or PULJAVA, a government of European Russia, lying between N. Lat. 48, 48, and 51, 4, E. Long. 30, 25, and 36; bounded on the N. by the government of Tchernigov, E. by those of Kursk and Charkov, S. by those of Ekaterinoslav and Kherson, and W. by that of Kiev; length, from N.W. to S.E., 212 miles; greatest breadth, 146 miles; area, 19,059 square miles. The whole surface con- sists of an extensive plain, sloping gradually from the N.E. towards the Dnieper, which forms the S.W. boundary of the government. Along the banks of this and the other rivers, its tributaries, in the country, there are a few hills, but these are the only interruptions to the monotonous flatness which prevails throughout the country. The principal affluents of the Dnieper in the government are the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, and Orel, all flowing from the N.W. The Dnieper is navi- gable all along the frontier of Poltava; and the Sula and Psiol are likewise navigable during the spring. The whole of the arable and meadow land is very rich and fertile. A small part of the country is occupied by forests; and a much larger portion consists of grass-covered steppes. The govern- ment contained in 1849, 5,397,198 acres of arable land; 3,279,915 of meadow land; 1,640,467 of wood; and 1,006,685 of waste land. The quantity of corn produced in the same year was 40,883,029 bushels, and of potatoes 2,842,535 bushels. There were at the same time in the go- vernment 173,352 horses, 661,061 horned-cattle, 1,704,294 sheep, 410,050 swine, and 3702 goats. The kinds of grain principally raised here are rye, oats, barley, wheat, buck- wheat, and millet. Tobacco, linseed, rapeseed, peas, and other vegetables are grown, as well as many kinds of fruit. Bees are kept in large numbers; many farmers have more than 100 hives; and the honey that is produced is of very excellent quality. Hares and partridges are numerous; and fish abound in the rivers. The climate is mild and healthy; but the cold in winter is sometimes severe when the north wind prevails. The only mineral productions are clay, lime, chalk, and saltpetre. Neither manufactures nor commerce are extensively carried on. There were, however, in 1849, 166 manufactories, employing 8014 hands. Among the former there were 65 of saltpetre, 24 of tallow and candles, 22 of tiles, 18 of cloth, 17 of sugar, and 9 of leather. The principal articles of export are corn and other rural produce, tallow, horses, cattle, wool, hemp, and flax. The majority of the inhabitants belong to the Greek Church; there are, however, 24,354 Jews, and a few Protestants and Roman Catholics in the country. Education is very much ne- glected, though nominally under the charge of the university of Charkov. There were in 1854, besides a gymnasium and other superior schools, 89 village schools, with 99 teachers, and 3643 scholars. Pop.(1851)1,668,694.

the capital of the above government, stands on a hill near the confluence of the rivers Poltawka and Vorskla, 445 miles S.S.W. of Moscow. It is walled, and defended by a castle in the centre occupying the summit of the hill. The streets are broad and straight, and the houses are for the most part of wood, though some of them are of stone or brick. Near the middle is the fine Alexander Square, with a granite monument to Peter the Great, com- memorative of his victory at Poltava in 1709. Among the public institutions of the town are a cathedral and numerous other churches, a convent, several schools, a museum of industry, a lunatic asylum, and other benevo- lent establishments. In the vicinity there are large salt- petre works and extensive plantations of cherry trees. There are here also tanneries and distilleries. Some trade is carried on in the produce of the country with Turkey and Ger- many. The town was besieged by Charles XII. in 1709; but Peter the Great, advancing to raise the siege, totally defeated the Swedish monarch in the vicinity. This deci- sive battle forced Charles to take refuge in Turkey, and securely established the power of Russia. An obelisk has been erected on the field of battle, near which high mass is annually performed. Pop.(1851)20,071.

PÖL'TEN, Sr (contracted for St Hippolyt), a town of Lower Austria, capital of the circle of Ober Wienerwalde, on the left bank of the Trasen, 35 miles W. of Vienna. It contains a splendid cathedral, an episcopal palace, several schools, an hospital for the deaf-and-dumb, a town-hall, theatre, and ball-room. In the principal square in the town stands a triangular column in honour of the Trinity (Drei- faltigkeitssäule). St Pölten has potteries, glass-works, cot- ton factories, and paper-mills. Pop. 5800.

POLY'ENUS, the name of many famous men recorded by the ancient writers. Amongst them was Julius Polyenus, of whom we have some Greek epigrams extant in the first book of the Anthologia. The Polyenus whom it most con- cerns us to know about is the author of the eight books of the Stratagems of Illustrious Commanders in War. He was probably a Macedonian, and perhaps a soldier in the early part of his life; but of this there is no certainty. He was undoubtedly a rhetorician and a pleader of causes; and, from the dedication of his work to the emperors Antoninus and Verus, he appears to have lived towards the latter part of the second century. The Stratagems were published in Greek by Isaac Casaubon, with notes, 1589, in 12mo; but no good edition of them appeared till that of Pancra- tius Maasius, Leyden, published in 1690, in 8vo. This work was translated into English by R. Shepherd, London, 1793.

We have in this work the various stratagems employed by above three hundred captains and generals of armies, chiefly Greeks and barbarians, for the Romans seldom resorted to such arts; and, besides, Polyenus has shown that he was little acquainted with Roman affairs. A great number of these stratagems appear to us to be ridiculous or im- practicable; and neither the generals nor common sol- Polybius, diers of our day would be found simple enough to be caught by them. Few of the latter order indeed are capable of reading Polybius' Strategies; and if they were, they would reap but little benefit from the book. It is useful, however, to such as study the Greek language and antiquity; for many things will be found in it illustrative of the customs and opinions of ancient times. The sixth and seventh books are both imperfect. Polybius composed several other works besides the Strategies. Suidas has produced some passages out of a book De Republica Macedonum; and Suidas mentions a piece concerning the Thebans. If death had not prevented him, he would have written Memorabilia of the Emperors Antoninus and Verus, which he promised to undertake in the Preface to his sixth book of Strategies. Cassanob, in the Dedication of Polybius to Mornanus, calls him an elegant, acute, and learned writer.