a republic of South America, lying between S. Lat. 27.18. and 21.20., W. Long. 54.23. and 58.46.; and bounded on the N. and E. by Brazil, and on the S. and W. by the Argentine Republic. Its form is nearly that of a parallelogram: its length, from N. to S., about 416 miles; average breadth, 180; area, 72,160 square miles. Paraguay forms a sort of inland peninsula, being surrounded on three sides by the River Parana, and its tributary the Paraguay, which joins it at the S.W. corner of the state. The centre of the country is traversed from N. to S. by a mountain-chain called the Sierra Amambay, which separates itself into two at its southern extremity, forming the valley of the Tibicuary, an affluent of the Paraguay. The whole of the rivers of this country flow either into the Paraguay or the Parana; and as the central mountain-chain which divides their waters is in no place more than 100 miles from either of these rivers, the streams of the country are more remarkable for number than for magnitude. By far the longest and most important of these is the Tibicuary already mentioned, which has a tortuous course, and waters the southern portion of Paraguay. This southern region is a rich and beautiful country, presenting a striking contrast to the adjacent parts of the Argentine Republic. It consists of broad valleys and plains affording excellent pasturage, undulating slopes, and hills covered from top to bottom with magnificent forests. The soil here is very fertile; and cultivation is more extensively carried on in this district than in any other part of the interior of South America. White cottages may frequently be seen in the midst of trees surrounded by cultivated fields; but even here it is only scattered patches of ground that are tilled. Portions of this southern region are occupied by extensive marshes and broad but shallow lakes. The northern and eastern part of Paraguay is but little known. It seems to be a rugged and mountainous country, densely covered with forests, and watered by numerous rivers, which have many rapids and waterfalls. In the N.E. there is a branch of Paraguay, the principal mountain-chain known by the name of the Sierra Maracajú or Maracay. To the W. of the Anambahy range, the country, though mountainous, is not so rugged as that to the E.; and the rivers, rapid and impetuous as they are, follow a more even course to the Paraguay. Here, as in all parts of the country, we find extensive forests; but the fertility of the soil is not so great. The climate, though tropical, is tempered by the irregularities of the surface, and by the periodical rains which fall here. The rains, though not so abundant as in countries nearer the equator, serve to fertilize the country. The heat at Assumption, the capital, in summer averages about 85° Fahr., though it sometimes rises to 100°, and in winter it is usually about 45°; but the temperature is much influenced by the direction of the winds. In geological structure, the greater part of Paraguay belongs to the tertiary formation; but there are also some graywacke rocks in the northern and eastern portions. The productions of Paraguay are numerous, including those of tropical as well as of temperate climates. The forests abound in many kinds of timber, some of which are used for ship-building, and furnish the materials for most of the vessels that navigate the Paraguay and Paraná; while there are also many dye-woods, and trees yielding valuable juices and other products; as the dragon-tree, the India-rubber tree, and the mate, or Paraguay tea, from which is extracted the beverage most generally used throughout South America. The last-mentioned plant, which is about the size of an orange tree, grows wild in great abundance in the almost impenetrable forests in the N.E. The leaves are gathered, dried, and reduced to powder; and they afford an ample profit to the merchants of Paraguay. The pounded leaves are infused in the same way as the teas of China. Among the other natural products of Paraguay are—indigo, cochineal, gums, wax, and medicinal plants. The principal crops raised are—maize, rice, mandioc, tobacco, sugar-canes, coffee, and cacao. Cotton thrives well here, and was at one time extensively grown; but its culture has now been almost entirely given up. Agriculture is not in a very advanced state in Paraguay; although this is the occupation of the greater part of the people. A large extent of the country belongs to the state, and is let out in small portions to separate families. The prairies of Paraguay, being less extensive than those of the adjacent countries, do not support very large numbers of cattle, but there are enough of horses, cattle, and sheep to supply the wants of the inhabitants. The wild animals are the same as those found in other parts of South America. The jaguar, the puma, and the ocelot are the most ferocious beasts; monkeys also abound. Of birds the largest is the cassowary; and among other remarkable species are numerous species of parrot and humming-bird, and several species of curassows and guans. Manufactures are by no means extensively carried on in Paraguay. Small quantities of sugar, rum, mandioc flour, cotton and woollen cloth, salt, lime, bricks, &c., are made for domestic use; and a few hides are tanned for exportation. The commerce of the country is not by any means so great as it might become were a wiser policy adopted instead of the present restrictive system, and were the government to encourage and stimulate the industry and enterprise of the people. At present the government monopolizes the exportation of the Paraguay tea, and nearly the whole of that of timber; so that as these articles form the principal exports of the country, nearly one-half of the whole value of goods exported belongs to the government. The average annual value of the exports for the five years ending in 1855 was L.142,826. The imports consist chiefly of cotton and woollen goods, hardware, silk, flour, wine, sugar, and salt; and about three-fourths of these articles are of British manufacture. The average annual value of imports, for the four years ending in 1855 was L.111,521. The imported goods are brought to Paraguay through Buenos Ayres, whence they are conveyed up the river by small schooners to Assumption. The means of communication in the interior of the country are slow and expensive; as all goods are conveyed by means of heavy bullock carts. There are some tolerably good roads, and several of the rivers might be navigated by small steamers, to the great advantage of the commerce of the country. The port at which the greater part of the trade is carried on is Assumption, the capital of the country. This, with Pilar and Encarnacion, are the only ports open to foreign commerce. Pilar, on the Paraguay, is about 180 miles below Assumption, and was, previous to 1851, the only open port. At Encarnacion, on the Paraná, there is no trade, as it can only be reached by boats. There are several smaller ports on the Paraguay, but these are only open to the coasting trade, and convey all their goods to Assumption. The total number of vessels that entered that port in 1856 was 171; tonnage, 9923; value of cargoes, L.126,212. Those that cleared in the same year were 190; tonnage, 11,737; value of cargoes, L.228,628. The constitution of Paraguay is in form republican, although there is little real liberty among the people, and no liberal policy in the government. The executive power is in the hands of a president; this office being at present held by Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, who was elected in 1844 for ten years, re-elected in 1854 for three, and again in 1857 for seven. The legislative body consists of a Congress, which meets once every five years. The annual revenue is estimated to amount to L.150,000; and the military forces might easily be raised to the number of 30,000. The navy consists only of a few brigantines and gun-boats to protect the coasts. The country is divided into eight departments. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, the hierarchy consisting of the bishop of Assumption and a coadjutor. Education is widely diffused throughout the people, and there are comparatively few who cannot read and write; but the state of morals is low. The aboriginal inhabitants of Paraguay were the Guarani Indians; and they, along with the Mestizos, a mixed race of Spanish and Indian origin, still form the bulk of the population. In and about the principal towns, however, there are a small number of Spaniards, and there the Spanish language is coming into use, while the prevailing dialect throughout the country is the Guarani.

The estuary of the La Plata was discovered by the Spaniards in the beginning of the sixteenth century; and they soon afterwards sailed up the river and attempted to found settlements on its banks. After having been twice unsuccessful, they sent Don Pedro de Mendoza with a number of ships in 1535 to establish a colony; and he, sailing up the Paraguay, founded the city of Assumption, from which, as a centre, the Spanish extended their dominion over the countries watered by the Paraná and its affluents. Paraguay then was made a Spanish province, forming a part of the viceroyalty of Peru. The original settlers found the Guarani a bold and warlike people, who offered much resistance to their arms. They were divided into numerous tribes in various stages of civilization, some living by agriculture and others by war and the chase. Their religion consisted in the worship of two deities, a good and a bad spirit; and their government was in the hands of hereditary chiefs with despotic power. These tribes, after an obstinate defence, were reduced to submission by the courage and perseverance of the Spaniards. Owing to its containing none of the precious metals, Paraguay was little attended to by the Spanish government. The Jesuits were sent into the country about the middle of the sixteenth century for the purpose of converting the natives; but they found it impossible to make much progress, or to protect the Indians against the oppression of the colonists, until the Spanish court, towards the end of the seventeenth century, granted them entire independence of the provincial autho- Paraguay River

Paraguay, along with the right to exclude all other Europeans from their settlements. After this, their labours were attended with great success; they established numerous missions or communities, in which the Indians were gradually reclaimed from their previous savage state to peaceful and industrious habits. They had thus attained to a state of some civilization, when in 1767 the Jesuits were suddenly expelled from South America; and Paraguay again became subject to the Spanish viceroys. After this event, though some of the communities continued in existence till a later period, the greater number fell to the ground; and the inhabitants relapsed into a state of barbarism. In 1776 Paraguay became a province of the vice-royalty of Rio de la Plata, which was then formed. In 1810 Paraguay rebelled against the Spanish government; and, in the following year, without joining the confederacy of the other Spanish states, declared its independence. Its remote and isolated situation prevented any attempt being made to reduce it to subjection, and it was thus the earliest of the Argentine states that achieved its independence. The celebrated Dr Francia, who was originally a lawyer, and afterwards secretary to the revolutionary junta, obtained such influence by his integrity and ability as to be appointed dictator in 1814 for three years, and in 1817 for life. His government, which lasted till his death in 1840, was an absolute despotism; and has been represented by many writers as a most cruel and capricious tyranny. His measures, however, seem in many instances to have conducted to the benefit of the country: he encouraged agriculture and manufactures, composed a code of laws, established schools throughout the country, and raised a standing army. He attempted to isolate Paraguay entirely from the rest of the world, by prohibiting foreigners from entering, and detaining all who set foot in the country, a policy adopted by the Jesuit missionaries, and which he pursued probably from the same motives. In judging of the contradictory accounts given of the character of his government, we should not forget the half-savage state in which the most of the Paraguayans were at that time. After the death of Francia, the country was governed for two years by two consuls; and in 1844 the present constitution was adopted. The restrictions against foreign intercourse were not at once removed under the new system of government; but in 1852 a treaty was signed with the Argentine Republic, and in 1853 with Great Britain, the United States, France, and Sardinia, opening up the country to the commerce of these nations. A French colony was established in 1855 on the right bank of the Paraguay, under the name of New Bordeaux, but it was not encouraged by the president of the republic, and had to be abandoned for want of provisions in the end of the same year. The population of Paraguay, according to the most recent census, was 1,200,000.

Paraguay River. See Plata, Rio de la.

Parahiba, or Paranhiba do Norte, a maritime province of Brazil, bounded on the N. by the province of Rio Grande do Norte, W. by that of Ceara, S. by that of Pernambuco, and E. by the Atlantic. It extends along the coast for 60 miles, stretches inland 216, and has an area of 24,117 square miles. The surface is for the most part mountainous, being occupied by the Cordillera-Borborema, stretching from E. to W. along the southern frontier, and by its numerous branches, which inclose extensive valleys between them. Several rivers flow through these valleys, and fall into the Atlantic; the principal being the Parahiba (from which the province derives its name), the Mamanguape, the Guaja, and the Govanna. About two-thirds of the surface consists of a dry sandy soil, which is not cultivated; but near the rivers there are many tracts of good ground, where rice and sugar-canes are raised; and on the slopes and ridges of the hills, mandioc, cotton, tobacco, &c., thrive well. The summits of the loftier mountains are covered with forests, which yield excellent timber and valuable gums and resins. On the low, flat country near the coast, many lofty palms grow. Cotton, sugar, rum, timber, and other articles, are exported from the province. The educational establishments consist of a college and numerous elementary schools. Parahiba sends two senators and five deputies to the legislature of Brazil. Pop. (1856) 209,300.

Parahiba, a town of Brazil, capital of the province of the same name, stands on the right bank of the River Parahiba, about 16 miles above its mouth, and 65 N. of Pernambuco. The houses, which are generally only one storey high, are built of stone, and tiled; and the principal streets are well paved. The most important public buildings are an old Jesuit college, now containing the governor's residence, house of assembly, and courts of law; a custom-house, town-hall, numerous churches and convents, an hospital, and barracks. There is also a college or lyceum, and two elementary schools. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels; but it is much frequented, and has an active trade in the produce of the province. Pop. 16,000.

Parahiba, a river of Brazil, rises in the Borborema Mountains, on the confines of Pernambuco and Parahiba, flows N.E. and E. through the latter province, and falls into the Atlantic by two mouths. It is 3 miles broad at its estuary (which is defended by two forts), and has an entire length of nearly 300 miles.

Parahiba-do-Sul, a river of Brazil, rises in the province of Sao Paulo, flows first W. and then N.E., parallel to the coast, through that province and that of Rio de Janeiro, and falls into the Atlantic near a small town of the same name, after a length of 500 miles. Its mouth is blocked up with sand-banks, and there are many cataracts in its course. Its chief affluent is the Pomba, from Minas Geraes.

Parallax. See Astronomy.

Parallel, Parallelogram, and Paralleloiped. See Geometry.

Parallels of Latitude, of Altitude, and of Declination. See Astronomy.

Paralogism (literally false reckoning, from παλός, beyond, i.e., wrong, and λογικός, a reckoning), a species of fallacy explained thus by Kant in his Logik, § 90:—“A rational reasoning which is false in form while valid in appearance is a fallacy. Such a reasoning is a paralogism if we are ourselves deceived by it. It is a sophism if we seek to deceive others.” (See also Aristotle, De Sophisticis Elenchis; and the chapter on “Sophisms” in the Port-Royal Logic.)

Paralysis, or Palsy (παράλυσις, a relaxation), is a peculiar disease, in which the whole body, or some part of it, is deprived of the natural power of sensation or motion. It is frequently but a modification of apoplexy, and proceeds from the same causes which produce that disease.

Paramaribo. See Guiana.