alexander Egnus no money has been assigned with certainty; but it is probable that coins in silver and copper, usually attributed to Alexander II. of Epirus, were issued by Ptolemy I. in Egypt in the name of this titular sovereign. The obverse-type of these is a head of Alexander the Great, like that on the coins of Alexander I. In the silver coins bare, on the skin of an elephant, and in the copper coins bare. The money of Cassander, and his sons Philip IV. and Alexander IV., is not remarkable. The coins of Antigonus, King of Asia, are placed in the Macedonian regal series, since he was a successor of Alexander, and his son Demetrius gained the Macedonian sovereignty; but this is scarcely a correct classification. He struck very fine tetradrachms, having on the obverse a head of Neptune, and on the reverse Apollo seated on the prow of a galley,—types indicating the naval power of this king. The coins of Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, comprise fine tetradrachms, the types of which have a similar reference. They bear either, on the obverse his portrait horned, and on the reverse a figure of Neptune, or on the one side a winged female figure (Victory) in the prow of a galley, blowing a trumpet, and on the other Neptune striking with his trident. The latter type cannot be doubted to relate to the great naval victory which Demetrius gained over Ptolemy. The tetradrachms of Antigonus I., Gonatas, which are of inferior style and work to those of Demetrius, have types which appear to refer in like manner to the great event of his time. Their obverse-

---

1 Numismatique d'Alexandre le Grand, suivie d'un Appendice contenant les Monnaies de Philippe II. et III. Par L. Müller, Svo, Copenhague, 1855 (with a vol. of plates in 4to).

2 Eckhel supposes this figure to be Fame, but in this instance he seems to have judged hastily (Doct. Num. Pat., vol. ii., pp. 120, 121). Greek Coins.

type is a Macedonian buckler, with the head of Pan in the midst; and their reverse-type Pallas Promachus. The head of Pan is supposed to have been taken as a device in consequence of the panic which led to the discomifure of the Gauls at Delphi,—panics being attributed, as the name imports, to the influence of Pan. The money of Demetrius II. and Antigonus II. is unimportant. The tetradrachms of Philip V., have, on the obverse two kindred types, in each case a head in the helmet of Perseus, but one apparently representing Philip in the character of that hero, and the other the hero himself, though probably assimilated to the king. The reverse bears a club. Other tetradrachms and smaller coins have a simple portrait of Philip. The tetradrachms of Perseus are of a fair style, considering the time at which they were struck. They bear on the one side the king's head, and on the other an eagle on a thunderbolt.

The coinage of Thessaly presents very few specimens of a remote period, while coins of the best time are numerous. The latter are in general remarkably like the finest coins of Sicily and Italy, although the weight is generally somewhat less, and the weight rally, if not always, adjusted to the Attic talent. Of the town of Gomphi or Philippopolis there is a beautiful drachm, having on the obverse a female head facing, which is probably that of Juno. The coins of Lamia are also to be noticed for their beauty. The series of Larissa is well worthy of a careful examination. It commences with archaic pieces, and some of the early period of good art, but of rather coarse execution. These are followed by coins of fine work. The usual obverse-type is the head of the nymph of the fountain facing, and on the reverse is generally a horse, either free or drinking. On some the head is treated in a very rich manner, like that of the fountain-nymph Arethusa, facing, on tetradrachms of Syracuse; indeed, in one case, the resemblance, in its obverse, of a didrachm of this place to these Sicilian coins is most remarkable. The small silver pieces have very interesting types, relating to the nymph of the fountain, and to be compared for mutual illustration with the common didrachms of Terina and with some of those of Elis. The coins of Peiraeus are similar to those of Ephesus and Phera. They are worthy of note. Of the tyrants of the latter town, Alexander and Timophon are represented by their coins; but we agree with Mr. Burges in thinking the tetradrachms which have been ascribed to the former to be of a king of Peonia. The coins of Tricon resemble those of Larissa.

Illyricum.

The coinage of Illyricum is poor and rude. The weight is at first Eginetan, but afterwards it appears to have been generally Attic, a change probably attributable to Corinthian commercial influence. Of Apollonia there is a large series of Attic drachms, the most important type of which is a reverse one representing three nymphs dancing around what appears to be a burning hillock, but may be intended for a volcano. There are also a few Greek Imperial pieces. Dyrrhachium, which never, as far as is known, bears on its coins the more famous name of Epidamnus, is represented by an important series. First, there are Eginetan didrachms, with Cocienian types,—on the obverse a cow suckling a calf, and on the reverse a bull. This is supposed to be a kind of ground-plan of the famous gardens of Alcinous. These are succeeded by didrachms with Corinthian types, and, of course, on the Attic standard; and then the old types are resumed, but apparently without a return to the former weight. Dyrrhachium, it should be remembered, was founded partly by Cocienians and partly by Corinthian colonists. The Corinthian types are, however, to be at least mainly ascribed to subsequent influence, although their adoption may have been furthered by the recollection of the origin of the town. A didrachm of the first class bears the name of a King Monninius, who has been supposed to be the Illyrian prince Monninius mentioned by Livy and Athenaeus, and who reigned about B.C. 180. All the Eginetan didrachms, however, must be concluded to have been struck from about B.C. 400 to 300, the Attic money supplanting them at near the latter date; and therefore this supposition is not tenable.

The coins of Epirus are of higher interest and beauty than those of Illyria. Their weight is generally Eginetan, except in the regal series, which follows the Attic standard. Of the Epirots there are silver coins which appear to be Eginetan didrachms and drachms of low weight. They were probably the time of Pyrrhus and of a later period. The city of Ambracia is represented by beautiful silver pieces, with, on the one side a seated figure of a head, and on the other a kind of obelisk. Of Dassaretum there are rude coins, which are doubtless of an early period. The long series of Greek imperial money of Nicopolis must also be mentioned.

The coinage known to us of the kings of Epirus begins under Alexander I. His coins have been found in the three metals, but they are rare. It is probable that they were struck in Italy while he was in that country. The coins of Pyrrhus are of high interest, and remarkable for their beauty, although in a greatly Eginetan style. There can be little doubt that they were for the most part struck in Italy and Sicily—at Tarentum, Syracuse, and probably other towns also. Some of the gold pieces are fine, but the silver are more worthy of note. The tetradrachm has for the type of the obverse a head of the Dodomenian Jupiter crowned with oak, and for that of the reverse Juno seated. A fine didrachm bears on the obverse a young male head helmeted, which we believe to represent Pyrrhus, though in a peculiar manner. It is said that Pyrrhus was judged by his contemporaries to bear a great resemblance to Alexander in face and manner; and if we compare this head with that king's on the coins of Lysimachus, we perceive a remarkable similarity. There is what we should call a strong family resemblance, if the term be admissible, between the two. The feature is not alone similar, but the whole face is treated almost expression. Visconti considered the head in question to be that of Pyrrhus, and brought forward the argument given above, but he did not meet the objection that the treatment is ideal. This difficulty is overcome if we consider it to have been an idealized portrait of Alexander assimilated to that of Pyrrhus, as the head of Hercules on the money of the former king is probably assimilated to his own. The portrait of Alexander on the coins of Lysimachus, and again on those which we suppose to be of Alexander Argus, is also ideally treated, more especially in the latter case. Among the copper coins of Pyrrhus we must remark the beautiful ones with the portrait of his mother Phthia. The money ascribed to later kings of Epirus is of doubtful attribution.

The coinage of the island of Corcyra generally, or of the Coreya-Corcyraeans, commences with very early didrachms and drachms of the Eginetan weight. These are followed by coins of the early part of the period of good art, but usually somewhat rudely executed. The types of the didrachms of this and the preceding group are, on the obverse, a cow suckling a calf, and on the reverse the supposed garden of Alcinous, but, as we have seen, like those of the first didrachms of Dyrrhachium. These are followed by coins, with, on the one side, the head of an androgyrous Bacchus, and on the other a Pegasus. The former of these types is illustrated by the name of the wine of Coreya in ancient times; the latter by the colonization of the island from Corinth, to which town this type must be held to refer. These and the later coins are probably on the Attic standard. Copper money is abundant, both of the autonomous and the imperial class. There are, however, no pieces which can be considered to be of very fine art in either silver or copper.

The coins of Acarnania are not remarkable for beauty, or for Acarnanian variety in their types. We must mention those of the Acarnanians, which are Eginetan didrachms and drachms, having on the obverse the head of the Achelous, bearded, and covered with a bull's skin, and on the reverse a seated Apollo. These are probably of about the time of Alexander the Great. Of Leucas there are silver and copper coins, the latter being numerous; and of Echinada, copper, with, on the one side the head of Jupiter, and on the other that of the Achelous, bearded, and in a bull's skin. The type on which the Achelous was held explains the occurrence of its head in more than one series.

In Etolia, the money of the Etolians must be mentioned. The Etolia gold and silver coins are fine, but not of the best period or of a very good style, and are probably to be referred to about Alexander's time. The gold pieces have on the obverse the head of Minerva or that of Hercules in the Lion's skin, and on the reverse Etolia, personified as a female seated on shields, with a little Victory on one hand. There are similar types on the silver coins; and the drachms bear others relating to the chase of the Calydonian boar. The latter have on the one side the head of Atalanta wearing a cuirass, and on the other the boar and the spear-head with which he was killed. The standard is first Eginetan, and then Attic.

In Locria the coins of the Locri Opuntii, no doubt struck at Opus, Locri, claim our notice. There are didrachms and hemidrachms on the Eginetan weight, of the best period, and of a style which is admirable, notwithstanding that it is very rich in the treatment of the subject occupying their obverse. This is a head of Proserpine, with a crown in her hand. The reverse bears a warrior in a fighting attitude, armed sword and shield. His name, Αἰας, which is sometimes written beneath, shows that he is the Lesser Ajax, who led the Locrians to the siege of Troy.

1 ἐκ τῶν ὀπίσω παρελθοῦ γενόμενος ἐκεῖνοι καὶ ἀνάγονται εἰς Ἀλεξανδρείαν καὶ τὰς ἐκεῖνοι ἰναντίας καὶ ἐκεῖνοι ἐξαναγονται εἰς Ἀλεξανδρείαν καὶ τὰς ἐκεῖνοι ἰναντίας καὶ ἐκεῖνοι ἐξαναγονται εἰς Ἀλεξανδρείαν. (Plut. Pyrr., cap. vii.) 2 Millingen (Coins of Alexander, Supp., pp. 27, 28) supposed the head on the didrachm of Pyrrhus to be intended for that of Achilles, and his opinion has some support from the occurrence of this letter Α in the field. This letter would, however, be equally appropriate in the case of Alexander. There are silver coins of the Phocians and of Delphi. Those of the former are of archaic and of fine art, and follow the Aeginetan system. The coins of Delphi, which are on the same standard, are not an important series. Among them are Greek imperial pieces, some of which have a representation of the famous temple on the reverse.

The coinage of Boeotia forms an interesting series. It is chiefly of a period anterior to the reign of Alexander, under whom the political importance of Thebes and the whole country came to an end. The silver money is fine in its art, and a great similarity is observable in its fabric and types. The standard is Aeginetan, but the Attic must have been introduced after Alexander's time, as there are some specimens of its weight. The copper money is poor. Of the Boeotians there is a long series. The great currency of Aeginetan didrachms, but many smaller coins are found. In the archaic style the obverse is a Boeotian buckler, which is probably that of Hercules, and the reverse bears an incuse square. On coins of the early part of the time of good art we find the buckler and a diota; the former seeming to stand for Hercules, and the latter for Bacchus, corresponding to the types of Thebes with the head of Bacchus on one side and Hercules on the other. Later coins of these types, and of a very fine style, bear on the reverse the earlier letters of proper names, which can only be magistrates. One, a didrachm, may be particularized for its beauty and on account of the inscription ΕΠΑΜΙΝΩΝ, which Mr Burgon supposes to be part of the name of the illustrious Epaminondas, an opinion which the style of the coins corroborates. On this piece there is a rose above the diota. The other names require to be carefully studied. There are still later pieces of inferior work. Very rare tetradrachms of Attic weight, standing quite by themselves in the coinage of Boeotia, must be referred to a time subsequent to that of the silver coins of Aeginetan weight. Their obverse-type is a head of Jupiter, and their reverse-type a seated Neptune.

The coinage of Orchomenus is fine. Very beautiful hemidrachms of the best time, with the head of Proserpine on the obverse, must be particularly noted. Of Tanagra there are coins of the archaic and the good period. The money of these lesser towns cannot, however, be compared for importance to that of Thebes. A few small gold coins have been found of this city; but the great currency was of silver, and chiefly in didrachms, of course on the Aeginetan standard. The earliest silver pieces must be assigned to a time not long after the beginning of Greek coinage. These have on the obverse the usual buckler, and on the reverse an archaic Θ in the midst of an incuse pattern. After these there are pieces of early good style and others of rich work of a later time, although also of the age of the best art. The types appear mainly to relate to Hercules and Bacchus. We may notice didrachms, with on the obverse the buckler, and on the reverse the diota, with the buckler, and the infant Hercules strangling serpents, and with the head of Bacchus, and Hercules stringing his bow. The last reverse-type is a very fine example of the early work of the good time. The copper money is not remarkable. The only other Boeotian town which need be noticed is Theespia, of which there are silver coins of a late archaic time.

In Attica the great series of Athens demands our consideration. The gold money is not common, and of a late time, probably near that of Philip. The pieces are staters or didrachms. The silver is very plentiful, and must anciently have had a high commercial importance. We have already spoken of the denominations in treating of those of Greek coins generally. It may be here mentioned that the decadrachm of Athens is extremely rare; that the most common coin is the tetradrachm; and that some of the smaller pieces are of frequent occurrence. The earlier coins have archaic types, commencing about B.C. 500, and reaching down, without any essential change of style, through the period of good art,—a circumstance which can only be attributed, as already remarked, to a desire not to injure the credit of the Athenian money for purity among the nations which received it in trade. They are thick and of coarse fabric. There was no doubt a still older Athenian coinage, of which there are specimens, but the last surviving nothing satisfactory has as yet been published. The most notable coins of the earlier class are the decadrachm, which bears on the obverse the head of Minerva, and on the reverse an owl with spread wings, with the inscription ΑΘΕ, and an olive branch, and the tetradrachm, with the same obverse, and on the reverse an owl, usually turned to the right, but sometimes to the left, and more rarely facing, but with its wings closed. The coins of the later class are thinner, and consequently broader, and of a more recent style, than those of the earlier. They probably commenced not long after the time of Alexander, and lasted until that of Sylla, if not later. The principal pieces are tetradrachms, each bearing the names of three magistrates, among which occur those of two kings, Antiochus (doubtless the third of that name), and the famous Mithridates of Pontus. Their obverse-type is a head of Minerva, probably copied from that of the ivory-and-gold statue by Phidias in the Parthenon rather than that of the bronze one by the same artist on the Acropolis; and their reverse-type is an owl upon an amphora. The Athenian copper is of low art. The first attempt to introduce it failed; but the principal piece (τεκτονικός) was common in the time of the poet Philoemon about B.C. 300. The most remarkable copper coins are two bearing representations of the Acropolis and the great edifices. Both have on the obverse a head of Minerva. The reverse of one represents the Acropolis, with the grotto of Pan, the statue of Pallas Promachus, the Parthenon, and the Propylaea, with the steps leading up to the latter. The reverse of the other shows the theatre of Bacchus, above which are caverns in the rock, and higher still the Parthenon and the Propylaea. Respecting the rest of Attica we need only remark that there are fine copper coins of Eleusis, and that there are Greek imperial pieces of Megara.

The money of the island of Eginéa is of especial interest, since Eginéa, with its Greek coinage is said to have originated. The story is that at a time when Eginéa was a dependency of Argos, Phidion, king of Argos, struck the first Greek money there, in the eighth century B.C. It is said that previously silver was formed into spikes (σαρκάρια), of which six made a handful (πέραμα); and that thus the name of the drachm and its sixth, the obolus, originated; but this account may be an invention of later times. There can be no doubt, however, that the earliest Aeginetan coins are of extreme antiquity. The weight is of course on the talent of Eginéa. The oldest pieces are very primitive didrachms, bearing on the obverse a tortoise, and on the reverse a rude incuse stamp. Afterwards the stamp becomes less rude, and later has a peculiar shape. There are some coins of the early part of the fine period, and of excellent work. The great currency was of didrachms. The copper coins are not remarkable, but some appear to be of a time anterior to most Greek pieces in that metal.

The money of Achaea is numerous and interesting. First we Achaea must mention the coins of the Achaean League. The principal pieces appear to be tetrobols, since their weight is about that of two-thirds of a light Attic drachm. The type of the obverse is a head of Jupiter, and that of the reverse ΑΧ, for ΑΧΑΙΩΝ, in a monogram, with the name of the people by which the coin was issued, either in full, or represented by its commencement, commonly the latter, and generally some distinctive symbol. There is also copper money of this confederacy. Corinth is represented by a very large series of coins, the weight of which is always Attic. The chief coin was the didrachm. The oldest pieces are of a very early time, and bear on the obverse a Pegasus, and on the reverse an incuse pattern. On coins of a subsequent time, of archaic style, latterly approaching to that of the good period, we find the Pegasus still on the obverse, but on the reverse the head of Minerva in an incuse square. Of the period of the excellence and decline of art there are numerous specimens, some of which are of the finest style, and generally devoid of the severities of the highest Greek art. The didrachms have on the one side a Pegasus, either galloping, which is the common or standing, or drinking; and on the other the head of Minerva, sometimes with a laurel-wreath on the helmet, which, it may be noticed, is always Corinthian. The old letter κόπα, the initial of Corinth according to the archaic orthography, is generally seen on the obverse, as well as various symbols and letters, on the reverse. The smaller coins have the same obverse, but generally on the reverse a head of Venus, sometimes in a cap. Some of these, which appear to be principally tetrobols, are of good work; and there are a few of fine early style. There are some drachms with Bellerophon in a combatant attitude, mounted on Pegasus, on the one side, and the Chimera on the other. The autonomous copper money is poor, but often of fair work, and interesting, especially when the type relates to the myth of Bellerophon. Under the Romans this city was made a colony; and we have a large and interesting series of the copper coins struck by it as such. To the coinage of Corinth is assigned a large series of silver coins, chiefly, at least, didrachms,—for it is doubtful if there are smaller pieces—with the common types of the parent city. These coins probably do not in some cases indicate anything more than Corinthian origin,—and there can be no doubt that the didrachms of Corinth had such a reputation in commerce that other cities would have been ready, when it was possible, to issue similar pieces,—but in other cases they are witnesses of a contemporary influence or actual supremacy of that great mart.

There are copper pieces of Patras as a Roman colony, and silver and copper coins of Philus, both of the period of good art. The ancient city of Sicyon is remarkable for the great beauty of its money. Notwithstanding its reputation for antiquity, no coins of the archaic time have been attributed to it. The silver coins commence in the time of early good art, and continue until a late period, perhaps not far from that of the Achæan League. The standard, at least during the good time, is Æginetan. The most beautiful specimen known to us is a drachm of an excellent and simple style, having on the obverse a dove, as if alighting, and on the reverse the letter Ξ, placed horizontally like M, with an ornament beneath it. There are didrachms of a somewhat later time, which, although very fine, are a little too late, or at least not severe, in their style. The type of their obverse is the Chimera, and that of their reverse a flying dove within a wreath. The copper is mainly of good times; but some pieces may be late.

The money of Elis, or the Eleana, forms a most interesting series, many of the silver coins being of the highest style, and almost all bearing interesting devices, remarkably executed. The weight is Æginetan; and didrachms must have been the most important coins. The inscription, in full ΦΑΕΡΙΩΝ, is remarkable for the use of the digamma. The earliest coins are thick pieces of archaic work, and singular style, probably struck about the time of the expedition of Xerxes. The obverse bears a flying eagle carrying a serpent, and the reverse, a thunderbolt, sometimes of an elaborate form. Later archaic coins have the eagle carrying a hare or serpent, and a winged female figure. Next in order of time are the first fine coins. Some of these have on the obverse an eagle preying on a hare, and on the reverse a winged female figure seated on a base. This reverse is very similar to one example we have examined. Still later than these are coins of the finest style. On the obverse is the head of Juno, in a tiara, with honeycomb ornaments, and sometimes bearing her name ΠΠΑ; and on the reverse an acroterion, or a thunderbolt, within a wreath. The head of Juno is an admirable design, and fully proves that the Greeks attained as great success in coin-engraving as in sculpture. Not only is the face most beautiful, but it is perfectly appropriate to the character of Juno as drawn by the poets, and fit for the form and surface of a coin. There are also pieces in a later style. The copper money is not remarkable.

We have next to notice the coinage of the island of Cephalenia. The very early and archaic silver coins of Cranii must not be passed by, nor the money of Pale and Same, all cities of this island. Of the island of Zacynthus there are silver coins, usually of rather coarse work. Didrachms of the early good style, on the Æginetan standard, must be mentioned. The coins of Ithaca are of copper. They are of interest on account of their common obverse-type, which is a head of Ulysses.

Returning to the mainland, we first notice the money of Messenia, or the Messenians. The most remarkable coin is an Æginetan didrachm of the best style, having on the obverse a head of Proserpine, striking in design the similar subjects on the money of Syracuse. On the reverse is a figure of Jupiter. The other silver coins are of a comparatively late time, many being of about the period of the Achæan League. The copper money is plentiful, but not interesting. In Laconia it is only necessary to mention the coinage of Lacedæmon. As we might have expected, there are no early coins, the silver money being, like so much of that of the Greek cities, of about the time of the Achæan League. Among the types of the autonomous copper pieces may be noticed the head of the Spartan lawgiver, with the inscription ΑΤΚΟΤΤΟC.

The series of Argos in Argolis commences, as one would have anticipated, with coins of a very early period. The standard is Æginetan. The first coins are the drachm, with a wolf on the obverse, and on the reverse Λ, the initial letter of the name of the people and city, in an incuse square of two divisions, and the hemidrachm and a smaller piece, each with a wolf's head on the obverse, and the same type of reverse as the drachm. The most common silver coins have as their obverse-type the foot-part of a wolf; and the head shown on the copper pieces. Amongst the period of good art we must especially notice those which have for their obverse-type the head of Juno wearing a tiara; a design which, although sometimes of great beauty, is not equal to that of the coins of Elis, the style being less simple. A reverse-type of one of these coins, a drachm, represents Diomed stealthily advancing with the Palladium in his left hand, and a short sword in his right. On coins of the period to which this belongs (for it is certainly anterior to Alexander), the devices were of a strictly religious character. We cannot suppose a historical subject to be introduced; and it is therefore evident that the Trojan war was then considered by the Argives to be mythical. It may be remarked that some of the copper coins of Argos are of good style. Of the town of Troizen there are very fine silver coins of the early part of the best period of art, and some of a later time.

The money of Arcadia is interesting, although it does not form a large series. Some pieces are doubtless among the most ancient struck by the Greeks, and the types of these and later coins are Arcadian, connected with the remarkable myths of this primordial part of Hellas, showing particularly the remains of its old nature-worship. The first series to be noticed is that of Arcadia generally, or the Arcadians. It commences with very ancient silver coins, probably of at least the sixth century B.C., bearing types which continue to the early part of the fine period. These coins are chiefly hemidrachms on the Æginetan system, of which the usual types are, for the obverse, Jupiter Æthorophus seated, the eagle usually represented as if flying from his hand; and for the reverse, a female head. Of a later time, from about the age of Alexander, there are coins with, on the obverse, the head of Jupiter, and on the reverse Pan seated. These form part of the general currency which followed that of Alexander, and was most prevalent under the Achæan League. As they have everywhere a maximum weight of about 40 grains, it is probable that they were equal to low Æginetan hemidrachms, as well as to Attic tetradrachms similarly designed, and from their generally lacking come into use near the system of the former, has obtained their probably considerable as related to it, although actually Attic tetradrachm. In Crete, however, the Æginetan standard was supplanted by the Attic, and the same must have been the case in Boeotia, although there no pieces of the later issue above the weight of Attic tetradrachm seem to have been common. The coins of Hera are interesting. They commence at a very remote period, and last to the time of good art. The types of the oldest are, for the obverse, a female head veiled, probably that of Hera, in an extremely archaic style; and for the reverse, the retrograde inscription ΑΕΙ, between two horizontal ornamented borders. These and the other archaic coins are hemidrachms, and a smaller piece, on the Æginetan standard. The antiquity of Mantinea is, in like manner, attested by its money. The silver coins of a very early time have on the obverse a bear, representing Callisto, the mother of Arcas, and on the reverse three acorns in a triangular incuse depression. Others, of a later time, have on the one side an acorn, and on the other the letter Μ. As to the type of the bear, it may be observed that Callisto was particularly honoured here, and as to that of the acorn, that its occurrence shows the prominence given to this fruit in the myths relating to Arcas must be due to its primitive nature-worship, and not to its having been supposed to have been the food of the earliest inhabitants. The silver coins of Megalopolis are important, since we know the city to have been founded B.C. 370. The types are the same as those of the coins of the Arcadians of the same period, the obverse bearing the head of Jupiter, and the reverse Pan seated. The silver coins of Phœnus must be noticed to be of fine work. The last Arcadian town of the money of which we shall speak is Stymphalus. The finest coin attributed to this place is a magnificent didrachm on the Æginetan standard. The obverse bears the head of Diana laureate, and the reverse Hercules striking with his club. This coin, although of great beauty, is not of the highest style. The head is not sufficiently simple in its treatment, being too rich in the details. The other design also errs in a want of meaning. When Hercules is represented shooting, there is no need to portray the object which he attacks; but when he uses his club, there is a defect if we do not see what he is about to strike. Mr Burgon thinks this piece must be of a city of the same name in Crete, as yet unknown to us from any other source. Not least of the coin of the coin remarkably Creilian, and even the mechanical execution, but the very rare types occur on Æginetan didrachms of Cnossus and Crete. Yet Diana and Hercules were both worshipped in the Arcadian city. The smaller silver coins are undoubtedly of that place. They have on the one side the head of Hercules, and on the other, the head and neck of a Stymphalian bird, most resembling those of a vulture. There were representations of these birds in the temple of Diana at Stymphalus. The series of Tegea can scarcely be considered as important, but three of the reverse-types of its copper coins are very interesting. Two of these relate to the story that Minerva gave a jar containing the hair of Medusa to her priestess Sterope, daughter of Cepheus, in order that she might terrify the Argives should they attack Tegea during the absence of Cepheus, when Hercules desired his aid in an expedition against Sparta. The third represents a kind sucking the infant Telephus.

The coins of Crete bear witness to its ancient wealth. Silver Crete must have been abundant, whence, except it were anciently found Greek Coins.

In the island (and modern researches there have not yet detected any traces of this metal, much less of its former working), we must suppose an extensive and active commerce. The period over which the autonomous silver coins range extends from about the latter part of the sixth century B.C. to the beginning of the Roman rule. The autonomous copper coinage belongs only to the latter part of this period, and gold money has not been found. The imperial coins are not numerous. The types have a very local character, which connects them with early Greek mythology. Neptune, Jupiter, Juno, Hercules, and the local goddess Britomartis, identified with Artemis, are among the principal divinities. Subjects connected with the myths of Europa and that of the Minotaur also occur. Many series have evident reference to the primitive nature-worship. The art of the silver coins of Crete is well deserving of study. In general it is at first rude, and suddenly attains excellence. In its perfection it stands by itself, wholly distinct from that of any other class of Greek coins. In essential excellence it is inferior to no other style, but it errs in a want of fitness, necessarily arising from its intensely pictorial character. The perception of beauty which it displays is very great, although in female heads there is too much richness. The figures, the animal forms, and the trees are drawn with the most admirable truth and freedom, and, notwithstanding, often in very low relief for Greek coins. The pictorial character of this art is shown not alone in the choice of subjects, but in the extremely natural mode in which they are treated, with a constant preference for perspective, without in either case a regard for the form or surface of the coin. Thus, as examples of Greek art, the finest Cretan pieces are of the highest value; but as examples of that art as applied to coins, they are to be consulted with great caution. The standard of the older silver coins, comprising all those of fine style, is Egyptian; and the coins show a considerable lowering of weight. The later coins follow Attic style. Judging from their art, none of the older class can be much more recent than B.C. 370, nor any of the later much earlier than B.C. 320. One thing is certain, that there is a gap between the coins of the two periods, which corresponds very well to the reign of Alexander, some of whose coins may be ascribed, on very probable grounds, to Cretan cities.

Of the island of Crete, generally, there are Roman silver coins of the earlier emperors, some of which are of fine work for the period. The inscriptions are either in Latin, or partly in Latin and partly in Greek. In the autonomous civic series there are didrachms of Aptera, called on its money Aptara. The obverse bears a female head wearing a tiara, and the reverse a warrior before a sacred tree. Of Chersonesus, the port of Lyctus, called on the coins Cheronesans, there are didrachms of fine style, and sometimes of fine work also. The obverse has a head of Diana Britomartis, who had a temple here, and the reverse bears either Apollo with his lyre, or Hercules striking with his club. The pieces with the latter reverse are essentially identical with the fine style hitherto attributed to the Arcadian Stymphalus, which I have lately noticed. The series of silver coins of Choeronea is of great interest and beauty. The city is said to have been the capital of the ancient Cretan kings, and its coins show that it must have been a wealthy place. The oldest coins are of a very archaic style, and probably anterior in time to the expedition of Xerxes, and certainly not later. One of these, a didrachm, has on the obverse the Minotaur, portrayed as a man with apparently a bull's head, kneeling on one knee; and on the reverse the Labyrinth, represented by an intricate pattern. Another didrachm, of about the same time, has on the one side the Minotaur, who has here undoubtedly a bull's head, and on the other a head, which appears to be that of a female, within a labyrinthine border. The head, which is probably that of Ariadne, being put for a person, and the border for the Labyrinth, are instances of archaic feeling. The antiquity of these coins disproves the supposition that the Labyrinth was an invention of the later poets, as there is no mention of it by Homer, Hesiod, or Herodotus; a supposition which has led to the conjecture that the idea had Egyptian origin, and fixed to this place on account of the natural excavations of the region. It is curious to observe that the myth is older than Herodotus; and it may be observed that the Egyptian Labyrinth, both from the evidence of ancient writers and that of its lately-discovered remains, does not appear to have been what is generally understood by a labyrinth. Further, it is doubtful if Homer do not in one place allude to the Cretan Labyrinth. Of the early part of the time of fine work are didrachms with, on the obverse, the head of Proserpine, and on the reverse the head of a bull, for the Minotaur, in a labyrinthine border, or else only a conventional pattern for the Labyrinth. One of these is, on the obverse, in excellent style. These are succeeded by coins of the most beautiful design and execution. They have on the obverse a head of Juno wearing a tiara, and apparently represented as young; and on the reverse the Labyrinth, which here has a rectangular form, and is a maze. The head is of great beauty. Its youthful and soft character is probably an effect of Cretan art; but it may refer to the tale that Juno was married near this town.1 The didrachm and drachm of Gortys. Of a later time there are tetradrachms on the Attic standard, with, on the one side, the head of Apollo, and on the other the Labyrinth, represented of a circular form; or the head of Jupiter, and the rectangular form of the Labyrinth. There are interesting coins of Cydonia. Their types constantly refer to the myth of Cydon, son of Apollo by Aescallis, daughter of Minos. The money of Eleutherna must also be mentioned.

Gortys, or Gortyna, is represented by most remarkable coins, which generally allude to the myth of Europa. Didrachms of about B.C. 500 have on the obverse Europa carried by the bull, and on the reverse a lion's scalp, in linear and incuse squares. Colonel Leake describes one belonging to Gen. Fox, with nearly this general type, bearing on the reverse a retrograde inscription in archaic characters, ὁπτνος τοῖαμα (ΣΙΜΑ) where σιμα probably means "badge" or "emblem," and not "type;" for the last rendering would not be in accordance with the principles of the inscriptions of Greek coins. These pieces are followed by a remarkably fine class of so-called Ξελητανα διραχμα, the types of which are similar to those of Eleutherna. The best are of the early part of the period of good art, at the time at which perfectness of handling had been attained. These have on the obverse Europa seated in a pensive attitude on the trunk of a tree, doubtless the sacred plane at Gortyna, which was said never to shed its leaves, mentioned by Pliny,2 and on the reverse a bull suddenly turning his head, as if stung by a fly. Nothing in Greek art exceeds the skill and beauty of these designs. The truth with which the tree is sketched, and the graceful position of the forlorn Europa, are as much to be admired as the fidelity with which the bull is drawn, even when foreshortened, sharply turning his head, with his tongue out, and his tail raised. These designs, beautiful in themselves, are strikingly deficient in fitness, and afford equally strong illustrations of the excellencies and the one great fault of the art of Cretan coins. Many pieces of the same class are of rude execution, but a fine style is evident in all. There is a tetradrachm with the types of the late Athenian ones, from which it differs only in the manner in which the badge of a butting bull. The coins of Hierapytna are chiefly remarkable for bearing the representation of a date-palm. Of Ianus there are fine early pieces, and others of the best period. Lyttus, as yet, is written on the coins in the Cretan form, instead of Lyctus, is represented by many silver coins, chiefly archaic Ξελητανα didrachms, having on the obverse a flying eagle, and on the reverse a boar's head.

The coins of Phasaeus form an interesting series. Among the didrachms are some of admirable work, with, on the obverse, Hercules slaying the Hydra with his club, and on the reverse a bull, excellently drawn. Others, also of fine work, have on the one side Hercules seated on the ground, and on the other a bull within a wreath. The most remarkable coins of Phasaeus are, however, those that bear representations of Talos, the man of brass, said to have been made by Vulcan. One of these is an Ξελητανα didrachm, on which he is portrayed as a winged youth, naked, bearing in each hand a stone, and in a combative attitude; the figure is accompanied by his name. A similar design is seen on a copper coin. The reader will recollect the story of Talos, which ancient writers give of Talos, and especially that of Apollonius Rhodius (Argonauts, iv., 1038), who relates that he prevented the Argonauts from landing in Crete by hurling stones at them, until he was destroyed by the artifice of Medea. These coins afford important illustration to such scanty and less authoritative notices, and have the advantage, as usual, of addressing us by representation and not by description. Instances of this kind show convincingly the great value of numismatic knowledge in the study of Greek mythology. Of Polyrrhenium, or Polyrrhenia, there are many coins; the early ones are fine, and should rather be called of the people than of the place, since it is said that at the period to which they undoubtedly belong the city was not built, and the Polyrrhenians dwelt in villages,

---

1 Numismata Hellensia, "Insular Greece," pp. 3, 4. 2 Strabo, lib. x., cap. 4. 3 Comp. Hoek, Aegina, vol. i., p. 56, et seq. 4 xviii. 695, et seq. It is, perhaps, of little importance that the Cnossians in after times showed a so-called sculpture in white stone ascribed to Daidalos representing the dance of Ariadne, a work to which Homer was here said to allude. (Pliny, ix. 40.) 5 Diol. Sic. v. 72. 6 Numismata Hellensia, "Insular Greece," p. 18. 7 The name of the place or people on the coins has but one r. 8 Plin. Hist. Nat. xii. 5. Greek Coins.

by which we can scarcely understand a straggling and unwalled town. There are interesting coins of Prusias and Rhacus, both with representations of Neptune. Of Sybrita, or Sybrita, we must notice a didrachm of the finest work, bearing on the obverse Bacchus or a bacchic figure, with a thyrsus carried by a panther, and on the reverse Hercules standing on his right buskin.

The coins of Euboea are identical, but their types are not very various. All, however, early excepting the Attic standard, and no numismatic indication of a distinct Euboean talent has yet been discovered. Of Euboea generally, silver and copper coins are known. The former are of the early part, and the rest of the period of good art, but principally of the latter. The obverse has a female head, probably of Venus, and the reverse, the head of a sacrificial bull. Carytae is represented by early didrachms with, on the one side, a cow suckling a calf, as at Dyrachium, and on the other a cock; and by later pieces with the head of Hercules bearded, in the lion's skin, and a palm-tree or other device. Of Chalcis there are drachms with the head which is probably that of Venus, and an eagle destroying a serpent, some of which are fine, although not very remarkable for their art. There is an early tetradrachm of Eretria, bearing on the obverse a bull as if stung by a fly, and with a bird standing on its back, and on the reverse a centaur. Among the later coins no very fine pieces are found. Of Histicum there are many small silver coins, some appear to be drachms and tetradrachms. We observe here, as we think, the head of a bacchic female (for it can scarcely be of the androgynous Bacchus), and is sometimes very beautiful; and the reverse-type is a female seated on a prow, and holding a mast. Most of these coins are of the fine period, but some are late. In the copper series there are also pieces of good style.

Among the other islands clasped after Euboea, Coos is especially worthy of note. There are coins which have the name of the people in general, and others of the cities of Carthage, Corseus or Corseia, and Iulis. The silver money of Corseus is wholly of a very early time, for we must assign it to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C., carrying its oldest pieces as far back as near the commencement of Greek coinage. The weight is Argivean; and there are didrachms and smaller coins. The usual obverse-type is a cuttle-fish and dolphin, and the reverse bears an incuse pattern. Of the coins of Lulis the common obverse-type is a fruit, probably a pomegranate, which we cannot derive from the influence of the works of art that have been found in this island, a conclusion, however, in its coinage, will be disappointed, as at Athens. Naxos is represented by early Argivean didrachms and coins of the fine period, the latter being chiefly copper pieces of remarkably delicate and good work. The types are bacchic. Of Paros the silver money is plentiful, but not very fine; it consists chiefly of Attic didrachms. There are very early Argivean didrachms of Siphnos, and smaller archaic coins. Some of the copper pieces are of the best period, and very fine. Of Tenedos there are silver coins of the good time, but of poor work. The head of the bearded Jupiter Ammon occurs on tetradrachms following the Attic standard, and on smaller pieces, that of the young Ammon, laureate as well as horned, which shows the reasonableness of concluding that the two representations are of the same divinity.

Pontus, &c.

The coinage of Asia commences with that of Asia Minor. The first provinces are Bosporus and Colchis, the coins of the cities of which are few and unimportant. The coins of the cities of Pontus are more numerous, and although none of them are archaic or deserve to be characterized as fine, the style of some, both of silver and of copper, is the best. The general merit is of copper pieces, which are sometimes large and unusually thick, and are of more careful work than those of Grave Procer. The only place calling for special notice is Amisus, which alone of the cities of Pontus seems to have issued autonomous silver coins. These were continued under the emperors in the form of Greek denarii, that is, Roman denarii with Greek inscriptions. The common subjects of the copper-money of this place relate to the myth of Perseus and Medusa. The series of the kings of Pontus and Bosporus has, as its first interesting coins, those of the famous Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, of whom there are staters and tetradrachms. The portrait on the best tetradrachms is extremely fine, and, as a portrait, scarcely excelled in the whole class of Greek coins. Even as a design it has great merits; and this is the more remarkable if we consider the low period at which it was struck. The treatment of the hair has been well explained by the supposition that the head was copied from a statue in which the king, who is said to have been a very skilful rider and charioteer, was represented driving; an opinion which derives some support from the apparent allusion by Pliny to a work or works of the kind. The subsequent coins are not interesting. They are of the remaining part of the kingdom of Pontus, and of all that of Bosporus until near its close, probably not very long after the time of Constantine the Great. The gold and silver coins soon became Roman aurei and denarii in their weight. The gold degenerates into electrum and the silver is superseded, partly laterly, by pontic or other very barbarous. These coins bear dates in the Pontic era.

In Phrygia we must especially notice the coins of the cities Paphlagonia and Sinope. The silver pieces of the former place bear nia and a female head, in a laureate Phrygian bonnet, probably representing Amazons the founders. On the late copper money the bust of Homer occurs. There are also copper coins of the imperial class. The silver pieces of Sinope are plentiful, and of fair work. There are copper coins of a Pyrmeneus, king of Paphlagonia, but it is not known to which of the sovereigns bearing that name they should be assigned. Bithynia is represented by a more important series. Of the country generally there are Roman silver medallions, of the weight of low Attic tridrachms, with Latin inscriptions, and imperial copper pieces with Greek inscriptions. The ordinary silver coins of Chalcodon strikingly resemble, on both sides, the early coins of Byzantium, a circumstance confirmatory of the statement that the two cities were colonized at nearly the same time from Megara. At Cnossus, also called Prusias ad Mare, there are fine silver coins, the latter name occurring also on those of Hippostratus and Hippostratus' son, named autonomous copper coins. Of Heraclea there are silver coins of good work of the fine period; these are Argivean didrachms, and smaller pieces apparently on the same standard. The obversetype is a head of Hercules, either bearded or beardless, in the lion's skin; and the most interesting reverse-type, a female head wearing a tiara on which are three turrets, is probably that of the town personified. Of the tyrants of Heraclea, there are silver coins of Timotheus and Dionysius ruling together, and of Dionysius reigning alone. Of the imperial class, there is a large series of Nicea, and there are many coins of Nicomedia. The series of Bithynia closes with the money of its kings, consisting of Attic tetradrachms and copper pieces. The tetradrachms bearing the name of Prusias are probably of Prusias I. and II., for there is some difference in the portraits. The copper coins with the same name, some of which are fine, cannot be otherwise classed than to both kings, since we do not know by which of the two they were issued. Of Nicomedes II. and III. there are only tetradrachms.

The fine Greek coinage of Asia may be considered to commence Mytilene, with Mytilene, Cyzicus is in numismatics a most important city. From it the Cyzicene state derived its name, which appears to have been used as a general appellation of the electoral states of the west coast of Asia Minor, although those of Phocaea were distinguished. Some of the known specimens of these coins, as well as of the hecatae, were doubtless struck at Cyzicus; but we have thought it best to group the whole class to which they belong together, until it is more certainly classified. The silver coinage of this town comprises archaic but not very old pieces, and others of early fine work, but of somewhat archaic style, having on the obverse a half-bear, behind which is a fish, and on the reverse a lion's head in profile, within an incuse square. Of the best art there are most beautiful tetradrachms of the Phoenician or Persian talent. The obverse bears a head of Proserpine, with a veil on the back wound round her hair, and in the hair ears of corn. This is an example of the best Greek art, equally simple, delicate, and graceful. Such a union of beauty with breadth and simplicity is very rare, especially in the representation of female heads. Above the head is the inscription ΕΤΕΡΙΤΑ, which may be compared with ΚΟΡΦΕΣ ΣΩΤΕΙΡΑ ΚΤΖΙΚΗΝΜΙΝ on a late copper coin, accompanying a legend which is probably that of the younger Palaestra in the character of a nymph. The reverse-type of the fine tetradrachms is a lion's head in profile above a fish. These were followed, after a long space, by coins on the Attic weight; for there is a tetradrachm on that standard resembling those of the later Macedonian kings. Some of the autonomous copper coins are fine, but most are of a low period, probably having been issued just before and under the Roman domination. The late pieces are, however, sometimes of good work for their time. There are also many imperial copper coins.

The money of Lampasaces must next be noticed. In gold there are fine staters, adjusted apparently to the standard of the darics rather than to that of the Attic talent; although, from the small difference in weight, this is hard to determine. One is very fine, though not of the highest art, and remarkable for the peculiar style of the design of its obverse. This is the head of a bearded man, with long dishevelled hair, and covered with a conical cap bearing a wreath. It may perhaps be a head of Neptune. The

---

1 Strabo, lib. xii., cap. 4. As, however, the city built by the Achaeans and Macedonians is here described as strong, it is possible that the villages which it supplanted really formed a straggling town without walls. 2 Appian, Mithr., § 112. 3 Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. xxxiii., § 54. Greek Coins.

The reverse has the fore-part of a winged horse, the wing being curled, and the body terminating in what seems to be a kind of fin, so that the monster would appear to be a sea-horse. The old silver coins have on the obverse a Janus-like combination of two female heads. Of the good period there are some small pieces; and there is also an Attic tetradrachm of late time, showing the abandonment of the old standard, which was probably Phoenician. The autonomous copper money is not very important. Of Parium there are silver coins of the early fine period, and of rather archaic style. Some copper pieces of good time are remarkable for bearing an altar in perspective, such objects being scarcely ever thus represented until a much later period.

The coins of the great city of Pergamus or Pergamum are chiefly of a late time. There are, indeed, gold and silver pieces of the good period, the former being very rare; but the most numerous silver coins are electrum, struck before late. The cistophorus, as we have already shown, is in weight an Attic tridrachm, but it probably came, through the depreciation of the Phoenician tetradrachms of Rhodes and other places, to be considered a tetradrachm, and thus the half and quarter of it were struck, although apparently in no great numbers. All the cistophori are of the kingdoms of Pergamus, which afterwards became the Roman province Asia. The oldest were most probably issued under the kings, but the later are of the Roman rule, and we find on them the names of proconsuls or praetors of Asia, and of proconsuls of Cilicia, from the time at which Phrygia was given to that province. Thus the name of M. Tullius Cicero, as proconsul, occurs on cistophori of Apamea of Phrygia, and, with the title "Imperator," on one of Laodicea in the same country, the latter coin illustrating an event narrated by the orator. The obverse-type of these pieces is the cista mystica, a basket from which a serpent issues, all within a wreath of ivy; and the reverse-type, two serpents, partly intertwined, and rising on either side of a bowstring or bowstring, but rarely, of some other object. These electrum cistophori are succeeded by coins of the time of the triumvirate of Mark Antony and his colleagues, with a Roman head or heads on the obverse, and serpents on either side of the cista, and of some other object, on the reverse; and these, again, are followed by the so-called imperial silver medallions of Asia, which are of the weight of cistophori. These last have on the obverse either the head of an emperor or that of an empress, and on the reverse various designs, and are of fine work for the period. The earliest are of Augustus, and the latest of Domitian. The copper pieces of Pergamus are numerous, both of the autonomous and of the imperial class, the latter comprising some medallions. The principal coins of the kings of Pergamus are Attic tetradrachms, with, on the obverse, a laureate head, believed to be that of the first king, Philipperus, and on the reverse a seated Minerva. The portrait is often very fine, when it must be considered to be one of the best Greek portraits, and an excellent example of the style of the time. The reverse is probably that of the common tetradrachm of Lysimachus, from whom Philadelphus revolted. Although the inscription of the reverse is always ΠΕΡΓΑΜΟΤ, a monogram or letter sometimes points out the king by whom a particular coin was issued. Besides these tetradrachms, there are copper coins, which, however, are unimportant.

The Troad.

The coinage of the Troad is chiefly interesting from its reference, in its later pieces, to the Trojan War, and the manner in which it thus illustrates the Iliad. We must recollect, however, that this kind of evidence on very late coins cannot be safely held to be independent, except where the type is of an indisputably religious character, and also that, at the Roman time, and a period somewhat earlier, this character is not constant. Hence we must not hastily conclude that the coins show that there was a local tradition of the great contest, nor that they prove its heroes to be mythical. Of Abdyos there are silver coins of the early part of the good period, which seem to be adjusted to the Phoenician talent. The drachm may have on the obverse an anchor, to which a craw-fish is shown to cling; and on the reverse a head of Medusa, with the serpents, which are wound round the anchor. There are Attic tetradrachms of a late time, noticeable for their strange fabric, which gives them the appearance of cast coins, and renders them suspicious to those who are unaware of this peculiarity. Alexandria is represented by late Attic tetradrachms, having on the one side a head of Apollo, and on the other, Apollo advancing with bow and arrow, and the inscription ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΟΣ ΖΜΙΟΝΕΣ.

There are later autonomous and imperial coins, in copper, of the Roman colony. Of Ilium there are likewise late Attic tetradrachms of coarse work, bearing on the obverse the head of Minerva, and on the reverse the same goddess advancing, holding in her right hand a spear, which rests on her shoulder, and in her left hand a distaff, with the inscription ΑΘΗΝΑΙ ΙΛΙΑΙΩΝ, &c. One of the autonomous copper pieces has on the obverse Hector in a combatant attitude, with his name ΕΡΤΙΠ, and on the reverse the wolf and twins, showing that it is of the Roman period. On another copper coin Αινεις is represented carrying Anchises, and reading Ascanius. There are also many imperial copper pieces of this place. Of Scepsis, which is said to have been the capital of a Dardanian kingdom for a long period before the fall of Troy and the age of Alexander, there are archaic silver coins; and some of its copper money is of good style. Sigean was for a great length of time a dependency of Athens; and the common types of its silver coins are accordingly Athenian, although the style of art is different. The island of Tenoselos is represented, by very early coins, and others of the fine and late periods. The usual obverse-type of all the silver pieces is a Janus-like combination of two heads, probably those of Jupiter and Juno; and the usual reverse-type of all but the oldest is a two-headed axe. The weight seems to be always Attic.

In Αιολικαί we may notice that some of the coins of Αιολικαί are of a Αιολικαί very early time, and that the principal type, the head and neck, or fore-part of a goat, is probably connected with the name. The town of Cyrene is represented by an important series of silver coins. A few of these are early, but most are fine late Attic tetradrachms, probably first struck not very long after Alexander's time, and perhaps issued for about a hundred years. On the obverse is a female head, perhaps that of Diana, bound with a narrow fillet; in style of some purity and beauty, though yet not inferior to that of the best Greek coins, and thus showing the vitality of art in Asia Minor. The reverse-type is a horse within a wreath of laurel. There are also examples of fair work among the copper coins. Of Myrina there are Attic tetradrachms like those of Cyrene, and of about the same period. The obverse-type, which is a laureate head of Apollo, is in a vigorous style. The imperial coins of Αιολικαί are not very numerous.

The coinage of Lesbos is remarkable for the base material of Lesbos, what we may consider, as a class, to be its oldest pieces. These, although at first heavier, probably represent Αιολικαί didrachms and divisions, their original weight having been determined on the same principles as that which regulated the weight of the electrum coins of Asia Minor. They are doubtless of the different cities of the island, although it is difficult to attribute most of them. Certain of these early base silver coins, with, on the obverse, two boars' heads facing one another, and on the reverse an irregular lance head, must be classed as Attic, as Mr Burgon has determined, since one bears the letters ΑΝ, as ΑΝΤΙΟΧΕΙΤΩΝ. To Methymna may perhaps be assigned a coin of the kind just noticed, but there is also a silver one of very archaic style, which is, if not anterior to it, at least of the same time. Of a later period there are fine coins of this town. Among the copper pieces we must not pass by one already mentioned, on which Arion and the dolphin are represented. The weight of the pure silver coins of Methymna seems to be always Attic. Mytilene appears to have struck electrum coins, for boeotia are assigned to it, one of which bears the letters ΑΕ. It must be remembered that this was the chief town of the island, and, as Col. Leake supposes, Homer's Αιολικαί Αιολικαί. There are early base coins of this place, and silver of the fine period. The standard seems to be Αιολικαί. The copper pieces are numerous, and the earliest are of fair style. The very late are interesting, as bearing the names and portraits of benefactors. Mytilene is thus shown to have honoured such persons as heroes or heroines; and one, Theopompus, the friend of Pompey, from whom he obtained for this city its native place, the privilege of a fine style, is described as a god, while his predecessor, probably his wife, is styled a goddess. The imperial coins of Mytilene may also be mentioned; they comprise medallions. There are beautiful copper pieces of Pyrrha of the good period.

The electrum coins of Asia Minor may be best placed between Electrum Αιολικαί and Ionia, in the opinion of Mr Burgon, since this position is one of the centre of their geographical range. They form a most Asia Minor interesting class, whether we consider the antiquity of the earliest Minor, or the admirable style of the designs of a great proportion, or their

---

1 Having conquered the barbarians at Issus, Cicero received this title: "Ita victoria jusque Imperator appellatus apud Iseum," &c. (Epist. Fam. ii. 10.)

2 See, on the whole subject of the cistophori and imperial medallions, an excellent paper by M. Pinder, "Uber die Cistophoren und Uber die Kaiserlichen Silbermedaillen der Romischen Provinz Asia," von M. Pinder (Königl. Akad. der Wissenschaften), Berlin, 1866.

3 Strabo, lib. iii., chap. i.

4 Aristotle (op. Sigla, Byz. voc. Titula) gives a puerile explanation of these types, which Colonel Leake (Num. Ital., "Insular Greece," p. 43) rightly condemns. Greek Coins.

general importance in reference to Greek mythology. As to their art, it may be truly said that it is impossible to form a fair opinion of the artistic excellence of the coins of the west of Asia Minor without a knowledge of these, which make up the majority of the most carefully executed specimens struck during the best period. The earliest electrum coins have the appearance of a greater antiquity than any in the whole Greek series; and thus explain the remark of Herodotus, that the Lydians, as far as he knew (for he does not here omit his characteristic cautious mode of expression), were the first who struck money. Although perhaps the first coins may have been struck in Eginia, and others soon afterwards elsewhere in Greece, and this useful invention specially adopted in Asia, it seems more probable that it was of Asiatic origin; and it should be remembered that the part of Asia to which the electrum class belongs was at this early period subject to the Lydian kings. The oldest pieces are staters and smaller coins, with rude and seemingly unmeaning incuse stamps on the obverse, and on the reverse a mark of the rough surface of the anvil. These are followed by coins with a rude design on the obverse, and incuse incuse stamps in a square on the reverse. After a time the art of the designs on the obverse improves, and the reverse is occupied by a quadrupartite incuse square, of which each of the divisions is in a different place. There are many staters and hecte of this class, which we may call the later archaic, to distinguish it from the older class which precedes it. To the same group must be assigned some hecte struck towards the close of its period, which are remarkable for having a second and incuse design on the reverse, differing from that on the obverse. The electrum coins of the best period commence with such as are slightly archaic. These have the quadrupartite incuse reverse, which is, as far as we know, the invariable reverse of the staters of this whole period. These staters are of pure and excellent style in their designs. The hecte are unequalled for breadth and purity of style, combined with the greatest beauty and refinement. They present a most interesting series of heads of Greek divinities. The latest show a slight decline in their style.

In Ionia we must first notice the town of Clazomenae, the earlier silver pieces of which bear the fore-part of a winged boar. Among the coins issued at a later time, we must notice three examples which worldly power the characters which have given the artists of Asiatic Greece. There are, a gold coin of the weight of the third of an Attic tetradrachm, and two silver Attic tetradrachms. The obverse-type of all is a head of Apollo facing, and the reverse-type a swan. The age is about the middle or latter part of the fifth century B.C.; and the head is in the very best Greek style, the swan being not so finely executed. The former is slightly better on the gold coin, where it has a simple grandeur and beauty that gives it a place among the first monuments of Greek art. On the two tetradrachms the head is but little inferior; and it is noticeable that the artist, proud of his work, has inscribed on both (for they are by the same hand, though from different dies) "Theodorus made this" (ΘΕΟΔΟΡΟΣ ΤΟΙΧΕΙΡΕ). There is a tetradrachm, doubleless later, on which the head of Apollo shows an ornate and mannered style. Some of the copper coins are of the good time, and well executed.

Passing Colophon, of which there are archaic coins and others of the fine period, we reach Ephesus. The early silver pieces of this town, which are not of a very remote period, have on the one side a head and on the other usually an incuse square divided into four parts. The most important of the older coins of the fine period are tetradrachms of the Phoenician talent, bearing on the obverse a bee, and on the reverse a date-palm and the forepart of a stag. The principal later coins of the same period are didrachms of a lower weight, and in time a little before the expedition of Alexander. They bear on the one side the bust of Diana, in a beautiful style, but not the finest; and on the other the fore-part of a stag. Of a still later time there are many cistophori. Some of the autonomous copper pieces display a good style of art. There is a large imperial series, including some coins of silver. Of the latter metal certain are of especial interest, since they bear, although they are evidently of Roman weight, inscriptions stating them to be drachma and didrachma. These are followed by Roman denarii of fine work, with Latin inscriptions. The imperial copper money also presents specimens of good art for the period. There are coins in both silver and copper of Ephesus with the name of Ariadne, which the city took from the wife of Lysimachus, and bore only during his life. They have the portrait of Ariadne, which can be compared with that on her Egyptian coins as wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus.1 The coins of Ephesus are connected with Hercules. Some of its silver coins, on the Phoenician standard, are of good style; and the autonomous copper pieces are noticeable for the great number of magistrates' names which they bear, indicating the long period during which they were issued. On

1 See a paper by Mr Borrell of Smyrna (Num. Chron., vol. ii., p. 171, &c seq.) places bearded, and in the later, beardless; and the reverse, a lyre. Cos affords an important series. The standard of the silver pieces appears to be Phoenician, but if so, the weight of the earliest is very heavy. The oldest tetradrachms have remarkable types: that of the obverse represents a naked male figure dancing and beating a tambourine before the tripod of Apollo, and the reverse is occupied by an irregular incuse square, divided diagonally, and having a crab in the centre. The obverse-type is in a very fine late archaic style. Among the later coins we must notice, as the most beautiful, although not secure in its tradition, one where on the obverse, a head of Bacchus, bearing on the brow a baslet of Ceres veiled. There are also small pieces of a subsequent time, which bear on the one side a head of Eaclespilus, resembling that of Jupiter, and on the other a serpent. Many copper coins also bear types relating to this divinity. The imperial money is insignificant.

The island of Rhodes takes an important place in numismatics. In Homer's time, three cities, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus, divided its territories between them. After having existed several centuries, these cities united to found Rhodes, and ceased to possess separate laws. Strabo places this event in the course of the Peloponnesian War (καὶ τὰ Ἀθηναῖα), and gives another indication of its date when he says that the architect employed was Hip- podamus of Miletus, who built the Piraeus of Athens, for the latter work was executed about B.C. 475. It may therefore be supposed that Rhodes was founded not very long, perhaps as much as twenty years, before the Peloponnesian War, which began B.C. 431. These particulars are not agreed upon by the numismatic evidence. The coins of the three cities, if we include those attributed to Astyrus, are generally of archaic fabric, and in no case late; while those of Rhodes do not in style reach earlier than the middle of the fifth century B.C. The coins of Camirus and those of Ialysus, the latter seeming always to commemorate alliances, are worthy of careful study. Of Rhodes there are gold staters of Attic weight, and smaller pieces, all of a low period. The silver coins form a large series. The pieces struck before Alexander's expedition may be considered as generally of the good period, although some of them are archaic; and those issued after his reign may be assigned to the time of decline. During that reign his regular coinage was struck at this city. The obverse bears a head of Apollo, facing in the large coins, and usually in profile on the small. The earlier are chiefly to be distinguished by the facing head of Apollo being larger than the later, by its being raised. On the reverse a rose, almost always represented in a side view, but sometimes as seen from above. After a very careful examination of many examples, we are firmly convinced that this is nothing but a single rose. It has been suggested that it is a pomegranate flower (σαλαμίνα); but the coins seem to us absolutely to overthrow this theory, although supported by the opinion of Colonel Leake. No doubt there is a certain degree of conventional treatment in the representation, but not enough to render its meaning in any degree doubtful. Some of these coins are fine, although most of them show, in the head, a degree of harshness. The weight is Phoenician, and becomes very low. The autonomous copper coins are similar to the silver; a few are fine, and some are very large. Those of the imperial class are unimportant.

Entering Lycia, we are in a more Asiatic region than any through which we have passed. The earlier coins have a peculiarly local character, and in instances, and are no doubt of the Persian de- nomination. It seems probable that their issue ceased somewhat before Alexander's expedition, for we can scarcely bring the latest quite as low as that event. There can be no question that, here as elsewhere, a Greek coinage was then introduced, first struck by Alex- ander, and afterwards by the cities. The earlier coins are principally of silver, but copper pieces occur. Some of the former have a very archaic aspect; and the style of all would be called archaic elsewhere, but here the eastern character of the devices must be taken into account. The types present a union of Greek and oriental designs, the most common of which is one probably of the latter class—the so-called triquetra, an object resembling a ring to which three hooks are attached. A man-headed bull with curled wings is also to be noticed. The inscriptions are in Lycian characters, except in the case of the early pieces of Knossos, which have Greek letters. The coins with Lycian inscriptions have not been satisfactorily attributed. The standard is probably Phoenician, but this cannot be regarded as certain. Sir Charles Fellows has published a list of all the specimens of this class known to him, with engravings of the greater number. The later coins, or such as were struck after Alexander's time, are of inferior interest to those which we have just noticed. The common types are, for the obverse the head of Apollo, frequently in rather an androgynous character, and for

---

1 Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Reign of Alexander, with an Essay on the relative Dates of the Lycian Monuments in the British Museum, by Sir Charles Fellows, 1855. Greek Coins.

archaic appearance that more satisfactory evidence does not corroborate. The denominations appear to be Phoenician, and there is no doubt that the heaviest is of the weight of two silver darics. Pieces having on the obverse a ram lying down, or a reverse, either perfectly plain, or else bearing a ram's head or a kind of crown, are assigned by the Duc de Luynes to Amathus, with two exceptions. The coins with the Greek inscription MAP, before alluded to, he attributes to Mariamn. To Salamis he classes coins of which two types are worthy of note. One of these represents a female seated on or carried by a bull, and the other a figure, apparently also that of a female, carried by a ram. The former type connects the myth of Europa with the worship of the Cyprian Venus and Astarte; and the latter connects these again with the story of Helle, and the recumbent sun on the Cyprian coins with the famous one which bore the Golden Fleece. There are a few copper coins of this class. The Duc de Luynes has published an excellent essay on these coins of Cyprus.1 A few pieces are known of the kings of Cyprus. Of the Greek imperial class there are base silver and copper pieces of the island generally, on which occurs, in both metals, a remarkable reverse-type representing the famous temple of Venus at Paphos.

Lydia.

The coinage of Lydia is chiefly of copper pieces, the majority of which are probably locally imperial or struck during the imperial period. The autonomous copper coins of Elaiussa may be mentioned, as well as those of Magnesia ad Sipylum. One of the latter places is of the highest interest, from its bearing a fine portrait of Cleoro, which is no doubt nearly or quite contemporary. It is of good work, resembling in that respect the Roman money of the earlier emperors. The autonomous copper coins of Philadelphia must also be noticed. Of Sardis there are cistophori, as well as many copper pieces. Some of the latter, of the imperial class, display good work. There are copper coins of Thyatira, both autonomous and imperial, some of the latter being of fine work for the period to which they belong. Tralles is represented by cistophori and by copper coins. There are some uncertain Lydian coins, which are probably struck at dis by a Jewish king, perhaps Cteseus. They are of both gold and silver, and have on the obverse the fore-part of a lion facing the fore-part of a bull, as if attacking it, while the reverse is occupied by an incuse square rarely divided into two parts. The gold coins weigh the same as the darics, and the principal silver coins, like the so-called silver darics, one-third less. The type is manifestly of an oriental, if not a Persian character, being only another form of the common one of a lion seizing a bull. It would be hasty, however, to conclude that the coins are of the time following the overthrow of Cteseus by Cyrus.

Phrygia.

The coinage of Phrygia is chiefly of the Roman period, and its imperial pieces are numerous and interesting. Of Apamea Cibotus, more anciently Colossae, there are cistophori and autonomous copper coins, some of which are of a fair style for the late time at which they were struck. The imperial series contains the remarkable pieces which have been supposed to bear a representation of the ark of Noah. These are of Septimius Severus, Hadrian, and Philip below, and have on the reverse an ark in the shape of a boat or chest, with two persons either within or near it, and upon it the letters NGE or NGE. It is not reasonable to suppose, as has been frequently done, that these coins directly refer to the Noachian Deluge. It does not seem possible that any Jewish or Christian community would have been able, at the time when these pieces were struck, to fix types of the public money of a pagan town, and it is by no means likely that any local tradition would have preserved the actual name of Noah. The letters which appear at first to be that name may, however, be part of the name of the people, ANAMEON, or they may have been added by tooling in modern times, but as to this we cannot speak positively, not having seen any of the specimens. In either case the designs would do no more than refer to the story of Deucalion, and so indirectly to the Deluge of Noah. The appellation adas, given to the town implies some connection with an ark; and it is very probable that the tradition of a shipwreck would be stronger in Phrygia than in Asia Minor, from the former country being much nearer the site where the ark must have rested than the latter. There is another coin of Apamea with a remarkable reverse, which we have already described in an earlier place. It is one of Septimius Severus, with the type of Minerva playing on the double pipe. Other pieces also have designs relating to the myth of Marsyas, as one of Hadrian, on which he is represented playing on the double pipe. Of Cibyra there are silver coins of a base style, and copper pieces; and of Hierapolis, copper coins, including some of a fine late style. Laodicea is represented by cistophori and autonomous copper coins, of which last some are of fair style, as one with the bust of Mè or Lamas upon a crescent, wearing a Phrygian bonnet wreathed with laurel. Some of the early imperial pieces bear fine portraits. On the copper coins of Prymnessus the bust of Midas is represented wearing a Phrygian cap.

Galatia.

The autonomous coinage of the cities of Galatia is very unimportant, and the imperial series is not extensive. There are coins of several kings, of whom the principal one is an Amyntas, believed Cappadocian, to be the contemporary of Strabo. The gold money attributed to him is of doubtful authenticity. His silver pieces are light Attic tetradrachms, greatly resembling those of Side. There are imperial copper coins of Galatia generally.—The autonomous civic coinage of Cappadocia is very scanty; but of the imperial class there is one long and interesting series—that of Cæsar. It comprises silver coins of somewhat base metal. These are several denominations, of which the basis seems to be a Greek denarius, than which there is a lighter piece as well as heavier ones. They were struck for about 200 years, terminating after the reign of Geta. Among the reverses there must be noticed a Bactrian camel, and the sacred mountain Argæus. The latter subject is frequent on copper as well as silver coins; and on the former the mountain is sometimes represented as if upon an altar. The money of the kings of Cappadocia is also worthy of note. It consists of silver pieces, which appear to be Attic drachms, and were struck during a period extending from about the last quarter of the third century B.C. to the time when Cappadocia was made a Roman province. The coins bear portraits which are sometimes well executed. There are a few copper pieces of the ancient kingdom of Armenia.

Syria.

The coinage of Syria commences with the series of the Seleucidæ, which, for the excellence of its portraits, may, as a whole, take the first place in the class of Greek royal money. It comprises a few gold pieces; its silver coins, which are chiefly tetradrachms, are abundant, and there are many copper pieces. The reverse-types present no great variety, and are generally of little interest. The weight of the imperial and silver coins is Attic, excepting those in the latter metal issued by the Phoenician mints, which, save the earliest pieces of Sidon, which are on the Attic weight, follow the standard of the Ptolemaic coins. Of Seleucus I., there are gold staters. Most of his tetradrachms have the same types as those of Alexander the Great, with sometimes this deviation, that the Jupiter on the reverse holds a Victory instead of an eagle. Some, however, have on the obverse a head, doubtless that of Seleucus, in a close helmet, mainly formed of the skin of a bull's head, with the horn and ear. Other tetradrachms have on the reverse Minerva fighting in a quadriga of elephants, with, in the field, an anchor, the symbol of Seleucus. It is remarkable that, under the next sovereign, Antiochus I., tetradrachms were still struck bearing Alexander's types, but with, in the only example we have seen, the same variation of the reverse-type as in some of the similar coins of Antiochus II. The ordinary tetradrachms bear the King's portrait and Apollo seated on a curlass, a common reverse type of the earlier Seleucidæ. The tetradrachms of Antiochus II., Seleucus II., Antiochus Hierax, and Seleucus III., are only interesting for their portraits, Antiochus III., or the Great, struck gold money, for there is an octadrachm, of course on the Attic standard, among his coins. The portraits on the tetradrachms varies according to his age; sometimes it is fine. The tetradrachms of Seleucus IV. need not be noticed, except as having portraits. Those of Antiochus IV. have two types of obverse, both of which are fine heads; one of these is undoubtedly that of this king; the other, which is bearded, may be that of Jupiter, although it has a resemblance to the portrait. The tetradrachms of Antiochus V. and Demetrius I. have portraits. Of Alexander I. there are not only Attic tetradrachms, but also Ptolemaic of Tyre and Berytus, having an eagle on the reverse, the characteristic of the class, plainly showing its Egyptian origin. A tetradrachm of Sidon has Attic weight and a Syrian reverse-type. The portrait on one of these is fine. On the ordinary tetradrachms of Demetrius II., the king's hair is beardless, but on the later, bearded. One of them bears the design which has been supposed to represent the head of the god of Sardanapalus. Of this Demetrius there are also Ptolemaic tetradrachms of Tyre and Sidon. The portrait of Antiochus VI. on his tetradrachms is very fine. That of Tryphon, upon an extremely rare coin of the same denomination, is remarkable for its strange helmet, having the horn of an ibex projecting in front. The tetradrachms of Antiochus VII. and of Alexander II. have portraits; and those of Cleopatra with Antiochus VIII., bear heads of the queen and king, one behind the other. Seleucus V. is represented by copper coins; there are tetradrachms with portraits of Antiochus VIII. alone, Antiochus IX., Seleucus VI., Antiochus X., Antiochus XI., Philip, Demetrius III., and copper coins of Antiochus XII. The tetradrachms of Tigranes have the bust of the king wearing a strange oriental head dress. The series closes with copper pieces of Antiochus XIII.

In Commagene we may notice the autonomous and imperial cop-

---

1 Numismatique et Inscriptions Cyriotes, par II. de Luynes, 4to, Paris, 1832. Greek Coins.

There are also copper coins of the kings of Commagene. In Cyprus there are autonomous copper coins, not very numerous, but imperial pieces in the same metal. Those of Beroea, Cyrrhus, and Hierapolis, of the latter class, may be mentioned. There are a few autonomous copper coins of Chalcidice, but Palmyrene is not represented. Copper pieces are indeed known, purporting to be of the famous Zenobia, struck at Alexandria of Egypt; but those we have examined are doubtful or false. In Seleucia and Ptolemais the series of the great city of Antioch on the Orontes must be first noticed. There are autonomous copper coins, but those of the imperial class are far more numerous and important. They form a very large series, extending through nearly the whole period of Greco-Roman coinage. The types are not of much interest, and are very few in number; while the size of the coins generally rude, although some of the silver pieces are in a fair style. The series has, however, a historical value, in showing us what emperors here struck money, and therefore ruled in Syria. The copper coins are of base metal, which becomes patina, and even at last copper washed with silver. In weight they are very low Attic tetradrachms, each being equivalent to four denarii of the early empire. They do not lose weight by degrees, but the quantity of pure metal constantly decreases. They commence under Augustus, and last as late as the time of Volusian. The Era according to which the earlier are dated is the Cæsarian, except during the reign of Augustus, and part of that of Tiberius, when the Actæan was used. After Nero the tetradrachms bear no such date, the emperor's tribunitian year taking its place. The obverse bears the head or bust of an emperor or empress, and the reverse, the city seated, or an eagle upon a thunderbolt or club. The eagle, with sometimes a symbol or letter between its legs, becomes an integral part of the constant reverse-type. There are copper coins having Greek inscriptions, and others contemporary with them having Latin inscriptions, although after a time the two kinds merge into one, with Greek inscriptions, except that the Roman S. C. in Latin letters is added. It is to be remarked, that on some pieces of the last class the city is called a colonia, having been constituted one by Caracalla. The autonomous copper coins of Apamea may be noticed, as bearing an elephant for a reverse-type. Of Laodicea we must mention late tetradrachms, doubtless of the Roman period, and of the same standard as those of Antioch: their obverse-type is a turreted and veiled female bust, personifying the city. There are also autonomous and imperial copper coins. Seleucia is represented by late autonomous tetradrachms of the same kind as those of Laodicea, and with the same type on the obverse, as well as by copper coins. In Coele-Syria there are some copper coins of Damascus, both autonomous and imperial, and others of the same metal of a king Arctas. It is not certain to which, if any, of the kings of Arctas bearing his name, mentioned in history, this Arctas corresponds. In Trachonitis there are only a few imperial copper coins of Caesar, Pausanias, and in Decapolis there is a small number of pieces, of the same class and metal, of some of the cities.

The money of Phoenicia is more interesting than that of the countries last mentioned. Here the autonomous coinage again becomes important, and affords us some indications of the ancient power and wealth of the great commercial people from whom the region takes its name. The earliest coins, however, are clasped with those of Persia, and were no doubt mostly struck under Persian rule; while such as were probably issued independently are sufficiently oriental in character to belong rather to that kind than to the Greek. Of Byblos there are copper coins both autonomous and imperial; those of the latter sort are much rarer, and struck by the city as a colonia. Of the imperial copper coins of Byblos, one of Macrinus may be noticed, as bearing for its reverse-type the representation in perspective of a temple of curious composition, one of the many illustrations of architecture which this class affords. The silver pieces of Sidon are tetradrachms and didrachms of the Ptolemaic talent. The obverse bears the bust of the city, personified as a female veiled and turreted; and the reverse the eagle of the Ptolemies. The earlier of the coins are of good work on the obverse, although not of a high style. The autonomous copper coins have interesting types, among which we may notice Europa carried by the bull; a device mentioned by Lucian as borne on the money of this place. Some of the coins of this class have Phoenician as well as Greek inscriptions. The imperial copper does not form a long series: it first bears Greek inscriptions, but afterwards Latin as a colonia. The coins are dated by two eras, the first supposed to be that of the Seleucidæ, the second that of the autonomy of the town. The autonomous and imperial coins of Tripolis must be mentioned. Next in order stands the series of Tyre. This comprises many silver autonomous coins, the principal type being a turreted and veiled female head. The obverse-type is a laureate and beardless head, seemingly of Hercules, and the reverse-type a Ptolemaic eagle, behind which is a palm-branch. The head may perhaps be assimilated to the portrait of a Ptolemy. None of the pieces are fine, but a few have some merit. There are also autonomous copper coins, as well as imperial pieces of the Roman colonia. The dates are in two eras, as at Sidon, supposed to be that of the Seleucidæ, and that of the autonomy of Tyre. There can be no doubt that some of the early so-called Persian coins must have been struck at Tyre. These may be distinguished by future investigations. The insular city of Aradus is represented by an interesting series. This probably commences with Phoenician pieces issued under the Persian rule, but such have not been positively attributed. The most important Greek coins are tetradrachms, having for their obverse-type the turreted and veiled bust of the city personified; but of Phoenician weight, unlike the similar coins of Syrian cities. They are of poor work, and bear dates of the Seleucidæ and the Seleucidæ. Drachms, which appear from their style to be somewhat earlier, have on the obverse a bee, and on the reverse a stag, behind which is a palm-tree. Types of Ephesus. These must be of the Attic standard, somewhat depreciated, unless they are of a very heavy Phoenician weight. There are copper coins of Phoenicia, having Phoenician letters only, and at least generally subsequent in time to the Persian domination. These require careful study in order to their satisfactory classification to the cities which issued them.

In Galilee there a few imperial copper pieces of Ptolemæus, Judæa, &c., Sepphoris, and Tiberias; and in Samaria, some of Cæsarea, and a greater number of Neapolis. In Judea there are no autonomous coins of Jerusalem, although the pieces supposed to have been issued by Simon the Maccabee were no doubt there struck. There are, indeed, some imperial copper coins of the colonia "Hilla Capitolina," founded on the ruins of Jerusalem by Hadrian. It is not impossible that there were a few copper pieces, both autonomous and imperial, of Ascalon and Gaza. By far the most interesting coins are, however, those with Hebrew inscriptions, which are usually assigned, and we believe justly, to Simon the Maccabee. These are shekels and half-shekels, respectively equivalent to tetradrachms and didrachms of the Egyptian talent. The shekels bear on the obverse the pot of manna, with the inscription, יְהוָה אֲנִי ("The shekel of Israel"), and the letter ו, for וֹ (year), followed by a letter indicating the date; and on the reverse, Aaron's rod that budded, with the inscription יְהוָה אֲנִי ("Jerusalem the Holy"). The half-shekels have the same types, but their reverse inscription is וֹ וֹ וֹ וֹ ("Half-shekel"). The dates which occur on either shekels or half-shekels are those of the years 1, 2, 3, and 4. The letters are in what is called the coin script, an old form of Hebrew. The weight of the coins shows that they must have been struck under either the Ptolemies or the Seleucidæ; and in the latter case they may be compared to the pieces of Phœnician cities following the standard of the kings of Egypt, although issued under the authority of the Syrian kings. During the period thus indicated we find that the right of coining money with his own stamp was granted to Simon the Maccabee by Antiochus VII., and there would be no question that this was the date of these pieces, were it not that it is said that the Jews adopted as an era the previous establishing of the freedom of the country by the treaty of Simon and Demetrius II., between two and four years earlier. This difficulty may, however, be explained, if we suppose either that Antiochus merely con-

---

1 M. Ch. Lenormant finds fault with Josephus for saying that the shekel is equal to four Attic drachms (Τετράδραχμον ἐκ τῆς σημείου ἀρχῆς Ἀθηνῶν ἢ Ἀθηναῖον δραχμήν ἢ Ἀθηναῖον δραχμήν ἢ Ἀθηναῖον δραχμήν ἢ Ἀθηναῖον δραχμήν). He argues, that the weight of the so-called Maccabean shekel being that of a Phœnician tetradrachm is much below that of an Attic tetradrachm (Revue Numismatique, Fr., 1845, pp. 180, 181). It is perfectly true that there will be difference between the Maccabean shekel and the contemporary Attic tetradrachm, but Josephus must have intended to speak of the Attic tetradrachm or drachm of his own time. By gradual depreciation the Attic drachm must have come to be equivalent, under Antiochus to the Roman denarius, so that the two coins were considered thereafter identical; and thus pieces struck at Ephesus a little earlier than the time of Josephus which are described as tetradrachms, are actually the inscriptions ΔΡΑΧΜΗΝ and ΔΙΑΡΑΧΜΟΝ. At the same period the denarius was almost exactly equal to the quarter of a Maccabean shekel. There is no question, then, that Josephus was right in saying that the shekel was equal to four Attic drachms, meaning the current Attic drachms, and not the older pieces of the full weight. It may be noticed that the later coins of the same kind subsequently mentioned are shekels of the old weight, and their quarters struck on Roman denarii. There is no reason, therefore, to suppose that the Jewish coins show a depreciation like that of those with which Josephus compares them.

* 1 Macc. xv. 6. Greek Coins.

firmed privileges before granted by his brother, or else that he gave his sanction to the Jewish money already issued. There are also copper coins of subsequent princes of Judaea, ending under Agrippa II. Their inscriptions are at first in Hebrew and in Greek, but afterwards in the latter language only. Of a later period there are autonomous silver and copper coins, with Hebrew inscriptions, like those of the coins assigned to Simon, but with a difference in the form of the characters. These are shekels of the same class, which notwithstanding their strange falters, appear to be genuine. The smaller silver coins are smaller or larger octadrachms (κοίνα δεκαδράχμων), and cannot be doubted. The proper name that occurs on both, as well as on the copper, is Ἱερος. There is no doubt that these pieces were issued by Barchochebas, who raised the Jews in the time of Hadrian; but it is doubtful whether the name Simeon refers to him or to Simon the Maccabee. There is also a class of uncertain imperial copper coins of Judaea, which may perhaps have been struck at Jerusalem.

Arabia, &c.

Of Roman Arabia there are imperial copper coins of the country generally, as well as of the cities Bosra and Petra. In Mesopotamia the autonomous coinage is unimportant; but the imperial copper money of Carthas, Edessa, Nisibis, and Rhoesana is worthy of notice. There are also coins of the kings of Edessa, generally bearing the name of the contemporary Roman emperor or Caesar; a few are dated, and the greater number are contemporary pieces. Of Assyria, there are autonomous copper coins of Atalai ad Caprum, and imperial pieces in the same metal of the famous Nisroch as a Roman colonia, with the name NINIVAE CLAVDIOPOLIS. The known coinage of Babylonia is very scanty. It is possible that among the earliest money of what is termed the Persian series there may be some of the last days of the old kingdom of Babylon. There are copper coins of Molon and Timarchus, kings of Babylon, of a much later period. The former was a satrap of Media who rebelled against Antiochus III., B.C. 223, and was defeated and slew himself B.C. 220. His money shows that he took the title of king.

The coins of ancient Africa, including Egypt, are far less numerous than those of the other two continents. The most important series is that of Egypt. There are no coins that can be assigned to the period anterior to the conquest by Ramses II.; nor do the Egyptian monuments bear any direct indications of money. Apart from them, that gold and silver were kept in rings, and weighed when their value was to be ascertained. From the time of Cambyses, Persian coins must have been in circulation in Egypt; and indeed Herodotus tells us that Aryandes, governor under this king and Darius Hystaspis, was put to death by the latter for issuing silver money. In the Persian series there are some pieces in a kind of spurious Egyptian style, which are not improbably of Aryandes. The certain coinage of the country commences with that of the first Ptolemy, bearing his name. There can be little doubt that some of the money of Alexander the Great was struck in Egypt; and it seems most probable that Ptolemy issued coins first for Philip Arrhidaeus and then for Alexander Ægus, the titular kings in whose names he governed in the earlier part of his rule. The coins of Ptolemy I. are in three metals. The gold and silver pieces are adjusted to the Ptolemaic or Alexandrian talent, but there are examples of Attic weight in the bronze. The principal denomination of gold money is the octadrachm, but the pentadrachm and tetradrachm are also found. In silver the chief coin is the tetradrachm, but there are also decadrachms. The copper coins are adjusted to an Egyptian talent, distinct from that of the other money, and probably representing the old native system. The gold and silver pieces of the earlier Ptolemies are comparatively numerous, and are chiefly of the heavier denominations. Their art is superior to that of the money of the later princes, of whom there is scarcely anything but copper. The art of the first period is fair, the portraits being usually good in style, and sometimes, in the case of the queens, excellent. The designs, except the portraits, are uninteresting, and of no great variety. The whole requires a rather more careful examination than it has yet received in order to its accurate classification. It is especially desirable that the indication of places of mintage offered by the coins should be considered. At present scarcely anything can be said, but that it is probable that many were struck in Cyprus and Phoenicia, although some must have been issued in Egypt, particularly after the loss of foreign dominion. The chief coins of the first Ptolemies are pentadrachms in gold and tetradrachms in silver. In both the king's bust occupies the obverse, and an eagle on a thunderbolt, the reverse. The portrait is good. The tetradrachms, which are very numerous, bear dates. Some of the copper coins of this reign have on the one side the bust of the king, and on the other that of Berenice. To the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus we must assign gold octadrachms and tetradrachms, with, on the one side, the portraits of Ptolemy I. and Berenice, and on the other, those of Ptolemy II. and Arsinoë. It is probable that most of the silver coins of the second Ptolemy bear his father's portrait. Of his queen, Arsinoë, there is a fine series of both gold and silver pieces. The gold coins are principally octadrachms, and the silver are all decadrachms. The obverse-type in both cases is the head of the queen, with a tiara and veil, a good design, but not in the best style; and the reverse is a double cornucopia. Of Ptolemy Euergetes there are fine gold octadrachms, having on the obverse the king's bust, wearing a radiate diadem and an embroidered chlamys, and with a sceptre-like trident; and on the reverse a radiate cornucopia. The portrait is in a good style. Of Berenice there are gold and silver coins, some of which have Attic weight. The portrait is generally of good style, and in one case very beautiful and somewhat different from the common one, though its attribution is confirmed by the fame of this Berenice's beauty. Tetradrachms, in silver, of Ptolemy Philopator are known; and octadrachms, in gold, of Arsinoë. The obverse in both cases is occupied by a portrait, that of the queen being of great beauty. Of Ptolemy Epiphanes there are gold octadrachms and silver tetradrachms, both bearing his portrait, well executed. Tetradrachms of Ptolemy Philometor likewise occur. The coins of the later Ptolemies are not yet satisfactorily classified. They are, as already noticed, principally of copper. There are silver coins, didrachms and drachmas, bearing on the obverse the bust of a young man in the character of Bacchus, which are doubtless of Neus Dionysos, or Auletes. The Egyptian coinage of the famous Cleopatra seems to have been only of copper pieces. They bear her bust on the obverse; the face is intelligent, but not beautiful. Her head, with that of Mark Antony, occurs on silver coins of the Roman province Asia. The greatest portion of the Ptolemaic copper money cannot be exactly classified, since it bears no indication of the reigns during which it was issued; so that difference of style is the main guide. The common types are, for the obverse the bearded head of Jupiter Ammon, and for the reverse an eagle on a thunderbolt. Some of these copper coins are very large and heavy.

Of the Roman period, the imperial series of Alexandria, whether we consider its extent or the interest of its types, is the most remarkable in its class, and deserving of far more study than it has received. It commences under Augustus, and terminates with Constantius II. and Maximianus, a date lasting longer than the Greek imperial money elsewhere. In the earlier part of the period there are potin coins, representing silver money, and most probably meant for tetradrachms of the Ptolemaic standard; but the common metal is copper, at first struck in several sizes, including some that are large. The types are very various; they are Graeco-Roman, and even purely Roman (though not technically so), Greek, Graeco-Egyptian, and Egyptian. The Egyptian types are very interesting, and form a series standing by itself. The coins of this last kind begin to deserve especial attention under Domitian; and those of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius are numerous and interesting. One of the last emperors, dated in his sixth year, is particularly important, as commemorating the commencement of a Sothic Cycle, A.D. 139. The type is a crane, the Egyptian ben-mu or phoenix, with a kind of radiate nimbus round its head, and the inscription is ΑΝΙΣ. The coins of the subsequent emperors are less important. About the time of Commodus and Severus, and thenceforward, there seem to be but one size of coin, the material of which is copper, generally or always washed with silver. The coins of the Nomos of Egypt form a remarkable class. They belong to a short period, the earliest being dated in the eleventh year of Trajan, and the latest in the eighth year of Antoninus Pius. Their metal is copper, and they are of different sizes. There can be no doubt that they were struck at the metropolis of each Nome. The types relate to the local worship, and thus illustrate the Egyptian religion. The inscriptions are the names of the Nomos. There is an exceptional coin of the town of Pelusium. (The work of Zoëga affords the best account of the coinage of Egypt under the Romans.)

Passing beyond Egypt, we may notice that there are a few Libya, &c. autonomous coins of Libya, and, in Marmarica, of Petra. In the Cyrenaica there is an interesting series of Cyrene. The gold coins are numerous, and of the time of good art, some showing a decline. The silver pieces are Attic staters or didrachms, bearing on one side a wheatsheaf quadruplex, in the earlier examples driven by a horseman, and on the reverse a sacred palm-plant. On smaller pieces the head of Jupiter Ammon occurs, both bearded and beardless. The weight of the silver coins is at first Attic, but it becomes very light, the tetradrachms being reduced to very nearly an equality with tridrachms, and thus considerably below the Ptolemaic tetradrachma.

---

1 Comp. Mac. xv. 5. 2 How Ar., p. 32. 3 Id., p. 40, et seq. 4 Numi. Aegyptii Imperatorum (Gr. Zoëga), 4to, Rom, 1787. The cause of the change may have been the influence of Rhodian and other light coins, but the occasion is not known; in time it was probably anterior to the rule of Magas. There are didrachma, besides the tetradrachma. The art of the silver coins is sometimes fair, although not very fine. The usual types are, for the obverse the bearded or beardless head of Ammon, the former sometimes crowned with sulphur, and for the reverse the sulphur plant. Some of the copper pieces are relatively of a fair style. Of the Cyrenaica generally there are Greek and Roman coins, the latter issued by Roman officials. Of the town of Barce there are both gold and silver pieces, the former not being common. The silver series commences with somewhat archaic coins. The standard is Attic, with the same change as at Cyrene. The types are, for the obverse the sulphur, and for the reverse the head of Ammon; designs which in some of the later coins change places. In Syria, the anonymous Roman coins of the colony Leptis Magna, and, in Zeugitana, the money of Carthage, are deserving of notice. In speaking of the Sicelo-Punic coins, we have already had occasion to treat of those of the Carthaginians issued in Sicily. Their African coinage has the same chief types, the head of Proserpine, and the horse or horse's head and palm-tree. It follows the Phoenician talent, and the dodecadrachm and decadrachm are known, besides tetradrachms and smaller pieces. Some copper coins are known of the city of the Roman period with Latin inscriptions. There are a few imperial pieces of towns of Mauritania, as well as an interesting series of the kings of Numidia and Mauritania. There are silver coins of Bocchus, silver and copper of Juba I. and Juba II., as well as the latter with Cleopatra; copper of Cleopatra alone; and silver and copper of Ptolemy. The silver pieces of this series are probably for the most part low denarii. On the whole, the coinage of Africa beyond Egypt is poor and of small interest.

Sect. IV.—Roman Coins.

The ancient Roman coinage appears to have commenced late in the fourth, or early in the third century B.C., and to have continued without interruption until the fall of the Western Empire, A.D. 476. It will be necessary here to give a sketch of the characteristics of its great classes. The earliest Roman coins are of gold, silver, and copper, of Greek fabric and with Greek types, but Latin inscriptions. Their art shows that they date from about the time of Pyrrhus to near the close of the third century B.C. There can be no doubt that they were issued by Campanian cities subject to the commonwealth. After a time the Romans had a proper coinage of Roman or Etruscan fabric, and with Roman types as well as Latin inscriptions. With this class the proper Roman coinage commences. The period of these coins is different with those of each metal. The silver and copper money probably began about the same time, near the close of the third century B.C.; and terminated, in the case of the former about B.C. 80, in that of the latter somewhat earlier. The late silver coins are of Campania only; and the same is the case with all the gold pieces, which were most probably struck between B.C. 90 and 80. It will be seen that the later coins of this class considerably overlap in time the earlier of the next class, but their types forbid our altering the arrangement. The copper coins, commonly called aes grave, are the most important. They are of heavy weight and coarse fabric, bearing rude types, the most common of which are, for the obverse the head of Janus bifrons, and for the reverse the prow of a galley. The silver coins usually have as their obverse-type the head of Minerva, and the gold ones, that of Janus. This class was succeeded, though in an irregular manner, by what is called the family or consular series, the latter of which appellations is incorrect. Its coins are of the three metals, and with Roman types and Latin inscriptions. They were struck at Rome from B.C. cir. 170 to the time of Augustus, by individuals to whom the state allowed the right of coinage, whose names they bear, and they are therefore classed according to the Roman families. The gold and silver family coins usually have on the obverse the head of a divinity, or of a personification, or of a traditional or historical personage; and, on the reverse a mythological, symbolical, traditional, or historical subject. They are generally of better art than the aes grave, which the copper coins, on the contrary, follow in art as well as in types. The imperial coinage may be considered to commence with that of Julius Caesar, although the family series does not then terminate. It is of two classes; that of the pagan emperors, and that of the Christian emperors. The former class ends under the reign of Constantine, when he changed the coinage. The coins are of gold, silver, and copper; the last including brass. Their designs from the time of Augustus to the decline of the empire show a fair style of art, and display great mechanical skill. They most nearly resemble modern coins, particularly in form and thickness, but their designs are generally in higher relief. The obverses bear the portrait of an emperor or empress, or of a Caesar; and the reverses, historical, mythological, or symbolical types. Towards the latter part of its period the coins become thinner in form and of much lower art and execution. The second class of imperial money, that issued by Constantine for the greater part of his reign, and by his successors to the fall of the Western Empire, is of gold, silver, and copper, and is mainly to be distinguished from the preceding one by the absence of pagan types, and by a further decline in its art. It is important to distinguish the five great divisions of Roman money which we have described, and which may be called the Greek coinage of the commonwealth, the early Roman coinage, the family coinage, that of the pagan, and that of the Christian emperors.

In seeking the motives which influenced the choice of the devices of the proper Roman coinage, we must not imagine too and disclose an analogy with the case of Greek money. The idea of inscriptions, the first coinage, that of the Campanian cities, which was not properly Roman, was to adopt subjects connected with religion. This feeling was maintained, though it seems somewhat ignominiously, in the aes grave. Under the empire, however, the sovereign became the source of the chief types, although the religious motive was, perhaps for a reason of policy, never wholly abandoned. An inscription of the time of Diocletian, SACRA MONETA AVGG NN (Augustorum nostrorum), well expresses this idea: the coinage personified by the goddess is still sacred, but yet it is the emperors'. The proper Roman coinage, if separated according to its types, falls into four classes, the aes grave, the family silver and gold (for the copper maintained the old types), the pagan imperial, and the Christian imperial. The designs of the first are, like those of the early Greek coins, sacred distinctive symbols, though, as already noticed, probably not always understood by those who used them. The types of the family silver and gold coins are somewhat different from those of any class of money which we have already noticed. The primary religious motive is indeed to be clearly traced in them; but their having been selected to distinguish families, instead of towns or tribes, gives them a peculiar character. The following are the principal classes to which these types may be reduced:

1. Head or figure of a divinity worshipped at Rome; as head of Jupiter (fam. Peallis), figures of the Dioscuri (Junius), or of a divinity worshipped by the family or individual striking the coins, as head of Neptune (Pompeia, coin of Sextus Pompeius). 2. Sacred natural or artificial object; as pontifical implements (Antonia). This class is not a very large one, and sacred animals rarely recur. 3. Head or figure of a personification of a country or town; as heads of Hispania (Caralis), Roma (Julia), Alexandria, Egypt (Emilia). 4. Head or figure of an allegorical personage; as heads of Pavor (Hostilia), Pallor (Id.), Honos and Virtus (Fufia, Muclia). 5. Fabulous monster; as Scylla (Pompeia). 6. Head or figure of an ancestral personage; as heads of Numa (Calpurnia), Ancus Marcius (Marcia). 7. Events connected with ancestors; as figure of Marcus Lepidus, as TYTOR REG[is], crowning Ptolemy Epiphanes (Emilia). 8. Places connected with historical exploits, and of a votive character; as Pharos of Messana (Pompeia, of Sextus, probably commemorating the sea-fight off Messana, B.C. 38). 9. Symbolical representations commemorating contemporary events; as a general welcomed on landing by a country or city (Minatia). 10. Heads of living personages exercising dictatorial power, or in very high authority; as head of Sylla (Cornelia). 11. Representations connected with military matters; as legionary standards (Antonia).

Besides the principal designs, there are symbols and numerals, generally to be regarded as having been indicative of successive issues from the mint. The inscriptions are usually, on the obverse the name of the personage represented, with, in the field, x for denarii, and the like; and on the reverse the name of the person who issued the coin: the latter sometimes occurs on the obverse. The inscriptions are in the nominative, The series of Roman imperial coins of the pagan emperors (commencing with Julius Caesar, and terminating with the adoption of Christian types by Constantine the Great) bears devices of the same general character as those of the family money, but with a far stronger relation to living persons and events than to mythology. The obverse-type of this period is the portrait of an imperial personage, an emperor, an empress, or a Caesar; and the reverse bears some subject directly or tropically connected with their actions. Under Julius and Augustus moneymakers of powerful families shared the right of issuing coins with the head of the state; their money is like that of the family series, to which it should be assigned, but it generally bears on the obverse the head of the emperor. If we may include Julius with Augustus under that name. In the reign of Augustus, however, this privilege ceased; and the emperor struck the gold and silver money, while the copper was issued by the senate, and therefore always bears the characters S.C., for Senatus consultus. Without repeating what we have said of the types of the Roman family coins, we may mention the principal kinds of types of the imperial coins. Those of the obverses vary only in the treatment of the head or bust of the imperial personage. Those of the reverses are commonly mythological, representing divinities; or allegorical, representing personifications; or historical, representing either directly or tropically, acts done or works executed by the reigning emperor. Thus the coins of Hadrian, besides bearing the figures of the principal Roman divinities and personifications, commemorate, by allegorical representations of countries or cities, the emperor's progresses, and, by actual representations, his architectural works. The inscriptions of the coins of the pagan empire are either simply descriptive, such as the emperor's names and titles in the nominative, on the obverse, or partly on the obverse and partly on the reverse, and the name of the subject on the reverse; or else they are dedicatory, the imperial names and titles being given on the obverse in the dative, and the name of the type on the reverse. On the latter there is sometimes a directly dedicatory inscription to the emperor. The inscriptions of the earlier imperial coins, from Tiberius to Alexander Severus, have generally a chronological character, usually giving the current consulship of the emperor, or his last consulship, if he did not at the time hold that office, as well as the year of his tribunitian power. In the latter part of the third century an indication of the towns at which the coins were struck commences, usually occupying the exergue of their reverses. There are also sometimes characters or signs in the field. The geographical indications are not completely understood, but it is probable that they generally mark not only the place of striking, but each fresh issue of the same type.

The coins of the Christian empire differ from those of the pagan empire mainly in the character of their reverse-types. These are generally allegorical and free from pagan intention, though not from pagan influence, as in the cases of the common types of Victory inscribing the emperor's name upon a shield, or in later times holding a long cross, and of seated Roma. Purely Christian types are less common; the most remarkable is that of the monogram of the name of our Saviour, formed of X and P, the latter letter being placed vertically across the former. The inscription IOHOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS, on coins dating not many years after the victory of Constantine over Licinius, must also be noticed. The inscriptions generally show the same change as the types. There are many varieties, but very few absolutely different types and inscriptions.

Roman coins, if classified according to their art, fall into three main divisions—that of rude and slightly progressive art, that of the best art, and that of declining art. The period of the first class commences with the issue of the ae grave, about the latter part of the third century A.D., and lasts to the accession of Augustus; that of the second comprises the reigns of that emperor and his successors, as far as the death of Commodus; and that of the third extends from this time to the close of the empire. The case is a very different one from that of the Greek coinage, for the improvement of art in the time before Augustus is in general very slow, and the great advance made in his money is owing to a better system, and the employment of Greek artists. The decline, which sensibly commences in the reign of Commodus, although his coins are generally of good style, is not very rapid, and receives occasional checks, until, at the time of Diocletian, there is a sensible improve-

ment, which, however, is more evident in the execution of the coins than in their designs. The money of Constantine the Great is perhaps the best of this time; under his sons decline has again begun, and it steadily, though still slowly, continues until the close of the empire.

We shall here speak only of the best art of Roman coins, as in the case of the art of Greek coins, and for stronger reasons. The art of Roman coins is not steadily progressive from internal vigour, and in its time of excellence is far more foreign than native in character. It is, however, well worthy of study, in this period, for its intrinsic merit, for its illustration of contemporary sculpture, and on account of its influence on medieval and modern numismatic art. The Roman coins were designed under the revival of Greek art, during the empire, by the Greco-Roman school. The Romans had properly no art of their own. Their greatest temples, and the statues of their gods, were essentially copies or imitations by Greeks of Greek works, except in the case of the statues, some few Greek originals of an earlier time. Both differed from the best Greek works in a want of simplicity and purity of design and execution, and the statues show a tendency to pictorial and dramatic rather than ideal treatment. The portrait statues and busts are most characteristic of this style. With an evident faithfulness, they usually show a deficiency of grandeur, and occasionally some mannerism. Perhaps the most excellent example of this class is the bust commonly called that of Clytie, in the British Museum, which is undoubtedly a portrait of the Greco-Roman school. The best Roman coins approach most nearly to the excellence of this very beautiful sculpture. As simple medallic portraits, they are indeed scarcely surpassed, except by the still more pictorial Italian medals of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; but they never rise to the simple grandeur of the few good Greek portraits that occur on coins. The difference is this: the Greek sculptor seized the highest expression of the face he would represent, and produced an ideal portrait; while the Greco-Roman copied the usual expression, and produced nothing beyond a faithful portrait. The finest examples of Greco-Roman art on coins are the portrait of Livia as Pietas, Justitia, and Salus, and that of the elder Agrippina, on copper coins; and those of the elder and younger Faustinas, in the gold series. The medallions and copper coins of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Commodus, are on both sides of excellent design and beautiful workmanship. For portraits, none of the period are more interesting than the coins of Nero, the growth of whose bad passions may be traced in the increasing brutality of his features and their expression. In the case of other emperors, the portraits are either always the same, or taken at two ages. The whole series from Augustus to Commodus is well worth careful examination, especially as affording some of the best specimens of the work of an important school of ancient art. This Greco-Roman school is seen to far more advantage in these works than in its attempts—and these but imitative—at high sculpture, in which, through an inadequate ideal, it failed to produce anything pure, elevated, and simple. Let any one who would see how far it fell short compare the Venus of the Capitol with the Venus of Melos.

We have already had occasion to speak of the mode in which Systems of Roman coins were struck, and we may now pass on to consider coinage, the denominations of the coinage at different times. The subject is one of extreme difficulty, from the disagreement of the evidence of ancient writers with that of the coins themselves, and the obscurity of the indications offered by the latter. It was believed, until lately, that some existing Roman coins were as early as the period of the kings, from the statement of Pliny, that Servius Tullius first struck copper money, and from the ancient appearance of the specimens in question. Any such theory is, however, wholly untenable. The earliest Roman coins, as we have already mentioned, were of Greek fabric, and issued by Campanian cities. The gold and silver appear to follow the Greek system of the Attic talent, while the copper are on the Italian system. The denominations of the second class are, in gold, the aureus and half-aureus; in silver, the denarius, and its half, the quinarius; and in copper, the as, with certain of its divisions. The denominations of the third class, or family series, are in general the same as those of the preceding class, with, in the copper, a depreciation of weight. The denominations of the fourth class—that of the pagan empire—are the same, though again of constantly decreasing weight. The fifth class, comprising the money of the Chris- We may now notice the money of each metal in particular, from the commencement of a Roman system with what we have called the second class of Roman coins. Pliny states that the first aurei were struck forty-five from the pound of gold, B.C. 207; a date which well agrees with what must be that of the oldest silver coins of this class. The gold coins of the same class seem to have been on this standard, for they weigh a little more than a hundred grains, while it would indicate that about forty-five were struck from the pound. There is also in this series a half-aureus (a coin of which we do not know the ancient appellation) of this weight. The aurei of the next class—the family series—distracte in weight. The earliest are somewhat heavier than those of the preceding class; those of the time of Sylla are very much heavier, having been struck thirty to the pound; while those of Pompey are forty to the pound, a reduction mentioned by Pliny. There are no half-aurei of the family series known, but they are found of the reign of Augustus. From the time of Augustus the weight of the aureus was gradually lowered, until Nero fixed the number to be struck from the pound of gold at forty-five, making a corresponding change in the silver money. Caracalla, in A.D. 215, further reduced the aureus by striking fifty from the pound; and many of his successors issued gold coins that were much lighter than the weights thus fixed. Under Constantine the Great a new coin was substituted for the aureus, called solidus, or siliqua, of which seventy-two were coined from the pound. This coin became the principal Roman gold coin, and to maintain its full weight, to the fall of the Empire of the West, and, indeed, with little change of weight, though slightly much altered, until the end of the Byzantine Empire. Divisions of the solidus were the half and third, commonly, but without authority, and, in the case of the latter, incorrectly, called the semis and tercensis.

The principal silver coin of the commonwealth was the denarius, of which there were twenty-five to the aureus. Pliny makes the first denarii to have been struck as early as B.C. 269; but there are no specimens that we can ascribe to an earlier period than the date he assigns to the first aureus—B.C. 207. It may be remarked, however, that since the denarius is derived from the Attic drachm, the Campanian Attic-drachmas of Greek types might have been considered by Pliny as the first denarii; although the principal gold coins of the same class could not be called the first aurei, as in the case of the latter, incorrectly, called the semis and tercensis.

The principal silver coin of the commonwealth was the denarius, of which there were twenty-five to the aureus. Pliny makes the first denarii to have been struck as early as B.C. 269; but there are no specimens that we can ascribe to an earlier period than the date he assigns to the first aureus—B.C. 207. It may be remarked, however, that since the denarius is derived from the Attic drachm, the Campanian Attic-drachmas of Greek types might have been considered by Pliny as the first denarii; although the principal gold coins of the same class could not be called the first aurei, as in the case of the latter, incorrectly, called the semis and tercensis.

The denarius is said to have been struck by a Clodian law (Plin. N.H., lib. xxxiii, § 13), but it has not been ascertained when this law was enacted. The sestertii are all, as far as we know, of a later time. It is said that at first a hundred denarii were struck from the pound of silver; and accordingly we find that the oldest weigh from 50 grains to above 60. In the time of Augustus, however, eighty-four denarii were struck from the pound. When Nero lowered the weight of the aureus, he proportionately reduced the denarius, coining ninety-six from the pound. In subsequent reigns the proportion of alloy was constantly increased, until, in the time of Septimius Severus, the weight of the coin, Caracalla, in A.D. 215, legalized a considerable proportion of alloy in the denarius, and issued a new coin, called after him the Argenteus Antoninianus, of which sixty were struck from the pound—a coin which not very long afterwards supplanted the denarius. The argenteus was considerably alloyed, and later emperors made it baser by degrees, until at length it was a copper coin washed with silver, and even tin. The types of obverse introduced by Caracalla were always maintained; they represent the bust of the emperor with a radiate crown, as Phoebus, and that of the empress resting on a crescent, as Diana. Diocletian again issued coins of good silver of two denominations, one of which appears to represent the argenteus, though without its types, and the other the denarius. Constantine the Great added other denominations, all which have not been satisfactorily identified among his coins. The principal silver coin of his time was the centenionalis, weighing a little less than 50 grains, which was probably first issued by Diocletian. This system was followed to the end of the Empire of the West, although but two denominations were usually struck, which seem to be the centenionalis and a piece of half its value.

The earliest proper Roman copper coinage has been generally supposed to be as ancient as the time of the kings. The principles of just criticism forbid us, however, from carrying any of these coins to a remoter period than the latest part of the third century before the Christian Era. The as, which was the principal copper coin, is said to have been first coined of the weight of a pound; and therefore when the weight of the denomination had been lowered by authority, these lowest coins were called libraces. For the same reason, the whole class of heavy copper coins received the name of as grave, when there was a lighter currency. It is not clear whether this appellation anciently included all the heavier money of this kind, whether of Rome or of Etruscan cities, heavier than that bearing the names of Roman families; but this was probably the case. The as, like the libra, contained twelve unciae, or ounces; and the divisions which were commonly struck were the semi-ounce, its half; the triens, or third; the quadrans, or quarter; the sextans, or sixth; and the uncia, or twelfth. The other divisions of the as which have been noticed are, according to M. Cohen, the quindecim, or five ounces, without Rome; and the ses or bens, or eight ounces; and dodrachm, or nine ounces; which last two have been alone found among the coins of the family Cassia. The Roman pound has been estimated by Büchel at 3053 grams; but no as has been found, as far as we know, nearly equal to this estimate. There are, however, specimens which are of not much less weight; and if we take allowance for wear by striking and the irregularity of striking, which is generally great in most all copper coinage, and generally below the standard, we may consider them fairly represent the ounce libracis. An examination of the divisions of the as leads to the same result. There are also larger pieces of metal of greater weight than the as, and of an oblong form, bearing on one side the figure of a bull, of which some true specimens remain, although most of those which are in cabinets are forgeries. They are of the period of the as grave, and might be supposed to represent the sum of three asses (called trevis), or ten asses (called decussis), according to when they were struck; but it is doubtful if they are more than pieces of metal containing a number of pounds without fractions, like the so-called Celtic ring-money. While the earliest asses and their divisions are of nearly full weight, we find the later ones are much lighter. During the period of what we have called the second class of Roman coins, which commenced with the issue of a proper Roman coinage, the as seems to have existed as a nominal coin to have gradually fallen to the sixth part of its original weight by a degradation that was probably on the whole regular. During the next period—that of the family coins—the asses seem to be only of the weight of either two ounces or a single ounce. Under Julius Caesar the as weighs not quite half an ounce; and we first observe two new copper coins—the sesterces, and its half, the dupondius. At this time the number of asses to the denarius had already been increased to sixteen; so that the sesterces, which was the quarter of the denarius, contained four asses. The sesterces, however, and the dupondius, were struck of fine yellow brass (copperalum), while the as was of copper. Instead, therefore, of weighing two ounces and one ounce respectively, they weighed one ounce and half an ounce; while the as weighed nearly half an ounce. The reason that the as is defective, rather than the dupondius excessive, probably is that its weight was too low, and the coin had already fallen, and that it was considered better to make the new piece of an exact weight, than slightly to raise the old one. The dupondius and as, being nearly of the same weight, and having the same types, are in general only to be distinguished by the difference of metal, and sometimes the more careful work of the former. The rust produced by the chemical action of different soils often hides the colour of the metal, and so takes away the principal means of discrimination; yet the two may usually be distinguished, at least as late as the time of the Antonines, particularly if one is careful to compare them with the sesterces, to which the dupondius always have a nearer resemblance than have the asses. Divisions of the as are very uncommon under the empire. Those which exist are of the period extending from the accession of Augustus to that of Gallicanus. From that time it is doubtful if any were coined. The very small pieces issued considerably later do not seem to have corresponded to any one of the old coins. The copper coinage, like the silver and gold, suffered considerable changes. Alexander Severus, or as he is called on the coins, Severus Alexander, reduced the sesterces and dupondius to two-thirds of their former weight. A few years afterwards a larger coin or denarius of brass, equal to four sesterces, was issued, called the Philippus aureus, from the Emperor Philip, who seems to have first struck it. In the time of Gallienus the sesterces and dupondius cease altogether, at least as a regular series, and the principal coin seems to

---

1 Monnaies de la République, p. vii. 2 Mar. Unteruch., p. 165. be the as, now a small piece coined of brass, and some larger pieces, generally Philippic as. In the reign of Diocletian a new coin of copper, frequently plated (the folia or terentianus), was introduced; and the Philippic as seems appear to have been abandoned at the same time. The smaller coins, which are all of copper, appear to be the aerarii. Constantine then changed the Roman coinage; but he seems to have taken the money of Diocletian as the basis of his coinage. His copper money consists of two principal denominations, which differ only from those of Diocletian in being somewhat lighter, and the half of the smaller coin. Thenceforward, to the end of the empire, there was no very important change, except that the largest coin, the folia, fell into disuse after the time of Honorius, and that there was a constant diminution in the weight of the others. The common division of the Roman copper money, according to its size, is into first brass, second or middle brass, and third brass. The first class includes the sesterctii, the second the dupondii and earlier asses, the third the later asses and all smaller coins. It is not necessary to show the faults of an arrangement that is so thoroughly unsatisfactory; but we must protest against its use in the arrangement of cabinets, and the consequent injury to the real progress of numismatic inquiry.

Medallions. In addition to the Roman coins, there are certain pieces which cannot be properly considered to have been money. These may be classed as medallions and tickets. The medallions are of gold, silver, and brass or copper, and usually larger than the largest coin of the time of their metal. They are generally, if not always, of the weight of a number of coins without fraction; but they are not therefore to be considered as part of the currency. The gold medallions commence under Constantine the Great, and continue to the end of the empire; the silver probably commence under Gallienus, and last to the same time; and the copper commence with Augustus, and continue at least to the reign of Alexander Severus. The types resemble those of the coins, but have an especial reference, in the case of the copper pieces, on account of their having been set as the standards, or military matters. The worst specimens are rarely found in the case of the tickets. Of the tickets, the most interesting are the commemorative, which were probably struck between the time of Constantine the Great and the fall of the empire, and were connected with the games.

(The most valuable treatise on the entire class of Roman coins is the part of Eckhel's *Doctrina Numorum Veterum* which relates to it. Except with reference to the family series, no great advance has been made since its publication; and on the whole it is both the most complete and the most learned account of Roman money. Mionnet's work, entitled *Médailles Romaines*, is of far less importance. It has the two cardinal defects of not describing the most common types, and of following no scientific arrangement. There are several excellent essays on particular branches of the subject, which we shall have occasion to notice in subsequent places.)

Without considering in detail every kind of Roman money, it will be necessary to make some observations on the chief classes, the early proper coinage of the city, the family series, and that of the empire. Of the first kind, the aureus is the most important portion. It must not be supposed, however, that it is all of Rome; for it is certain that much was issued by other cities, although there is a great quantity that we must believe to be properly Roman. The as of Rome is known by having on the obverse the head of Janus bifrons, and on the reverse the prow of a galley, to which Ovid alludes, asking—

"Cur navalis in ore Altera signata est, altera forma biceps?"

(Fast. i.) Other denominations have different obverses, with the same reverse, and must have been struck at Rome or under Roman authority. Coins of other types are to be generally referred to cities in the neighborhood of Rome. (The most complete work on the grave is that by Mr. Marchi and Techer, already noticed.)

The series of family coins consists mainly of denarii, other pieces, both in gold and silver, being comparatively rare, and even the copper money of the same class being not numerous, and showing far fewer varieties. The types of the denarii are of high interest, especially when they relate to the Roman traditions, or to earlier or contemporary history. Those that refer to the story of Romulus, or bear the heads of others of the primitive kings, or commemorate events assigned to this first age of the city, show how strong a hold the early Roman legends had taken upon the mind of the people in the first and second centuries before the Christian era, at times mainly anterior to similar written evidence. These types are for the most part not the common devices of the nation, but proper to each family; and they thus indicate the general feeling more clearly than those of Greek cities, which gave

no scope to individual choice. The family coins that record the achievements of the house, whether in days past or in the time when they were issued, are also of high interest. The memory of events not yet recorded in written history is thus preserved, and in such a manner as to lead us to hope that we may, with the aid afforded by the coins, restore otherwise lost portions of the annals of the city. It is important to observe,—there can be no doubt, owing to historical considerations, differences of style, and evidently local types,—that many family coins were struck not alone out of the city, but in provinces beyond Italy. We may notice a few of the types of denarii, taking the families in an alphabetical order. Of the family Emilia there are interesting coins relating to deeds performed or structures raised by members of that house. One bears the head of Alexandria on the obverse, and on the reverse Marcus Lepidus crowning Ptolemy Epiphanes. Another has a representation of Paulus Emilius as raising a trophy, with Tiberius, king of Macdon, and his two children, standing before him. The coins of Mark Antony, which belong to the family Antonia, display his portrait, and on another are represented the money of the celebrated Brutus. The most remarkable coins in the family series, were undoubtedly, would be those of Brutus commemorating the death of Julius Caesar, with on the reverse a cap of liberty between two daggers, and the inscription EID. MAR. There are specimens in both gold and silver, the latter having two types of obverse; but we have seen none that could be pronounced satisfactory. Dio Cassius indeed says that such a commemorative type was placed on his coins by Brutus; but it is not unlikely that all the pieces bearing it would have been called in by the triumvirs, while the passage would have stimulated modern forgers to produce what it describes. Among the types of the coins of the family Marcia we notice the head of King Ancus Marcius. The coins of the family Pompeia are of great interest. The most remarkable one has on the obverse the Pharos of Messana above a Roman galley, and on the reverse, Beyon striking with a rudder; types supposed to relate to the defeat of the fleet of Octavius, n.e. 38, by Marc Antony, by the battle of Sicily. Possibly possibly referring to the earlier battle in the straits of Sicily, n.e. 42, between the same, and with the same result. The coins of the family Tituria present two noticeable types, one representing the Romans carrying off two Sabine women, and thus commemorating the Rape of the Sabines, and the other, Tarpeia being crushed by bucklers. (The best work on the family coins is that of M. Cohen.)

The imperial series is properly the continuation of the family coins of class, although characterized by marked distinctions. The denominations present a more perfect system, as we might have expected; and the reference of the types is either to the state or to the emperor. The types of the later family coins, however, from the time of Sylla, when the liberties of Rome were already overthrown, are very frequently similar in intention to those of the imperial money. The whole class may be separated into three main divisions: the first containing the coins of the period extending from the rule of Julius Caesar to the death of Commodus; the second, those of the subsequent times, so far as the accession of Constantine; and the third, those of that sovereign and his successors to the fall of the Empire of the West. The coins of the first period have that general character of order and fitness that we should expect in the money of a great empire, and at the same time show such changes as would be made by a nation which despised commerce, and was strong enough to carry its contempt into acts. Under the outward system of regularity there lay an element of disorder that brought about in the end financial ruin. The principles that worked little harm in an age of prosperity were engines of destruction when the state was overtaken by adversity. No longer sustained by a powerful government, or applied with moderation, slight changes took the form of desperate experiments, each one of which left the exchequer in a position of greater difficulty. In the period we are now noticing, we find but the commencement of this disorder in the constant though small decline of the weight of gold and silver coins, and the legalisation of their production, sedition, a system which did but utilise the custom of the commonwealth, under which there had been far greater changes. The chief coins are the aureus, the denarius, the sesterctii, the dupondius, and the as. Denominations lower than these are not common. There is a general similarity of types, especially in the case of the aurei and denarii. On the whole, the best work is shown in the sesterctii; but the dupondius are often excellent, as well as the aurei and denarii. The types have for the most part a reference to the emperor rather than to the state, although this is less marked at the first than afterwards. The coins of Augustus show a decided advance in their art upon those of Julius; but in this respect they must yield to those of Livia, Antonia, and Agrip-

---

1 De la Rareté et du Prix des Médailles Romaines, par T. E. Mionnet, 2de éd., 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 2 Description Génerale des Monnaies de la République Romaine, par H. Cohen, 4to, Par. 1837. The portraits of Livia, as Salus, Justitia, and Pietas, on denarii, are among the most beautiful examples of Graeco-Roman art. The bust of Antonia on aurei and denarii, as Ceres or Proserpine, is a finer subject, scarcely less ably treated. The portrait of the elder Agrippina on sesterces is quite equal to those of Livia in work, although the face is not so beautiful. The coins of Drusus Senior bear types relating to his conquest of the Germans. The denarius of Tiberius is interesting on account of the description of it in the New Testament with reference to the question of the lawfulness of paying tribute. The sestertii of Nero are of very fine work, and in this respect yield no other coins in the series. The money of Vespasian and Titus records the subjugation of Judaea. The coins of Trajan are remarkable for their architectural types, and those of Hadrian as commemorating his journeys. The portrait of Antoninus Pius is fine; and that of the elder Faustina is among the most beautiful. The head of Marcus Aurelius is also well executed; and that of the younger Faustina is always beautiful, and sometimes inferior to none in the series, when the empress is represented as very young, probably in the character of Venus, whose name and figure occupy the reverse. The imperial ladies are distinguished by the manner in which they wear their hair, which is sometimes a safer guide than the portrait. The coins of Commodus may be considered to close the series of those showing good art: some of them display great delicacy and careful work. Among the more interesting pieces is the copper medallion, having on the reverse Roman Britannia seated.

The disorders that followed the death of Commodus have left their impress on the coinage, which then lost its beauty of design and delicacy of execution, neither to be more than partially restored in after times. The money of Severus and his house, which shows systematic lowering of value, is of interest. The base metal argenteus is already found in the time of Niger, but it was not regularly introduced until the reign of Caracalla. The copper medallions are remarkable for their reference to the oriental worship to which he was attached. Under Alexander Severus, the copper money was legally reduced, and great attention was paid to its execution, which is excellent for the period. The art and purity of the money declined after Alexander's reign, and in that of Gallienus both had sunk to a very low condition. The chief coins of this emperor, and the so-called "Thirty Tyrants," were the argenteus, which were of copper or base metal washed with silver, and brass pieces of the same size, commonly called "third brass," which are first plentiful at this time. With the accession of Aurelian the Greek Imperial money may be considered to cease, except at Alexandria; and thenceforward very much of the Roman coinage was struck in the provinces. After a time we notice the abbreviated names of the towns of mintage in the exergues of the coins, a practice which appears to have commenced in the reign of Galienus, but not to have attained a regular form until that of Diocletian and Maximian. About the period of the latter, Treves, Langdunum (Lyon), Arles, Lodinum, Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, and afterwards Ravenna and Milan, are the most common mints. The changes of Diocletian, although they improved the material of the coins by substituting pure silver pieces for the base argenteus, and added the large corpulenta to the third brass, did not materially affect the types. Throughout this period they are of inferior interest to those of the prosperous age that preceded it. Their reference is rather to divinities than to events, and they show a want of originality. With Diocletian, however, the art of the coins improves, a stiff style being introduced, which, notwithstanding its radical faults, is not devoid of force. In the treatment of heads it is more happy than in that of groups.

The commencement of the third period of Roman coinage we have dated in the reign of Constantine the Great. The proper beginning cannot be exactly fixed; for it would be difficult to choose between the monetary changes of this emperor and his abandonment of pagan designs and adoption of others, either connected with Christianity or supposed to be most repugnant to it. The two events do not, however, seem to have been far apart. The recognition of Christianity was not the cause of such great immediate changes in the types as one might have supposed. A little earlier several types of a symbolical or allegorical character had been introduced, and these were retained. The Christian types at first are very few, and they can scarcely be said to pre-

1 The beautiful bust in the British Museum, usually called that of Clytie, probably represents a Roman lady of the early days of the empire. That it is the work of a Graeco-Roman artist, and—whether meant to be an ideal subject or not—the portrait of a Roman lady, admits of no doubt. In time it must be, judging from its style, of the first century of the Christian era; and the manner in which the hair is worn points to the earlier part of that period. The lady represented may be only a private person, but the excellence of the work makes it far more probable that she is of an imperial family. On a comparison with the coins, it will be noticed that the head bears a great resemblance to that of Antonia, with whose character the simple modesty of its expression, unexcelled in portrait-sculpture, would well accord. That Antonia is represented on some of these coins as Ceres or Proserpine, agrees with the conceit of the sculptor, who has made the head spring from a flower.

VOL. XVL Medieval having been ascertained respecting them. The chief gold piece was the solidus or argenteus, which maintained its just weight, as established by Constantine, for near 1000 years from the reign of Anastasius until the latter days of the Empire of the East, and without diminution of purity except during the time of disaster that closed this long period, its corruption commencing under the Comnenian princes. This accuracy rendered the solidi famous in the commerce of Europe, so that they were the principal gold pieces, not alone of the East but of the West also, before the issue of florins and ducats by the cities of Italy. The smaller gold pieces were the half and third of the solidus, as in the late Roman coinage, but after a time they were both disused, and the solidus was alone issued. In the eleventh century the solidus begins to be struck in a very concave, or rather a cup-shaped form; and this kind soon supplanted the old flat coin, and continued to the taking of Constantinople. The silver and copper pieces take the same shape, but not so consistently. These concave coins are termed nummi squadrati. The silver money of Justinian I. has more denominations than that of the close of the Western Empire, but they are not satisfactorily determined and identified. In the reign of Heraclius, in a.d. 615, a large silver piece, weighing six grams, and therefore called a hecogram, was issued: its weight is about 105 grams. During the eleventh century concave silver pieces were issued, as well as flat and somewhat thick ones of a smaller size and lesser weight. The Byzantine copper money falls into two great classes, the first commencing under Anastasius and ending under Basil I., and the other beginning under Leo VI. and extending thence to the close of the empire. The former class is distinguished by the coins bearing numerals indicative of their value. It follows three systems,—that of the empire generally, that of Alexandria, and that of Carthage. The unit was the coin called argenteus or λάρυγξ. Under Justinian I., or about his period, we observe coins of the empire generally, with on the reverse the following indexes of value—M, K, I, E, Δ, Γ, B, and A, or 40, 20, 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, nummum; the Latin equivalents of certain of these being given on some coins, chiefly of western mints, and the index XXX also occurring without a Greek equivalent. Anastasius, in a.d. 498, reformed the copper coinage, and struck pieces with the index occupying the greater part of the reverse, and having beneath it the abbreviated name of the place of issue. Justinian I. added, in the coinage of his twelfth year, a.d. 538, the regnal year. The weight of this copper money presents extraordinary variations, which indicate the condition of the imperial finances from year to year. There is, as might be expected, a decline which is constant, although irregular. The Alexandrian coins commence under Anastasius, and terminate with the capture of the city by the Muslims. They have two denominations, marked respectively IB and S, as containing 12 and 6 nummata, the former of which forms the great bulk of the copper money, and maintains its weight with tolerable accuracy. Some of these pieces of the reign of Heraclius, struck while his sons Heraclius Constantinus and Heraclonaces were associated with him, have the double index IB and M, a circumstance explained by the depreciation of the copper money of the empire generally, while that of Alexandria retained almost its just weight. There is an isolated Alexandrian coin of Justinian I., with the index ΑΓ (33), of great rarity; it was probably issued as an experiment, and never subsequently struck. The monetary system of the Vandals at Carthage is an offshoot of the Byzantine. It probably lasted from the accession of Humeric to the capture of the city and dethronement of Gelimer; but the pieces bearing indices of value have no sovereign's name. The indexes are XLIII, XXI, XII, and III. The system must be regarded as a double one, comprising a piece of 42 and its half, and one of 12 and its third, the relation of all being, if we take the piece of 12 as the unit, for the sake of convenience, 3/5, 1/75, 1, and 33. Under Basil I. there was a reform, and larger copper pieces were issued. The second class of Byzantine copper coins begins under Leo VI. The denominations are at first evidently the same as those of the preceding class.

Besides the regular series of the Byzantine Empire, in which we include the money assigned to the Latin emperors of Constantinople, there are several groups connected with it, either by their similarity, or on this account, and also because the term Cola sovereigns were of the imperial houses. The former of these two classes comprehends the money of the Ostrogoths struck in Italy, that of the Vandals in Africa, and that of the Visigoths in Spain. The last series is wholly of gold pieces, which, notwithstanding their barbarism, are of interest, as showing the wealth of the kingdom. The latter class comprises the money of the emperors of Nicaea, of Thessalonica, and of Trebizond. The last group consists of small silver pieces, which were prized for their purity: they were called Comnenian aspers (ἀσπερας καινουργιας), the princes of Trebizond having sprung from the illustrious family of the Comneni. (The best work on the Byzantine coinage generally is M. de Sauley's Essai.) The Letters of the Baron Marchant contain much that is valuable; and the treatise of M. de Pfaffenhoffen on the coins of the empire of Trebizond should also be consulted.)

The class comprising the rest of the medieval money may now be generally described, before we briefly notice its several divisions with their modern continuations. The oldest of these coins are imitations, more or less barbarous, of the late Roman and early Byzantine money. They are usually of gold, and represent the solidus and its divisions. In Italy, where much of the civilization and art of the Romans yet remained, the coins of the Lombard kings of Italy and dukes of Benevento are not greatly inferior to the contemporary coins of the Greek emperors. In France, the Merovingian sovereigns struck pieces which are sometimes even more faithful imitations than these. Britain, most completely cut off from civilization after the departure of the Romans, first issued baronies and blind imitations of the smallest Roman copper coins latterly in circulation, and then little silver pieces, with types sometimes of the same origin. In Spain, the gold money of the Visigoths, already mentioned, is in its general character similar to that of the Merovingian kings of France.

A little before the commencement of the German Empire a new class of coins began to be issued, mainly consisting of two denominations,—the denier, of silver, derived from the denarii; and its half, the obole, which was first of silver, but afterwards of billon, and took its name from the obolus. These pieces rapidly supplanted the gold currency, although the imitation of the solidus, called the sol d'or or soldo d'oro, and its divisions, continued to be struck in France and Italy. The characteristic money of the middle ages begins with these coins. Though we still perceive the influence of Roman ideas, the effect of a new system is apparent, not alone in the types of many of the pieces, but in the extension of the right of coinage. The principal coins of this class are of the German Empire, of France, of the Scandinavian states, and of England, and commence about the middle of the eighth century, lasting until the revival of art. Except in the empire, the denier was almost exclusively struck, and known as the penny or sterling. The coins were issued not alone by the emperors and kings, but also by the ecclesiastical princes and lords; and, except in England, where the right was almost always more restricted, by the feudal lords and the heads of religious houses. The most common types of imperial and regal coins are, for the obverse the bust of the sovereign, and for the reverse what is commonly termed a Greek cross, varying in form, accompanied respectively by the royal name and titles, and the name of the place of mintage, or of the moneymaker, or both. The feudal lords and the ecclesiastics gradually adopted badges or distinctive types, those of the former being of a rude heraldic character, those of the latter having a religious meaning, though with a necessary local reference. The religious types also occur on the coins of sovereigns when struck at cathedral towns. Towards the close of the twelfth century the singular pieces called bracteates appear. They were issued in Germany, and seem to have been extremely common during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, after which period they ceased. They are coins of silver or billon, sometimes large, but very light, and bearing a single design, usually of very barbarous work. From their extreme thinness, they have the appearance of tinfoil impressions of coins. They often do not bear even a

---

1 Essai de Classification des Sujets Monétaires Byzantins, par F. de Sauley, Soc. Metz, 1836 (with a volume of plates). 2 Lettres du Baron Marchant sur la Numismatique et l'Histoire, nouvelle éd., Soc. Paris, 1851. 3 Essai sur les Aspres Comnénides, ou Blanches d'Argent, de Trébizonde, par F. de Pfaffenhoffen, 4to, Paris, 1847. Medieval single letter, and rarely a full inscription, and there is therefore frequently much difficulty in ascertaining their proper attribution. During the time of the baronies, civic coins were issued by imperial cities, or free cities, or by corporations of towns under ecclesiastical or feudal lords.

The first pieces which display any excellence in art are those of Italy, struck for the emperor, or for the various states, in the time of Frederic II. That sovereign's Italian money affords remarkable evidence of the revival of art; but we do not see as great an advance in other countries. From this time, however, or not long afterwards, until the early days of the sixteenth century, there is a constant progress everywhere, and the coins, although they scarcely add to our historical knowledge, are interesting as works of art. The denominations of both gold and silver money are very various, and some have several appellations in different countries when there is not a sufficient change of weight, style, or appearance to justify their being so separated. The basis of all the systems is, however, to be traced to the commercial cities of Italy, from the florins and ducats of which, the former either of gold or silver, the principal coins of other countries were derived. In the middle of the fifteenth century medals commence, and for about a hundred and fifty years are frequently of high merit and interest. It may be mentioned that the medieval silver coinage is, on the whole, the most important, the gold almost failing from the time of the decay of Roman influence until that of the revival of art, and the copper being much neglected, and sometimes altogether abandoned, until near the close of the middle ages.

It is not necessary to speak at any length of the general characteristics of the modern coins and medals of European states and their colonies. In all that is technical, as in the preparation of the metals, the convenience of the form, and the mechanical execution, the moderns have far surpassed their predecessors; but in the beauty and meaning of the types they are at as great a distance below them, and immeasurably below the Greeks. The French medals of the first Napoleon are alone in the least comparable with the earlier pieces of the same kind. We will not here enumerate the denominations; but it may be noticed that the sovereign and the dollar, sometimes yielding to the shilling, which may be termed its quarter, all with various appellations, but little difference of weight, are the principal gold and silver coins of both hemispheres.

It would be interesting, had we space, to notice fully the art of this entire class, to examine its growth, and to trace its decline, but, as with that of Greek and Roman coins, we must limit ourselves to the best period. This is a space of about a hundred and fifty years, from the middle of the fifteenth century to the close of the sixteenth. The numismatic art of this time may not unworthily be placed by the side of its sculpture and its painting. Not alone have some of its medalists taken honourable places in a list where there was no room for ignoble names, but to design medals was not thought an unworthy occupation for the most famous artists. There are, we should expect, two principal schools, the Italian and the German. The former claimed a higher excellence, not alone as possessing finer style, but one especially adapted to coins or medals. The object which the artists strove to attain was to represent a head, or to commemorate an action, in the best manner possible, without losing sight of the fitness of the designs to the form and use, real or imaginary, of the piece on which they were to be placed. For the successful attainment of this purpose, the style of the later pre-Raphaelites was eminently fitted. Its general love of truth, symmetrical grouping, hard drapery, and faithful though cold portraiture, were qualities especially fitted to produce a fine portrait and a good medal. The less sculptural and more pictorial German art was not so suitable to numismatic designs. The portraits of the German coins and medals are often more characteristic than those of the Italian, and the groups have sometimes greater expression; but both are less appropriate. They show also too great a profusion of detail, by which, the effect of the boldness of the outlines is frequently lost; yet they display great originality and vigour, and will reward an attentive study. Both these schools, but especially the Italian, afford the best foundation for a truly excellent modern medallic art. The Greek and Roman coins are rather to be studied as examples of art in general than of this especial art, although they supply the most useful suggestions. To copy for a modern piece the design of a Greek or Roman coin is as inappropriate as it is to represent an English general in the garb of a Greek hero in one place, and in that of a Roman statesman in another. The finest coins and medals of Italy and Germany have an object far more similar to that we seek to fulfil in our own, and their nearness in time makes many details entirely appropriate. Thus, without blindly imitating them, our artists may derive from them the greatest assistance.

(The most useful works on medieval and modern coins generally are, Appel's Repertorium; the treatises of Mader and Leleu; and, for current money, the Encyclopédie Monétaire.)

We do not purpose to enter in any detail into the various divisions of the subject we have treated in its main outlines. The questions that would require consideration are of two complicated and technical nature to be illustrated in the present essay within any reasonable limits; our endeavour will therefore be merely to indicate the principal matters of inquiry, and the most serviceable books for the student's use.

The money of Portugal is regal, and not of great interest. It Portugal affords indications of the wealth and commercial activity of the state in the early part of the eighteenth century. There is no special work upon it. The coinage of Spain is, almost without exception, regal, but a more curious class than that of Portugal. The coins of the early contemporary kingdoms, such as those of Arragon, and of Castile and Leon, are especially worthy of examination. We may mention, as of a very peculiar character, a large gold piece in the coinage of the latter state, called the Dobla de la Corona, from its bearing the shield of the famous order of knighthood of the Vanda or Band. Of this there are examples assigned to John I. (1379-90) and John II. (1406-54). The money of the sole monarchy is less worthy of notice. The city of Barcelona is represented by coins bearing the name of various kings, except in the case of those issued at the time of the Peninsular War. The medals of Spain are not important. (There is a complete work on medieval and modern Spanish coins, but the catalogue of M. Gaillard, referred to in speaking of the ancient coins of Spain, will be found of service in this department also.)

The coinage of France forms a larger series. It begins with the French money of the Merovingian dynasty. This consists almost wholly of gold pieces, imitated from those of the late Roman and Byzantine rulers, as already mentioned, the chief denomination in commerce being the tremissis, or third part of the sol d'or (solidus). The coins are rare, and bear either the names of a king and city, or of a moneymaker and city. They are of different degrees of barbarism in their art. Under the princes of the Carolingian dynasty the principal coins are deniers, and after a time oboles also, gold money being extremely rare. They bear the name of the king and that of the city where they were struck, and have a more original character than the earlier pieces, although they are still barbarous. The money of the Capetian house commences with coins like those of the line preceding it. By degrees the coinage improves. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there are several denominations of these and of silver coins, but to some different names are applied for various types with the same weight, as the denier Parisis of Paris, and the denier Tournois of Tours. At the time of Philip VI. the coins are fine. The modern coinage may be considered to commence under Henry II., whose portrait is of good work. During this period there is no very remarkable feature in the current money, except the occurrence in the seventeenth century of the pieces of the sort termed poid fort, which we must regard as a kind of patterns. The seignorial coins of France are, during the middle ages, of considerable importance, though inferior to the similar classes of German and Italian money. The medals are far more interesting than the modern coins. Their interest begins in the age of Louis XIV., but they take a fresh character under the first republic and the reign of Napoleon I. Almost every great event, from the beginning of the power of the empire until his fall, is worthily commemorated in this series, unequalled in its class for extent, completeness, and excellence. The designs, notwith-

---

1 Appel's Repertorium zur Münzkunde der Münzämter und der neuen Zeit, 4 parts in 7 vols. Sro. Pesth, 1820-22; Wien, 1824-1829. 2 Kritische Beiträge zur Münzkunde der Münzämter, von Joseph Mader, 6 vols. Sro. Prag, 1860-1813. 3 Numismatique du Moyen-Age, considérée sous le Rapport des Types, par J. Leleu, 3 vols. Svo, Paris, 1833, and vol. of plates, &c. 4 Encyclopédie Monétaire, ou Nouveau Traité des Monnaies d'or et d'argent en circulation, &c., par A. Boussville, fol., Paris, 1849. Medieval standing that mannerism which appears to be essential to modern French art, are vigorous in drawing, and executed with great care and skill. The intention of each subject is well carried out, if we make the same allowance as before for national peculiarity of feeling; and equal success is shown both in realistic representation and in idealistic composition. No other series of medals is at all to be compared to this, although individual specimens of the medieval period struck in Italy and Greece are of a far higher style, more original, more varied, and altogether grander both in the idea of the artist and the form which he has given it. (The numismatists of France, especially of late, have displayed a most praiseworthy diligence; so that we cannot indicate a tenth of the useful treaties they have produced. On the royal coinage the works of Le Blanc,1 and Fougères and Combrune,2 must be mentioned; on the seignorial, that of Duby,3 and on the Napoleon medals, as we may term them, the volumes devoted to this subject in the series entitled Trésor de Numismatique et de Géographie.)4

England.

The English coinage, as before mentioned, commences with two uncertain classes, which, wherever struck, certainly formed the currency of the country during the interval from the departure of the Romans, about A.D. 450, until the issue of money with royal names by the Saxon kings, a practice which cannot be carried earlier than about a century after this event. One of these classes consists of imitations of the latest Roman copper money, and the other of the small silver pieces, to which the name of sceatta is applied, having rare types which are sometimes of Roman origin, but generally of pagan. In all probability the former were first issued, and then the latter. The regular coinage commences under the Heptarchy. There is money of the kingdoms of Kent, Mercia, the East Angles, and Northumbria. The chief coins are silver pennies, but sceattas also occur; and of Northumbria there are stipes, which are pieces of a base metal in the composition of which copper is the largest ingredient. The most interesting coins of this group are those of Osric, king of Mercia; these are silver pennies, remarkable for their quaint designs and their relatively careful execution. Of this period, but extending into the earlier part of that of the sole monarchs, there are coins issued by the archbishops of Canterbury and York. The money of the sole monarchs, whether Saxons or Danes, is strictly a continuation of that of the Heptarchy; it consists almost entirely of silver pennies, which latterly were cut into halves and quarters to form halfpennies and farthings. Under the Norman and earlier Plantagenets the same coinage continued, but under Edward III., there is regular gold money, of which the chief piece is the noble of six shillings and eightpence; and the silver groat, which supplanted the penny, has already commenced. The obverse-type of the noble, representing the king in a ship, probably commemorates, as suggested by Ruding,5 Edward’s victory over the French fleet off Sluys, A.D. 1340. At the same time, there is a visible improvement in the art of the coinage, which advances until, under the early Tudors, it attains its highest excellence, from which, however, it is speedily to fall. Of Henry VIII., we have gold and silver coins of most existing denominations, as well as of earlier ones long since abandoned. The finest piece is the sovereign, a large flat coin of gold, bearing on its obverse the figure of the king (whence its name) on his throne. With Queen Elizabeth the modern money may be held to commence, the Gothic character of the types giving place to the later and far less beautiful style. The coinage of Charles I. presents great varieties, owing to the civil war. The scarcity of silver in the royal treasury during the troubles induced the king to coin two new half-shilling pieces of silver, intended for the smaller denominations. One of the most remarkable of his pieces is a crown struck at Oxford. It bears on the obverse the king on horseback, with beneath the horse a representation of the town, or rather of its principal buildings, and on the reverse the heads of the “Oxford Declaration.” Of equal interest are the siege-pieces of many castles famous in the annals of those days. The coinage of the Commonwealth is of a plainness proper to the principles of those who sanctioned it. The great Protector, however, caused to be designed money of his own bearing his head. This seems never to have been sent forth, and is therefore put in the class of patterns. Simon, the chief of English medallists, designed Medieval the coins, which are unequalled in our whole series for the vigour of and Mo- the portrait (a worthy presentment of the head of Cromwell), and the demi coins, beauty and fitness of every portion of the work. Henceforward the art is deemed to be at an end, although skill is perceived in the coins of William III., whose grand features could scarcely have failed to stimulate an artist to more than a common effort. Queen Anne’s money is also worthy of note, since one of her coins, the farthing, has been the cause of an extraordinary delusion. It is commonly imagined that a very small number (some say three) of these pieces were struck, and that their value is a thousand pounds each, instead of a few shillings. In consequence, many imitations have been forged, and such are constantly brought to collectors by unfortunate labourers and the like, who imagine that they possess the greatest numismatic treasure in the world. After this there is little to remark, except the baseness of the art of the coins under the first three Georges, until the genius of Pietraudi gave a worthier form to our currency, which the care and accuracy of Wyon has preserved without mere imitation. Besides the royal coinage, there is scarcely any baronial money, the class being represented by a few pieces, generally at least struck by overseers of the royal mints, and all belonging to the period of the close of the Norman line and beginning of the Plantagenets. The English tokens form a curious class. They are of two periods: the earlier, which are generally of brass, were issued at the middle of the seventeenth century and somewhat after; the later, which are mainly of copper, were struck during the scarcity of the royal coinage at the end of the last century, and during the earlier years of the present one. Both were chiefly coined by tradesmen, and bear their names. The medals of England are less important than those of France and Germany. Some of those of the Tudors, commencing with Henry VIII., are of good style. Those of the period of the Stuarts are more interesting than beautiful. During the civil war many pieces were struck commemorating the chief men and events of that time. The custom continued under the Commonwealth and after the Restoration; and there is a curious series of medals and what may be termed jetons, relating to the Popish Plot in the reign of Charles II. Of a later period are the medals of the two Pretenders and their family; but of our own times little worthy of note. The numismatic money of Scotland is important until lately, when it is not worthy of much study, except for its utility to the decipherers. The money struck by the English kings in their French dominions forms a peculiar class, mainly French in its character, termed the Anglo-Gallic. This may be used to supply some gaps in the regal series of England, as, for instance, containing money of Richard I., of whom no English coins are known. (On the English coinage generally there is the great treatise of Ruding,6 on the silver money, the very complete and accurate work of Mr Hawkins,7 on the Anglo-Gallic coins, Gen. Ainsele’s Essay,8 on the medals, nothing better than the indifferent work of Pinkerton,9 and on the tokens of the seventeenth century, a catalogue just published, which entirely meets the wants of the collector.)10

The coinage of Scotland is allied to that of England, although Scotland generally ruder; but it seems to have been more influenced in the early period from Scandinavia, and towards its close from France. The oldest pieces are probably silver pennies or sterlings, resembling the contemporary English money, of the commencement of the twelfth century. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries there is an important coinage, both in gold and silver, not the least interesting pieces being those of Queen Mary, many of which bear the initials of her name. The indifferent condition of coins of this period is traceable to the disturbed state of the kingdom. (On the coinage of Scotland there is the old work of Cardonnel,11 and the later one of Mr Lindsay.)12

The money of Ireland is more scanty and of less importance than that of Scotland. The pieces most worthy of notice are the silver pennies of the early Norse kings. Of later times there is little that is interesting, except the coinage of James II. during his attempt to maintain himself in the island. (Mr Lindsay has written a work on the Irish coinage.)13

Belgium occupies the next place in our arrangement. Its Belgian and Hol- Medieval coinage comprises many pieces struck by foreign rulers, and has little of an independent character, either in the regal or seignorial diams. It closely resembles the money of France and Germany.

The series of Holland is similar in character until the period of the revolt of the Provinces. The medals are highly interesting, more especially those which were struck by the Protestants in commemoration of current events, many of which relate to the great contest with Spain. Such are the pieces recording the raising of the siege of Leyden, likewise to the destruction of Sennacherib's army; the assassination of William the Silent; and the discomfiture of the Armada; affording striking indications of the zeal, the piety, and the confidence in the right which built up the great political structure of the Dutch Republic. After this time the medals lose much of their interest. (Among the many works on the coins of the Netherlands and Holland, we must specify that of Van der Chilje.)

The money of Switzerland is of considerable importance, chiefly during the early period of its independence. The coins of both cantons and towns bear their ancient shields, drawn at first with a vigorous grotesqueness. There are also pieces of ecclesiastical lords, and others having the right of coining in particular cities or districts. (The general works on German coins will be found to treat of those of Switzerland also, but we must mention the special essays of Haller and Dr H. Meyer.)

The coining of Italy during the medieval period is alone rivalled by that of Germany, which, moreover, it excels in some respects. First in Italy the revival of art influenced the coins, and in Italy each step of advance found in them its record. The oldest medieval Italian coins are gold pieces of the Lombard kings of Italy and of the dukes of Benevento, occupying, as already mentioned, very nearly the same position in relation to the late Roman or the remaining money, as the earliest coins of Spain and France. The series of the kings of Italy is taken up by that of the emperors of Germany, which forms a remarkable series, especially as indicating the excellence of art here at a time when to the rest of Europe it was almost unknown. The great republics are worthily represented, their coins attesting by their purity, and the influence they seem to have exerted, the commercial energy of the states. Of Venice there is a long series, for the chief part bearing the names of the doges. Florence contends with Venice in the extent and purity of her coinage. Her florins of gold were for a great period as famous in European commerce as the gold ducats and silver matapanas of her rival. The types of the florins—the lily of Florence, and the Baptist—were copied by the feudal lords of more northern lands, to the swamps of Holland and the shores of the Atlantic; the designs of the matapanas—one of which, the doge receiving the galleys from St Mark, was yet more distinctive—were adopted by the half-barbarous tribes whose territories were the meeting-ground in the long contest of the Germans and the Turks. The medals of Florence which are anterior to the time of the dukes, or those issued by them not to copy the works of Florentine medallists which are not otherwise connected with their native state, are among the chief monuments of the numismatic art of Italy. The chief value of these medals lies in their bearing admirable portraits of persons of celebrity. Passing southwards, the series of Rome is of the highest historical and artistic value. It is for the greatest part struck by the popes, of whom there are both coins and medals. The later pieces commemorate the events of each reign, and are, as might be expected, of high excellence in style, although, from the excessive fondness of the artists for allegory, they are generally wanting in simplicity, and do not directly seize the attention. Another fault is partiality without invention or vigour. We may instance the medal of Gregory XIII., recording the Massacre of St Bartholomew, both for its reverse-type, an angel slaying the insurgents, and the inscription VIGNOTTOREY STRAGE. Far surer is the satiric sense of the medals issued by the Dutch Protestant, and the dignity of others. Since the seventeenth century, few papal medals have been struck that are entitled to even moderate praise; those of the present day are beyond measure poor and weak. We must also mention the money of Naples, especially the oldest, which is of its strict Norman princes, who, supplanting the Arabs in Sicily, at first there struck their coins with legends partly or wholly in Arabic characters, while on the mainland they issued the ordinary money of the day. Many other groups might be mentioned, as the dorn Coins of the Visconti and Sforza families of Milan, of the D'Este of Ferrara, and many more houses great in their love of arms and in their protection of art. (The coining of Italy is amply illustrated by excellent essays, mainly of the last century. We must particularly those of Argelati, Zanetti, Bellini, Carli-Rubbi, and Florentini.)

The history of Germany is, like that of Italy, far too various for Germany, so as to be able to do more than sketch some of its main features. It comprises three great classes,—the coining of the emperors, that of the electors, and that of the smaller princes, the religious houses, and the towns. The imperial money, even when limited to what is strictly German by the exclusion of pieces struck in France and Italy, forms a very large series. Its chief characteristics are the same as those of the other great medieval classes, except that, until near the close of the middle ages, it is considerably backward in its art. At this time its portraits are very characteristic, as well as the current coins on the medals and the double-dollars, which are virtually medals. Of special excellence is the medal of Maximilian I. and Mary of Burgundy, struck on their marriage; and the still finer medal of Maximilian, bearing on its obverse the emperor on horseback, fully armed, and said to have been designed by Albert Dürer, of whose hand it is not unlikely that the designs of the archbishops of Cologne are a remarkable series. In the earlier period it bears representations of the cathedral, as is not unusual on ecclesiastical coins of the time. The coins of Mayence, although they yield to those of Cologne in number and importance, form a large group. Of the dukes of Saxony there are fine dollars, which, at the period of the Reformation, bear vigorous and characteristic portraits. Of Travers there is another curious class, resembling that of Cologne. Besides these, there are very numerous bracteates and later pieces of temporal lords, of bishops and abbots, and of cities, some of which are free. (The treatises on this branch are many and excellent. We must specify those of Joachim and Cappé, besides remarking that the general works of Mader and Appel, before mentioned, give very large information on German money.)

The coins of the Scandinavian states—Denmark, Norway, and Denmark, Sweden—are almost wholly regal. There are a few civic pieces, but Norway, the ecclesiastical bracteates assigned to this group are probably and Sweden for the most part of Northern German origin, and the majority of these den. states is closely connected. In the earlier period it resembles the English and Scottish coins, although with a national character of its own; in the latter it is more like that of Germany. There are some medals of historical interest. (This branch has not received due attention it merits, and there is no complete essay upon it. The great Danish work on medals, however, will be found to contain very full materials.)

The coining of Russia is mainly of the modern period, and, until Russia comparatively recent times, shows a remarkable degree of barbarism. The medals are of no intrinsic merit, their sole value being historical. Both coins and medals are regal, except such of the former as were struck in cities now included in Russia, while yet under Sweden. (The work of Baron de Chandoir will be found to give a good account of Russian money.) The coins of Poland are mainly of the kings, and resemble those of the Hungarian kingdom. Of the states between Germany and Turkey there are interesting coins. The kingdom of Hungary, and the principality of Transylvania are each represented by an important series, that of the latter comprising large and remarkable gold pieces of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There are early coins of the patriarchs of Aquileia, and of the kings of Servia. The money of the Turkish Empire is of the oriental class, but there are many coins struck by Christian states in its present territories. This class may be called that of the Crusaders, comprising money of the princes of Achaia, and the dukes of Athens, in Europe; and of the kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem, the princes of Antioch, and the counts of Edessa and Tripolis, in Asia. This is very similar to the contemporary medieval money. A kindred series is that of the knights of Rhodes and Malta, which bears testimony to the wealth and power of that

---

1 Verhandelingen, uitgegeven door Tyler's Tweede Genootschap, 4 vols. 4to, Haarlem, 1851-5. 2 Schweizerisches Münz- und Medaillenbuch beschrieben, von G. E. von Haller, 2 vols. 8vo, Berth, 1781. 3 Die Bracteaten der Schweiz, von Dr H. Meyer, 4to, Zürich, 1845. 4 Die Münzen des Deutschen Kaiser und Königreichs des Mittelalters, von H. P. Cappé, 2 vols. 8vo, Dresden, 1848-50; Beschreibung der Gelehrten Münzen des Mittelalters, 8vo, Dresden, 1851. 5 Beschreibung der Danische Münzen og Medaille i den Kongelige Samling, fol., Kopenhagen, 1791, and vol. of plates. 6 Apogée sur les Monnaies Anciennes, &c., par le Baron S. de Chaudor, 2 vols. 8vo, St Pétersbourg, 1836-7, and vol. of plates. Respecting the coinage of America, it is needless to enter into detail. Neither the money of the Spanish and Portuguese dependencies, and of the latter states, nor that of the English colonies and the United States, present much that is worthy of note. The coinage resembles that of the parent countries, but is of coarser work. The dollar is the chief denomination. There are some coins of historical value, as those with the portrait of the Mexican emperor Augustin; and in the north, Lord Baltimore's pennies. (The Encyclopédie Mondaine, before mentioned among general works, will be found to be of great use in this branch.)

Sect. VI.—ORIENTAL COINS.

Oriental coins are of two great classes, the Pagan and the Mohammadan. (On both classes the great work of Marsden should be consulted.) The first division is separated into the coins of the Persian Empire, the Parthians, and the Sassanians; of Bactria, and of the Hindus; and into those of transganganotic India, China, and Japan.

The Persian coins probably range from the commencement of the reign of Cyrus, or his capture of Babylon, to the overthrow of the empire by Alexander the Great, a period of about two centuries. The only pieces we can positively attribute are of satrapies of the later kings. There can be no doubt, however, that we possess specimens of almost every reign, except the very short ones, from that of Cambyses, to which, if not to that of Cyrus, the oldest coins must be referred, from their style. The metals are gold and silver, the latter being that of the great bulk of the coinage. The form is usually flat and very thick. The types are of no great number. The main principle on which they were selected was a desire to honour the sovereign, which, if we recollect the worship the Achaemenian kings received, is not greatly different from the religious feelings which inspired the Romans. The chief observation is upon the king in a chariot, sometimes hunting the lion, or as an archer drawing his bow. This personage is not, however, to be supposed in any case to be the reigning king, but rather the King of Persia, in a kind of abstract sense. As a reverse to these types we notice occasionally a city or a galley. The money of the satrapies is somewhat more Greek in its character, although it has among its types the representation of a king or satrap, that of a city, and the eastern device of a lion seizing a bull, and the like. The undoubted royal coins have generally no inscription whatever. Some, seemingly of this class, though they are perhaps of satrapes, bear Phoenician characters, apparently the beginning of a name in one case, and in another, various dates. The coins of satrapies have Phoenician inscriptions, usually giving the name of the person who issued the money, and that of the divinity of the place where it was struck. The art of this class of coins is not remarkable; it is at first similar to contemporary Greek art, and generally maintains, at least in some degree, the dignity and national stiffness. There is one exception to this character in a beautiful figure attributed to Cyrus the Younger, to be soon mentioned, but this is in all respects a Greek piece, though evidently struck for a Persian king or satrap. The Persian coins are adjusted to the Phoenician talent. The principal denominations of the gold is the daric or daric stater. The chief silver coin is a third of the tetradrachm, a denomination which is not uncommon; and there are also octodrachms, as well as smaller pieces.

We will notice some of the principal coins, first of the kings, and then of the satrapies, in chronological order, as far as this is practicable. The oldest Persian pieces are probably certain octodrachms of very early work. They bear on the obverse a galley beneath the walls of a town, and on the reverse the king in his chariot engaged in a lion-hunt. These can scarcely be later than the age of Cyrus or Cambyses; and it is most reasonable to suppose them to have been struck at Tyre. Next in time to these were certain octodrachms pieces with semi-Egyptian types, having on the one side an owl with a crook and staff, like the representations of Egyptian sacred hawks, and usually on the other a king or divinity riding upon a kind of sea-barge. The latter is sometimes the obverse-type. These we take to be those of Aryandes, satrap of Egypt, whom Herodotus relates to have been put to death by Darius Hystaspis for striking silver money; but they may perhaps be regal pieces. After these may be placed the gold darics and the silver pieces of the same type, and two-thirds of their weight, with the figure of the king, usually as an archer kneeling, on the obverse, and with an irregular incuse type on the reverse. These, or at least the gold coins, appear to have been current as late as the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon. To this reign we may assign, on strong evidence, a most remarkable coin, bearing the portrait of a Persian royal person on the obverse, and on the reverse a lyre, with the inscription BAXIA. This is assigned by M. de Longpérier to Cyrus the Younger; and we accept his attribution as highly probable. Of the money of the satrapies we may particularize the coins of Phonabazus and Tiribazus, and those formerly attributed to Dermes, but given by Mr Waddington to the celebrated Datames. (The best work on the ancient Persian money is that of the Duc de Luynes on the coins of the satrapies.)

After eighty years of subjection, first to Alexander and his successors, and then to the early Bactrian kings, the Persian power coins was restored by Araxes. With him the Parthian series of coins commences. This consists mainly of silver money, though there are also copper pieces. It shows markedly the influence of the Greeks, having inscriptions in their language, and its reverse-types derived from their coinage. The obverses bear the sovereign's busts, which in the earlier period are often well executed. The denominations appear to be wholly of Greek origin. The Parthians were succeeded by the Sassanian princes. This line issued a more oriental coinage than their predecessors, bearing on the obverse the king's bust, usually wearing a very large and elaborate head-dress, and on the reverse the sacred fire-altar. The attachment which Ardashir, the founder of this dynasty, bore towards the fire-worship, established this national reverse-type, which endured during the four hundred years that his house held the sovereignty. The Sassanian money is chiefly of silver; gold pieces are very rare. (On the Parthian coins the work of Mr Lindsay should be consulted; on the Sassanian, M. de Longpérier's treatise.)

The Bactrian coins form an important link between the money Bactrian of the West and that of the East. They were issued by the princes coins. of Bactria, who were dependent on the rulers of Alexander's empire, in so distant a territory that its very existence was scarcely known until the discovery of the coins. This kingdom was established c. 256, in the reign of Antiochus II., king of Syria, by the defection of Diodotus, governor of Bactria. The coinage of this first sovereign evidently follows that of the Seleucids in types and inscriptions, and, so far as the silver is concerned, in weight also; and the principal money of the subsequent rulers is of the same kind, although showing decay in its art. Under Agathocles, however, who seems to have been the successor of Diodotus, and certainly cannot have reigned much later, we observe the commencement of a peculiar class of coins, consisting of square copper pieces, bearing on the one side a Greek inscription, and on the other an Indian-Pali legend. The occurrence at this early period, in the midst of a Greek coinage, of pieces of a form unknown to the Greeks, and with an Indian as well as a Greek inscription, furnishes, as Mr Thomas argues, no weak evidence of an independent Indian coinage before this time—a subject to which we shall shortly recur. The Bactrian series is chiefly valuable from the aid it has afforded in the reconstruction of contemporary history. Much, however, remains to be done in the arrangement of the series before its full use can be realized. Of the coins of the successors of the kings already mentioned little need here be said, except that bilingual inscriptions become constant on silver as well as copper pieces, and that the former are sometimes of the square form. The Bactrian series is succeeded by more than one half-barbarous class similar to it, but far more oriental in character.

The question of the independence of the earliest Indian coinage India is of too complicated a nature to admit of its being here fully discussed, but we must indicate its main features in order to draw attention to a matter affecting ancient civilization in the far East. It must not be supposed, however, that the conclusion that the Indians had struck money before the time of Alexander, would attribute to them the separate invention of coinage: In this case it is more reasonable to presume that they had received Greek coins in commerce, and had thus been stimulated to issue a metal currency of their own. Mr Thomas has devoted much attention to this question, which will be found to be fully discussed in his edition of Prinsep's Essays. He argues on the existence of the square copper pieces in the Bactrian series, on the character of antiquity displayed by the Behistun copper coins, and on the presumptive evidence of written records. The earliest class he considers to be that of silver

---

1 Numismatique des Croisades, par F. de Saulcy, 4to, Paris, 1847. 2 Numismatique Orientale Illustrata, by W. Marston, 4to, Lond., part I., 1823; part II., 1825. 3 Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Perse, sous les Rois Achéménides, par H. de Luynes, 4to, Paris, 1846, with plates in supplement. 4 A View of the History and Coinage of the Parthians, by John Lindsay, 4to, Cork, 1832. 5 Essai sur les Médailles des Rois Peres de la Dynastie Sassanide, par A. de Longpérier, 4to, Paris, 1840. punch-marked pieces. Of a later period than this whole class are the coins of the Sāh kings of Saurāshtra, the age of which is far more nearly fixed. There are silver pieces bearing dates which show them to have been struck within about a hundred years. The dates Mr Thomas considers to be reckoned from the Sri Harsha Era, which would place the coins between the middle of the second and the middle of the first century B.C. The Sāh kings were followed by the Guptas, who appear to have been at the first contemporary with them. To these belong the rude gold coins, with figures of Indian divinities, which are frequently found in the country. Their importance at the time, and their influence on the later coinage, must have been very great. The types of the later Hindu coins are of the same character as those of this group, although recently better executed. Although they are still issued, these proper Hindu coins have been long since virtually supplanted by those of the Mohammadan dynasties and the Company. (The most useful works on Bactrian and Indian money are Prinsep's Numismatic Essays, which have been collected and edited by Mr Thomas, and are now being published. The original value of these papers is greatly enhanced by the labour and skill with which Mr Thomas has illustrated them, bringing them down to the present state of knowledge, and adding everywhere new information. Professor Wilson's Ariana Antiqua must also be consulted. The most complete account, though one now needing many additions, is in Marston's great work, which we have already mentioned.)

Beyond India, it may be mentioned that Siam has a coinage of its own, consisting of spherical lumps of silver, impressed with a punch, in the place of which coins with oriental types, but on a European model both in form and art, are now being issued. The Chinese money offers a field for great research. Here the question of an origin of money in the East, independently of Greek influence, is raised by the great antiquity that the Chinese writers assign to the commencement of the art among them. The conclusion, for the present at least, must here mainly depend upon our estimate of the value of the written evidence. It is not, however, but doubtful testimony, more especially the Chinese fabricate coins as they do wanton to deceive the curious. Some existing specimens are attributed to the twenty-first year (n.c. 523) of the reign of the Emperor King-wang, of the Tchou Dynasty; but in the opinion of the Baron de Chaudoir, there is no certainty, before the reign of Ch'ien-hung-yi (n.c. 247-210), of the Hsio-tim Dynasty. The money consists almost wholly of copper pieces. These are at first of various shapes, sometimes being in the form of a sword or a bell, though flat; but at length they take the usual shape of coins, except that they are perforated in the centre with a square hole, in order that they may be strung. The silver coins are dollars of a recent period. The rebels have issued copper money resembling that of the Manchou Dynasty, but with their own inscriptions. (On the Chinese coins, Baron de Chaudoir's work should be consulted.)

The second class of oriental money—that of Mohammadan states—has been issued during a period extending from about the middle of the seventh century of the Christian Era to the present day. The oldest of positive date (gold coins) were struck A.H. 78. There are others, however (copper pieces), which must be ascribed to the interval between this date and the first great extension of Arab power, half a century earlier. We may mention the bilingual coins of cities of Syria and Palestine, Damascus, Emesa, and Tiberias, and barbarous imitations of the latest Byzantine money of Alexandria. Silver pieces are known of the year A.H. 79, but the dated copper coins do not commence until some years later; thenceforward the coinage of the greater number of Muslim states is in the three metals. The date of the earliest gold and silver coins thus falls into the reign of the Khalefah 'Abd-El-Melik Ibn-Marwān, under whom, in A.H. 76, the first Muslim coinage is related to have appeared, by El-Mekke, Es-Suyootee, and Ilek Kuteybeh. There is a remarkable copper coin, generally resembling the bilingual pieces just mentioned, and having on one side a figure, probably representing the sovereign. In the legend, written wholly in Arabic, we read, "The servant of God (or 'Abd-Allah)'Abd-El-Melik, the Prince of the Faithful."—The fabric and general appearance of the regular coins, especially for the first five centuries of their issue, is remarkably similar. They are always flat, and generally thin, and are without types, in the ordinary sense of the term, except some semi-barbarous ones, which originated in imitation of those of the current Byzantine money of the time, or of older Greek types. The whole of both sides of the coins is occupied by inscriptions, usually arranged horizontally in the areas, and in single or double bands around. With the rise of the Tatar power the old Arab type of the coins begins to be displaced, and a new one introduced, mainly differing in the greater size of the pieces and the disposition of the inscriptions, which are placed in and around a square. This form was scarcely less wide in its use, or long in its duration, than that which it succeeded. The prevalent metal of the earlier class is gold; of the later, silver. The intention of the inscriptions is religious. All Mohammadan coins bear the profession of the faith. "There is no deity but God; Mohammad is the apostle of God." The Shiya'ees add—"Ali is the friend of God." The title of the khalefah, and afterwards his name also, or the name and title of the king, as well as the year of the Flight and the place of mintage, are generally given. The religious feeling as to the coinage was, until recent times, not less strong with the Musulins than with the ancient Greeks. For some centuries it was not lawful to put the name of any sovereign, as such, upon the coins, except that of the khalefah; and an independent prince, even if actually at war with him, continued to issue money in his name, doing no more than add his own, without any title, as though he were a provincial governor. The rival khalefahs in Spain and Africa by degrees shook this privilege, and under the Turkish and Tatar dynasties it ceased, about the time when the khalefahs of Bagdad had nearly lost all temporal power, shortly before their overthrow.

Mohammadan coins cannot lay claim as a class to high artistic excellence. Their beauty depends, in the earlier period, upon the disposition of the inscriptions, and afterwards upon this combined with the form of the characters. Among the best of the older coins are those of the Ummacee and 'Abbassee khalefahs, and of the Fatimacee khalefahs in Egypt. The money of the Moors in Spain, of some of the later kings of Persia, and sultans of Turkey, affords beautiful specimens of the more recent coinage. The finest, however, are generally inferior in execution, and often in design, to the best engraved work of the same times. The principal denominations, particularly during the earlier period, are well known. For many centuries there were scarcely any more pieces than one of each metal, the dinar of gold, the dirhem of silver, and the fels of copper,—and these were of nearly the same size, and otherwise very similar in their appearance. Their names betray a foreign origin; the dinar derived its appellation from the dēnārūs; the dirhem, from the drachma; and the fels, from the follis. In its weight the dinar, at first of about 55 gr. grams, followed that of the solidus, which at that time had succeeded to the aureus, and was double the "piece of gold." The dirhem of 45 grams, probably was considered equivalent to the chief silver coin of the land originally. The fels, however, cannot be readily identified, from the irregularity of the contemporary copper money of the Byzantines. At a later time, as the influence of the Eastern Empire wore out, the money of the commercial states of Italy affected the oriental coinages; and from this and other causes new systems took their rise, until in our own days the money of the Mohammadan dominions on the Mediterranean is generally assimilated to that of Christian Europe. (The most useful books on Mohammadan coins in general are, besides Marston's Numismata Orientalia, the works of Frähn, Moller, and Erdmann.)

The coinage of the Ummacee and 'Abbassee khalefahs merits the same place in this series as the Byzantine in the medieval. It presents little matter of historical interest beyond the indications of the condition of the state, from the abundance or the scarcity, or even the entire absence, of money under particular reigns. Thus we have evidence of the insignificance of the earliest times of the house of El-'Abbass, and the decadence of the latest, who yet held rule in the city of Bagdad, when the Tatar Hulagu was almost at its doors. Here and there the attention is fixed by a more definite fact, as when on the coins of Haroon Er-Rashheed we read the name of his famous wazir Jaafar.

First among the Muslims of Africa and Western Europe we would place the khalefahs of Spain, who in that remote country restored somewhat of the greatness of their ancestors of the house

---

1 Ariana Antiqua, a Descriptive Account of the Antiquities and Coins of Afghanistan, by H. H. Wilson, 4to, London, 1841. 2 Recueil de Monnaies de la Chine, du Japon, &c., par le Baron S. de Chaudoir, fol., St Pétersbourg, 1842. 3 Ch. M. Prahluti Recensio Numerum Mahomedanorum Acad. Imp. Scient. Petrop., 4to, Petrop., 1826; Ch. M. Prahluti Nova Supplementum ad Recensio, ed. B. Dorn, 4to, Petrop., 1835. 4 De Numis Orientalibus in Numismatique Gothico Asservatis Commentatio Prima, edit. alt., autore J. H. Mailler, 4to, Gothae, 1821; Commentatio Altera, 4to, Erfordiae et Gothae, 1831. 5 Numi Antiqui Musici Universitatis, &c., Conspectus, recensuit, &c., F. Erdmann, 2 vols. 4to, Casani, 1834.