a town of British India, capital of a district of the same name in the territorial division of Delhi, N.W. Provinces, stands in a fertile country, 78 miles N. of Delhi, and 965 N.W. of Calcutta. The numerous white spires and domes of the various temples render Paneeput a beautiful object when seen from a distance. Most of the houses are built of brick, and are provided with balconies. The walls and ramparts, with which the town is surrounded, are of an irregular kind, having been built at several different periods. There are here two caravanserais, which contribute greatly to the importance of the town. In the vicinity there are a great number of tombs in ruins, and many of these are remarkable for size and splendour. The neighbourhood of Paneeput, lying in the great military highway between Eastern India and Afghanistan, has been more than once the field of great battles. Here, in 1528, Baber gained the victory over the Patan King of Delhi, which overthrew that dynasty; and here, in 1761, the Mahrattas were conquered by the Afghans under Ahmed Shah. Pop. (1853) 22,612.

a district of British India, in the division of Delhi, bounded on the N. and W. by the division of Sirhind, S. by the district of Delhi, and E. by those of Meerut and Mozaffarnagar. It lies between N. Lat. 28. 50. and 29. 48., E. Long. 76. 40. and 77.16., having a length of 65 miles from N. to S., a breadth of 30 miles, and an area of 1279 square miles. The surface is flat, and well watered by natural streams and by artificial canals; but in many parts it is quite barren, and covered with a saline incrustation resembling snow in its appearance. The principal river is the Jumna, which flows along the eastern boundary of the district. Pop. (1853) 389,085.

PANEGYRIC (=πανεγύρις), an oration in praise of some extraordinary person or thing. The name is composed of πάν, all, and ἐγέρω, I assemble; because anciently in public and solemn assemblies of the Greeks, either at their games, feasts, fairs, or religious meetings, panegyrics were pronounced. To render these the more solemn, the Greeks used to begin with the praises of the deity in whose honour the games were celebrated; next they descended to the praise of the people or country where they were celebrated; then they landed the princes or magistrates who presided at them; and, lastly, they bestowed eulogies on the champions, especially the conquerors, who had gained the prizes in them.

**Panel**, according to Sir Edward Coke, is derived from *pane*, a part, and denotes "a little part;" but the learned Spelman says that it signifies *schedula vel pagina*, a schedule or roll, as a panel of parchment, or a counterpane of an indenture; whilst others derive it from the French *panne*, a skin. It is used more particularly for a schedule or roll, containing the names of such jurors as the sheriff returns to pass upon any trial. Hence the *impanelling* a jury is the entering their names in a panel or little schedule of parchment.

**Pannonia**, a great national festival of all the Ionians, celebrated on Mount Mycale, in honour of Poseidon, their national deity. In this festival, if the bull offered in sacrifice happened to bellow, it was accounted an omen of divine favour, because that sound was thought to be acceptable to the god. These national gatherings were frequently political as well as religious.

**Panmeleodicon**, an instrument invented by Lepich at Vienna in 1810. By means of a conical barrel moved by a wheel, rods of metal, bent to a right angle, were made to sound when the finger-keys were pressed down.

**Pannini, Giovanni Paolo**, an eminent Italian painter, was born at Piacenza in 1691. At Rome, where he completed his preparatory studies, he devoted his attention chiefly to the painting of architecture, and acquired great excellence in that branch of art. Although prone to make his figures too large in proportion to the buildings, and to fall into the mannerism of mixing a reddish hue in his shadows, he was unsurpassed in his management of perspective. His groups of figures were also admirable for their grace, variety, and vivacity. All these qualities were displayed with especial advantage in his picture of the "Money-Changers driven from the Temple." Pannini died in 1764.

**Pannonia**, a Roman province, was bounded on the W. by Noricum and Italy, on the S. by Illyricum and Moesia, and on the E. and N. by the Danube, and corresponded to that track including Croatia, Slavonia, and portions of Austria, Hungary, and Bosnia. The early history of the country is involved in obscurity. Some suppose that its original inhabitants were Peonians, who gradually came to call themselves Pannonians. A more probable opinion is, that it was colonized by Celtic tribes. At any rate, in 35 B.C. the Romans found the district in a low state of civilization. The extensive forests which cumbered the soil prevented the pursuits of agriculture; and the natives, divided into several tribes, which seem to have acknowledged separate chiefs, were addicted to war and rapine. From that date, however, a change slowly began to come over the social state and government of Pannonia. In 8 A.D., after an obstinate resistance, it was ultimately subjugated and reduced to the form of a Roman province by Tiberius. In the second century it was divided into two parts, Upper Pannonia, on the W., and Lower Pannonia, on the E. In the third and fourth centuries the emperors Probus and Galerius cleared the soil of much of the wood, and made room for the operations of agriculture. Meanwhile roads had been made, colonies had been planted, and Roman legions in the various fortresses, and a Roman fleet on the Danube, protected the government of the country. Pannonia retained this social organization until the middle of the fifth century, when it was ceded to the Huns.

The most important towns in Lower Pannonia were—Vindobona (Vienna), Carnuntum, Sabaria (Sarvar), Æmona (Laybach), and Siscia (Szeg). Those in Upper Pannonia were Acincum (Alt-Buda), Mursa (Erzék), and Sirmium. The principal rivers were the Arrabo (Raab), Panorama, the Dravus (Drave), and the Savus (Sorre), all flowing into the Danube.

**Panorama** (from παν, all, and ὁράω, a view) is a picture drawn on the interior surface of a large cylinder, representing the objects that can be seen from one station, when the observer directs his eye successively to every point of the horizon. A picture drawn on a vertical plane in the usual way includes only that portion of the sphere of vision that can be seen from one point opposite to the picture, without turning the eye; this portion may comprehend about thirty degrees of the horizon, because the field of distinct vision when the eye remains unmoved is concluded in a cone, the angle at the apex of which does not exceed thirty degrees. There are compositions comprehending the visible hemisphere, and sometimes nearly the whole sphere of vision; and in these, one connected scene is represented on the interior surfaces of a polyhedron or of a curved solid, the point of sight being in the centre of the polyhedron, and the eye being turned round on its centre to each of its surfaces, in order to view the whole scene. Of this kind are the gnomonic projection of the sphere on the interior surfaces of a cube, and several pictures, in which one connected subject is represented on the ceiling and the sides of a room, such as the picture of "Jupiter Fulminating the Giants," by Giulio Romano, on the walls and hemispherical ceiling of a round room in the Palazzo del T at Mantua; and the architectural representations and ornaments in Raphael's Loggie in the Vatican. Objects are also sometimes projected on the interior surface of a sphere, the eye being placed in the centre; as in a large hollow sphere with the constellations, which was constructed at Pembroke College, Cambridge. These projections, where the eye, remaining in the point of sight, is turned round on its centre to view the different parts of the picture, are formed on the same principle as the panorama.

The cylindrical surface is the most convenient for panoramas of landscapes; and the specific employment of a large cylindrical surface for representing the landscape of the whole circle of the horizon is the invention of Robert Barker, who brought the panorama into use about the year 1794. The cylinder on which the panorama is painted is commonly about sixty feet in diameter. The projection or perspective of a panorama is formed by imaginary lines drawn from different points of the surrounding objects to the point of sight in the axis of the cylinder. The intersections of these lines with the cylindrical surface form the corresponding points in the panoramic picture. Where the picture is projected on a plane, as in common perspective, and in the gnomonic projection of the sphere, the cones formed by imaginary lines or rays passing from the point of sight to the different objects are cut by the plane of the picture; consequently the sections, being formed by a plane, are curves of which the curvature is always simple. In the perspective of the panorama, where the picture consists of the intersection of the cones of rays by a cylinder, these intersections are, in many of the cases, doubly curved curves. When the picture of a straight line which is neither parallel to the horizon nor to the axis of the cylinder is drawn on the cylinder of the panorama, the picture of the line is part of an ellipse, because the oblique section of a right cylinder, by a plane passing through the axis, is an ellipse; when the cylinder is developed and unrolled on a plane surface, this ellipse becomes the curve called the sinical curve. The projection of lines on the interior surface of a cylinder is also employed in drawing Mercator's charts. But in the projection of the panorama, the field extends only a few degrees above and below the horizon, whereas in the projections of the sphere, the field extends many degrees on each side of the plane, which is at right