LA.

The United Provinces of the Rio de La Plata, otherwise called the Argentine Confederation, a country of South America, lies between S. Lat. 22° 20' and 40° 56', and between W. Long. 55° 20' and 70° 30'; and is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; E. by Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay; S.E. by the Atlantic; S. by Patagonia; and W. by Chile. It extends from the eastern slope of the Andes to the rivers Paraguay and Uruguay, which separate it from the respective countries of these names; and on the S. it is divided by the Rio Negro from Patagonia; but there is no natural boundary on the side of Bolivia. The country thus bounded includes the province of Buenos Ayres, which is at present independent of the Confederation. But as the existing arrangement is merely provisional, it will be included in the general description of the country. The greatest length of the country is about 1260 miles from N. to S., the breadth varies from 500 to 800, and the area is estimated at 786,000 square miles. The country is partly mountainous, but about five-sixths of its area is occupied by immense plains.

Mountains. The Andes in the southern parts of La Plata are comparatively little known. They consist of two parallel ranges, of which the western, being the more elevated, forms the boundary-line of Chile and La Plata. The general elevation of these mountains is 12,000 or 13,000 feet above the sea; and they are crossed by several passes. North of the 37th degree of latitude the country is better known; the same character prevails, the distance between the ranges varying from 30 to 80 miles. About 33° 30' S. Lat. they approach to about 20 miles of each other, and between them lies the elevated valley of Tunuyan, 7500 feet above the sea. Farther north the mountains again recede, forming the wider valley of Uspallata, on the west side of which rises Aconcagua, the loftiest known volcano in the world. North of the 30th parallel the mountains extend over 120 miles of breadth, and form three parallel chains,—the Andes proper to the west, the Sierra Famatina, and the Sierra Velasco,—none of these ranges being so high as the more southerly ones. North of this point the Andes send out branches far to the east; so that the whole of the N.W. of La Plata, as far as the Rio Vermejo, is a mountainous region. The loftiest part of this region, known by the name of El Despoblado, or "The Desert," occupies the extreme N.W. of the country, and is a level plateau 13,000 feet high. From this table-land several mountain chains diverge in different directions,—the principal being the Sierra Ambato and Sierra Ancasta, stretching S.E.; and the Sierra Aconquija, a branch of the Sierra Ambato, towards the N.E. The north-eastern part of La Plata, near the Paraguay, is also mountainous; and in various parts of the country there are ranges of hills and mountains which would be conspicuous anywhere except near the Andes.

By far the greater portion of La Plata is low and flat, plains constituting what are called the pampas. These occupy the whole breadth of the country, from the 33rd degree of latitude to the Rio Negro; and they are divided by elevated regions into various parts, in which the soil varies considerably in fertility. The eastern and western portions of the plain also differ in their character; and there are three marked belts or regions stretching across the pampas from north to south. For about 180 miles west of Buenos Ayres the ground is covered with clover and thistles alternately. In winter and spring the luxuriant and shaggy leaves of the thistle give the whole region the appearance of a vast turnip field; and in the former season the clover, which is very rich, is grazed on by herds of wild cattle. In summer the thistles rapidly shoot up to the height of 10 or 11 feet, and become so strong and dense as to form an impenetrable thicket. In autumn the thistles wither and die, the dry stems continuing to rattle in the wind until they are laid low by the hurricanes of the region. West of this region an immense plain, covered with long grass, stretches for about 450 miles. There are also lakes of salt water, and salt marshes overgrown with reeds; in this plain, the soil of which is strongly impregnated with muriate of soda, giving even the grass a salt taste. Beyond this a tract of country extends to the foot of the Andes, covered with low thorny trees and bushes, and having a soil which, though arid, sandy, and saline, only requires irrigation to bear the most abundant crops. The western portions of the pampas have been very little explored except along the banks of the rivers; but their character in the northern part of the plain, which is traversed by the road from Buenos Ayres to Mendoza, is well known. The plains of Patagonia, which extend southward from the Rio Negro to the Strait of Magellan, and are claimed by La Plata, are described under La Plata, Patagonia. North of the pampas, between the Sierra Velasco and a parallel ridge of hills called the Sierra de Cordova, there is a level plain, only a few feet above the sea-level, covered with an incrustation of salt, from which it has got the name of Great Salina. But the most remarkable plain in La Plata, next to the pampas, is that called the Gran Chaco, which occupies the N.E. portion of the country, and covers an area of 120,000 square miles. It is very little known, being but thinly peopled, and that chiefly by Indians. The southern part is an arid, sandy desert; while the northern portion is covered with extensive forests. Between the Gran Chaco, which extends as far south as 30°, and the pampas, lies an undulating country of considerable fertility; and the country between the Parana and Uruguay is occupied with hills, forests, and pastoral plains.

The coast of the country, extending from the estuary of the La Plata to the mouth of the Rio Negro, has few indentations, and is in general low, consisting of sand-hills or cliffs of little elevation. The principal promontory is Cape Corrientes, in S. Lat. 38.6°, which is a high and rather bold headland. Samborombon Bay and Bahia Blanca are the only bays on the coast; the latter contains Port Belgrano, the best and most capacious harbour south of 25° S. Lat., and the nearest point on the Atlantic from which a communication might be established with Concepcion on the Pacific.

The principal rivers of La Plata are those which fall into the estuary from which the country derives its name. (See PLATA, RIO DE LA.) Besides these, La Plata contains few rivers of any size. The Rio Salado of Buenos Ayres flows through the pampas, and falls into the Atlantic. It is dry in summer, and can be used neither for navigation nor irrigation. Farther south is the Rio Colorado, rising in the Andes, and flowing S.E. to the sea. Its whole length is between 500 and 600 miles, of which it is navigable for about 100. The Rio Negro also rises in the Andes by two branches, and flows at first N.E.; and after receiving the Neuquen from the north, it flows E. and S.E. to the Atlantic. Its whole length is nearly 600 miles, and it is navigable for large boats about 500.

Numerous rivers take their rise in the eastern declivities of the Andes, and after irrigating considerable tracts of country, are either absorbed by the soil or flow into inland lakes. Amongst these may be mentioned the Rio Dolce, which originates in the lofty mountains of Tucuman, and, after watering the capital of the same name, passing near Santiago del Estero, capital of the province so named, and traversing Cordova, is lost in a salt lake situated in that province, and called "lagunas saladas de los Porongos." The Rio de San Juan and the Rio de Mendoca rise in the valley of Uspallata, and flow, the one from its northern and the other from its southern opening, into the lagoon of Guanacache, which is one of a series of lakes between 31, 40, and 32 S. Lat. These lakes are drained by a river called the Desaguadero, which flows S. and E. for 250 miles into another group of lakes, called Belvedere, between 33, 30, and 34, 30 S. Lat. They receive also the Tunuyan from the valley of the same name. Another branch of this river flows south, and, joining the Rio Diamante and the Chadi Leubu from the Andes, flows into the Urre Lauquen, a lake but little known, in 37 S. Lat.

Lakes are distributed over the whole expanse of the pampas, and some of them are of considerable size; but they cannot be said to correspond in grandeur to the other features of this region. The soil is almost everywhere impregnated with salt; and the water of most of the lakes and pools is brackish and disagreeable to the taste. So plentifully is this saline matter distributed, that whole tracts of country are covered with its efflorescence. But a want of water is universally experienced; for notwithstanding the number of lakes and inferior rivers, many of them disappear during the dry season. A growth of rushes overspreads their bottoms, serving as lairs for the pumas, that lie in wait for the cattle, as, perishing of thirst, they fly to the green stagnant water which lies on the marly surface and swarms with myriads of mosquitos.

The geology of this country presents little variety, and scarcely anything that is interesting. Rocks are seldom seen, except in the mountainous region. Where they do occur, they are generally granitic, covered in some places with quartz. Some gypsum is found in the vicinity of Buenos Ayres, and limestone is said to occur in several places. The stones used in paving the streets or in building are brought from the island of Martin Garcia, at the mouth of the Uruguay, or as ballast in vessels from Europe.

The soil of the pampas is a rich mould, perfectly free from stones, not one being seen on its surface for many hundred miles together. One of the most remarkable features of this region is the number of fossil remains, chiefly of immense quadrupeds, which are found in the soil of the plains.

The mineral productions are gold and silver, copper, tin, lead, and iron (of which large masses are often found), saltpetre, alum, sulphur, marine salt, and bituminous shale; and there are also numerous mineral springs besides the saline lakes already mentioned, from which salt can be procured.

The tropical climate which prevails in the northern districts disappears more and more towards the south; so that snow and ice are not unknown. Upon the east coast the air is humid, and rain, thunder, and violent storms are not unfrequent; but in the western district the atmosphere is free from vapour, rain is unfrequent, dew never falls, and the drought is often very great. The climate of the pampas is subject to a great difference of temperature in winter and summer, although the gradual changes are very regular. The winter is about as cold as November is in England, and the ground at sunrise is invariably covered with white frost, but the ice is very thin. In summer the sun is oppressively hot; and not only manual labour suspended during the middle of the day, but even the wild horses and cattle are exhausted by it. The only great irregularity in the climate is the pampero, or S.W. wind, which sweeps over these plains with a velocity and a violence which it is impossible to withstand. These periodical visitations, however, produce beneficial effects, the weather being particularly agreeable after they have exhausted their fury; and, taken as a whole, the pampas may be said to enjoy as beautiful and salubrious an atmosphere as the most healthy parts of Greece and Italy, and without being subject to malaria.

With regard to humidity, the atmosphere varies much in different parts of the country. In the provinces of Mendoza and San Luis, or in the regions of wood and grass, the air is very dry, and there is no deposition of dew at night; but in Buenos Ayres a considerable quantity of moisture prevails in the atmosphere, probably from the vicinity of the place to the ocean.

In some parts of La Plata there are wooded tracts, consisting of palms, cedars, and other trees; but from the Rio de la Plata to the Straits of Magellanes, as well as throughout the most part of the pampas, we find neither tree nor shrub. In the country north of the Gran Salina tropical productions are raised, such as mandioc, rice, maize, sugar, cotton, and tobacco; while the Paraguay tea plant, the cactus that bears the cochineal insect, the aloe from the fibres of which ropes and cordage are made, and other plants, grow wild here. In the southern regions wheat and maize are principally grown. Cultivation hardly extends beyond the banks of the Parana and the mouths of the other rivers. The N.W. part of the country is chiefly agricultural, while the eastern and southern regions abound in pasture land. The fruits of Southern Europe grow in La Plata. This country has long been celebrated for the abundance of its cattle, horses, sheep, goats, asses, mules, and swine. The horses are both wild and tame, and the number of them, as well as of the cattle, is immense. The number of cattle in 1851 was estimated at twelve millions; and the horses, mules, and asses are probably far more than four millions. Amongst the wild animals may be mentioned the jaguar, the puma (which may be said to represent the lion in the New World), the carpincho or water-hog, tajassu, tapir, armadillo, guanaco, monkey, deer, many species of serpents, locust, mosquito, wasp, ant, bee, &c. Amongst the birds of this country may be mentioned the condor, Brazilian-eagle, many hawks, emu, crax, guan, wild turkey, parrots, tropialia, woodpeckers, many species of duck, &c. Near the Andes, and on the banks of the Paraná, bees are kept, and wax is collected. The cochineal insect is also reared. Of fish, there are various kinds in the rivers; and along the coast whales and seals (which yield train-oil and fish-bone for exportation), sharks and turtles, are found.

The population of La Plata is very various in its character and origin. It consists of natives, of Spaniards, of races of mixed native and Spanish blood, of Negroes, and of European immigrants. The Indians themselves are not all of the same race, but belong to three different classes. In the mountains and valleys of the N.W. dwells a race of Peruvian origin, speaking the Quichua language; east of the Paraná lives a race of Guarani, who are also spread over a large part of Brazil; and the southern part of the country is occupied by Araucanian tribes. Of the natives but a small proportion are subject to the dominant race, and these are only found in the northern provinces. In some places these natives live in villages separate from the white population. The independent Indians, who inhabit the Gran Chaco and the pampas south of 35° S. Lat., are often at war with the Europeans. With the exception of those tribes who have been taught husbandry by the Jesuits, these people all lead a nomadic life, being almost constantly on horseback, and subsisting on the chase and the produce of their flocks and herds. The tribes of the Gran Chaco, though having no friendly intercourse with the Spaniards, are not constantly at war with them; but those of the pampas carry on their hostilities almost without intermission. They were at one time restricted to the regions south of the 33rd parallel; and at present they are by treaty forbidden to cross the Rio Negro without permission, but they pay very little attention to this restriction. They are divided into families, each under a chief, who has very little power except in war. The Spaniards, who are the dominant race, form a very small proportion of the population; but in many parts the bulk of the people is composed of the mixed races. Of these mixed races, the most remarkable are the Gauchos, or rustics of the pampas. They live in huts of osiers and mud; but the greater part of their time is spent on horseback, hunting the wild cattle and horses of the plains. Their dress consists of a coarse jacket and breeches, over which is a poncho or square woollen mantle, with a slit in the middle for the head; a broad straw hat; and boots made of the skin of a horse's hind legs, without a seam. They frequently wear silver buckles, silver-mounted knives, and silver-rowelled spurs. Their peculiar weapons are the lasso, or long leather thong and noose, and the bolas, or two balls attached to a leather thong. Both these missiles they handle with great dexterity, seldom failing to hit their mark: the lasso they throw round the neck or horns of the animal, the bolas round the legs. There were at one time numerous Negro slaves in some of the provinces of La Plata; and though slavery has been abolished since the revolution, their descendants still form a distinct class among the inhabitants.

The manufactures of La Plata are few and unimportant, as the great mass of the people are employed in agricultural or pastoral pursuits. The most important manufacture is that of ponchos, which are made of the finest quality at Manufactory Santiago. Various other woollen fabrics are made for dresses, tares, and other purposes. The wearing apparel, knives, spurs, household furniture, &c., of the peasantry are to a large extent imported, and are generally of British manufacture.

A large amount of internal commerce is carried on Commerce among the different provinces, as most of them produce articles that are not found in the others. There is also some trade by land with the neighbouring countries of Peru, Bolivia, and Chile; and through the Rio de la Plata commercial relations are kept up with other foreign countries. This commerce is chiefly carried on through Buenos Ayres; and since the separation of that province from the other thirteen, through Rosario. Cotton cloth, calico, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, leather, hardware, cutlery, glass, earthenware, arms, ammunition, &c., are imported from Great Britain; wines, silk, perfumery, jewellery, &c., from France; and various other articles from other parts of Europe, the United States, Brazil, &c. The principal articles exported from La Plata are mules, salt beef, hides, horns, and wool. The annual value of the imports is about L208,000, and that of the exports L230,000.

The provinces of La Plata form a federal republic similar to that of the United States of North America. Each province is so far independent that it has its own constitution, its legislature, and executive; while there is at the same time a federal Congress and a president of the whole confederacy. The Congress consists of two chambers,—the lower one composed of 38 deputies, elected directly by the people; and the upper of 28 senators, named by the provincial legislatures. The authority of the Congress extends to the relations of the republic with foreign states, and the financial affairs of the nation. The president is elected indirectly by the people for the period of six years. The capital and part of the territory are under the immediate government of the president and Congress. The army of the confederacy amounts to 5000 men; and there is a national militia that may be called out in time of war. The national finances are in a very bad condition; the paper currency is very much depreciated; and the debt amounts to a large sum. The annual public expenditure is about L40,000. The established religion in La Plata is the Roman Catholic, but all others are tolerated. Education is not very far advanced; but in the chief towns it is in a better state than in most parts of South America.

The confederation of La Plata consists at present of thirteen provinces, besides the country occupied by the Indians. The provinces, with their area, population, and capitals, are as follows:—

| Provinces | Sq. Miles | Pop. | Capital | |--------------------|-----------|------|---------| | Cordova | 45,780 | 150,000 | Cordova | | Catamarca | 38,150 | 70,000 | Catamarca | | Corrientes | 12,720 | 84,000 | Corrientes | | Entre Rios | | 50,000 | Paraná | | Jujuy | 55,100 | 40,000 | Salta | | Salta | | 60,000 | Salta | | Mendoza | 47,050 | 60,000 | Mendoza | | Rioja | 58,500 | 40,000 | Rioja | | Santiago del Estero| 69,620 | 80,000 | Santiago | | San Juan | 39,100 | 40,000 | San Juan | | Santa Fe | 40,900 | 32,000 | Santa Fe | | San Luis | 35,800 | 40,000 | San Luis | | Tucuman | 41,960 | 60,000 | Tucuman |

Total: 484,680 806,500

We proceed to describe the several provinces in detail.

Cordova is bounded on the N. by Santiago and Catamarca, Cordova E. by Santa Fe, S. by the Indian territory and Buenos Ayres, and W. by San Luis and Rioja. It is occupied in the central and western portions by the Sierra de Cordova and its branches, from which many rivers flow, the principal being the Sercero, an afflu- La Plata, out of the Parana. This is a fine province, the soil being rich and fertile, well irrigated. It is pretty well wooded, possesses excellent pasturage, and abounds in fine clover. Cordova, the capital of the province, is picturesque situated in a deep valley, on the Primero, in S. Lat. 31. 15., W. Long. 63. 40. It was founded in 1753, and became a place of considerable importance in the time of the Jesuits. An active trade is carried on through Cordova, between Buenos Ayres and the upper provinces of La Plata. Pop. 14,000.

Catamarca. Catamarca is a tract of country situated near the foot of the Andes, and is bounded by Santiago, Tucuman, and Salta on the N. and E., by the Andes on the W., and by Rioja and Cordova on the S. It consists of a mountainous table-land, but is noted for an extensive and fruitful valley, called the Valley of Catamarca. The climate of this district is of the most pleasant description, and the country produces cotton of a very superior quality. The city of Catamarca is situated about 180 miles south-west of Tucuman, in Lat. 27. 45. S., and Long. 66. W. It was founded more than a century and a half ago, and stands in the beautiful valley which bears its name. It contains about four thousand inhabitants. The other towns in this province are unimportant.

Corrientes. Corrientes is situated between the rivers Parana and Uruguay; on the N. it is bounded by the state of Paraguay, E. by Brazil, S. by Entre Rios, and W. by the Gran Chaco. The southern parts of the province are well wooded and fertile, the principal productions being cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar. The territory of Corrientes is intersected by several rivers, some of which are navigable for a considerable distance. Besides the celebrated lake Ybera, which is very shallow, but covers sometimes 1,000 square miles, there are in the province numerous sheets of water, by which it is rendered one of the most fertile countries on the face of the globe. Corrientes, the capital, is admirably situated on the banks of the Parana, near its junction with the Paraguay. It is a very populous city, and contains several public buildings. Its position is very good for commercial purposes. Pop. 78,433.

Entre Rios. Entre Rios is situated between the two great rivers Parana and Uruguay, and is bounded on the N. by the province of Corrientes, E. by Uruguay, S. by Buenos Ayres, and W. by Santiago. It possesses several peculiar advantages, and is one of the most fertile and pleasing provinces in the whole republic. Embraced on all sides but one by the two great rivers just named, it is easily accessible by shipping; and being thus insulated, it is protected from the incursions of the Indians. It is copiously irrigated, the northern part being subject to an annual inundation, and the soil is distinguished for its fertility. Wood is abundant, but small in size. The pastures are extensive; but the wild cattle, which formerly abounded, are much reduced in number. Hides, horns, tallow, and beef are the principal articles exported. Parana or Bajada, the capital of Entre Rios, and the seat of government of the confederation, stands on the left bank of the river Parana, opposite Santa Fe. It is a large town, and contains a hall of representatives, a theatre, and several churches. An active trade is carried on here; and the noise and bustle of the streets present a striking contrast to the solitude and silence that prevails on the banks of the river both above and below the town. Parana was founded in 1730. Pop. about 15,000.

Jujuy and Salta. The provinces of Jujuy and Salta are bounded on the N. and W. by Bolivia, S. by Catamarca and Tucuman, and E. by the Gran Chaco. The western part belongs to the great range of the Cordilleras, and is rich in metals. Here are found gold and silver, copper, iron of various qualities, sulphur, alum, vitriol; and there are also indications of the existence of tin and quicksilver. Many branches of mountains, offshoots from the colossal chain of the Andes, extend into the province, from which proceed pleasant and beautiful valleys, intersected by numerous streams which irrigate and fertilize the country. The vegetable productions are wheat, maize, pulse, cotton, sugar, indigo, &c. There are extensive forests and good pastures, where horses and cattle are reared. In one of the intervals between the low collateral branches of the Andes is situated Salta, the capital of the province of that name, in Lat. 29. 15. S., and Long. 64. W., on the great road leading from Buenos Ayres to Lima by the way of Potosi. It was founded in 1682, and has long been a place of some consideration in this thinly-peopled region. The climate, however, is very unhealthy. The population amounts to about 9,000 souls. The town of Jujuy stands on a river of the same name, in a country rich in precious metals.

(For an account of the province and town of Mendoza, see MENDOZA.)

Rioja is situated at the foot of the Andes, and is bounded on the N. by Catamarca, E. by Cordova, S. by San Luis and San Juan, and W. by Chile. Like the other provinces in this region, it is mountainous, including the Sierra Pamatina and Sierra Velasco, which form the three parallel valleys of Guanacaste, Pamatina, and Araucas. Rich silver mines are worked in the Sierra Pamatina. Vines are grown in the north of the province; agriculture is carried on in the W., and cattle are fed on the rich pastures in the S. Rioja, the capital, is a small and unimportant city, situated at the foot of the Sierra Velasco, in Lat. 28. 30. S., and Long. 63. 35. W. It contains about 8,000 inhabitants.

Santiago del Estero is situated between Tucuman and Cordova, Santiago being south of the former and north of the latter. It is of great del Estero, extent in all directions, and is one of the most fertile of these provinces. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants of Santiago. Honey, wax, many valuable woods, cochineal, &c., are obtained here, and some manufactures are carried on. All kinds of grain may here be brought to perfection; yet the inhabitants are slow to avail themselves of the advantages presented by nature. The city of Santiago, situated on the road to Bolivia through Cordova, in 27. 55. S. Lat., and 63. 20. W. Long., is of little importance. Pop. 4,000.

San Juan is bounded on the N. by Rioja, E. by San Luis, S. by San Juan. Mendoza, and W. by Chile. In the north of the province there are some gold mines, which are worked to a small extent. The country is remarkably fertile, producing wheat, maize, olives, and vines in abundance. The produce of the olive plantations is much esteemed in Buenos Ayres; and the inhabitants direct their attention chiefly to the cultivation of the vine, which grows luxuriantly, and to the making of wines and brandies, which they export in large quantities as far as Potosi, Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, and a great portion of the eastern side of the Rio de la Plata. The city of San Juan, situated in Lat. 31. 15. S., and Long. 63. 35. W., was founded as early as 1550, and is consequently one of the most ancient places in the republic. Pop. 80,000.

Santa Fe is bounded on the N. by the Gran Chaco, E. by Entre Santa Fe, Rioja, S. by Buenos Ayres, and W. by Cordova. This fertile country is irrigated by numerous rivers, some of which are of considerable size. The chief employment of the inhabitants consists in the breeding of cattle and horses, the skins of which animals are conveyed to Buenos Ayres. Santa Fe, the capital, is situated on the western bank of the Parana, and has risen to importance by becoming a depot for goods on the river. The inhabitants of the town amount to about 4,000. The largest town in the province is Rosario, which occupies the farthest south, and therefore holds the most important position of any town on the Parana, being nearest to the main market of the west. It is 150 miles above the confluence of the Paraguay and Parana, and the river is here navigable for ships drawing 14 feet. In the latter half of 1854 the vessels that entered and cleared were 290; tonnage, 11,000; value of cargoes, L760,000. Pop. 12,000.

San Luis is bounded on the E. by Cordova, S. by the territory of San Luis, the Pamatins Indians, W. by Mendoza and San Juan, and N. by Rioja. The soil is poor; and though the climate is salubrious, the inhabitants are very indolent. Agriculture is not pursued to any extent, but large numbers of cattle are reared. San Luis, the capital, is a very ancient town, and the only place of any importance in the journey between Buenos Ayres and Mendoza. It is situated in a fertile valley at the foot of the Sierra de Cordoba. Pop. 1,000.

Tucuman, one of the most important and fertile provinces in the republic, is bounded by Salta on the N., and by Santiago and Catamarca on the S. and W. It contains mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead; but these are only worked to a small extent. The other productions are wheat, maize, rice, sugar, and tobacco, of which thousands of bales are exported to Cordova, San Luis, San Juan, Mendoza, and other cities. Fruits of various sorts are abundant; and potatoes here attain an enormous size. Tucuman, the capital of the province, is a struggling city, situated in 26. 50. of S. Lat., and 64. 35. of W. Long. To the west of the city is a mountain of great height, from which numerous waters descend to fertilize and beautify the surrounding territory. Along all the higher parts of this mountain are immense clusters of trees and amongst them many of bitter oranges. The city is surrounded by three woody tracts, in which the trees sometimes attain an extraordinary size, and the timber is of the best quality used in America. The houses in general are of an inferior description; but the place is memorable from its having taken a distinguished part in the revolutionary struggle. Pop. 8,000.

To the Spaniards belongs the honour of first discovering this History, part of the South American continent. In the year 1516, Juan Diaz de Solis, having been furnished by the court of Spain with two ships for the purpose of exploring Brazil, arrived, in the course of his voyage, at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. Touching on the N. coast between Malouino and Monte Video, he took possession of the land in name of his sovereign; but, thrown off his guard by the deceitful friendship of the natives who he was slain, along with a few attendants who had followed him on shore. The coast was immediately abandoned by the survivors on board of the vessels; but in the year 1526 a fresh expedition, under the celebrated Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain, entered the river, and cast anchor opposite the site of the present Buenos Ayres. La Plata. This took place at the time when a Spanish captain called García was making discoveries in other parts of the same river. Advancing about 300 miles upwards, Cabot discovered a fine river, the Tercero, flowing into the main stream. Up this he sailed with his fleet, and disembarking his men, built a fort, in which he left a garrison; whilst he himself, with his remaining followers, pursued his discovery still farther up the river. The Indians with whom he came in contact exhibited abundance of gold and silver plates, particularly the latter, brought by them from the eastern parts of Peru. This circumstance led Cabot to believe that mines of the precious metals existed in the country in which he then was; and accordingly he gave the name of Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver, to the noble stream by which it was watered. The Spaniards soon determined on colonizing this valuable acquisition; and, to prevent any interference on the part of other nations of Europe, Don Pedro de Mendoza, with two or three thousand followers, was sent from Spain to secure the possession, and establish a relationship between the Spanish crown and the country. He landed upon the western shores of the La Plata in the year 1532, and founded the city of Buenos Ayres, which he so named from the salubrity of the climate. Pursuing his way into the interior, he explored all the country as far as Potosi, at which mines of silver were discovered nine years afterwards. The first settlers at Buenos Ayres were most unfortunate; their town was burned by the Indians, and after suffering every privation, they were shortly afterwards compelled to abandon the place. Previously to this event, Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, had been founded; and thither the wrecks remaining of the expedition retreated. A second attempt was fitted out, and an attempt made to rebuild the town, in 1542; but it was overwhelmed by a calamity similar to that which had overtaken the former. The chief ambition of the Spaniards was for some time directed to forming settlements in Paraguay, in order to facilitate their communication with the mines of Peru, where Pizarro and his successors were gathering in a rich harvest. Contentions with the Indians were frequent and bloody, for the Guarani Indians of the vast plains upon either bank of the La Plata proved much more difficult to subdue than the timid and tractable Peruvians.

It was not until the year 1580 that the Europeans succeeded in their attempts to found a town upon the site chosen by Mendoza. Before this period, however, they had established themselves at San Isidro, Mendoza, and some other places in the interior; but as Dr Southey observes, the history of this part of South America differs from that of any other colony in the remarkable circumstances attending its settlement. A settlement was formed in the heart of the country, and the Spaniards colonized from the interior towards the sea. But they were not permitted quietly to enjoy the success of their third attempt to found Buenos Ayres. Stimulated by the recollection of their previous triumphs in demolishing the works of the invaders on the same ground, the Indians once more attacked it; but the town was so well fortified and garrisoned as to bid defiance to their efforts. From this period the city began to prosper; and the ship which carried to Castile the intelligence of its re-foundation took home a cargo of sugar, and the first hides with which Europe was supplied from the wild cattle which now began to overspread the country, and soon produced a total change in the manners of all the adjoining tribes. The immense pampas of La Plata appear to have been originally stocked with cattle from a stock which had been brought by the earliest settlers; and as rapidly had they multiplied that, about the year 1610, no less than a million is said to have been driven from the country in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe into Peru.

From the first period of the colonization of this country till the year 1778, the government was dependent on that of Peru, although the chief of Buenos Ayres had the title of Captain-General. A false idea of what constitutes wealth led Spain to estimate the value of her possessions by the number and richness of their mines of gold and silver; and Buenos Ayres being deficient in these, its more solid advantages of a fertile soil and a salubrious climate were consequently overlooked. The pernicious system of policy practised by Spain towards her colonies was the main cause why this city remained for such a length of time almost entirely unknown to Europeans. Apparent advantages might be introduced into Peru by way of Buenos Ayres; and thus, widening the sale of the cargoes imported by the fleets which they sent to Panama, the early traders solicited and obtained from the government the prohibition of every kind of commerce by the Rio de la Plata. Those whom this measure most nearly affected put in a strong remonstrance against it, and were so far successful that, in 1602, permission was granted them to export for six years, in two vessels belonging to themselves, and on their own account, a certain quantity of flour, tallow, and jerked beef, but only to two ports. Upon the expiration of the term, an indefinite prolongation was solicited, with an extension to all kinds of merchandise, and liberty to trade also with other ports. This application was vehemently opposed; but notwithstanding, in the year 1619, the inhabitants of the shores of the Rio de la Plata were authorized to fit out two vessels, not exceeding 100 tons burden each. Several other vexatious restrictions were imposed on them; and to prevent any traffic with the interior of Peru, a custom-house duty of 50 per cent. was established at Cordova del Tucuman, where a duty of 50 per cent. was levied upon all imports. This custom-house was also designed to prevent the transmission of the precious metals from Peru to Buenos Ayres, even for payment for wares furnished by the latter city. By an edict of 1622 the permission previously given was prolonged for an indefinite period; and with a view to promote the prosperity of the country, a royal audiencia was established at Buenos Ayres in 1665.

Under such a miserable system of policy, it is not surprising that the provinces of the Rio de la Plata languished in indigence and obscurity. But the resources of so extensive and fertile a territory could not remain for ever concealed. As the population and wealth of the country increased, the continual remonstrances of the people at last opened the eyes of the Spanish government to the importance of the colony, and a relation took place in the system of commercial monopoly which had hitherto been rigorously adhered to. Indeed, the absurd restrictions had been followed by their natural consequences—smuggling; and to such a height was the contraband trade carried that, in order to put a stop to it, the government of Castille gave permission to register ships to sail under a license from the council of the Indies at any time of the year. The goods which hitherto had embarked from Spain once a year, and was the only legitimate means of communication with America, dwindled away from 15,000 to 2000 tons of shipping; and in 1748 it sailed for the last time to Cadiz, after having carried on the trade of Spanish America for two centuries. The registership now supplied the market with European commodities at a cheaper rate and at all seasons of the year; and from that time Buenos Ayres gradually rose into importance. Other relaxations in the mercantile system followed soon afterwards. In the year 1774 free trade was permitted between several of the colonial ports; and this was subsequently followed by additional liberties.

The improvements which took place in Buenos Ayres by this enlargement of its commerce relations were frequently interrupted by circumstances which carry us back to an earlier period of its history. The Spaniards and Portuguese have, by a singular coincidence, been destined to be rivals, not only in the Old, but in the New World. The neighbouring territory of Brazil belonged to Portugal, and bitter hostilities frequently took place between the two countries. It is computed that, in the hostile incursions which the Brazilians made into the Spanish possessions in this quarter of America, they destroyed upwards of 400 towns and villages. These marauders, the offspring of Portuguese, Dutch, French, or Italians, by Brazilian women, were called Manelucos. Their principal object was to carry into slavery the Indians whom the Jesuits had partially civilized; and in exercising their inhuman trade they committed the most horrid enormities. It does not appear that their acts were authorized by the government to which they professed to obey; for repeated decrees were issued in favour of the oppressed Indians. These, however, were seldom or never obeyed; and governors and others who profited by the captivity and sale of the native tribes, winked at the traffic. But the rivalry and animosity of the Portuguese were productive of other results besides those consequent on hostile incursions. We have alluded to an extensive contraband trade, originating, in the first instance, in the blind policy of Spain. This was chiefly carried on by the Portuguese, who were enabled, by extending their settlements to the banks of the Rio de la Plata, to organize a system of smuggling which ultimately almost annihilated legitimate commerce. But this illicit trade, though detrimental to the mother country, by whom it was finally put down, contributed not a little to the prosperity of the colony.

In the year 1778 the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia were erected into a viceroyalty, of which Buenos Ayres was constituted the capital. At the same time, it was thrown open to free trade of every description, even with the interior of Peru; and such was the effect of this wholesale encouragement that the number of vessels trading with South America was at once augmented, and kept gradually increasing from year to year.

In the year 1806 a British squadron, under the command of Sir Home Popham, appeared in the Rio de la Plata. From this armament a body of troops was landed, for the purpose of taking the capital. The British force was small, but, by the culpable negligence of the viceroy, who does not appear to have made any attempt to defend this important city, General Beresford accomplished his object on the 26th of June. This rash and unauthorized enterprise was fortunate in the first instance, but exceedingly disastrous in its issues. The viceroy having retired to Cordova, Don Santiago Liniers La Plata, a Frenchman in the service of Spain, put himself at the head of all the troops he could collect on both banks of the Plata, and on the 12th of August attacked the city at several points. So vigorous and successful was the assault, that the British general and his troops were compelled to surrender themselves prisoners of war. In the meantime, British reinforcements arrived from the Cape of Good Hope, whence the original expedition had sailed; and Sir Home Popham, after making an unsuccessful attempt on Monte Video, took Fort Maldonado, at the mouth of the River Plata. But the following year the first capture of Buenos Ayres was so well received by the British public that government resolved on maintaining possession of the banks of the Plata; and an armament was therefore fitted out for effectually reducing the enemy. The first body of troops, which were commanded by Sir Samuel Auchmuty, landed at the British to undertake the conquest of Monte Video, which was carried by storm in February 1807. In May following, General Whitelocke arrived at the head of a formidable force; and about a month afterwards these were joined by a further reinforcement under General Crawford. The army now amounted to 8000 men, and the chief command was confided to General Whitelocke, a man destitute alike of courage and ability. The reduction of Buenos Ayres was now resolved upon; the attacking army sailed up the river, and disembarking below the capital, marched towards it, but met with a reception which was little anticipated. The inhabitants of Buenos Ayres had made every preparation for a desperate resistance. The streets were intersected by deep ditches, defended by cannon, and the windows and houses were heavily planted with armed men. No sooner had the British troops begun to penetrate the streets in columns than they were assailed by fire and musketry, under which they perished in great numbers, without being able to retaliate on the citizens. The cool, determined valour of the troops, and the heroic energy of their leaders, were exerted in vain. About one-third of the British army was either killed, wounded, or taken prisoners, without any material advantage having been gained. In these circumstances, it would have been madness to persist in such a mode of operation; and next day an armistice was concluded. A convention followed, the terms of which were, that the British should evacuate the possessions on the Plata in six months, and that all prisoners taken on both sides should be restored. By this capitulation Monte Video, which might have been safely maintained against any enemy, and which would have afforded a secure depot for our reinforcements, was also lost.

But the events which were now passing on the continent of Europe were destined to change completely the aspect of affairs in South America. The invasion of Spain by Napoleon in 1808 gave the colonists an opportunity of throwing off their allegiance to the mother country. The princess-regent of Portugal, claiming the crown of Spain, despatched emissaries to La Plata to concert measures for her residence at Buenos Ayres. Her proposals were received with enthusiasm; but when on the point of being crowned with success, they were rendered abortive by the viceroy Cisneros, who was a staunch supporter of the rights of Ferdinand VII.

From this time the principal supporters of the Princess Carola changed their views, and formed plans of ultimately setting up the standard of independence. After some political intrigues, they succeeded in deposing the viceroy, and on the 25th of May 1816 named a junta gubernativa, the leading member of which was Don Mariano Moreno, the secretary. As the eyes of the people in the provinces were opened to the daring nature of the step which had been taken, the authority of the junta became more and more circumscribed, and was soon reduced to the limits of Buenos Ayres. Monte Video did not recognize it at all. But Moreno was nothing dismayed by this want of support, and his measures became more decisive as the emergency increased. He succeeded in expelling the viceroy from the country; and had not the junta itself become divided, and a man at the head of affairs would have soon brought matters to an issue. It became impossible for the junta to exist in its then disjointed state. Moreno, with his party of thirty-five, and he having accepted a mission to England, unfortunately died on his return.

The people of Buenos Ayres having so far succeeded in establishing their independence, considered themselves powerful enough to proclaim it in the provinces. A division of patriots under Ocampo was sent against Cordova, where a formidable faction opposed to the new order of things had been organized by Llamosa; and this leader was taken prisoner, and shot, along with several influential persons. The opposition to the republicans was by these violent measures put an end to; but though nearly the whole of the country was now in favour of independence, there were continual disputes as to what form of government that should be established,—Buenos Ayres endeavouring to obtain the supreme power, while the other provinces contended for equal rights. In January 1813 a sovereign constituent assembly was convened at Buenos Ayres. It was not until now that the Spanish flag and cockade were replaced by the tricolour. Now also the coinage bore the republican arms.

Monte Video still stoutly maintained the sinking cause of Spain: the effort was unavailing. Twice the soldiers of the fortress, in attacking the soldiers of Buenos Ayres, were driven back. In 1812 the town was taken, when between 5000 and 6000 royalist troops laid down their arms, and an immense quantity of military stores was likewise given up. The changes which the government of Buenos Ayres underwent we need not follow; and the civil dissensions by which the country was afflicted are equally endless and uninteresting. In 1816 a congress of deputies from all the provinces met at Tucuman, which named General Fueyredon director of the republic, and declared the countries on the Plata independent. An army was raised and disciplined to defend the country, and to assist the people of Chile against their common enemy. The combined forces gained over the Spaniards the two decisive victories of Chacabuco (1817) and Maypo (1818). Various attempts were made by the Spaniards to regain possession of La Plata, but they were all without success; and finally their troops were totally defeated by the republicans in July 1820. In 1821 the independence of La Plata was recognized by the British government. The internal dissensions in the country previous to the appointment of Rosas dictator in 1833, and the events which led to his downfall and flight in 1852, are briefly narrated in the article BUENOS AYRES. This event, which seemed to put an end to a protracted war, was in reality but the signal for fresh contests. The people of Buenos Ayres, exulting in their newly-obtained liberty, were still animated with all their old jealousy of the other provinces, and of General Urquiza, who supported their rights. Accordingly, when the governors of all the provinces, assembled by Urquiza at San Nicolas, refused to allow him provisory director until a general Congress, which was to meet at Santa Fe, should prepare a constitution, the representative assembly of Buenos Ayres denounced Urquiza of attempting to set up a new tyranny, and forbade the execution of the treaty of San Nicolas. Urquiza, in the exercise of his provisory powers, dissolved the assembly, and occupied the city with his troops. While thus possessed of supreme power, the director followed a more liberal policy than Rosas, by acknowledging the independence of Paraguay, opening the La Plata to ships of all nations, and permitting free commerce in the interior of the country. But no sooner had Urquiza quitted Buenos Ayres to attend the Congress at Santa Fe, than a revolution took place in the town; his troops were obliged to retire; the representative assembly again met, and appointed General Jose provisory governor of the province. But the province of Buenos Ayres itself soon became divided, the country rising against the towns, and the towns against the provinces; and General Urquiza besieged Buenos Ayres by land and sea. Meanwhile all the other provinces sent deputies to the Congress of Santa Fe, which prepared a federal constitution, and published it May 1, 1853. The representatives of Brazil and Bolivia attempted in vain to mediate between the contending parties; and afterwards the ministers of Great Britain and France interfered with as little success. On the 26th of June 1853 Commodore Coe, the commander of Urquiza's squadron at Buenos Ayres, influenced, it is said, by a bribe, went over to the other side. Mutiny and desertion broke out in the besieging army; and Urquiza was obliged to retire to the province of Corrientes, of which he was governor. Then ensued a separation between the contending parties. Buenos Ayres declared itself a sovereign state; while the other provinces fixed their capital at Paraná, and appointed Urquiza president of the republic for six years. In this divided condition La Plata has remained; and although several attempts have been made to negotiate a reunion, none has proved successful. Two treaties were concluded in December 1854 and January 1855, by which the two states were to allow free commerce between their territories, to use one national flag, and to defend each other against foreign aggression. Fresh misunderstandings and aggressions however arose; and these treaties were declared null March 18, 1856. But the country has purchased, at the expense of this division, a respite from the long series of revolutions and tyranny, civil and foreign wars, which have agitated it from the period of its independence to that of its dissolution. The thirteen provinces endeavoured to lessen the preponderance of Buenos Ayres by opening up the Parana and Paraguay to commerce, and by imposing extra duties on merchandise coming by Buenos Ayres. At the same time, they are turning their attention to the internal improvement of the country, by colonizing its vast and rich though almost unoccupied territories, by constructing railways to connect its various parts, and launching steamers on its magnificent rivers. The experience of the last half century seems at last to have taught the people and their leaders how ruinous it is to fight about constitutions and governments, and to neglect or wantonly to destroy the undisputed gifts which nature has so lavishly bestowed. A few years of peace would probably do much to develop the resources of the country, and create a common interest among the provinces, which would unite them more firmly together than laws or treaties ever could.

Río de la, a large estuary of South America, formed by the confluence of the Rivers Parana and Uruguay. It is about 185 miles in length; and its breadth gradually increases from its head towards the sea. At Buenos Ayres, about 30 miles below the confluence of the two great rivers, it is 29 miles across; at Monte Video, 70 miles farther down, it has expanded to 53 miles; and at its mouth, between Cape San Antonio and Punta de la Ballena, its breadth is about 130 miles. This vast sheet of water is by no means deep; the average depth at the mouth is 10 fathoms; farther up it becomes gradually shallower; and between Monte Video and Buenos Ayres the average depth is only 3 fathoms. The estuary is also much impeded with sand-banks; and the currents are very strong and variable, on account of the immense body of water brought down by the rivers, which drain an area estimated at 1,200,000 square miles; being thus inferior in this respect to the Amazon and Mississippi only. The tides in the La Plata are hardly perceptible; but this is owing not to any real deficiency in their force, but to their being confused, and, as it were, concealed by the other currents. Violent storms frequently agitate the La Plata, chiefly raised by the gales called pamperos, which drive the water in a great volume in one direction. From these causes, the navigation is here so difficult that the estuary has been called El Inferno de los Marineros (Sailors' Hell). The water of the rivers is very long in mingling with that of the ocean; it floats muddy and dark on the surface in an easterly direction; and at the distance of 600 miles from the land it has a velocity of 1 mile an hour, and spreads over a breadth of 800 miles. Of the two great rivers that form the Rio de la Plata, the largest is the Parana, which rises in Brazil not more than 100 miles N.W. of Rio de Janeiro. The upper streams of this river have various names; but at the confluence of the Rio Grande, the longest of them, with the Parnahiba, the combined river takes the name of Parana, which it retains till it merges itself in the Rio de la Plata. The Parana flows southwards, receiving several large affluents, and separates Paraguay from Brazil and La Plata. It then turns to the west, and flows in that direction for 50 miles, still forming the boundary between Paraguay and La Plata. On receiving the Paraguay from the north at Corrientes, it again turns south, and flows through La Plata till it falls into the Rio de la Plata by several branches, forming the island of Martin Garcia and others. The Martin Garcia channel, by which the Parana is entered, is difficult of navigation, and does not admit vessels drawing more than 14 feet of water. The total length of the Parana is 2040 miles,—namely, 500 from the source of the Rio Grande to its confluence with the Parnahiba, 1000 from that point to the union of the Paraguay and Parana, and 540 thence to the Rio de la Plata. It is navigable to Corrientes for ships drawing 7½ feet, and for smaller vessels to Candelaria, 150 miles farther, where rapids occur. The principal affluent of the Parana is the Paraguay, which exceeds, in the volume of its water and in the length and directness of its course, the river that retains the name. It issues from several lakes in the Sierra Diamante in Brazil, and flows southwards, separating La Plata from Brazil and Paraguay. Its principal tributaries are the Pilcomayo and Vermejo, both from the west. Its whole length from its source to Corrientes is about 1890 miles; and it is navigable to Assumption, 200 miles above Corrientes, for vessels drawing 7½ feet. Above this point it is believed to be navigable for smaller vessels for 800 miles, and the Vermejo for 500. The Parana also receives from the west the Salado, which is entirely within the provinces of La Plata, rising in the N.W., flowing S.E., and joining the main stream at Santa Fé. Like all rivers from within the tropics, the Parana has a low and a high season, depending on the periodical rains. The former lasts during the winter and spring of the Southern Hemisphere, from June to December, and the latter during the summer and autumn. The difference in the height of the river in these seasons varies at different parts, being about 3 feet where it is wide, 8 feet where narrow, and on an average over the whole about 4 feet. The Uruguay rises in Brazil in the Sierra de Santa Catharina, and flows first west and then south, separating Brazil and Uruguay from La Plata, and falling into the Rio de la Plata, where its blue waters preserve their clearness for miles before they are lost in the muddy current of the Parana. Its whole length is more than 800 miles, and it is navigable for ships drawing 5 or 6 feet for 250 miles. The estuary of La Plata is fitted by nature to be the outlet of a most extensive river trade, though as yet its advantages have been turned to very little account. Goods from foreign countries destined for the interior are generally shipped at Buenos Ayres, and put on board smaller river craft. But as, until lately, all the river trade was performed by sailing vessels, the means of communication were very imperfect; for no ships could ascend the rivers unless they had not only a wind up the stream, itself not a very frequent occurrence, but one sufficient to impel them against the current running from 2 to 4 miles an hour. At the same time, large steamers could not ascend on account of the shallows. But since the opening of the rivers in 1852 steamers have been introduced, after the model of the Mississippi boats, which will much accelerate and facilitate the conveyance of goods.