or Peshawar, a province of British India, in the Punjab, occupying the extreme N.W. corner of the empire. It lies between N. Lat. 33° 42' and 34° 30', E. Long. 71° 35' and 72° 42', and is bounded on the N.W. and S. by the Khyber, Mohmand, Swat, and Khuttuk hills, and on the E. by the Indus. Its length is 65 miles, breadth 50, area about 2324 square miles. Besides the Indus, it is watered by the Kabul river, which joins the Indus near Attock, and by the Swat, the Bara, and other affluents of the Kabul. The water of these rivers is used for irrigation, being conducted to the fields by numerous canals and small channels, from which it is raised by levers or Persian wheels. The country is very fertile, and this abundant supply of water renders it verdant at all seasons of the year. Two crops are raised annually; the principal produce being wheat, barley, maize, millet, and especially rice, which it produces in greater excellence than any other country in the world, and which is known by the name of Bara rice, from the river on whose banks it is grown. Vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, cabbages, onions, and others, are likewise raised; and an important part of the produce consists of what is called poulai, comprising melons and cucumbers of various kinds, pumpkins, and gourds. The castor-oil plant, the sugar-cane, ginger, tobacco, and cotton are among the other plants cultivated. Agriculture is well advanced; the plough has superseded the spade; and oxen are employed in treading out the corn, and in other labours. Plums, figs, peaches, pomegranates, and quinces are among the principal fruits that the country produces. The climate during the summer is extremely hot, though the occasional breezes from the mountains mitigate its sultriness. The province of Peshawur is traversed by the great route from Khorasan and Kabul to India, which crosses the moun- Peshawar tains by the Khyber pass; and there is also a grand trunk road which crosses the country, connecting the town of Peshawar with Lahore, along which the army of the Punjab is stationed. Forming part of the Punjab, Peshawar came into the possession of the British along with that country. Pop. 450,099.

capital of the above province, on the Bara, about 18 miles E. of the eastern extremity of the Khyber pass, and 36 W. by N. of Attock, at an altitude of 1068 feet above the sea; N. Lat. 34°, E. Long. 71° 38'. It is defended by walls and a fort, which commands the whole of the town, the former having at intervals strong bastions. The fortress, which was erected by the Sikhs, occupies a square 220 yards each way, and has round towers at each corner. The walls are all built of mud; and the place is surrounded by a moat and by a fausse-braie. The principal street of Peshawur, which stretches eastward from the Kabul gate, is broad, and lined on each side with houses of one storey. This is the only good street in the town, as the side lanes which diverge from it are very narrow, irregular, and dirty, and the houses mean. Peshawur contains three open places, that in the centre, which is of a circular form, being the finest part of the town. The houses in it are regularly built, and have in front of them a circle of acacias. On each side of this area is an arched gateway leading to a square, one of which is used as a market for grain, and the other for silk cloth, leather, and other articles. The town at one time contained numerous mosques, many of them being magnificent buildings; but they have been profaned by the Sikhs, and are now fast falling into decay. The manufactures are very few, consisting principally of loongees, or light-blue scarfs of cotton. In the adjacent country large quantities of salt are obtained; there are also two productive lead mines, and nitre and sulphur are likewise found. A considerable trade is carried on between Afghanistan and India by Peshawur; and this has been much increased since the British took possession of it, by the removal of all the restrictions that had been imposed by the Sikhs. Peshawur was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar, from whom it obtained its name, which signifies "the advanced post," as it is the frontier city of India. It was formerly much more populous than at present; and in the beginning of this century it contained 100,000 inhabitants. Runjeet Singh took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed many of its finest buildings. Pop. 53,295, including 7706 Hindus.

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, a distinguished educational reformer, was born at Zurich in Switzerland on 12th January 1746. He spent the greater part of a long life in advocating his theory of education, and in endeavouring to exemplify it in practice. The political oppression, moral depravity, and intellectual darkness which characterized the condition of the lower orders of society in his native land, had, at a very early period of his life, profoundly affected his benevolent and enthusiastic mind, and he had resolved to devote himself entirely to the amelioration of that condition. He first entertained the idea that he should best accomplish his object by becoming a political reformer; and, abandoning the clerical profession, for which he had been educated, he took to the study of the law. But the intensity of his application to his legal studies brought on a dangerous illness, and on the advice of his physicians he abandoned this profession also, burning all his manuscripts, and renouncing the study of books. It now occurred to him that he might effect his purpose by making agriculture the pivot of his educational operations. He accordingly went to live with a farmer of some repute, to learn practical agriculture, and to seek advice as to the best mode of prosecuting his plans. A successful experiment which this farmer made in cultivating madder on poor land induced Pestalozzi, in conjunction with a mercantile firm of Zurich, to purchase a tract of heath-land (the Pestalozzi Neuhof) in Argovia, and make a similar experiment. But in this, the first important undertaking in which he engaged, Pestalozzi soon gave evidence of a singular deficiency in practical wisdom and tact. For example, he wasted a great deal of capital in erecting a dwelling-house and farm-buildings on his new estate. The experiment did not succeed, and the Zurich firm withdrew their capital with loss. Notwithstanding this failure, and the distress into which it threw him, he determined to go on with the execution of his plans. He wanted to combine with his agricultural operations a model industrial school for poor children. The idea of such a school is now familiar to us; it was then new. His plan met with the approval of many influential persons, and the school was commenced in 1775. For five years he devoted his whole time and energy to teaching and training fifty destitute boys, literally gathered from the highways. But in the meantime, his own and his wife's fortune were going to the winds; he who was teaching others the conditions of success in life was neglecting some of the most obvious of those conditions in the management of his own affairs. By the end of the period mentioned he had brought himself down to the pecuniary level from which he was endeavouring to raise his pupils.

Nevertheless, we reap the fruits of Pestalozzi's labours in the numerous industrial and reformatory schools which have been established in our own country. It was Pestalozzi's poor-school that suggested to De Fellenberg the one which he established on his estate of Hofwyli; and which, under the skilful management of Wehrli, gained a success which definitely settled the question of the practicability of the idea. Pestalozzi himself, visiting Hofwyli some thirty years after the breaking up of his own school, acknowledged that in Wehrli's school he saw his idea realized. The success of Wehrli's school led to the establishment of many others in Switzerland and other countries. "In the orphan schools which emanated from Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg we found," say Sir James Kay Shuttleworth and Mr Tulncll, in their report on the Battersea normal school, "the type which assisted us in our subsequent labours. In walking with M. De Fellenberg through Hofwyli, we listened to the precepts which we think most applicable to the pauper class. In the normal school of the canton of Thurgovia (at that time conducted by Wehrli), and in the orphan schools of St Gall and Appenzell, we found the development of those principles so far successful as to assure us of their practical utility." Pestalozzi's countrymen could not have raised any memorial to him more appropriate than the orphan school which they founded at Oltenberg in Argovia, after the commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of his birthday in 1846. If such establishments are not always successful in a pecuniary point of view, even with the accumulated experience which we now possess, it should make us judge the more leniently the failure of the man who grappled with the difficulties of the task for the first time.

For eighteen years after the breaking up of the Neuhof poor-school, Pestalozzi did not engage in any educational undertaking. Some of his most important works, however, were written during this period; among others, The Evening Hour of a Hermit, a series of educational aphorisms very similar to the Didactica Magna of Comenius; and Leonard and Gertrude, a dramatic novel portraying the actual condition of the Swiss peasantry and his own ideal of a good home and school education for the people. The latter work established his reputation, and exercised an important influence on the progress of popular education throughout Switzerland and Germany. A translation of this work is a desideratum in our language. In 1798 he was called upon by the Swiss Directory to go to Stanz in Unterwalden, and take charge of a number of children Pestalozzi left destitute after the terrible punishment inflicted on that resisting canton by the French army of occupation. Without a moment's hesitation, he left his family, and for nine months he acted as the sole teacher and superintendent of eighty orphan boys of the lowest grade of society, in an old desolate cloister, with no books, maps, or other appliances of instruction, and with no assistance of any kind, save such as could be rendered him by an old housekeeper. With these children he made many new experiments in education. Among other plans which he tried were those of monitors and simultaneous reading and speaking. The monitorial plan, however, is as old as Comenius, and the simultaneous plan had previously been introduced into the Austrian schools. The circumstances were highly favourable to the application of his general theory, which required all instruction to be based on real objects and familiar daily occurrences; and many of his lessons, secular and moral, appear to have been fine specimens of intuitive teaching. That, in concentrating his mind upon the development of his own plans, he should sometimes overlook the peculiarity of the circumstances, and constantly neglect matters that appeared to him of minor importance, was to be expected. His extraordinary efforts in this difficult and harassing position had well nigh brought him to the grave, when the progress of events connected with the war compelled him to give up the school. He went up into the Bernese Oberland to recruit his exhausted energies. His next important undertaking was the foundation of an educational institution for the practical application of his method. He had for some time past sought assistance from the Helvetian government towards the attainment of this object, which he regarded as one of national importance. At length the government gave him the use of the castle of Burgdorf, and in those premises he opened his institution in 1800. The institution was removed successively to Münchbuchsee, near Hofwil, and to Yverdon, in the canton of Vaud. In the very first years of its existence it attracted much notice, owing in great measure to an account of his plans, which Pestalozzi published under the title, How Gertrude Teaches her Children. Subsequently it became, in the language of one of Pestalozzi's eulogists, a "European training institution for teachers and educators." The internal management of the institution, however, appears to have been anything but satisfactory. His own want of governing and practical power necessarily compelled him to place a leading share of the management in the hands of one or other of his assistants, among whom, accordingly, a contention arose which proved fatal to the welfare of the institution and the happiness of its venerable founder, who had the mortification of seeing his enterprise going to wreck, and himself standing powerless at the helm. The institution was finally broken up in 1825. A poor-school, which he had founded at Clindy, near Yverdon, in 1818, had failed from similar mismanagement. He made an attempt to transplant this school to his estate of Neuhoef, in the hope that it might succeed better away from "the institution." But the building which he erected for the purpose stood incomplete and unoccupied at the time of his death. This event happened on 17th February 1827. During the last two years of his life he wrote his autobiography in two works—The Song of the Dying Swan, and The Fortunes of My Life. In these works he reviews his various educational undertakings, and endeavours to trace the causes of their failure. As the works enter very fully into the details of the personal quarrel at Yverdon, they are variously represented by his biographers according as these side with one or other of the parties; and, for the same reason, they are now of very little interest to the world. Shortly before his death he said: "I forgive my enemies; may they find peace, now that I go to eternal rest. I should like to have lived another month, to have Pestalozzi completed my last labours; but I again thank God, who in his providence calls me away from this earthly scene. And you, my children, remain in quiet attachment to one another, and seek for happiness in the domestic circle."

Pestalozzi's general theory of education may be stated in few words. He held that all our knowledge is derived, in the first instance, from the perceptions of the senses, and that therefore all instruction should be based upon the observation of real objects and occurrences; or, in other words, should proceed by a process of induction, from the concrete to the abstract, from the known to the unknown. He further held that the object of primary education was to give a general and harmonious cultivation to the faculties of the mind, not to communicate technical knowledge. He accordingly required that all instruction should be presented to the pupil in a form corresponding to the process of intellectual development, by which the mind rises from the perceptions of the senses to clear ideas; and that the adaptation of different subjects for the purposes of elementary instruction should be judged of by the amount of educative power which they respectively possess.

(See NATIONAL EDUCATION.)

Pestalozzi belongs to the modern or "realistic" school of educators, the general tendency of which is two-fold—(1.) As regards the manner of instruction, to supersede the languages and literature of Greece and Rome by the mother-tongue and practical knowledge; and (2.) As regards the method of instruction, to supersede the analytic and experimental method by a synthetic and demonstrative one. The most eminent men of this school before Pestalozzi were Rousseau, Locke, and Comenius. Its origin is distinctly traceable to the influence of Bacon's method of philosophy.

Like Lord Bacon, Pestalozzi did very little towards the practical application of his own principles. Some of his attempts to apply them to individual branches of instruction were singularly at variance with them. This was the case with his treatment of the instruction in language, as explained in his work How Gertrude Teaches her Children. He divides the instruction into—1. Lessons on Sounds; 2. Lessons on Names; 3. Lessons on Language. 1. "The spelling-book (he says) must contain the whole range of sounds of which the language consists; every portion of it should be repeated daily in every word, not only by the child that is going through the exercise to learn how to spell, but also by mothers, within hearing of the child in the cradle, in order that these sounds may, by frequent repetition, be so deeply impressed upon the memory of the child, even while it is yet unable to pronounce a single one of them, that they shall never be forgotten. No one imagines to what a degree the attention of infants is aroused by the repetition of such simple rounds as ba, ba, ba; da, da, da; ma, ma, ma; la, la, la, &c.; or what a charm such repetition has for them." 2. Lessons in names (he says) consist in giving the children lists of the names of the most important objects in all three kingdoms of nature, in history, in language, in the pursuits and relations of mankind. In the "lessons in language" the child is taught to learn under the following heads—Geography, history, physics, natural history, and physiology. Each of these five heads he divides again into forty subdivisions. He now proceeds to give lists of words in all these subjects in alphabetical order, which lists are to be impressed upon the children's memories till it is impossible any should be forgotten." Afterwards, this alphabetical nomenclature is to be transformed into a "scientific" one. He gives the following examples—"One of the subdivisions of Europe is Germany: the child is first of all made well acquainted with the division of Germany into ten districts; then the names of the towns of Germany are placed before him at first in mere alphabetical order, for him to read, but each of these towns is previously marked with the number of a circle in which it stands. As soon as the child can read the names of the towns fluently, he is taught the connection of the numbers with the subdivisions of the main heads; and in a few hours he is able to determine the place of the entire number of German towns in these subdivisions." And this is what Pestalozzi calls "changing the alphabetical into a scientific nomenclature." (The quotations are taken from Mr Tilliard's translation of Raumer's Life of Pestalozzi.) Thus, again, with his so-called exercises in observation; or objective lessons. The type of such lessons was pretty nearly this: Suppose that the lesson was on a piece of sponge. The teacher, holding up the specimen before the boys, would sing out in a high monotone such sentences as the following, requiring the class to repeat each sentence in unison three times—1. "That is sponge." 2. "Sponge is an absorbent." 3. "Sponge is porous." 4. "Sponge is absorbent," &c. Nothing approaching to an elucidation of the scientific principles involved in common objects and processes appears to have been attempted in these lessons. Indeed Pestalozzi says, with the utmost candour, when treating of the instruction in language, "I never pretended to teach any art or Pestalozzi, science; in fact, there is not one with which I myself am acquainted. My only object is to facilitate generally the acquisition of the elements of all the arts and sciences, and to give to the neglected and abandoned classes of my countrymen open access to the stores of human civilization.

Pestalozzi was perhaps most successful in the application of his principles to the instruction in arithmetic; but even his method of teaching this subject contributed much to a large extent. The art of the Pestalozzian arithmetic is so laid down as to constitute for themselves the properties and relations of numbers, as shown upon the various tables made use of. If the spirit of the method is realized by the master, nothing can be more important than the influence which it has upon his instructions in this subject. It teaches him to base all his explanations upon first principles, instead of condemning his pupils to work from prescribed rules, of which they do not understand the reasons. He thus gives them the power of deducing arithmetical results for themselves, and scope for the exercise of their judgment as well as of their memory. Treated in this common-sense manner, arithmetic is invaluable as a mental discipline; and, from being a dry task, it is rendered an interesting exercise to the children; for the child is always gratified by any instruction that appeals to its reason and powers. But Pestalozzi carried a similar method to be prepared in which the exercises to be done on the tables were printed at full length, and the boys were made to go through the whole series, under the care of an assistant master, until the repetition became one monotonous sing-song, not requiring the slightest thought. One of his pupils gives the following account of the way in which he himself taught this subject:—“For the ciphering, we had between every two scholars a small table pasted on mill-board, on which, in quadrangular spaces, were marked dots, which we had to count, to add together, to subtract, to multiply, and divide by one another. It was out of these exercises that Kreil and Boas constructed, first the Unity Table, and afterwards the Fraction Table. But the Instruction was always given by the teacher and to succeed the exercises in their turns, and never questioned them nor set them tasks, these exercises, which were otherwise very good, remained without any great utility. He had not sufficient patience to allow things to be gone over again, or to put questions; and in his enormous zeal for the instruction of the whole school, he seemed not to concern himself in the slightest degree for the individual scholar.”

The truth of the Pestalozzian maxim, that the mind grasps the concrete more readily than the abstract, has received a curious confirmation in the extensive imitation which Pestalozzi’s methods, though opposed to his principles, have met with at the hands of his admirers. It is, however, true that teachers, in Pestalozzi’s own words, are ever more ready to adopt plans than to adopt principles. The Pestalozzian arithmetic was introduced at a very early period into the Dublin model schools by the Irish Commissioners, who published an edition of the Manual of Exercises for the use of their teachers. A somewhat modified form of their Manual was published in 1844, under the sanction of the Committee of Council on Education, for the use of teachers in Great Britain. That work, however, was superseded by Tate’s First Principles of Arithmetic; a work which gave a more correct and comprehensive application of Pestalozzian principles to the subject of arithmetic; and which has done much towards completing a similar reform in the teaching of this subject in the elementary schools. The Pestalozzian objections have been widely discussed in this country. These lessons, however, are gradually giving place to lessons on the science of common things more in accordance with Pestalozzi’s own principles. Pestalozzi’s method of instruction in language does not appear to have been adopted, as a whole, by any of his followers. But the greater part of it is embodied in Scherr’s method of teaching reading, which is extensively used by Swiss teachers.

While Pestalozzi’s personal influence on the methods of teaching particular subjects has thus been small, he has, through his profound principles, exerted a greater influence on elementary education than any other man in recent times. That the visible improvement in the schools was due to the influence of Pestalozzi’s ideas is in a great measure due to his influence, there can be little doubt. At the Battersea normal school, from which much of that improvement emanated, Sir James Kay Shuttleworth propounded the general principles of a synthetic and demonstrative method, confessedly based upon the Pestalozzian idea; and those principles were able applied to various branches of elementary instruction by his conductors, whose text-books are now in the hands of many teachers. The Home and Colonial School Society, also, by whom so much has been done for the improvement of infant school education, have profusely been guided by the principles of Pestalozzi.

The influence of the personal character of this great and good man has been very remarkable. His spirit has been infused into whole generations of teachers in his native land, and, through individual disciples, has been communicated far and wide over the whole civilized world. His enthusiastic love for children; his zealous devotion to the interests of his countrymen and of humanity; his unwavering faith in the efficacy of education (under God’s blessing) for the regeneration of the lower classes of society; his unflinching courage in urging upon rulers and all set in authority the sacred duty of providing for the poor a more Christian institution than either the workhouse or the goal; above all, the intense concentration of energy and purpose with which he carried his object through a long period of laborious labors; these features in his character demand our highest admiration, and place Pestalozzi in the foremost rank of distinguished schoolmasters.