Peru, a republic of South America, lies between 3° 35' and 21° 48' S. Lat., and 68° 10' and 81° 30' W. Long. It is bounded on the N. by the republic of Ecuador, W. by the Pacific Ocean, and E. and S. by the territories of Brazil and Bolivia. Its extreme length from N. to S. is about 1250 miles, and its breadth varies from 60 to about 750 miles, the width increasing gradually from S. to N. The coast-line stretches along the Pacific from the mouth of the Rio Tumbes on the N. to that of the Rio Loa on the S. The area may be roughly estimated at about 500,000 square miles.

The present state comprehends only a small portion of that vast empire over which the Incas exercised their sway at the time of the Spanish invasion. The ancient empire of Peru extended over nearly forty degrees of latitude, from the second degree of north to about the thirty-seventh of south latitude. Its breadth, however, must have been altogether disproportioned to its length; but the exact limits cannot now be determined. It extended eastward from the shores of the Pacific, in many parts considerably beyond the mountains, to the confines of barbarous states whose position cannot now be ascertained.

Of the various traditions respecting the early inhabitants of Peru, the one best known is that which ascribes the introduction of civilization to Manco Capac, the first of the Incas, who is said to have flourished in the early part of the twelfth century. At the time of his advent the people were among the most barbarous of the American savages, roaming over the country without any fixed place of abode, at constant war with each other, and feasting on the flesh of their slaughtered captives. The sun, however, the great luminary and parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent his son Manco Capac with Mama Oello Huaco, at once his sister and his spouse, to reclaim and civilize them. He taught them to till and irrigate the soil, to construct residences, and to worship the sun; and farther, instructed them in the moralities of life, and framed wise and benevolent laws for their guidance. The empire, which at first comprised only a small territory around the city of Cuzco, gradually extended its authority over the surrounding tribes, until it became the first in size and importance of the South American States, occupying here a position equally prominent with that of Mexico in North America. Another legend, probably not less generally received among the Peruvians, but one which is less known among other nations, speaks of certain white and bearded men who, advancing from the shores of Lake Titicaca, established an ascendancy over the natives, and imparted to them the blessings of civilization. None of these legends, however, throw any light upon the early history of the people. The date usually assigned to these events, 400 years before the conquest, is manifestly too early, as none of the accounts assign to the Inca dynasty more than thirteen princes, a number much too small to extend over such a period. There is also reason to believe that there existed in the country a race advanced in civilization before the time of the Incas, and the extensive architectural remains still existing on the shores of Lake Titicaca, evidently of a date anterior to the pretended advent of the Incas, would indicate that as their original seat. Who this race were, and whence they came, is a tempting theme for speculation, but lies far beyond the domain of history. It is only as we approach the time of the Spanish conquest that we begin to emerge from the impenetrable mists that overhang the early annals of the country. In the middle of the fifteenth century the famous Topa Inca Yupanqui, grandfather of the monarch who occupied the throne at the coming of the Spaniards, led his armies across the terrible desert of Atacama, and penetrating to the southern region of Chile, fixed the permanent boundary of his dominions at the River Maule. His son Huayna Capac, possessed of ambition and military talent fully equal to his father's, marched along the Cordillera towards the north, and pushing his conquests across the equator, added the powerful kingdom of Quito to his possessions.

Were the accounts given by the earlier writers of the state Ancient of the country and of its inhabitants at the period of the conquest Peru, not borne out by existing remains, and corroborated by what we know of such nations as the Chinese and Japanese of the present day, they would be quite incredible. The surface of the country was naturally very unfavourable for the purposes of agriculture. A sandy tract, seldom or never refreshed by rain, and watered only by a few scanty streams, extended along the coast, beyond which was the steep and rocky range of the Cordillera. But notwithstanding this unpropitious nature of the country, by means of a judicious system of artificial irrigation, an abundant supply of provisions was raised for a numerous population. Canals and subterranean aqueducts were constructed in all directions, and terraces were raised upon the steep sides of the Cordillera, where the productions of temperate and northern, as well as of tropical countries, were reared. Traces of these water-conduits are still to be seen in all parts of Peru. They were formed of large slabs of freestone nicely fitted together, and were sometimes several hundred miles in length, carried through rivers and marshes, and not unfrequently tunnelled through the solid rock. The earth to the terraces had frequently to be brought from a considerable distance; and not uncommonly was the arid soil of the valleys and plains removed in order to reach a lower stratum more suitable for cultivation. They further made large use of the different kinds of manures, with the properties of which they were well acquainted. Guano especially, that valuable manure which attracted so much notice of late years, was largely employed by them. Still more remarkable as monuments of labor and ingenuity were the great roads which traversed the kingdom in various directions, the remains of which are still in sufficient preservation to attest their former magnificence. The most remarkable of these were the two which extended from Quito to Cuzco, and again diverging from the capital, were continued in a southern direction towards Chile.

"One of these roads passed over the grand plateau, and the other along the lowlands on the borders of the ocean. The former was much the more difficult achievement, from the character of the country. It was conducted over pathless sierras covered with snow; galleries were cut for leagues through the living rock; rivers were crossed by means of bridges that swung suspended in mid-air; precipices were scaled by staircases of stone; and native huts of rafters of hickory, deeply wedged into solid masonry; in short, all the difficulties that beset a wild and mountainous region, and which might appal the most courageous engineer of modern times, were encountered and successfully overcome. The length of the road, of which scattered fragments only remain, is variously estimated from 1500 to 2000 miles; and stone pillars, in the manner of European mile-stones, were erected at stated intervals of somewhat more than a league all along the route. Its breadth scarcely exceeded 20 feet. It was built of heavy flags of freestone, and, in some parts at least, covered with a bituminous cement, which time has made harder than the stone itself. In some places where the road had been filled up with masonry, the flag stones tourists, wearing it for ages, had gradually eaten away through the base, and left the superincumbent mass—which is the cohesion of materials—still spanning the valley like an arch." (Prescott.)

"The great road of the Incas," says Humboldt, "a man not given to exaggeration, was one of the greatest and most useful works ever executed by man." Their bridges were constructed of the tough fibres of the maguey, or of the crier of the country, woven into cables of the thickness of a man's body. Several of these enormous cables, bound together, and attached at each end, formed the bridge, which was covered with wood, and well secured by a railing on each side. As the length of this bridge sometimes exceeded 200 feet, and as it was supported only at the extremities, it presented an almost alarming inclination towards the centre; while its motion given to it by the traveller, who could not be still more frightful, as his eye wandered over the dark abyss of waters that foamed and tumbled many a fathom beneath. Yet these light and fragile fabrics were crossed without fear by the Peruvians. In the level country the broad and tranquil rivers were passed in balsas or floats, to which sails were attached,—the only instance of their use among American Indians. All along these highways caravanserais, or tasbas as they were called, were erected at the distance of 10 or 12 miles from each other, for the accommodation more particularly of the Inca and his suite. Some of these were very extensive, containing besides of a fortress, barracks, and other military works, and were evidently destined for the accommodation of the imperial armies when marching across the country. Posts were also established along all the great routes, and stations were erected within short distances of each other, where runners were stationed to carry forward dispatches. Messages were thus carried through the country at the rate of 150 miles a day. At the time of the conquest of Peru no nation in Europe could boast of any work of public utility that could be compared with the great roads of the Incas.

The industry and ingenuity of the Peruvians was also shown in the construction and ornamenting of their temples and palaces. The ruins of these magnificent edifices, which are still to be found in many parts of the country, attesting once the great power of the Incas and the high degree of knowledge in the arts to which the people had attained; whilst they also show that, during two centuries at least, the nation must have subsisted in a state of considerable advancement. They were usually low, but covered a vast extent of ground, and were constructed of blocks of stone, some of them of great size, but of no regular form; and though no cement was used, they were adjusted to each other with such exactness that it was impossible to introduce even the blade of a knife between them. Some of these stones were full 38 feet long, by 18 broad, and 6 thick. They were hewn from their native bed, and fashioned into shape by a people ignorant of the use of iron; they were frequently brought from great distances, across rivers and lakes, and set to their places with the utmost nicety, finally adjusted with the nicest accuracy, without the aid of beasts of burden or machinery of any kind. The interior of the palaces was adorned with the finest and most costly materials. The sides of the apartments were thickly studded with gold and silver ornaments. Niches prepared in the walls were filled with images of animals and plants, curiously wrought, of the same costly materials; and even much of the domestic furniture, including the utensils devoted to the most ordinary social services, displayed the like minute and exquisite finish." (Prescott.) The magnificent Temple of the Sun at Cuzco covered a great extent of ground in the centre of the city, and was surrounded by a wall. Such was its splendour, that a Spaniard who saw it in its glory asserts that there were only two edifices in his own country that could, in point of workmanship, be compared with it. Every part of the interior was richly ornamented with gold. On the western wall, and so situated that the rays of the sun struck directly upon it at rising, was a figure of their god, engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimensions, thickly studded with emeralds and precious stones. All the ornaments of the temple, and every kind of utensil appropriated to the uses of religion, were of gold or silver. Above stood the principal consecrated chapel of smaller dimensions, one of which was consecrated to the moon—the deity held next in reverence to the sun, as the mother of the Incas. Besides the Temple of the Sun, there are said to have been no fewer than four hundred inferior temples and religious houses in the Holy City. Other temples and religious houses were scattered over the provinces, some of them constructed on a scale of magnificence that almost rivalled that of the metropolis.

The Peruvians manifested great skill and ingenuity in the manufacture of ornaments of various kinds. Here, however, like the Chinese and some other eastern nations of the present day, their works are characterized rather by masterly execution and dexterity of finger than invention or beauty of design. Many specimens of elaborate workmanship have been dug out of the Amazon, or subterranean mounds. They comprise vases of gold and silver; bracelets, collars, and other ornaments for the person; utensils of every description; and mirrors of hard, shining stones, highly polished. Though iron exists in the country, they were unacquainted with its use. Their tools were of stone, or more frequently of copper; but they had also a composition of copper and a small quantity of tin, which had almost the hardness of steel. In their textile manufactures they likewise manifested considerable skill. Their vast flocks of sheep, and the cotton which grew spontaneously on the hills, supplied them with abundant materials for clothing, and they also manufactured a species of cloth from the tough thread of the maguey plant. Their woollen manufactures were of such delicacy and beauty, that the Spanish sovereigns, with all the luxuries of Europe and Asia at their command, did not disdain to use them.

The government of Peru was a despotism, mild in its character, but pure and unmitigated in its form. The sovereign was the source of all power and all authority, and stood at an immeasurable distance from even the highest of his subjects, none of whom could venture into his presence unless barefoot, and bearing a light burden upon his shoulders in token of humblest devotion. From, and as representative of earl of the sun, his person and acts were endowed with a sanctity that no merely secular position could confer upon them; and hence any disobedience of his law was looked upon as sacrilege. But, while vested with all this power, the sway of the Incas was not a tyrannical one. They sought rather to imitate their supposed progenitor the sun, and to promote the welfare and happiness of all their subjects. Though so immeasurably above his subjects, there were occasions when he condescended to mingle with them. He presided at some of the religious festivals; and at intervals of several years he travelled in great pomp and magnificence through the empire, inspecting and inquiring into the condition of the various classes of his subjects. Once a year, too, he repaired to a neighbouring vicinity of the capital, and there, in presence of his subjects, and a vast assemblage of the people, turned up the soil with a golden plough. The nobility of Peru were of three orders,—the Yarar, or descendants by the male line from the founder of the monarchy; and the Caracas, the caciques of the conquered nations, and their descendants. The Incas were divided into different lineages, according to the member of the royal dynasty from whom they were descended; and as polygamy was freely indulged in, this class of nobility came to be very numerous. They were distinguished by a peculiar dress, and enjoyed many important and exclusive privileges. They filled every high place of trust and emolument,—the government of provinces, the command of armies,—and were alone admissible to the great offices of the priesthood. The Caracas were usually continued in their places by the government, and were possessed of more or less power according to the extent of their territory and the number of their vassals, subject, however, to the jurisdiction of the great provincial governors. They were required occasionally to visit the capital, and to allow their sons to be educated there as a mark of their loyalty. The object of war with the Incas was to extend the worship of the sun, and to confer upon the conquered nations the blessings of such a civilization as they themselves enjoyed; and hence their contests were not carried on in a bloodthirsty or rapa- Peru.

cious spirit, and the conquered nation was immediately on submission admitted to the full enjoyment of all the privileges of the natural subjects of the Inca.

The empire was divided into four great provinces, each under a viceroy or governor, who was assisted in his administration by one or more councils for the different departments. These viceroys resided for at least a portion of their time in the capital, where they constituted a sort of council of state to the Inca. The nation was further divided into bodies of 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, and 10,000 inhabitants, each of which was under the authority and supervision of a responsible officer. The laws were few and exceedingly severe. There was no appeal from one court to another; but visitors patrolled the kingdom at certain times to examine into the conduct of the judges and magistrates, to hear complaints, and to report any neglect or violation of duty.

The whole land of the empire was divided into three parts—one for the sun, another for the Inca, and the last for the people. The land assigned to the sun furnished a revenue to support the temples and maintain the costly ceremony of Peruvian worship and the multitudinous priesthood. Those reserved for the Inca went to support the royal state, and to supply the various exigencies of the government. The remainder of the lands were divided, per capita, in equal shares among the people. This division of the soil was renewed every year, and the possessions of the people were increased or diminished according to the number of their families. The whole territory, however, was cultivated by the people. The lands belonging to the sun had to be first attended to; then those of the widows, orphans, sick, &c.; then their own, and lastly those of the Inca. The immense flock of sheep scattered over the various provinces belonged exclusively to the sun and the Inca. They were entrusted to the care of experienced shepherds, and regulations for their management prescribed with the greatest minuteness, and with a sagacity that excited the admiration of the Spaniards, who were familiar with the management of sheep in their own country. At the appointed season they were all sheared, and the wool deposited in the public magazines, whence it was dealt out to each family according to its wants. Care was taken that each household should employ the materials furnished for its own use in the manner that was intended, so that no one should be unprovided with the necessary apparel. All the mines belonged to the Inca, and were wrought exclusively for his benefit by those familiar with their management. A small portion of the community was instructed in the mechanical arts. The nature and amount of service required of every individual was prescribed by law, and was so regulated with regard to the welfare of the people, that even the more wearing and unwholesome of the labours were carried on without any detriment to health. Work was provided for all, and idleness was severely punished as a crime. The different employments usually descended from father to son. A part of the agricultural produce and manufactures were sent to the capital, but the greater portion was stored in magazines scattered over the different provinces, where there was frequently a supply of grain that would last for several years; and thus seasons of scarcity were anticipated for, and relief furnished to those whose sickness or misfortune had reduced them to poverty. There were no poor in the land. An account was kept of the births and deaths in the various districts throughout the country, and exact returns of the actual population made to the government every year. At certain intervals also, a general survey of the country was made as to its soil, fertility, products, &c.

The Peruvians believed in the existence of one great Supreme Being, the creator of the world, whom they called Pachacamac (from camae, creator, and pach, world). No temple was raised to this invisible being, save one only in the valley, which took its name from the deity himself, not far from the Spanish city of Lima. Subordinate to Pachacamac, but endowed with intercessory power, was the sun, the deity whose worship they specially venerated, and whose temple rose in every city and village in every village throughout the land. It was he who presided over the destinies of man, gave light and warmth to the world,—the founder of their empire, and the father of their royal dynasty. Besides the sun, the Incas acknowledged other objects of worship, as the moon his sister-wife, and the stars; while among their subjects, the earth, wind, rain, thunder, as well as mountains, rivers, &c., received divine honours. They also admitted among their gods the numerous deities of the conquered nations. The sacerdotal order was very numerous. At the head of all was the high priest, or Villac Pusa, who was second only to the Inca in dignity, and was usually chosen from his brothers or near kindred. He was appointed by the monarch, and held office for life, and was in turn appointed to all the offices under him. The duties of the priest were confined to ministrations in the temple, and his science was limited to an acquaintance with the feasts and festivals of his religion, which were very numerous, and their rites very complex and elaborate. Their sacrifices consisted of animals, grains, flowers, &c.; and we would fain believe that Garcilasso, an Inca by birth, is correct in asserting that "no human victim was ever offered in the Temple of the Sun," or permitted in worship—though this is expressly contradicted by most of the Spanish writers. On the death of an Inca, however, a number of his attendants and favourite concubines, amounting sometimes, it is said, to a thousand, were immolated on his tomb. Marriage was a ceremony performed once a year by the Inca among his own kindred, and by the Curacas and governors in their various districts. The nobles, like their sovereigns, were allowed a plurality of wives; but the people generally, whether by law or necessity, were limited to one.

In looking at the ancient Peruvians, one is in doubt whether their knowledge and display in some respects, or their ignorance in others, is the more remarkable. In looking at their government, we can scarcely conceive of anything more suitable for a people in their condition. Though despotic in its nature, it was eminently patriarchal; every one, from the highest to the lowest, being made to feel his dependence upon it in every act of his life. Poverty and idleness, the two great causes of dissatisfaction in a people, were carefully guarded against. No one could be poor; neither could any one become rich; for, however industrious, he could not add one rood to his possessions, nor advance himself one hair's-breadth in the social scale. All might enjoy, and all enjoy, a competence; and ambition and varvices had no place in the breast of the Peruvians. No more perfect system of government was ever devised, more suited for its object than was this one. It contributed little to the security of the empire, that under the sovereign there was an order of hereditary nobles of the same divine origin with himself, and immeasurably above the rest of the people. They thus received implicit deference from the multitude, while, from long training, they became ready and expert agents in carrying out the measures of government. It is not a little remarkable that, while in government, in morals, and in some of the mechanical arts, they had made such advances, in all that more properly belongs to intellectual culture they were extremely ignorant. They possessed no written language, but employed as an instrument called a quipu. This was a cord about two feet long, composed of different coloured threads tightly twisted together, from which a quantity of smaller threads were suspended by means of a fringe. The colour of the threads represented various objects, the number of which was indicated by knots. Such was the imperfect substitute for writing, and in this way the annals of their country were handed down from generation to generation. They had no species of money, and carried on no commerce. Their knowledge of astronomy was very imperfect, which is the more remarkable, seeing that the celestial bodies were the chief of their deities. In this respect they were far behind the ancient Mexicans. (See farther on the civilisation of ancient Peru, Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru, and the various works therein cited.)

The first distinct information received by the Spaniards of the History of Peru was about the year 1511. Vasco Núñez de Balboa, then governor of the small colony of Santa María in Darién, made frequent incursions into the neighbouring country; and on one of these occasions a dispute having arisen amongst the Spaniards about the division of some gold, a young cacique who was present struck the scales with his fist, and scattered the precious metal, exclaiming, "If this is what you prize so much that you are willing to leave your distant homes, and risk even life itself for it, I can tell you of a land where they eat and drink out of golden vessels, and gold is as cheap as iron is with you." The eager curiosity of the Spaniards was roused by this information, and no time was lost in preparing for the invasion of this land of gold. Balboa, accompanied by a hundred and ninety of his countrymen, and by a thousand Indians, commenced his journey across the isthmus, which, although not more than sixty miles in breadth, presented so many obstacles that five-and-twenty days were spent before he obtained a sight of the Pacific Ocean. Armed with sword and buckler, he rushed into its waters, and cried out that "he claimed this unknown sea, with all that it contained, for the King of Castile, and that he would make good the claim against all Christians or infidels who dared to gainsay it." This spot he designated the Gulf of St Michael, a name which it still bears; and here he obtained more explicit information respecting the Peruvian empire. But though he extended his discoveries some twenty leagues farther south, he was not destined to accomplish his purpose, for, having received no reinforcements, he was surprised in his camp by an ungrateful government, and although afterwards restored to high authority, he soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the individual with whom he was associated in the government.

It was some time after this before any farther attempts were made to discover Peru; but in 1519 the capital of the colony was transferred from the shore of the Atlantic across the isthmus to the ancient site of Panama, on the Pacific, some distance east of the present city, as being more suitable for prosecuting discoveries in that region. In 1524 an expedition was fitted out, at the head of which was Francisco Pizarro, the natural son of a gentleman of family, but himself totally uneducated, and doomed to spend the early part of his career as a swine-herd. He subsequently joined the army, and being of a daring spirit, was endowed with a robust frame of body, he was foremost in every danger, and able to endure the greatest fatigue. Such qualities soon brought him into notice; and he was raised to a command second of others of a higher order, fitting him to command as well as to serve. Thus, while a favourite with the soldiery, his superiors saw in him a man eminently fitted for carrying out their more difficult and dangerous enterprises, and the success that attended him on such occasions speedily raised him to an eminent position. He was one of those that had accompanied Balboa on the previous expedition, and gained the esteem of that general; and he subsequently distinguished himself in the wars in the north. Associated with him on the present occasion were Diego de Almagro, a man of like mean birth with himself, but a gallant and brave soldier, and Hernando de Luque, an ecclesiastic, who acted as priest and schoolmaster at Panama. The last of these was to contribute principally to the expenses of the expedition, while others were to give their labour and experience, with what small funds they had. A vessel was speedily got ready, and Pizarro set sail from the port of Panama about the middle of November 1524, with little more than a hundred men, Almagro being to follow in a second vessel of inferior size, as soon as it could be fitted out. The season of the year was the most unsuitable for the enterprise, for the periodical winds which then set in were directly adverse to the course which he proposed to steer. He touched at several places on the coast, but found the country everywhere of the same uninviting character,—the low grounds covered with swamps and marshes, and the high lands covered with impenetrable forests. After several days he had reached no farther south than Panamá Quemada, and a fierce engagement with the natives ensued, in which they had killed two and many wounded, at length determined them to return for assistance. By this time famine, disease, and encounters with the natives had reduced their numbers by more than a fifth. Almagro had in the meantime fitted out another vessel, and set sail from Panama with about seventy men. He reached Pueblo Quemada in a much shorter time than Pizarro had done, and was received in the same hostile manner by the natives, whom, however, he vanquished, burning their town, and forcing the inhabitants to take refuge in the forests. This victory, however, cost him dear, for in the ensuing battle in an encounter he lost one of his eyes. He pursued his voyage, touching at several places on the coast, till he reached the mouth of the Rio San Juan, about 4 N. Lat. Here he met with a higher state of civilization than he had yet seen,—neat cottages and cultivated fields; but his mind was by this time filled with anxious thoughts regarding Pizarro, having seen no traces of him beyond Quemada, and he resolved to return. Touching at the Pearl Islands, he learned that his colleague was at Chicama, a place on the mainland at a short distance from Panama. Here the two adventurers met; and after recounting each other's exploits and escapes, they consulted regarding their future operations. It was at length resolved that Almagro should proceed to Panama to raise the necessary supplies, while Pizarro would remain in his present quarters. The former, however, met with considerable difficulty in the execution of his mission; for the governor Pedrarias declared against the expedition, and was only after a time gained over by the intercession of Hernando de Luque. The three colleagues now entered into a contract, by which the whole of the conquered territory and spoils were to be divided equally among them,—Hernando having advanced as his share of the enterprise 20,000 pesos of gold, a sum estimated at about £50,000 of our money. Two larger vessels were now purchased, and stores laid in; but it was with the greatest difficulty that they could muster a force of 160 men. They at length set sail, each in his own vessel, and accompanied by an experienced pilot named Ruiz. In a short time they arrived off the mouth of the Rio de San Juan, where Pizarro succeeded in surprising a small village, and carrying off a considerable booty in gold, together with a few of the natives. They now saw the necessity of having a stronger force to cope with the increasing population of the country; and accordingly it was decided that Almagro should return to Panama with the treasure, and beat up for reinforcements, while Ruiz, in the other vessel, should reconnoitre the country towards the south, and Pizarro, with the rest of the force, remain in the neighbourhood of the river. Ruiz proceeded as far south as he could reach, Passado, about half a degree beyond the equator, and returned, after an absence of several weeks, to the spot where he had left Pizarro and his comrades. The latter had just returned from a long incursion into the interior, where he had undergone great hardships and lost not a few of his companions. Almagro sailed into port soon after with his vessel laden with a fresh supply of stores, and bringing with him a considerable number of volunteers. With restored spirits they proceeded on their journey; but by this time the fatigues they had endured, and they were long still southward, they found the country more and more populous, and the evidences of civilization to increase; and when they anchored off the port of Tucumán they saw before them a town of 2000 or more houses laid out into streets, and containing a numerous population. Further reinforcements were again necessary; and it was agreed that Almagro should return to Panama, Pizarro and the rest remaining at Gallo. With Almagro, however, came news to Panama of the deplorable condition of the party; so that the governor not only refused to countenance any further attempts, but despatched two vessels to bring home Pizarro and his companions. While on the latter island, Pizarro took the opportunity of getting away, Pizarro and thirteen others secretly refused to return. They accordingly left on the island, and they subsequently removed to the uninhabited island of Gorgona, about 25 leagues farther north, and 5 leagues from the continent. The governor filled with indignation when he heard of the obstinacy of Pizarro and his followers, and sternly refused to render any assistance to men thus bent on their own destruction. At length, however, he was so far overcome by the arguments and entreaties of Almagro and De Luque that he consented to another vessel being sent to Pizarro, but with no more hands than were necessary to work her, and with express orders to Pizarro to return within six months. Though disappointed that it was thought an additional recruit, Pizarro yet put to sea on the little vessel, having been by this time seven months on the island. In twenty days after leaving Gorgona, the adventurous vessel rounded the point of St Helena, and glided smoothly into the Gulf of Guayaquil, anchoring off the island of Santa Clara, at the entrance of the Bay of Tunber. Here they beheld a town of considerable size, with many buildings apparently of stone and plaster. The people collected along the shore, and friendly relations were exchanged between them and the Spaniards. Here the latter had their golden dreams, if possible, more than realized; but for the present they could only feast their eyes on the riches before them. To attack the place with his handful of followers Pizarro said to be unable, and accordingly he took a friendly leave of the natives, promising soon to return. But in his progress northward, and everywhere received the like friendly welcome from the natives, and gathered information of the wealth and magnitude of the empire of Peru. He proceeded to about the ninth degree of south latitude; and having by this time seen enough to convince him of the value of his discovery, he turned his prow northward, and sailed for Panama. In his way he touched at Tunber, where some of his followers were at their request left, and two or three Peruvians were taken on board. The excitement caused by their arrival at Panama was very great; but seeing the coldness of the governor held out to them but little hopes of efficient help being obtained from that quarter, and it was resolved to apply to the crown itself. Pizarro accordingly sent to the mother-country, and landed Seville early in the summer of 1528. He was graciously received by the emperor Charles V., and was invested with supreme civil and military authority over the country to be conquered, for 200 leagues south of Santiago. Pizarro, on his part, engaged to raise 250 men, with the requisite vessels and stores for the conquest of the country within six months. He could scarcely, however, raise half this body of men, and had to steal privately out of the port of Seville, in order to avoid the scrutiny of the officers of government. He was accompanied by his brother, three of whom were illegitimate like himself,—Francisco Martín de Alcantara on the mother's side, and Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro on the father's. The legitimate brother was named Hernando. At Nombre de Dios, Pizarro was met by his two associates, and great was Almagro's wrath to find that all the chief offices had been conferred upon his colleague. A reconciliation, however, was at length effected; and early in January 1531 the expedition, consisting of 180 men, with 27 horses for the cavalry, left Panama in three vessels, Almagro remaining behind, in order to collect reinforcements. Having encountered contrary winds, they had in thirteen days or so reached St Matthew's Bay. Here it was resolved to disembark the troops, who would advance along the coast while the ships held on their course at a convenient distance from the shore. In the province of Coaque they suddenly fell upon a town, and obtained a valuable booty in gold, silver, and precious stones. A large quantity of this was sent to Panama with the ships, while the troops continued their march southwards. At Puerto Viejo they were joined by a reinforcement of thirty men, under an officer named Benalcázar. While at Puna, an island on the Gulf of Guayaquil, which they had treacherously taken possession of, notwithstanding the friendly reception they had met with from the natives, they received a further reinforcement of 160 men in two vessels; and Pizarro now con- Peru.

considered himself in a position to enter upon the proper theatre of his labours. He accordingly passed over to Tumbes, and there learned that the country had been for some time distracted by a civil war between two sons of the late monarch.

Huayna Capac was the reigning Inca at the time when the Spaniards first visited the coast of Peru. He is represented as a prince distinguished both in peace and war. He brought under the sway of the Incas the powerful state of Quito, and reduced to subjection many of the independent tribes on the right bank of his territory. He likewise pursued an enlightened policy towards his subjects, encouraging agriculture and other branches of industry, opening up new roads, and introducing the civilization of the Incas among the conquered nations. He is said to have been deeply impressed with the accounts brought to him of the white men. He saw in their ships and weapons indications of a civilization far superior to that of his own people; and he feared that at no distant day they would return, and might shake its foundations the mighty empire of the Incas. Oracles, too, had darkly predicted mighty events that were to happen on the death of the twelfth Inca; nor were omens wanting—those powerful messengers to the uninitiated mind. Huayna Capac died about 1529, leaving his kingdom of Peru to his eldest son Huascar but Quito he left to his favourite son Atahualpa, by a daughter of the conquered monarch. The two sons, however, did not long remain contented with their respective positions, and a civil war ensued the consequence. Victory at length declared for Atahualpa; and in order to seat himself more firmly on the throne, he put to death all the descendants of the late Inca that he could seize either by stratagem or force. The life of Huascar, however, was, for political purposes, spared in the meantime; but he was detained a close prisoner. These events occurred in the early part of 1532, and completely diverted the attention of the Peruvians from the circumstance of a foreign invader having landed on their soil. Pizarro at once saw the importance to him and his cause of this state of the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring the country, he selected for his future the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for settlement. Hither accordingly the Spaniards repaired, and about began building a town, to which they gave the name of San Miguel. Pizarro here learned that the victorious Atahualpa lay encamped about ten or twelve days' journey off, and though his entire force would not amount to 200 men after leaving 50 for the protection of his new settlement, he resolved to set out to meet the Inca. On the 24th of September 1532, therefore, he marched out of San Miguel at the head of his small body of adventurers, amounting in all to 177 men, of whom 67 were cavalry. Everywhere the people received them with confiding hospitality, and as yet the Spaniards saw it to be their interest to reciprocate their friendships. At length they arrived at Caxamarca, within a league of the Peruvian emporium, where they saw the slope of the hills white with the snow as thick as snowflakes for the space appearing of several miles. The sight caused something like fear in the stoutest bose; but it was now too late to draw back. In the afternoon of the 16th of November 1532, the Spaniards reached Caxamarca, which had been vacated by the inhabitants for their reception, and immediately they sent an embassy to the Inca inviting him to visit them in their new quarters. They were graciously received by the Inca, and he promised to pay them a visit on the following day. The reception prepared for the Inca was such as he little expected when he set out with an unarmed retinue to redeem his promise. He was borne on the shoulders of his principal attendants seated on a throne, covered with precious stones, and adorned with waving plumes of the most gorgeous hues. When he entered the plaza, the great square of the town, a Dominican friar, Fray Vicente de Valverde, came forward with his breviary, or, according to other accounts, a Bible in one hand and a crucifix in the other, and, approaching the Inca, expounded to him the doctrines of the Christian religion, exhorting him to embrace the true faith, and to acknowledge himself a vassal of the Spanish crown. Enraged and astonished at this extraordinary proceeding, the Inca demanded by what authority he said these things. The friar handed him the book which he held in his hand. "This," said he, holding it to his ear for a moment, "tells me nothing," and dashed it to the ground with disdain. The monk immediately turned towards Pizarro, calling out that the Christian religion had been dishonoured, and at a given signal the Spaniards who had been concealed in the adjoining buildings rushed forth upon the defenceless natives. The slaughter was immense on the side of the Indians; and the murderous nature of the attack may be gathered from the fact, that not a single Spaniard was killed or wounded with the exception of Pizarro, who received a slight wound on the hand from one of his own men. Atahualpa himself was taken prisoner; and a rich booty was found in the Peruvian camp, consisting of gold and silver, precious stones, cotton, and woollen stuffs, &c. The captive monarch, though receiving every attention at the hand of Pizarro, naturally felt anxious to regain his liberty. He feared also that the news of his captivity might reach Huascar, who, by corrupting his keepers, might obtain his liberty. He would find little difficulty in putting himself at the head of the empire. The love of gold, however, led him, with the prime motive that had brought the Spaniards into the country; and as the price of his liberty, he offered to Pizarro to fill the room in which they stood with gold as high as he could reach. This room is said to have been 22 feet long by 17 feet wide, and the height 9 feet from the floor. Pizarro, charmed with the idea of so much gold, and knowing how easy a matter it was to break faith with a captive, readily entered into the agreement, and the terms of it were duly drawn up by a notary. Atahualpa therefore, with all haste, despatched couriers to Cuzco and all the principal places of the kingdom, with orders to forward the gold utensils and ornaments of the palaces, temples, &c., to Caxamarca without delay. In the meantime, the Spaniards remained in Caxamarca unmolested, and small detachments of their number marched into the interior provinces, and were everywhere received with marks of the most submissive respect. News having reached the time reached Huascar of the Inca's captivity and of his offered ransom, he is said to have offered to the Spaniards a much greater amount if they would restore to him his dominions of which he had been unjustly deprived. Atahualpa was greatly alarmed on hearing of this, and fearing lest the Spaniards might listen to his brother's request, he caused him to be assassinated. Meanwhile Indians were daily arriving at Caxamarca loaded with treasure; and at this time, too, arrived Almagro, with a strong reinforcement of 150 foot and 50 horses. This was about the middle of February 1533; and now Pizarro found himself in a position to go forward with the conquest of the country. The wishes of the Inca's ransoms, however, had not yet arrived; but at length they agreed to resign all claim on being paid a stipulated sum. Nothing in this division is said of Almagro, who is named of the original contract was entitled to a share, together with Pizarro himself. Inique, Inca, was no longer to be benefited by worldly treasure, having died a short time before Almagro's last departure from Panama—to soon to learn the full success of the enterprise which, but for his exertions, must have failed. After dividing the spoil, it came to be considered what was to be done with the Inca, who now became clamorous for his liberty. Rumours of a rising among the natives now began to be current, and though they seem to have had no foundation in fact, they yet served to give colour to a proceeding which would get them over their difficulty with the Inca. This was nothing less than the putting him to death. A ceremony preparatory to execution was performed (it cannot be called a trial), and he was sentenced to be burnt alive in the great square of Caxamarca the very night. When bound to the stake, Father Valverde made a last attempt to induce him to adopt the Christian faith and be baptized, promising that if he did so he would receive the less painful death of garrotting. On being assured by Pizarro that such would be the case, he consented to abjure his own religion and be baptized; and accordingly he suffered by the latter mode on 29th August 1533. Thus perished by an ignominious death the last of the Inca monarchs of Peru.

On the death of Atahualpa, Pizarro invested a son, or, according to others, a brother of that monarch, with the insignia of royalty, hoping that a young man without experience might prove a more passive instrument in his hands than an ambitious monarch who had been accustomed to command; but the young prince did not live long enough to do any thing of note, dignified, and no sooner was substituted in his place. At Cuzco a brother of Huascar, named Manco Capac, was elevated to the throne. Early in September the Spaniards, now amounting to almost 400 men, of whom nearly one-third were cavalry, set out from Caxamarca for the capital. Pizarro halted for some time at Xauxa, in order to found there a Spanish colony, judging it a favourable position for keeping the natives in check; while at the same time it afforded an easy communication with the sea coast. Though during this march bodies of Indians were seen hovering about at a distance, yet they had offered no actual resistance. A detachment of sixty horse, however, under De Soto, having been sent forward to reconnoitre the country in advance, were attacked by a body of the natives, who fought with great fury, and the issue was doubtful, till the arrival of Almagro with a reinforcement of cavalry struck terror into the natives, and prevented them from renewing the contest. Pizarro at length set out from Xauxa, leaving his treasures there under a guard of forty men; and nothing of importance occurred on the road till he reached the vale of Xaquiquagua, about 5 leagues from Cuzco. Here he halted for several days, and one of his first acts was the execution of Challechumia, one of the abductors of the Peruvian generals. He had attended his royal master during his captivity, and since his death he had remained in the Spanish camp. He was accused of having stirred up the natives against the Spaniards, and was sentenced to be burned alive. When at the stake he coldly replied to Father Valverde's entreaties to adopt the Christian faith, that he "did not understand the religion of the white men." Soon after this Manco Capac arrived in great state at the Spanish camp, and, announcing his title to the throne, claimed the protection of the white men. He was received with great cordiality, and assured that they had come into the country in order to vindicate the claims of Huaecar to the throne, and to punish the usurpation of his rival.

him the Indian prince, Pizarro now resumed his march, and on the 15th November 1533 entered the Peruvian capital. This city far surpassed anything that he had yet seen in the New World. The neatness of its streets, the length and regularity of its streets, and the appearance of comfort, or even luxury, visible in its numerous population, excited their astonishment. The population of the city itself is said to have amounted to 200,000, and that of the suburbs to as many more. Though doubtless the inhabitants had concealed much of their treasures, yet the gold obtained here is said to have even exceeded that received as the ransom of the Inca. One of the first acts of Pizarro, after dividing the spoil, was to place Manco on the throne, in order to give his acts some air of authority with the natives. He afterwards founded a municipal government, and encouraged the soldiers to settle in the place by liberal grants of houses and land. In March 1534 a Spanish force, amounting to 500 men, under Don Pedro de Alvarado, a general who had greatly distinguished himself in the Mexican war, arrived in the Bay of Caracas. He came to take possession of Quito, which he believed, or pretended to believe, was not included in Pizarro's territory. Almagro was immediately despatched to meet the invaders, and came upon them in the plains of Riobamba. By this time Alvarado's army had been reduced by more than a fourth, in consequence of the great hardships they had undergone on their march; so that they were unable to enter upon a contest which it was Alvarado's interest to avoid.

Pizarro accordingly commenced, and at length Alvarado agreed to hand over his fleet, forces, and stores, to Pizarro for 100,000 pieces of eight.

Caraco being found to be unsuitable as the capital of the colony, it was resolved to build another near the coast; and accordingly, on the 6th January 1535, the new capital was founded in the valley of Rimac. It was first named Ciudad de los Reyes, or "City of the Kings," but subsequently it came to be called Lima. The Spaniards applied themselves with vigour to the task of building the new city, under the eye of their chief minister of that country, and here he received intelligence of the return of Hernando Pizarro from the court of Spain. This time he had taken the precaution to send a secret messenger of his own along with Hernando, to look after his interests at court; and he now learned that he had received a grant of all the country lying south of the southern limit of Pizarro's territory. Almagro was greatly elated at these tidings, and immediately laid claim to Cuzco as being within the bounds of his territory. He accordingly proceeded to exert his independent authority, and matters were approaching an open rupture when Pizarro himself appeared among them. He managed to appease his rival; and Almagro agreed to waive his claim to the capital in the meantime, and set out on the conquest of Chile. Pizarro now returned to Lima, where he had the satisfaction of seeing his new capital rapidly advancing.

Manco Capac, who had hitherto so tamely submitted to be a tool of the Spaniards, was nevertheless a person of some spirit and courage; and at length, exasperated by the repeated indignities to which he was exposed, he effected his escape from Cuzco, where he then was. A rising among the natives immediately followed, and Cuzco was besieged in February 1536 by a force amounting, it is said, to 200,000 men. To add to the distress of the Spaniards, their city was set on fire by the burning arrows and red-hot darts of the natives, and more than one-half of it was reduced to ashes. They frequently sallied out of the town, but without killing a number of the enemy, as they were obliged to retire while the natives increased in skill and bravery with each contest. They however succeeded in taking possession of a fortress overlooking the city, but Juan Pizarro lost his life in the struggle. Month after month passed away, and still there came no relief. Indeed the rising had been general. Several hundred of the Spaniards living upon their estates had been massacred; Xauxa was besieged; and a strong force had attempted to besiege Lima, but were put to flight. Several detachments had been sent by the governor to relieve Cuzco, but they were cut off by the natives. In this dilemma, Pizarro wrote letters to the governors of Panama, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Mexico, imploring them for assistance.

The siege of Cuzco had now lasted more than five months, and as the season of planting had come on, Manco, fearing a famine, sent the greater part of his followers home, with orders to return and renew the blockade as soon as their field labours were over. The Spaniards beheld with joy their enemies melting away; but a new cause of dread appears in the person of Almagro. He had proceeded as far south as the vale of Coquimbo, about 30, S. Lat., but found nothing to induce him to remain; and his men, who had suffered many hardships by the way, now became discontented at his return. Unwillingly Arequipa informed of the revolt of the Indians, and hastened forward to Cuzco. He now renewed his claims to that city, and sent an embassy to the municipality requiring them to recognise him as their lawful governor. A truce was, however, concluded in the meantime; but Almagro, hearing that a strong body of troops were marching from Lima towards Cuzco, suddenly took possession of the capital, and the two Pizarras were made prisoners. He then set out to meet the force from Lima, at this time lying at Xauxa. The two armies came in sight of each other at the Rio de Abancay. Aided by the treachery of one of the officers of the opposite army, Almagro forced the river during the night, and obtained an easy victory, on the 12th July 1537, and took the commander Alonso de Alvarado prisoner. He then returned in triumph to Cuzco.

Meanwhile aid began to reach Lima, and Pizarro was soon able to set out for Cuzco at the head of 450 men, most of whom were cavalry. On his way, he heard of the arrival of Almagro and of the defeat of Alvarado, and immediately he returned with all haste to Lima, to put himself in a position for defence, judging, not incorrectly, that Almagro might also lay claim to that city. The latter having now obtained possession of Cuzco, was easily persuaded by his restless followers that Lima also fell within his territory. He accordingly set out for that city, and on the way heard of the escape from Cuzco of Alonso Pizarro, Alvarado, and other prisoners. On their arrival in Pizarro's camp—Hernando Pizarro had taken along with him, Pizarro now attempted to mediate; and at length it was agreed to wait for definite instructions from Castile, Almagro meanwhile remaining in possession of Cuzco, while Hernando Pizarro was to be set at liberty under promise to leave the country within six weeks. During the time that negotiations were pending, Pizarro was busily engaged in warlike preparations, and when his brother was set at liberty, he found himself in a condition to unmask his intentions. Almagro, on seeing that he had been deceived, immediately made for his capital; and a council of war being held, it was resolved to wait the arrival of the enemy at Las Salinas, a place within a league of Cuzco. Almagro himself at this time too ill to take the command of his forces, placed it upon Orgozalo, the ablest of his generals. Pizarro had intrusted the command of his forces to his two brothers, and returned to Lima. Almagro's force amounted to about 500 men, while that of the enemy was about 200 more. The fight took place on 26th June 1538, and for some time raged with great fury, but at length Orgozalo being slain, and his troops thrown into confusion, victory declared for the Pizarras. Hernando now took possession of Cuzco, which he gave up to pillage. Almagro was taken prisoner, and thrown into irons; and shortly after, this brave man and able soldier was condemned and executed.

Pizarro, on learning of the victory of Las Salinas, immediately set off for Cuzco, but waited for some time at Xauxa, it is said, till he should hear of the execution of Almagro. He then entered the city in great state; and his conduct now showed that he considered himself the undisputed possessor of all this vast domain. Instead of attempting to conciliate Almagro's friends, he treated them with undisguised contempt; while some of his own adherents were disgusted by his haughty bearing, and by the manner in which he appropriated to himself the best lands on his brothers' favourites, all the most valuable districts of the country. But the time had not yet come for a revolt. The country being now in apparent peace, Hernando prepared to revisit Spain, and accordingly embarked at Lima in the summer of 1539, earnestly counselling his brother to beware of the Chile men, as Almagro's followers were called. Not a few of these, however, were already in Spain, and the reception of Hernando in that country was colder than he had expected. Indeed the clamours against him became so great, that he was at length cast into prison, where he lay for twenty years, and when at length, in 1560, he was released, he was an old man, bent down by years and infirmities; but he still survived for several years, an object of pity rather than of indignation.

The state of Peru was now such as to demand the immediate in- terposition of government; but the mission was one of extreme difficulty, for Pizarro's power was now firmly established over the country, and he would not readily submit to any interference with his authority. At length Licentiate Vaca de Castro, a member of the Royal Audiencia of Valladolid, was selected for this delicate mission. He was to appear before Pizarro in the capacity of a royal judge, to consult with him on the subject of grievances, especially with reference to the duty to transmit an account of the state of the viceroyalty to the court at Castile, and, in the event of Pizarro's death, to take upon himself the government of the country. The last provision was, as the result showed, necessary, for before he reached his destination Pizarro had fallen by the hand of assassins.

Almagro had left a son by an Indian woman, and had named him his successor. This young man, on the imprisonment of his father, was sent to Lima, where he continued to live, and his house became the resort of the disaffected of his father's followers. A number of the more desperate of these, goaded on by poverty and the insults to which they were continually subjected, at length resolved on the assassination of their leader. Almagro was now in Lima. Pizarro himself seemed to have been singularly blind to his danger, and notwithstanding numerous cautions that he received, he took no precautions for his safety. On the 26th of June 1541, the conspirators, to the number of eighteen or twenty, sailed off from Almagro's house, headed by Juan de Herrada, shouting "Long live the king; death to the tyrant." They gained the palace without opposition, and reached the apartment where their victim was conversing with some friends, having just risen from table. Hastily enveloping one arm in his cloak, and seizing a sword, he maintained for some time the unequal contest; but at length he received a deadly thrust in the throat, and fell to the ground, when he was immediately despatched. Thus perished the man who had acquired for the cause of liberty such a name—a man possessed of great abilities, and adorned with many excellent qualities, but whose perfidy and cruelty have left a stain upon his character that, however much it may be extenuated by the circumstances of his early life, and the times in which he lived, can never be removed. With him fell his half brother Martínez de Alcantara.

On the death of Pizarro, the young Almagro was placed at the head of the government, but his authority was only tardily acknowledged in places at a distance from Lima. Gonzalo Pizarro, who had been appointed governor of Quito, was at this time away on an expedition into the country lying eastward of the Andes. Vaca de Castro meanwhile returned to Lima, and gave the details of Pizarro's fall. He continued his march to Quito, where he was well received by Gonzalo's lieutenant, and he now produced his royal commission to assume the government. Envoys were despatched to the principal towns, requiring their submission, while Castro himself continued his march slowly towards the south. Almagro meanwhile had proceeded to Cuzco, where he learned of the arrival of Castro at Lima. Resolved to try the effects of negotiation before an appeal to arms, he sent an embassy to the new governor, stating that he did not dispute his authority over Peru, and that he had only taken up arms to secure possession of the territory bequeathed to him by his father, of whom he had been unjustly deprived by Pizarro. To this he added no name; and thus saw that his own name was not mentioned. Accordingly left Cuzco about the end of August 1542, at the head of a well-disciplined and well-armed force of about 250 men. Castro had by this time set out from Lima, and on reaching Xauxa, found himself with an army of about 700 men; but they were not so well disciplined or armed as those of Almagro. The two armies met in the plains of Chupas, and the battle took place on the 16th September 1542. Both sides fought with great bravery, and the victory was long doubtful, but at length it declared for Castro. Almagro, by his feats of valour, showed himself not unworthy of his father's name; but when all was lost, he fled with a few followers to Cuzco, where he was taken prisoner, condemned, and executed. He met his fate with the utmost composure, made no appeal for mercy, and only requested that his bones might be thrown into the ashes of his father's.

Vaca de Castro being now got rid of his rival, gave his attention to the settlement of the country. He laid down laws for its better government, and attempted to ameliorate the condition of the natives, by in some measure protecting them from the unjust exactions of their conquerors, and by establishing schools for teaching them Christianity. But while these gradual measures were being carried out in Peru, one of a much more sweeping nature was resolved upon in Spain. This was nothing less than the proclamation of all the Indians vassals of the crown of Spain, and thus only to be employed in voluntary labour, for which they were to receive a fair remuneration. Slaves were declared to be free on the death of their present proprietors; but all those held by persons in public offices, ecclesiastics, or persons criminally concerned in the feuds of Almagro and Pizarro, were to be immediately set at liberty.

To carry out this measure, Blasco Núñez Vela was appointed governor of Peru, with the title of Viceroy, with an audience consisting of four judges, who were named to assist him in administering the law. The news of this caused the greatest indignation in Peru, and was with difficulty that the governor could prevail upon the people to wait the arrival of the viceroy, and try the effect of pacific measures.

The viceroy reached Tumbes on the 4th March 1544, and immediately showed his determination to set up to his instructions by liberating a number of slaves. The country was now in the greatest consternation, and all eyes were turned towards Gonzalo Pizarro, the last in the land of that family who had led the armies of the conquest, and the one most likely to afford them redress. He was invited to Cuzco, and was there invested with the office of Procurator-General of Peru. The viceroy, meanwhile, had reached Lima, where he was installed in his new office; and one of his first acts was to proclaim his determination to fulfil his commission. He accordingly joined the colonists in a memorial to the crown, soliciting the repeal of a code which he now believed would be neither for the interests of the colony nor the crown; but in the meantime he had no warrant to suspend its execution. Gonzalo was not long in mustering a force of nearly 400 men, with whom he set out from Cuzco ostensibly for the purpose of putting down the Indians, who were a continual source of annoyance to the Spaniards. Scarcely had he left the city when he heard of the death of Manco. He had been assassinated by a party of the Almagro faction, who had taken refuge among the Indians on the defeat of their leader, and they in their turn were now slain by the Indians. Though the alleged cause of Manco's wanton preparations was thus removed, yet it had little effect upon his proceedings. His intentions were now apparent, many of his followers, shrinking from the idea of open rebellion—for loyalty was ever a crowning feature of the Spanish—secretly withdrew from his army. On the other hand, he was joined by others less scrupulous, and several bodies of troops sent out to oppose his progress came over to his ranks; so that in a short time he found the force with which he left Cuzco nearly doubled. Among those who joined his standard at this time was Francisco de Carbajal, a distinguished soldier, but now eighty years old, and preparing to return to Spain; who at length, however, induced by the earnest entreaties of Pizarro to join his cause, and to take command under him. The viceroy now urgently pressed for war, but he was a man particularly ill suited for emergencies like the present. He was arrogant and domineering, while he was also weak and vacillating. His arrogance was a natural result of his weakness; and unfortunately he was weak and vacillating when he should rather have been arrogant, and arrogant when it would have been better to have been vacillating. The defections from his cause led him to be suspicious of every one about him, and of none more so than his best friends. Castro he suspected of holding communication with the enemy, and he was ordered to be placed under arrest and confined on board a vessel lying in the harbour. In the meantime, he was strengthening the fortifications of the city; but at last he received intelligence that the capital and withdraw to Truxillo, about eighty leagues distant. The judges, however, having recently arrived at Lima, were strenuously opposed to this proposal, and disapproved of his conduct in every particular. They appealed to the citizens for support, and passed a decree that the viceroy should be arrested. He was taken prisoner in his palace, and placed in strict confinement. A provisional government was then established, and one of its first acts was to suspend the odious ordinances till instructions could be received from court. Pizarro was called upon to lay down his arms, but this he refused to do, and demanded of the judges that they ratify his appointment as governor of the country by the people. Least as they were to lay down their newly-acquired authority, they had to submit with the best grace possible, as they were without the means of resistance. According to the advice of Gonzalo to assume the government, and he entered the city in great state, at the head of nearly 1200 followers, on the 28th day of October 1544. The first act of the new governor was to apprehend and punish those that had taken the most active part against him; some he condemned to death, and others he sent into banishment. His next concern was to fill all the places of trust with his own partizans.

Meanwhile the ship in which Castro was confined suddenly left the port—that officer not caring to trust himself in the power of Pizarro, had prevailed on the captain to convey him to Panama. On his arrival in Spain, there were not wanting parties to accuse him of embezzlement, injustice, and mismanagement; and though he had at length acquitted of every charge, it was only after he had been imprisoned for two years that the tardy tribunal of Castile were able to pronounce a judgment. Pizarro had scarcely begun to exercise his new powers when a new enemy arose to oppose him. This was the viceroy Núñez, whom the judges had put on board a ship under the charge of one of their number, Juan Álvarez, in order that he might be carried to Spain. Scarcely, however, had they put to sea when Alvarer moved either by fear or remorse, put himself and vessel into the hands of Nunez. The latter landed at Tumbez, and immediately raised the standard of royalty. Numbers flocked to his cause, and he soon found himself at the head of a considerable army. Pizarro, alarmed at these proceedings, set out in person with a large force to attack the rebels, who were then in San Miguel. The latter, however, did not feel himself in a position to make a stand, but presently retreated, first to Quito, and then to Popayan. At the latter place he was joined by Benalcazar, and now found his force to amount to about 400 men. Pizarro meanwhile, at Quito, by a feigned retreat, drew the enemy towards that city, and at length the two armies met for battle about a mile from Quito on the 18th of January 1546. Pizarro's force amounted to about 700 men; and though the enemy behaved bravely, the victory was not long doubtful. About one-third of the viceroy's troops had perished; Nunez himself was slain; and Benalcazar had fallen, covered with wounds. Pizarro remained for some time at Quito, and then set out for his capital. He was everywhere received with the greatest demonstrations of joy, and saluted with the title of "Liberator and Protector of the People." He was now undisputed master of Peru, and began to assume a state corresponding with his fortunes.

At home the news of these proceedings caused the greatest consternation and dismay to all classes; and the government felt the greatest difficulty in coming to a decision regarding the course to be followed. At length it was resolved to try conciliatory measures, and to send out a representative who, by arguments and polite concessions, might bring back the people to their allegiance. For this difficult mission was chosen Pedro de la Gasca, an ecclesiastic who, though bred to the church, had also distinguished him self as a soldier and diplomatist. He was a man well qualified for the management both of affairs and men; he was possessed of great abilities of a gentle and winning manner, with at the same time great firmness and decision of character, and of undoubted fidelity and loyalty. He received the title of President of the Royal Audience, and was placed at the head of every department in the colony, civil, military, and judicial—being, in fact, invested with all the powers of the sovereign himself. His preparations were few and simple; and he set out with a slender band of followers on 26th of May 1546. By this time Panama and Nombre de Dios were in the possession of Pizarro, guarding jealously any communication with the mother country. Little danger, however, was apprehended from the arrival of the Spanish fleet under the command of Almagro, with harems and wives, even a rediuse to support him. Great, therefore, was the astonishment of the governors when they came to know the extent of the powers vested in Gasca. At length, by his address and the promise of pardon to all who should immediately lay down their arms, they were induced to join his cause; and on the 19th of November 1546 he obtained possession of the fleet at Panama. He now adopted a bolder policy, by publicly raising levies of men and drawing supplies from all quarters. The alacrity with which people of all classes espoused his cause showed that the ancient sentiment of loyalty still prevailed. Many deserted the standard of the usurper to rally round that of a person so highly honored with the title of anchore; and others who had been driven from forests and caverns now quitting their hiding-places and joined the royalist. Meanwhile Pizarro was making every preparation for war; but as town after town, and general after general, was declaring for the royalist, he judged it safer to leave Lima and go to Arequipa. No sooner had he left Lima than that city opened its gates to the enemy. Gasca himself remained at Panama till 10th of April 1547, when he set sail with his whole fleet for Peru, and after encountering much bad weather, he reached Tumbez on the 13th of June. He was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm, and at length reached Xauxa, where he established his head-quarters. Pizarro had meanwhile decided to evade the Peruvians and go into Chile, but the young viceroy, thoroughly convinced that his route had been abandoned by a hostile force about double his own, he hazarded a battle in the plains of Huamara on 25th of October 1547; and his men, fighting with the desperation of those who had everything to lose, at length defeated the enemy with great slaughter. Elated by this victory, he now resolved not to leave the country, and marched to Cuzco. The royalists at Xauxa were much dismayed by the news of this defeat when they were looking for an easy victory. Gasca meanwhile exerted himself to raise a large force, in order to put a speedy end to the war, and at length found himself at the head of nearly 2000 men, the largest European force that had yet assembled in Peru. He now marched against Pizarro, who had retired, but no sooner were they drawn up in battle array than company after company of Pizarro's troops passed over to the enemy, and no alternative was left to that commander but to yield himself a prisoner. He was tried, found guilty, and soon after executed. Thus perished the last and youngest of that remarkable family, in the forty-second year of his age. His remains were deposited side by side with those of the two Almagros. Carballo and others of the leaders were also executed; while many more were banished, and their estates confiscated.

Gasca now devoted his attention to settling the state of the country, and to establishing the government upon a true and firm basis; by which means he greatly strengthened the hands of his successors, and facilitated the orderly government of the country. Having at length accomplished his mission, he set out for Spain in January 1550, and entered the harbour of Seville in little more than four years from the time that he had sailed from that port. He was soon after raised to a bishopric, and passed the rest of his days in the peaceful discharge of his ecclesiastical functions, honoured by his sovereign, and enjoying the admiration and respect of his countrymen. Petty disturbances continued to break out in Peru for some time after the departure of Gasca; but they speedily subsided under the wise and temperate rule of his successor, who professed by his policy and example, and finally the royal authority was as completely established in Peru as in any other portion of the Spanish colonial possessions.

In the subsequent history of Peru there occurs little of interest to the general reader till the time of the war of independence. The whole of the Spanish dominions in the New World were at first divided into two governments, one subject to the viceroy of Mexico, and the other to the viceroy of Peru. In 1718 the province of Quito was separated from Peru and annexed to New Granada, and in 1788 the provinces of La Plata, Potosi, Charcas, Chiquitos, and Paraguay were detached from Peru to form the government of Buenos Ayres. Each of these governments constituted a viceregalty; while Guatemala, Venezuela, Caracas, Cumaná, and Chile were severally formed into distinct jurisdictions under a captain-general. In 1780 an insurrection broke out among the Indians in Peru, under Tupac Amaro, who assumed the title of Inca, but it was at length suppressed. Peru did not join in the celebrated war of independence that broke out among the Spanish possessions in South America in 1810, and it was the last to throw off the Spanish yoke. It soon became evident, however, that the expulsion of the Spaniards from Peru was necessary to the safety of the other states; and hence a combined Chilean and Buenos Ayrean army, under San Martin, laid siege to Lima in February 1821. At the same time, the fleet under the command of Lord Cochrane blockaded Callao, and it was here that that gallant officer performed one of those desperate feats of valour for which he is characterized. With the boats of his little squadron he entered the port of Callao, and under the guns of its tremendous batteries boarded, captured, and carried off one of the largest of the Spanish ships of war, with more men on board than were in all the boats that attacked it. After some months, a convention was agreed to, when Lascerna, the Spanish general, with his army, left Lima, and San Martin took possession of the city. On the 28th of July 1821 the independence of Peru was declared; and a few days afterwards San Martin was proclaimed protector. Among the first legislative acts of the protectorate was a decree declaring that the children of slaves born in Peru subsequently to the 28th of July 1821 should be free. This was followed by another abolishing the tribute, and enacting that the aborigines be thenceforth denominated Peruvians like the Creoles. On the 21st of September the fortress of Callao surrendered to the protector. The success of the patriots, however, received a check in the defeat of General Tristan. He had the command of a body of troops at Ica, and had allowed himself to be surprised, and his retreat cut off, by Canterac, who took 1000 prisoners, besides some pieces of artillery and other spoil. This reverse, however, was counteracted by the victory gained over the royalists at Pinchincha on the 24th of May 1822. The protector did not long retain his popularity; deputies were summoned; and he resigned his power into their hands on 21st of September 1822. Congress lost no time in appointing a new executive, under the title of the Junta Gubernativa. One of the first acts of that assembly was to decree that San Martin should bear the title of "Founder of the Liberty of Peru;" and the thanks of the nation were likewise awarded to Lord Cochrane for his achievements in the Peruvian cause. The proceedings of the new government were marked by feebleness and discord. An unsuccessful attempt to reduce the royalists increased popular clamour against the government junta, which was at last expelled from power, and General Don Jose de la Riva Aguero was made president of the republic.

Santa Cruz, a Peruvian, who in the sequel greatly distinguished himself, assumed the chief command of the army; and it was determined in a council of war to make another effort in the Puertos Intermedios. Whilst they were employed in this enterprise, General Sucre arrived at Lima with 3000 Colombian troops; but this force, with 2000 Peruvians, partly militia and partly the wreck of a former army, was found insufficient for the protection of the capital, against which Canterac advanced at the head of 9000 well-disciplined men. Lima was accordingly abandoned by the patriots, and immediately taken possession of by the royalists, who, however, soon afterwards evacuated it, after having exacted heavy contributions from the remaining inhabitants, and destroyed the mint. Both Generals Santa Cruz and Sucre, who with a united army might have accomplished something of moment, proved unsuccessful; and the former allowed himself to be out-generalled by Canterac. The cause of independence in Peru seemed hanging by a thread, which it required little exertion to break, when the celebrated Bolivar made his appearance in Lima on the 1st of September 1823. He was received with the greatest enthusiasm, and was immediately invested with supreme authority, military and political. Great activity was now infused into the measures of government; and acting in the capacity of dictator, Bolivar dissolved Congress, and levied an army, with which he sallied from the capital on the second week of November. Riva Aguero refused to join him, and was imprisoned by his own troops, who immediately submitted to the dictator. But a fresh misfortune awaited the patriots in the mutiny of the soldiers at Callao. The consequence was, that this town, along with the city of Lima, once more fell into the hands of the royalists. The cause of independence in Peru now seemed desperate; but the conduct of Bolivar at this critical moment is deserving of the highest praise. By his firmness, activity, and seasonable severities, he checked further defections, and obtained the respect and entire confidence of every true patriot.

In the month of July 1824 the liberating army commenced its march towards Pasco in three divisions, two of which were Colombians, headed by Generals Lara and Cordova; and one was Peruvian, under Lamar. General Sucre was chief of the staff of the whole army. In his preparatory measures for facilitating the passage of the troops on a march of 200 leagues, through the most mountainous region in the world, this officer displayed great skill; and the army reached the old Pasco district in safety, and unmolested by the royalists. Various manoeuvres now took place; and in an action of cavalry at Junin the patriots inflicted a severe blow on their adversaries. A series of marches and countermarches occupied the months of August, September, October, and November; and on the 6th of December the patriots reached the village of Quinua; whilst the royalists, by entering Guanangilla, cut off their retreat, and placed them in an extremely critical situation. On the 8th, the viceroy Lascerna moved from this position, and occupied with his whole force the heights of Condorcanqui, within gun-shot of the encampment of the patriots. Between the opposing armies lay the plain of Ayacucho. It is in shape nearly square, about a league in circumference, and flanked right and left by deep and rugged ravines. The eastern boundary is formed by the abrupt and savage ridge of Condorcanqui, whilst the western extremity is the Indian village Quinua, a little distance in front of which lay the patriot army, not 6000 strong, that of the royalists being fully one-third more numerous. Next morning, the 9th of December 1824, the conflict took place, and continued for about an hour, when the royalists were defeated with great loss. Indeed their army may be said to have been almost annihilated; for 3200 rank and file, amongst whom was the viceroy, were made prisoners of war, the remainder dispersing in a state of total disorganization in all directions. The battle of Ayacucho is pronounced by Mr Miller "the most brilliant ever fought in South America;" and it may be considered as the last regular engagement, although not the last struggle, in which Spain was engaged for the recovery of her revolted colonies. Rodil still held out at Callao for the mother country with the most desperate tenacity. For thirteen months he sustained, unaided, bombardments both by sea and land, rendered still more terrible by the accumulated miseries of pestilence and famine. At length he capitulated upon honourable terms on the 19th of January 1825; and thus the last link of the chain which had bound America to the Spanish crown was finally broken.

Bolivar continued dictator till the month of July 1825, when he resigned, and placed at the head of affairs a council of government composed of his own ministers. Towards the end of 1826 he promulgated a new constitution, according to which the executive was to be vested in an irresponsible president elected for life. This new constitution excited great discontent among the people; but it was accepted by the electoral colleges, and Bolivar was named president. The people were further incensed by the presence of the Colombian troops; and soon after, Bolivar being called away to quell an insurrection in Colombia, an open revolt broke out in Peru. The Colombian troops were expelled from the country, a Congress was assembled at Lima, and the Bolivian constitution abolished. On the 18th of June 1827 a new constitution was promulgated, and General Lamar named president. An increased dissatisfaction between Colombia and Peru at length led to a declaration of war between the two states; and Lamar entered the Colombian territory at the head of a considerable army. A battle took place on Tarqui, near Jiron in Quito, on the 27th of February 1829, in which the Peruvians were defeated, and the next day preliminaries of peace were agreed to. The imbecility manifested by Lamar on this occasion gave rise to a conspiracy against him, and he was deposed in the month of June by General Gamarra, who convoked a Congress, and caused himself to be nominated president. He retained office for the four years designated by the constitution; and at the end of this term a convention was convoked to reform the constitution. The reformed constitution was promulgated in the month of August 1834, and General Orbegoso was named president. In January 1835 General Salaverry, who commanded the garrison at Callao, instigated the troops to declare against the government at Lima, and took possession of that city, declaring himself supreme chief of the republic. The president Orbegoso, who was at this time in the southern provinces, finding himself unable to cope with Salaverry, applied for aid to Santa Cruz, president of the Bolivian republic. That general accordingly entered Peru with an army, and joining forces with Orbegoso, the combined army came up with the enemy at Cuzco. Salaverry had committed the command of his army to Gamarra, remaining himself at Lima. The battle took place at Yaucocha on the 13th of August, when Gamarra was totally defeated, the greater part of his troops having gone over in a body to the enemy. Salaverry lost no time in preparing to meet the enemy; and having collected a body of about 2500 men, posted him- self on the heights of Challapampo, to the north of Arequipa. Towards the end of January 1836, the united forces of Orbegoso and Santa Cruz, amounting to double the number of those of Salaverry, advanced to attack him; but he had fortified himself in such a manner that they were obliged to have recourse to stratagem. This was the adoption of a retrograde movement, which led the enemy to believe that they were in full retreat, and drew them from their strong position. Santa Cruz, seizing the favourable moment, fell upon them with great vigour. The contest was obstinate; but the issue was not long doubtful. Salaverry was completely defeated, and himself and most of his army taken prisoners. Salaverry, with seven other officers, were tried by a court-martial, condemned to death, and shot on the 18th of February. Lima, Callao, and the rest of Peru immediately submitted to the conquerors. Santa Cruz having succeeded in establishing tranquillity, now assumed the supreme power; and, dividing the country into North and South Peru, he conjoined it with Bolivia, nominating himself supreme protector of the three states. This arrangement met with a powerful opposition both in Peru and Bolivia, and also brought him into collision with the republic of Chile. At length, in January 1839, a bloody battle was fought at Yungay, in which Santa Cruz was defeated, and driven out of the country. The confederation was thus brought to a close, and the two countries, Peru and Bolivia, returned to their former limits and forms of government. In Peru a Congress was convoked, which, in November 1839, gave out a new constitution, and nominated General Gamarra, who had commanded the Chile-Peruvian troops, president of the republic. General Gamarra died in November 1841, and Senor Menendez, president of the council of state, entered into power, but was deposed in the month of August 1842 by General Torico. A civil war followed, and the government passed successively into the hands of General Vidal, Senor Figueroa, and General Vivanco. In 1844 the civil war was brought to an end by General Castilla, and Menendez replaced in power. A Congress was called in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, and General Don Ramon Castilla was elected president, and entered upon office on the 1st of April 1845. Castilla completed his six constitutional years of office, and under his rule the country enjoyed great peace and prosperity. His successor, General Echenique, assumed the supreme power on 1st April 1851, but the people soon became dissatisfied with him. His government was accused of committing the grossest frauds against the national credit by issuing *vales de consolidacion* on fictitious grounds; and hence the financial reputation of Peru fell into the lowest state of discredit. At length the people rose against the government, and, headed by Castilla, gained a decisive victory at the Palma, close to Lima, in the early part of 1855, and Echenique was driven from power. After the expulsion of Echenique, Vivanco stirred up an insurrection against Castilla, and having gained over the commanders of three of the government steamers, he was able to convey his troops rapidly from place to place, and thus maintained the struggle for some time. At Callao he suffered a severe repulse, and afterwards he congregated his forces in the town of Arequipa, a place which had always remained attached to him. His steamers prevented all approach by sea; and at one time they held possession of the Chinchas Islands, with their guano treasures. Fortunately the war was at length brought to a close in March last (1858), by the taking, by assault, of Arequipa, after a most obstinate and heroic defence by Vivanco and his adherents, the number of killed and wounded amounting to about 3000. The confidence in Castilla's government is evinced in the fact, that the *vales de consolidacion* have risen in Peru from 43 to 80 per cent. Though slavery had been abolished by the charter of independence, yet it still continued to be carried on till prohibited by the present governor in 1855. He has also freed the Indians from the unjust capital tax to which they had been subject since the time of the Spaniards. Among the other changes that have been introduced is a law by which illegitimate children are entitled to one-fifth part of the moveable property of their parent. The punishment of death for political offences has also been abolished.

The name Peru was not known to the early inhabitants, but was given to the country by the Spaniards; and is said to be a corruption of the word *Pelu*, the Indian name for "river," and mistaken by the Spaniards for the name of the country. The name given to it by the natives was *Tarantinsuyu*, or "four quarters of the world."

The most distinguishing natural feature of Peru, and that from which the country derives its peculiar aspect and character, is the vast chain of the Andes, which traverses it in a direction from S.S.E. to N.N.W. The country is thus naturally divided into three distinct regions, differing widely from each other in their physical characteristics, and familiarly known as *La Costa*, or the region between the sea and the Andes; *La Sierra*, or the mountain region; and *La Montaña*, or the wooded region to the E. of the Andes, forming part of the basin of the Amazon.

*La Costa*, or the coast region, extends the entire length of the country, but its average breadth is not more than 80 miles. In some places it does not exceed 10, but in others it is more than 58 miles in width. With all its extent of coast, Peru has few good harbours, probably not more than a dozen in all. The best are those of Payta, Salinas, Callao, Pisco, Islay, Arica, and Iquique. The water on the coast being almost uniformly deep, vessels are obliged to approach within a quarter of a mile of the shore before they can anchor; and as the great swell of the Pacific occasions a heavy and dangerous surf, landing with boats is both difficult and hazardous. The operation, however, is effected with ease and safety by means of *balsas* or rafts, constructed usually of cane, and supported by means of inflated seal-skins. The coast region is almost one continuous sandy waste, where no rain falls, and where neither plant nor animal can obtain subsistence. Vegetation is only to be met with along the banks of the streams that come down from the high lands. Many of these are dry for the greater part of the year, and only a few of them are perennial. Some of the larger streams reach the sea, but the smaller ones are absorbed by the encompassing desert, or exhausted in irrigating the cultivated patches. The insulated river valleys are thus the only habitable parts of the coast, and they are from 20 to 90 miles apart. The rest of the region is covered with a fine light-yellow drift-sand. It presents, however, great inequalities of surface, being frequently intersected by sand-hillocks called *medanos*, which are sometimes of considerable size. Some of these are permanent, but others are driven about with great velocity by the wind, which, when violent, frequently raises columns of sand to the height of 80 or 100 feet. The rainless region extends to the height of about 7000 feet above the level of the sea; but to the height of about 2000 feet above the sea the coast region is periodically refreshed by sea vapours or drizzle, called *gurua*. These vapours prevail from May to November, and are most dense and abundant towards the end of June, when the *lomas* or hillocks bordering the sand-flats become covered with a luxuriant vegetation. At Lima this coast vegetation is most abundant in the months of July, August, and September. The heat of this region is not so excessive as might be supposed; and during summer the thermometer rarely rises above 85°—the mean annual temperature is 72°, the maximum 82°, and the minimum 55°. In this district are produced most of the plants of tropical countries. The plantain, banana, pine-apple, sugar-cane, vine, cocoa, olive, coffee, and cotton, as well as the most delicious fruits, some peculiar to the country, arrive at great perfection. Maize, rice, wheat, barley, and potatoes are also cultivated. (See two papers, by Dr Archibald Smith, on the Climate of Peru, in the Edin. New Phil. Jour. for October 1857 and January 1858.)

The district called Sierra, or highlands of Peru, commences immediately above the rainless district, at 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and extends to the eastern chain of the Andes. The Andes here consist of two main chains or cordilleras, running nearly parallel to each other, and connected in various parts by cross ridges; but they do not in general rise to such a height as in Bolivia. The eastern cordillera from Bolivia preserves its grand character northward to 13° S. Lat., being composed of a series of snowy peaks, which terminate in the Nevada de Sacantahli; but N. of this no snow-capped mountains occur. In the western chain, near 15°, a considerable portion of the range is covered with snow; S.E. of Lima the Toldeo de Nieve rises above the snow-line; and between 11° and 11° 30° is the elevated summit of La Vinda, nearly 16,000 feet in height, and the nevadas of Pelagatos, Mayapota, and Huayllas. Between the last mentioned and Chimboraço in Ecuador none of the summits of this chain attain the snow-line. The chains of the E. and W. cordilleras are usually about 100 miles apart. South of 11° S. Lat., the country between the two chains consists properly of two inclined planes sloping down from the Andes of Vilcanota and the table-land of Pasco, separated from each other by the water-line of the Mataro, a feeder of the Apurimac, near 12° S. The southern plane lies at a great elevation; the town of Cuzco, being 11,380 feet above the level of the sea; but even here wheat and Indian corn are raised, and farther N., where the country is considerably lower, the sugar-cane is cultivated. The surface is by no means level, being traversed by various ridges of hills, which rise several hundred feet above their bases. The northern plane has a very similar surface; and contiguous to the western cordillera it forms an undulating valley 40 miles wide, which is drained by the Janja, and which, on account of its fertility, is one of the best peopled districts of Peru. In the lower part of this valley the sugar-cane succeeds well; while the higher produces cereals and fruits in abundance. To the N. is the table-land of Pasco, which lies between 11° and 10° 30° S., and, with the exception of a few miners' huts in the regions of permanent snow, is the highest inhabited part of the Andes. Were it not for the rich mines which it possesses, it would have remained a sheep-walk. Its surface presents several low but steep ranges of hills, with level grounds between them. These level tracts are from 13,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea, or about 1500 feet below the snow-line in this latitude. The climate is exceedingly cold all the year-round, and unfavourable to any kind of cultivation. In the numerous and deep lakes which cover a considerable part of its surface, the rivers Marañon, Huallaga, and Ucayale take their rise. The northern portion of the Peruvian Andes consists of three cordilleras, of which the western contains the nevadas already mentioned. The central chain is connected with the table-land of Pasco, and runs parallel with the western chain to about 7°, their summits being about 50 miles apart; but northward of this parallel the chain runs N.E. to its termination on the banks of the Amazon. In the northern portion of this central chain a few summits occur which rise above the snow-line. The eastern cordillera is connected with the mountain system of the eastern border of the table-land of Pasco, and runs in a direction parallel with the central chain, terminating near 6° S., opposite an offset of the central range, which here comes close up to the Huallaga. The highest summits of this range are towards the S., but probably none of them much exceed 15,000 feet in height. Toward the N. they sink down to mere hills. Of the two valleys inclosed by these three ranges, the western, or that of the Marañon, is very narrow in its southern parts, and here the river is one continuous series of rapids and falls until it reaches 8°, where it enters a wider valley, which spreads out to 20 miles in width. This wider valley gradually subsides from 3000 to 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Its climate is consequently very hot, and its fertile soil is capable of producing all the intertropical plants and fruits. The eastern valley is drained by the Huallaga. It slopes very rapidly, from 5000 in 10° to 2000 in 9°, and in its fertility, climate, and produce resembles the valley of the Marañon. Dr Smith, in speaking of the climates of the Sierra, says—"On ascending above the rain-line, a sparse vegetation at first appears, which gradually improves at every step, until the valleys of the Sierra open out into wide pasture-lands up to the snow-line, with many villages and farms all over the ridges and hollows of the mountains. When the western cordillera is crossed, the descent leads into a wide and open district of treeless undulating surface covered with flocks and herds of sheep, llamas, vicunas, horses, mules, and horned cattle, &c. But from these lofty and inclement grounds valleys of different depth and temperature dip off in all directions, making the Sierra as a whole a region of the most varied climate and production. As a central point of Andine climate, we may take Cerro Pasco as an example. ** * * * * The wet season is from November to May (just the contrary to what it is on the coast); but December, January, February, and March are the more disagreeable months, the streets being then all wet and slushy. The weather varies extremely, not merely in the course of the same day, but within a very few hours, during which there may be rapid variations of snow, rain, hail, and sleet, gleams of sunshine, high and fluctuating gusts of wind, sudden obscuration from dense clouds drifting in the atmospheric currents, with flashes of lightning, and peals of thunder rolling among the mountain-peaks." For the other six months of the dry season, showers of hail, snow, or rain are only occasional and rare, the prevailing weather being sunny and cheerful by day, and dry and frosty by night. The thermometer of Fahrenheit I found to be about 42° by day, and 36° by night; in the wet season; but in the dry season the night indications fell to 30°, or under." (Edin. New Phil. Jour., vol. vii., pp. 50-1.)

Presenting as it does almost every variety of climate, the vegetation of this region is extremely varied in its character, from the gigantic growth of the tropics to the dwarf plants of Lapland. In this mountainous district are situated the famous gold and silver mines of Peru. It likewise contains the sources of those vast rivers which traverse the continent of South America. Here the Marañon commences its course, and here rise its magnificent tributaries, the Ucayale, Huallaga, and others, which themselves are swelled by an innumerable multitude of streams descending from the eastern ridges of the Andes,—all being finally absorbed in the mighty Amazon.

But by far the most beautiful and valuable part of the Peruvian territory is the Montaña, or wooded region, which lies to the E. of the Andes, commencing on the eastern declivity of the second chain, and stretching to the confines of Brazil and Bolivia. After crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower in the direction of the E., the traveller beholds a country totally different from that which he has left—a country richly covered with a luxuriant vegetation. So far as we are acquainted with this region, and as yet it is only imperfectly known, it seems to rival in fertility, and in the luxuriance and variety of its vegetation, even the finest parts of Brazil. "Here," says Dr Poeppig, "are plains traversed by lower hills covered with an ocean of foliage, vying in beauty with the climate of Chile, and far surpassing it in the abundance and luxuriance of its productions." Dr Lorente, as cited by Dr Smith in speaking of the district of Chunchamayo, says:—"Here everything is on Nature's great scale. The whole country is one continuous forest, which, beginning at different heights, presents an undulating aspect. One moves on his way with trees before, above, and beneath him, in a deep abyss like the ocean. And in these woods, as on the immensity of the waters, the mind is bewildered; whatever way it directs the eye, there it meets the majesty of the Infinite. The marvels of nature are in these regions so common, that one becomes accustomed to behold without emotion trees whose tops exceed the height of 100 varas (290 English feet), with a proportionate thickness, beyond the belief of such as never saw them; and, supporting on their trunks a hundred different plants, they individually present rather the appearance of a small plantation than one great tree. It is only after you leave the woods, and ordinary objects of comparison present themselves to the mind, that you can realize in thought the colossal stature of these samples of Montana vegetation."

The entire region is watered by the Huallaga, Ucayale, and Marañon, with numerous subsidiary streams. The vast plains in which the declivities of the Andes terminate are called sometimes Pampas del Sacramento, or, more usually, Collana, or the "Land of the Missions." This name they owe to the Jesuits, whose zeal for the conversion of the natives induced them to penetrate these trackless solitudes. They planted a number of settlements, and by collecting in villages the rude inhabitants, attempted to civilize them not only by instilling into their minds the doctrines of religion, but by teaching them such arts as their uncultivated natural talents enabled them to acquire. Some of these missions still exist. Numerous tribes of wild Indians are scattered over the country, differing from each other in character and language. Some of them are mild and docile, while others are warlike and savage, and continually in a state of hostility to each other. The heat here is not so oppressive as might be expected, being alleviated by refreshing breezes that generally prevail. At Sarayaco the maximum temperature is about 85°, the minimum 74°. The rainy season prevails from November to May, during which it often rains for a week without intermission. The dry season is very agreeable, and though where cleared of wood, the surface becomes parched, the moisture is always preserved a little below; so that there is no need of irrigation. The vegetable productions of the Montana are numerous. Besides valuable woods, as cedar, ebony, mahogany, walnut, &c., there are pine-apples, almonds, lemons, oranges, citrons, and other fruits; and cacao, cinnamon, guaiacum, cinchona, sarsaparilla, vanilla, black wax, storax, dragon's blood, oil of Maria, gum-carnauba, balsam of copaiba, copal, and many other gums, balsams, resins, and oils. Maize is everywhere cultivated, and rice is grown on the marshy banks of the rivers. Tobacco, cotton, indigo, and the sugar-cane are not among the least important of its products.

The rivers of Peru that fall into the Pacific are all short in their courses, shallow, and generally rapid. They are consequently useless for navigation, and serve only to irrigate the adjacent lands. The great rivers of Peru are the Marañon, Huallaga, and Ucayale, which drain the whole country E. of the W. cordillera, and constitute the principal branches of the River Amazon. They are for the most part navigable, and will doubtless at some future period serve, by means of steam navigation, to convey the wealth of this vast region to the ports on the Atlantic. Mr Markham, who in 1853 explored a portion of the Perus, an affluent of the Amazon which separates Peru from Bolivia, says—"If once the Madre de Dios or Purus was thoroughly explored, the effects it would have on the industry and future prospects of Peru are incalculable. The people of the interior of that beautiful country, the ancient empire of the Incas, would at length succeed in turning the granite barrier of the Andes; a port might be established near Panacar-tambo, and another at the mouth of the Purus; an inland navigation would waft the varied productions of the interior of Peru—its bark, sarsaparilla, copaiba, and india-rubber; its sugar, cocoa, cotton, and tobacco; its alpaca wool, silver, and precious stones—by a direct and easy route to the Old World; and the dangerous journeys across the cordilleras, and long and tedious voyages round Cape Horn, would be avoided." (Geog. Soc. Jour., 1855.)

The lakes of Peru, with the exception of Titicaca, are of Lakes. small size. Lauricocha is interesting as the source of the Marañon; the Chinchacocha gives rise to the river Jaiva; and the small lake of Uros, to the south of Cuzco, is celebrated from the tradition that a chain of gold made to celebrate the birth of Huasca Inca was thrown into it. Titicaca is about 100 geographical miles in length from N.W. to S.E., and about 40 in greatest width. It is situated on a table-land surrounded by mountains, and is about 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. It contains several islands, the largest of which is about 20 miles in circumference.

The geological character of this country has as yet been Geology. but very imperfectly investigated. Red sandstone is frequent on the coast, and also in the interior. Granite and porphyry occur on the coast; but the prevailing rocks on the sierras are trachyte, augite, and diorite; though granite and porphyry are also common. In a journey from Lima to the summit of the western cordillera, along the course of the Rimsa, Dr Smith noted in succession the following rocks—Coarse-grained granite, syenitic granite, syenite, felspar porphyry, trachyte porphyry, and porphyry. At this stage of the series a band of syenitic greenstone or porphyry, with actinolite, crops out across the road above Matucana (at the elevation of about 8000 feet). From this point to San Mateo, through a deep and narrow gorge of about 4 leagues in extent, the rocks, in ascending succession, are, porphyritic greenstone, trap, porphyry, and quartz; on opposite sides of the ravine, trap and limestone. About San Mateo (estimated at nearly 11,000 feet above the sea) he found greenstone; and in the steep ascent above this village, schist, porphyritic greenstone, and porphyry. From Chicla, a few leagues above San Mateo, to the foot of the cordillera, the prevailing rock is conglomerate, and the surrounding soil of a reddish colour. On approaching the cordillera pass by Tucto, the mule path leads over the iron-grey debris of the porphyritic Andine peaks which adjoin the silver mines of Alpamisa, in a matrix of limestone above the line of perpetual snow. (See Peru as it Is, vol. i., ch. xii.) The sides of the valleys between Titicaca and Cuzco are formed chiefly of clay-slate. Round Arequipa, and thence to Titicaca, the soil is all volcanic; but there is no active crater in the district, though the cone of Arequipa still emits smoke. Earthquakes are frequent, and occasionally very destructive, on the coast.

Peru has long been famous for its wealth in the precious minerals, especially gold and silver. The latter is the more common, and is widely distributed over the country. The principal mining regions are those of Hualgayoc, near Micuipampa; Gualanca in Huancallos; Pasco; Lucanas; and Huantajaya; but small mines of it are worked secretly all over the country. The treasures contained in the Cerro de Fernando, at Huilagayoc, were first discovered in 1771; and there are now about 1400 pits opened in the hill. Cerro de Pasco is hardly inferior in mineral wealth to Potosi; and the hill on which the town stands is completely undermined, most of the openings to which are within the houses of the miners in the town itself. The richest gold mines or diggings are about Huaylas and Tarma. Most of the rivers from the Andes bring down auriferous sand. Quicksilver is likewise found, but in such small quantities as not to repay the labour of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper ore, but it is only worked on the western cordillera, as the distance of the other from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron mines, though prolific, are not worked, the price of these metals being too small to repay the expense of working. Coal has been discovered in the Cerro de Pasco, and brown coal is found in the sandy deserts N. of Arica. In the province of Tarapaca is a forest of prostrate trees buried beneath the sand, which affords excellent fuel, and is much used in the preparation of nitre. It is neither charred nor petrified, and burns with a flame as bright as that of common wood. In the S., and chiefly in the maritime province of Tarapaca, are extensive deposits of salt, nitre, and nitrate of soda. The Pampa, or great plain of Tamarugal, which extends the whole length of the province, running N. into the province of Arica, and S. into the desert of Atacama, and about 30 miles wide, abounds with salt, nitrate of soda, and other saline bodies. The principal deposits of nitrate of soda are found on the western side of the Pampa, at some distance from the coast, in approaching which it seems as if it gradually transferred itself into salt. The beds are insulated deposits, varying much in size and shape—in thickness from 6 inches to as many feet, and in depth, beneath the surface crust of earth and clay, from one inch to many feet. Among the other salts found in the vicinity may be enumerated carbonate and sulphate of soda, borates of lime and soda, magnesian alum, and chlorate of sodium. Traces of iodine exist in the nitrate, and in most of the waters in the plains traces of boracic acid have been discovered. The existence of nitrate of soda in Tarapaca has been known in Europe for about a century, but it is only recently that its value has been found out. In 1820 some of it was sent to England, but the duty being so high, it was thrown overboard. In 1830 a cargo was sent to the United States, but was found unsaleable; and a portion of it sent to Liverpool met with no better success. In 1831 another cargo was sent to England, and by this time it had become better known, and sold as high as 30s. to 40s. the cwt. From 1830 to 1850 the exports of this mineral from Iquique, the principal port of the province, amounted to 239,860 tons. Vast deposits of salt occur not only on the coast, but even on the Sierra. To the E. of the volcano of Isluga commences an extensive salt plain, said to extend to Challapato and the insulated Cordillera del Frayle, 40 leagues distant, and near to Potosi, varying in breadth from 3 to 8 leagues, the salt being from 5 to 10 inches thick. The elevation of this plain is at least 14,000 feet.

The more important of the vegetable productions have already been noticed. Among those which at present constitute articles of use and commerce are,—coffee, sugar, wheat, barley, maize, rice, potatoes, copaiba, sarsaparilla, Peruvian bark (cinchona), cotton, cocoa, indigo, tobacco, caoutchouc. In describing the qualities of some of these, and the quantities in which they are produced, Thaddeus Häenke observes:—"The cocoa of Apolobamba, of Moxos, of Yuracarees, and of all the woods which extend from thence to the shores of the Maranon, is infinitely superior to that of Guayaquil. The finest quality of cascarilla is only found on the eastern side of the Andes; of the indigo there is no end; I can say the same of the cotton and the rice. The precious balsam of copaiba, the sarsaparilla, the gum-elastic, and the most fragrant species of vanilla, are all produced in an extraordinary abundance in these regions. The mighty forests which line the shores of the rivers abound in the finest timber for all uses, especially for ship-building, and in trees distilling the most aromatic and medicinal gums. Among others, there is a species of cinnamon, called by the natives canela de claro, which only differs in the greater thickness of the bark and its darker colour, according to its age, from that found in the East Indies, and which is as fragrant as the spice from which it takes its name (clove)." (Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. v., 1835.) The grapes are so abundant in some parts that large quantities of wine might be made for exportation; but no more is produced than is needed, and a little is even imported. Strong liquors, such as brandy and rum, are distilled; and oil is made from the olive. The various kinds of capsicums are cultivated with more attention and skill than almost any other plants; and when dressed in various ways with garlic, form an important article of food to the greater portion of the inhabitants. Paraguay tea has now ceased to be a common beverage. A liquor in universal use is the chicha, which, from having been found in the tombs of the aborigines, is proved to have been used by them prior to the conquest. The chicha of the present day is of the consistence of milk, of a yellowish colour, and when poured from one vessel into another, froths like beer. Its taste is generally acid; but when very fresh, the acidity is scarcely perceptible. It is made by steeping Indian corn in water till it swells, after which it is dried and ground. The flour and bran are boiled in water, strained, and left to ferment for four-and-twenty hours, when it is fit for use. There is a fruit called chonta, from which the Indians prepare an intoxicating liquor; but the great nervous stimulant used by them is the coca, which is very extensively cultivated, and has become an indispensable necessary of life. The coca plant (Erythroxylon coca) is from 6 to 8 feet in length, and somewhat resembles a black thorn in its numerous small white blossoms and the lively bright green colour of its leaves. The latter are gathered and carefully dried, and then finely packed in woollen sacks and covered with sand. The coca-leaf is to the Indian of the interior a necessary of life. Each individual carries a leather pouch containing a supply of coca-leaves, and a small flask gourd filled with pulverized unslaked lime. Three or four times a day, or oftener, he suspends his labour to chaccha or masticate his coca, to which a slight admixture of the powdered lime gives a relish, and is said to counteract the natural tendency of the coca to give rise to visceral obstructions. Deleterious and dire results are commonly attributed to the use of this narcotic; and Dr Poeping, in his Travels in Chili and Peru, &c., draws a melancholy picture of the dreadful effects of this insinuating drug, and of the diseases to which it gives rise. It is asserted, however, by those best able to judge, that these effects are vastly overrated; and some even maintain that, when used in moderation, it may be even conducive to health. Among the latter is Dr J. Von Tschudi, who refers to the numerous instances of longevity among the Indians, who almost, from the age of boyhood, have been in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who nevertheless have enjoyed perfect health. (Travels in Peru, 1847.) Dr Archibald Smith, a physician of long experience in the country, says that, "Used in moderate quantity, the coca, when fresh and good, increases nervous energy, removes drowsiness, enlivens the spirits, and enables the Indian to bear cold, wet, great bodily exertion, and even want of food, to a surprising degree, with apparent ease and impunity. Taken to excess, it is said to occasion tremor in the limbs, and what is worse, a gloomy sort of mania. But such dire effects must be of rare occurrence; since, living for years on the borders of the Montaña, and in constant intercourse with persons accustomed to frequent the coca plantations, and with Indian yancones or labourers, all of whom, whether old or young, masticated this favourite leaf, we never had an opportunity of witnessing a single instance in which the coca-chewer was affected with mania or tremor." (Peru as it Is, London, 1839.)

Among the wild animals of Peru are the puma, jaguar, bear, deer, wild boar, fox, skunk, armadillo, sloth, and several species of monkey. Alligators are met with in the rivers, and seals are common on the coast. Tortoises frequent in great numbers the inlets of the coast. Several species of serpents are found, but they are rather rare. A viper of a very poisonous nature inhabits the sugar-cane fields, and its bite is almost instantaneously mortal. On the shores of Peru are myriads of sea-birds, to whom we are indebted for that valuable manure, guano. Of land birds, falcons, hawks, owls, pigeons, &c., abound. There are four varieties of condor, and the common carrion-vulture frequents the cities and towns. Most valuable among the animals indigenous to the country are the Peruvian sheep, of which there are four varieties—the llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuña. The first of these is the least valuable on account of its wool, and was chiefly employed by the ancient inhabitants as a beast of burden. Its wool is long and rough, and is used only in the manufacture of coarse cloths. Though the introduction of horses, asses, and mules into the country since the conquest has rendered the llama less necessary as a beast of burden, it is still much used for that purpose. They usually travel in large flocks at the rate of three or four leagues a day, and each carrying about a hundredweight. The alpaca or paco is smaller than the llama, and yields a very fine, long, soft wool, which is now largely imported into England and other countries. They are kept in large flocks on the heights. The guanaco is the largest of the four varieties, and very much resembles the llama in form. They usually roam in a wild state in groups of four or five on the upper declivities of the western cordillera. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the llama. The vicuña is in size between the llama and the alpaca, and is a more beautiful animal than any of the other varieties. They inhabit the cold heights of the cordillera, and are always in herds of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the leader and protector of the rest. The vicuña is distinguished by the superior fineness of its short curly wool. After the conquest the Spaniards introduced their own breed of sheep into the country; and it is now very common. There are flocks of 80,000 or 100,000 sheep on the inter-cordillera plains of Bourbon and neighbourhood. Horses, asses, and black cattle were also introduced by the Spaniards; and in the valleys and on the coast they are well developed, but on the heights they are small and stunted in their growth.

The manufactures of Peru are inconsiderable, the great body of the people being employed in agriculture and the mines. Labour of every kind is in the hands of the Indians; and though they manifest considerable ingenuity in some of the mechanical arts, from the want of sufficient instruction or of proper masters, their productions will not bear comparison with those of Europeans. They manufacture a variety of cotton and coarse woollen fabrics, which are consumed in the country. Straw hats of a variety of colours, petates or mats, and cigar rollers, also form part of their manufactures. Goat skins are made into good cordovan; and cow-hides are made into saddle-bags, and almo-frezes, or travelling-cases for bed and bedding. Tanning, dyeing, soap-making, distilling, and some other manufactures are carried on. Very fine gold and silver filigree work is also executed. Peru, however, looks to Europe for a great part of the necessaries as well as of the luxuries of life.

The principal exports of Peru are the precious metals, guano, nitrate of soda, wool, cotton, hides, and Peruvian bark. Guano, which till recently had no place among its exports, is now the most important of its productions. It is found on some parts of the coast, but principally on certain small islands, especially those opposite to Pisco. On the islands of Chinchas alone it was estimated that in 1854 there were 12,376,100 tons. In 1854 no less than 344,400 tons of guano were exported, of which more than one-half went to England, and the remainder to the United States, France, Spain, Germany, &c. The imports consist of woollen, cotton, and linen stuffs; machinery, cutlery, earthenware, &c. The trade of Peru with the various countries was as follows in 1853:

| Countries | Imports | Exports | |-----------------|-----------|-----------| | Britain | £923,938 | £1,763,761| | China | 57,899 | | | Chile | 130,800 | 99,487 | | Spain | 32,473 | 45,799 | | Ecuador | 39,855 | | | United States | 117,205 | 979,676 | | France | 376,756 | 288,321 | | Hamburg | 97,265 | 42,963 | | Antilles | | 52,848 | | Other countries | 42,655 | 103,216 | | Total | £1,817,576| £3,376,061|

It will be seen from this table that Great Britain is the country that carries on the greatest trade with Peru. It imports almost double, and exports nearly three times as much, as any other country. The declared or computed value of British imports from Peru, and of exports thereto in 1856, was as follows:

| Imports | Exports | |---------------|-------------| | Guano | Cotton goods| | Alpaca & llama wool | Woolen | | Sheep wool | Hardwares and cutlery | | Nitre | Iron & steel, unwrought | | Copper & copper ore | Linen goods | | Tin and tin ore | Silk manufactures | | Peruvian bark | Apparel | | Cotton, raw | Earthenware | | Chinchilla skins | Machinery | | Untanned hides | Coals | | Cochineal | Wine | | Borax | Glass | | Other articles| Other articles | | Total | £3,048,694 | | Total | £128,340 |

The internal trade of Peru is not great, owing to the nature of the country and the want of good roads. Except on the table-lands, indeed, there are few roads of any sort. Mules are generally used for the conveyance of travellers and goods; though in the more elevated parts llamas are largely employed for the latter purpose. A railroad extends from the port of Arica to Tacna, and another from Callao to Lima.

The government of Peru is by its constitution pronounced to be a popular representative government; and in theory at least the sovereignty emanates from the people, who are supposed to delegate its exercise to the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of the republic; each of which is independent of the others. The chief executive power is vested in the president, who is elected for six years through the electoral colleges. He has four ministers for the despatch of public business,—one for foreign affairs, one for finance, one for justice and religion, and one for war and marine. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, composed of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies consists of representatives chosen by the electoral colleges of the several provinces, in the proportion of 1 for every 20,000 inhabitants, or for any fractional number above 10,000. But any province having an entire population of less than 10,000 is nevertheless entitled to elect a deputy. The Senate is composed of two members for each of the departments. The electoral colleges of the provinces are composed of parochial electors, 1 for every 200 inhabitants in each parish. Each department is politically governed by a prefect, under immediate subordination to the president of the republic; each province by a sub-prefect, subordinate to the prefect; and each district by a governor, subordinate to the sub-pre- Perugia. feet. In the capital of each department there is a *junta* composed of two members from each province, elected in the same way as the members of the Chamber of Deputies. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court at Lima, and the superior courts of Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, Truxillo, Ayacucho, and Puno. In the provinces are courts of primary instance; and in the districts, justices' courts. Besides these, there are special commercial, mining, military, and other courts. The judges are appointed by the president, but are not removable without sufficient cause. Capital punishment for political offences has been abolished. The land forces of the government consist of about 10,000 men of all arms; and the naval forces, of a frigate, two corvettes, and two galliots. The total national debt amounted, in 1853, to L1,956,400 sterling. The budget for 1855 estimates the revenue at L1,874,000 (of which L1,243,750 is derived from the sales of guano), and the expenditure at L2,177,643. According to the constitution, the religion of the republic is Roman Catholic and apostolic, and the exercise of none other is permitted. Practically, however, Protestant worship is allowed in private, and an English clergyman regularly officiates at the British consulate. Ecclesiastically, the country is divided into an archdiocese, and the bishoprics of Cuzco, Arequipa, Truxillo, Guamanga, and Chachapoyas. There are 1800 priests or clergymen, 720 friars, and 1200 nuns. The tithes produce annually L50,000, and the first-fruits L120,000. There are 26 hospitals in Peru—21 for males, with 1226 beds; and 5 for females, with 497 beds; average annual cost, about L50,000. Except in larger towns, education is at a very low ebb. In the remote interior, men able to read and write are not always to be found to fill public offices. In the capitals of the departments there are usually high schools or colleges; and there are good private schools in all the more populous districts. The university of St Mark at Lima is the most ancient of the American universities, having been established in 1570, and was long famous as a seat of learning, but it is now superseded in Lima by the college of S. Carlos. The university of S. Fernando in Lima is a thriving medical school. According to the last census, there were in Peru 810 elementary schools, where 26,000 boys and 3600 girls were taught reading, writing, and the catechism; and 42 lyceas and high schools, having 320 masters and 4500 scholars. The Latin classes contained 1173 boys, the mathematical 720, the French 550, philosophy 325, Spanish grammar 270, religion 235, English 90, law 50, theology 250, medicine and surgery 50. The annual expense of the government schools and colleges may be estimated at about L25,000, raised principally from excises, rents of land belonging to them, bull-fights, and sums paid by the pupils.

Peru is divided into 11 departments and 2 littoral provinces, having the organization of departments. The departments are subdivided into 61 provinces, the provinces into 625 districts, and the districts into parishes. The departments, with their population in 1852, are as follows:

| Departments | Pop. | Capitals | Pop. | |-------------|-----|----------|-----| | Amazonas | 43,074 | Chachapoyas | 4,500 | | Ancash | 219,145 | Huancayo | 5,200 | | Arequipa | 119,336 | Arequipa | 35,900 | | Ayacucho | 132,921 | Ayacucho | 16,700 | | Cuzco | 349,718 | Cuzco | 44,600 | | Huancavelica| 73,117 | Huancavelica | 5,200 | | Junin | 222,949 | Cerro de Pasco | 12,800 | | Libertad | 256,553 | Truxillo | 6,300 | | Lima | 250,801 | Lima | 100,000 | | Moquegua | 61,452 | Tacna | 2,700 | | Puno | 284,952 | Puno | 8,200 | | Callao, prov. dist. | 3,453 | Callao | 6,000 | | Piura | 75,532 | Piura | 11,600 |

Total...........2,115,493

The inhabitants of Peru consist of three distinct races—Spaniards, Indians, and Negroes. The secondary classes arising from these three are,—the Mulatto, from the Spaniard and Negro; the Mestizo, from the Spaniard and Indian; and the Chino, from the Indian and Negro. The minor subdivisions are very numerous. The Indians, or native Peruvians, are still the most numerous class throughout the country, and constitute fully two-thirds of the entire population. They are naturally timid, reserved, and of a melancholy temperament, arising doubtless in great measure from the cruel oppressions to which they have been for ages subjected. They yet cherish a deep and mournful impression of the days of the Incas; and in the more remote districts of the country, the death of the last of the race is annually celebrated by a sort of rude tragedy, accompanied by plaintive strains of music. They are sunk in gross ignorance; but not a few of them have risen to eminence, and have shown themselves to be possessed of talents and abilities of no mean order. Many of the tribes are industrious cultivators of the soil; and others display great ingenuity in the manufacture of beautiful fabrics. They have also shown themselves to be possessed of bravery by their achievements during the war of independence; and so late as March 1858, they fought like old Spartans under Vivanco at Arequipa. Of the regiment Ayacucho, 600 strong, 540 fell at the barricades before they were overpowered by the army of Castilla. The mixed races are more numerous than the pure Spaniards. According to Mr Stevenson, the Mestizo is strong and swarthy, with very little beard, laborious, and well disposed; the Mulatto is less robust, but acute, talkative, imaginative, and fond of dress and parade; the Chinos have the character of being the worst of the mixed races—they are a quick, pugnacious, and daring set of fellows.

(D.K.)