a market-town, parliamentary and municipal borough of England, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, occupies a beautiful position on a rocky height rising steeply from the Swale, here crossed by a stone bridge, 11 miles S.W. of Darlington, and 41 N.N.W. of York. The country around is richly wooded and very picturesque; and the romantic character of the place is enhanced by the old castle of Richmond, which stands to the south of the town, on the summit of cliffs which rise almost perpendicularly from the river. The Norman keep of the castle is still almost entire; the walls, 11 feet thick, rise to the height of nearly 100 feet. It was founded by Alan Rufus, Earl of Brittany, who came over with the Conqueror, and obtained from him the title of Earl of Richmond, along with the estates of the Saxon earl Edwin. The estates of Richmond became the crown property on the accession of that family in the person of Henry VII.; but they were conferred by Charles II. in 1675 on his son Charles Lennox, in whose family it still remains. The town is irregularly laid out, and has one handsome broad street and a large marketplace. The parish church is chiefly of Gothic architecture, but has some parts in the Norman style. A fine pinnacled tower rises from the west end. Trinity Chapel is a building of much antiquity, standing in the market-place. The other places of worship in the town belong to Wesleyans, Baptists, and Roman Catholics. There is a good town-hall, containing accommodation for the quarter-sessions, and a large assembly-room. The grammar-school of Richmond, incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, has six scholarships at Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, and contained in 1854, 60 pupils. The town has also a corporation school, national and infant schools, a school supported by Roman Catholics, a scientific society, and a mechanics' institute. The manufactures of the place are not of much importance, consisting of a large paper-mill, iron and brass foundries, tanneries, rope-works, and corn-mills. The market for corn here is of some importance; and though the town is not at present in a very flourishing condition, it is the residence of many wealthy families, and stands in a region where there are many parks and seats of the nobility and gentry. The borough is governed by a mayor, 3 other aldermen, and 12 councillors, and returns 2 members to Parliament. Near the town there are some remains of an ancient monastery of the priory of St Martin, and of St Nicholas' Hospital. Pop. of the parliamentary borough (1851) 4969.

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1 Cinq Mars, ou une conspiration sous Louis XIII. 2 The system adopted by Cardinal Richelieu has been very severely criticised by the following writers:—Edgar Quinet, "Philosophie de l'Histoire de France," Revue des Deux Mondes, 1855, tom. IX., p. 55; Ch. de Rémusat, "Richelieu et sa Correspondance," Revue des Deux Mondes, 1854, tom. v., p. 772; the same, "L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, par M. Alexis de Tocqueville," Revue des Deux Mondes, 1856, tom. iv., p. 633; Alb. de Broglie, "Conclusions de l'Histoire de France," Revue des Deux Mondes, 1854, tom. v., p. 265; Alexis de Tocqueville, L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution. M. Callet's volume, De l'Administration en France sous le ministère du Cardinal de Richelieu (Paris, Svo, 1857), although rather too eulogistic, is very valuable, and full of most important details. 3 See on this book two valuable articles by M. Hyver de Beauvoir in the Bulletin des Bourgeoisins for 1857, pp. 211, 257. 4 See a series of very interesting papers by M. Avenel in the Journal des Savants for March and August 1858 and February and May 1859. The Cardinal's Memoirs were published for the first time in M. Petitot's collection, 1823. Richmond. Richmond, a town of England, in the county of Surrey, on the sides and top of a hill on the right bank of the Thames, 10 miles W.S.W. of St Paul's in London. On the summit of the hill stands the Star and Garter Hotel, and along the brow runs a terrace, both commanding a wide view over one of the richest and most beautiful tracts of country in England. In the lower part of the town the houses are small and old-fashioned; but there are many very handsome buildings in the more modern portions, and in the outskirts. The parish church is a plain brick edifice, with a low embattled tower. In it and the churchyard there are monuments to Thomson the poet, Kean the actor, Dr John Moore, and Gilbert Wakefield, who are buried here. The church of St John, built in 1831, is a good building in the pointed style. Independents, Baptists, Wesleyans, and Roman Catholics possess in the town places of worship; and there is a Wesleyan theological institution, occupying a very fine edifice in the Tudor style. There are in the town several schools, a literary and scientific institution, mechanics' institute, theatre, and savings-bank. Richmond Park, which lies to the south-east of the town, is inclosed by a brick wall, and has an area of 2253 acres. It is open to the public, the main entrance being at the west end of the terrace; and it is well stocked with deer. This is called the New Park; the Old Park, which extends along the river as far as Kew, being closed to the public. Richmond is much more remarkable as a place of pleasure and summer resort than as the seat of business or commerce. Being connected with the capital by railway, as well as by the river steamboats, it is resorted to by great numbers of visitors. It was for a long time the seat of royalty; and probably it is to Edward I. that this honour is owing. Henry V. rebuilt the palace in a magnificent style; but in the reign of Henry VII. it was burned down, and a new palace erected. This monarch changed the name of the place from Sheen, which it previously had, to Richmond, his own title before his accession. In that palace Henry VII. died in 1509, Charles V. was lodged in 1523, and Queen Elizabeth, who had been confined here by Mary, and afterwards made it a favourite residence, breathed her last in 1603. Under the Commonwealth, the palace was sold, and was demolished partly then and partly in the next century. Pop. (1851) 9065.

town of the United States of North America, capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, 130 miles S. by W. of Washington, and about the same distance above the entrance of Chesapeake Bay. The general appearance of the town is very picturesque, somewhat resembling that of Edinburgh. It is divided into two parts by the valley through which Shockoe Creek flows into James River, and is built for the most part on the hills on either side. The streets are regular and the houses substantial, some of them very handsome. The most conspicuous edifice is the Capitol, a Grecian building after the model of the Maison Carrée at Nismes, standing on the top of a hill in the midst of well-planted grounds about 8 acres in extent. It contains a statue of Washington by Houdon, considered the best likeness of that great man. At one corner of the Capitol grounds stands the City Hall, a fine Doric building; and not far off is the residence of the governor. Of the churches in the town, about 30 in number, many are handsome buildings. They belong to Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, Presbyterians, Quakers, Roman Catholics, &c. The educational establishments of the town include Richmond College, under the direction of the Baptists, with 6 professors and 167 students; the Virginia Baptist Theological Seminary, with 3 professors and 67 students; and the medical department of Hampden Sydney College, with 7 professors and 90 students. The last of these occupies a fine building in the Egyptian style. There are here, too, a historical and philosophical society, numerous schools, a court-house, penitentiary, almshouse, Richter, armory, and orphan hospital. Richmond has great natural advantages for manufacturing industry, from the great amount of water-power supplied by the river. The articles most generally produced are flour, tobacco, cotton and woollen fabrics, paper, machinery, hardware, cannon, nails, &c. James River flows over a bed of granite, and has inexhaustible quarries on its banks, not far from the town; while within a short distance there are extensive deposits of coal. The trade of the town is rapidly increasing. It is the terminus of several railways, and of the James River Canal, which extends up the river for 200 miles. Vessels drawing 10 feet can come up to the town, and those drawing 15 to within 3 miles. Tobacco, wheat, and flour are the principal articles exported. The shipping of the district, June 30, 1852, amounted in all to 3078 tons registered, and 6100 enrolled and licensed. In the year ending on that day there entered from foreign ports 35 vessels, tonnage 7120; and cleared 71, tonnage 22,803. The aggregate value of the goods imported by railway and canal into the town is more than £2,000,000. Richmond was founded in 1742, and became the capital of the state in 1779-80, but was then a small place, remarkable for nothing but the beauty of its scenery. Pop. (1800) 5737; (1820) 12,067; (1840) 20,153; (1850) 27,570, of which 17,643 were free, and 9927 slaves.

Richter, Jean Paul Friedrich, was born 21st March 1763, at Wunsiedel, in the Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria, where his father, John Christopher Richter, was schoolmaster and organist. Two years after, however, he was appointed parson at Joditz, and finally at Schwarzenbach. He appears in Jean Paul's fragment of autobiography as a clever, witty man, indulgent at home, prone to melancholy, and struggling all his life with debt. Jean Paul's education was conducted at home in an irregular fashion till his thirteenth year, when he was sent to the gymnasium at Hof. He had already acquired an amount of knowledge extraordinary for a boy, by dint of reading everything he could get to read in his father's library, and in the larger one of his friend Vogel, a neighbouring clergyman, and had commenced that system of making copious extracts from the books he read which he continued ever after. At Hof he lived with his mother's parents till the death of his father in 1780, which was shortly followed by the death of his grandfather and grandmother. To his mother, their favourite child, they left their property, which was considerable, in Hof, and she went there to reside. The will was contested by other expectants, and the expenses of the lawsuit and the debts of her deceased husband swallowed up the bequest, and reduced her to poverty. In these circumstances, Jean Paul was sent to the university of Leipzig, to study for the church, it being the ardent wish of his mother that he should follow his father's profession; and Leipzig was preferred to Erlangen on account of the supposed privileges of poor students at the former university. He entered 19th May 1781, and heard Plamer lecture on logic and aesthetics, Morus on theology, Wieland on morals, and Hempel on the English language, to which he applied himself. It does not appear that he had at any time the serious intention of becoming a preacher, for his multifarious reading had already brought him under the influence of the scepticism of the time; but he seems to have been willing enough to fulfil his mother's desire, until his intercourse with the humorists of England—Addison, Swift, Pope, Young, Sterne—thoroughly awakened his powers into consciousness, and then it became his fixed resolve to live a literary life, and no other. Dire necessity pushed the resolve into premature action: want stared him in the face. The small sums his mother could afford to send him were insufficient for a bare subsistence; the letters in which he begs money or thanks her for it, consoling her, at Richter, the same time, for her disappointed hopes of his becoming a preacher by the golden prospects of fame and independence to be won by his writings, are of a most pathetic cheerfulness. For his first book, *Lob der Dummheit* ("The Praise of Stupidity"), suggested (too obviously) by the *Encomium of Erasmus*, he could not find a publisher. In no wise daunted, he threw it into the fire, and commenced a second *Grönlandische Prozessen* ("Greenland Lawsuits"), a series of satirical essays or sketches directed against German follies, and specially against the literary class. These first essays are certainly replete with wit, native and borrowed; and had he himself left nothing to compare them with, much more would be found in them. They were published by Voss at Berlin in 1783, and the author was made rich with 15 louis-dors. For a third volume he, after numerous solicitations, could find no publisher nor editor. In 1784 he returned to Hof, and lived with his mother in a very straitened way, cheerfully pursuing his studies, assisted by the books, and often by the money, of his friends Vogel and Otto. In Hof, while his eccentric freedom of dress (he wore his own hair and an open shirt-collar, and was otherwise wild in his attire) and of speech had made him enemies, he had a circle of warm friends, mostly of the fair sex, for whom he was already a great and wonderful man, before Weimar and Berlin had told them so. Two changes intervened before the dawn of his fame. In 1786 he became tutor in the family of a Von Oerthel at Topen, the father of a school and college friend between whom and Richter existed a warm affection. Here, however, he was rendered miserable by the disposition of his pupil and the arrogant narrowness of his employer; and on the death of his friend in 1789 he returned to Hof. It would appear that this occurrence produced a powerful impression on the mind of Richter: he himself dates from it as an epoch, and the recollection, varied and exalted by imagination, is repeated through all his works. Under the influence of this event he first struck the tone of profound melancholy and thoughtfulness, blending with higher hopes, which is the ground-tone of so much that is best in his works, in a little essay, *Was der Tod ist* ("What Death is"), which he sent to Herder, and which called forth an appreciating letter from Madame Herder, who received it. In 1798 he went to Schwarzenbach, on the invitation of his friends Cloter, Volkel, and Vogel, to teach their children, and resided alternately with each of them. Meantime he worked at a romance, *Die unsichtbare Loge* ("The Invisible Lodge"), which was published at Berlin in 1791, and which, though not very successful, brought him into notice among the cultivated. He himself described this romance as "a born ruin." But by the successive publication of *Hesperus* (1791), *Quintus Fictlein*, and the *Blumen, Frucht, und Dornen Stücke* ("Flower, Fruit, and Thorn Pieces"), 1796, he raised himself to a recognised place among the greatest writers of Germany, at a time when Herder and Wieland, Goethe and Schiller, were above the horizon at once. If we add *Levana* and the *Flegeljahre*, these are the works by which his name is best known out of Germany. A time of wandering followed,—residences in Weimar, where he especially attached himself to Herder, who reciprocated all his love; in Dresden, in Leipzig, and elsewhere; everywhere flattered and caressed, and finding access to the highest and most cultivated society. This severe trial of the successful author Richter met as a man of thoroughly-grounded self-knowledge and insight. Other trials he had with his fair admirers, who were numerous and ardent, and did not all understand his Platonic affection and doctrine of female friendship as he did, or were not so capable of its reserves. The fascination his writings exercised over female minds his presence and conversation completed: twice he had to say a resolute "No" to women who would marry him in spite of himself; and in both cases the women—Madame von Kalb in Weimar, and Emilie von Berlepsch, a young and rich Swiss widow whom he met at Eger—were women of personal attractions, rank, and fortune. Richter wished, longed for a quiet retirement, where he might live his youth over again, not far from the very spot where its scenes first passed. He had no ambition of the worldly kind: quiet domestic joys, secured by his own exertions, were his ideal of happiness. In 1799 he formed an engagement with a young noble lady at the court of Hildburghausen. They were even betrothed; but the engagement was broken off, for reasons that did not transpire. Next year he met Caroline Meyer in Berlin; and on the 27th May 1801 he married her. The union was a happy one; their ideas of domestic happiness were the same; and she proved exactly the quiet, worshipping, careful Hausfrau whom Richter wanted and was seeking. In the meantime, he had published his *Palingenesien*, *Clovis Fichtena*, some smaller works, and the first volume of *Titan* (1799). The *Claris* had a success "of occasion," derived from the reputation of the object of the satire. Richter, who in respect of philosophy, was a follower of Jacobi, and to whom a personal Deity and a personal immortality were necessities of the heart, had no sympathy with the destructive logic of Fichte; and through his whole works may be found, now in exquisite ridicule (as in the man with the fixed idea that he has lost his *Ich*), now in deep and powerful protest (as in that truly appalling "Oration of Jesus Christ to the Universe," proclaiming that there is no God), evidences of his revolt from the new idealism. After a visit to Weimar, a year's stay in Meiningen, where he published the *Flegeljahre* ("Wild Oats," according to Carlyle), and a short residence in Coburg, he finally fixed himself (1804) at Bayreuth, where, near his dearest friend Otto, and in a house overlooking the Main, he spent the rest of his life as he had longed to do, diversifying it only by short annual tours to visit his scattered friends. During the heat of the war, when literature was at a discount, he felt the pressure of poverty, and solicited and received a pension of 1000 gulden (£85) from the Prince-Bishop von Dalberg, paid, however, after 1811 by the Bavarian government. Of the works he published in these latter years, the most notable are the *Vorschule der Ästhetik* ("Introduction to Ästhetics"), 1813; *Levana*, a work on education, showing a remarkable insight into the nature of children, and full of the wisest practical suggestions; *Leben Fibels* ("The Life of Fibel"), 1812, a little work of strange humour; and *Der Comet oder Nicolaus Marggraff*, 1820-22. In 1811, already feeling the effects of incessant toil, he received a severe blow in the loss of his only son Max, at the age of nineteen. The youth had distinguished himself much at Munich, especially in languages, and went to Heidelberg, where he appears to have ruined his health by excessive study and needless privations. From this stroke he never completely recovered. His eyesight failing, he sent for his nephew, Otto Spazier, from Dresden, to assist him in revising his writings for a complete edition; and the work was only interrupted on the day of his death, 14th November 1825.

The affectionate adjective with which the Germans accompany the name of Jean Paul, *der Einzige* ("the Unique"), well denotes the difficulty of describing and the impossibility of classifying him. He is his own species, in a manner. That other common designation of him, as "a western oriental," is a real attempt at description; but it does not go beyond the mere first impression made on every reader of Jean Paul by the combination of contrasting qualities which he presents, by the copiousness of his imagery, by frequent obscurity, and by the boldness of his imaginative flights. The reason why so little that is definite can be said, beyond the expression of amazement and admiration, lies chiefly in the formlessness of his works,—a formlessness veiled and excused by the all-embracing atmosphere of pure ethereal humour in which they are as it were suspended, and which sweeps about them on all sides in copious mist-drapery. Taking for a moment a low and certainly unjust view of Jean Paul as a writer, it would seem as if, conscious of deficiency in the power of conceiving and representing the real, in constructing and narrating probable events, and in the dramatic synthesis of character, he employed his humour as artists unskilful in anatomy, but skilful in colour, employ drapery, to conceal those deficiencies, and allow him an opportunity of pouring forth, in digressive monologue, the precious stores of his wit and wisdom. Dropping the idea of purpose, such a supposition well enough describes the general character of Jean Paul's works. It is in fact the fault of the reader if he expects in any of them a coherent, probable story, probable characters well developed, dramatic dialogue and incident. But if he throw himself upon the contents alone, without fastidiousness, no author will more speedily repay studious and resolved perusal. A wealth of profound wisdom and keenest insight is contained in them, to the utterance of which a wonderful knowledge of nature and of science is compelled to minister, mirroring it in singular and typical forms. Further intimacy will acquaint Jean Paul completely of all affectation, or use of humour for such purposes as above indicated, and will show it to be the compelled expression of a really powerful and Shaksperian soul, to which the vastness and the mystery of the universe, with the petty singularities of details, the noble and godlike attributes of humanity, with its infinite littlenesses and contradictions, were continually present together. Still, with the fullest appreciation of the rich compensation provided by the humour and the wisdom of Jean Paul, it is impossible not to note the deficiencies for which they compensate. In his great works *Hesperus* and *Titan*, the reader is painfully sensible that the story is absurd, that the characters are exaggerated and quite impossible, and that the ambition with which they are delineated ends in failure. Beside the story, and in the story, there is wisdom, and drollery, and poetry of the highest kind, enough to furnish forth with these things a library of fiction; but the story itself, and its men and women, are naught. Much better does he succeed in this way, when, without aspiring to produce heroes and heroines of the grand kind, who cannot act, and in whose mouths his finest sentiments are mere windy fustian, he simply relies upon self-delination, and upon the recollections of the humble personages and the humble life in which he had been reared, and on which his observation, always fine and microscopic, had been exercised from boyhood. Nothing can be more perfect as comedy than the scenes of Siebenkäs, no character more true to life than Lenette; Walt and Vult in the *Flegeljahre*, Fixelin, Fibel, Schmelzle, are all in their way, and allowing for the necessary caricature, beings thoroughly human; and all are side-views of that Jean Paul whom he knew so well, and at whom he could laugh so heartily. But he is unsuccessful in supplying personages to complete his drama; and his story, after transacting itself for a short season on the solid earth, dissipates and ascends into the air as vapour, shapes itself into fantastic cloud-forms, and leaves the reader with elevated, perhaps, but also with disappointed look, gazing after it. Closely connected with this defect of structure, and allied to his dominating humour, are the serious defects of style in his works; and it is as much these faults as those of structure that render him so untranslatable, and consequently limit so much his influence and his fame. Beyond all the whims of mere humour, and all the requirements and value of the mere thought, his expression is far too frequently involved and overloaded. It is true, as Carlyle has remarked, that in the *Vorschule der Ästhetik*, which may be considered his apology, there are excellent observations on this subject of style which show that he understood the subject as well as any French or German critic. Of subjecting himself to its laws, however, in practice, he has no idea; yet, if they are laws at all, they rise out of the nature of the thing. Of the judicious parsimony and restraint which is the first law of good writing Jean Paul has no notion. All the trifles and straws which he had gleaned out of a life's laborious reading of books, useful and useless, are whirled along in the current of his thought; cryptic and unintelligible allusions are huddled round this or that idea; the humour or aptness of many a comparison is lost; one side of it requiring for most readers, even well informed, elaborate explanation; we are astonished, we admire, but we neither laugh nor are much the wiser. It is absurd to gloss this copiousness and confusion of trifles, that no man cares to keep, with the name of intellectual wealth, for Richter would be none the poorer were it swept from his pages. His real wealth is not his learning, but his wisdom,—his knowledge of, and intense sympathy with, the human heart,—his fine sensibility and his elevated religion. As humorist, he is unquestionably to be placed in the highest rank. But he is something more. Mere humour, intellectually considered, is mere universal destructiveness. As wit, which is the compressed logic of analogy, when uncontrolled by truth, tends to juggling with analogical fallacy and mere paradox; so humour, which brings forth for sport's sake the innumerable contradictions, self-deceptions, illusions, and pretensions in the world, tends to utter scepticism and mere buffoonery, unless it has its work completed by the vision of faith which brings forward the eternal reality, and its hand checked by sympathy with real holiness and real suffering, and humble reverence for real greatness, nobleness, and elevation. Of the contradictions between free aspiration and necessity, none is more striking than that arising out of the demands of the moral nature of man and the urgencies of his passions; and these contradictions may be clashed against each other in sport. But it depends on the humorist on which side the laugh will be; and according as he is, will the laugh he raises be a degrading and deteriorating one, or an elevating and humanizing one. It is Jean Paul's highest merit, that a noble love of humanity, a keen sympathy with suffering, and a humble reverence for the truly great and holy, always subdued, controlled, and directed his wonderful powers of ridicule, and place him above the class of humorists, among the seers, the sages, and the comforters of humanity.

The complete works of Jean Paul were published after his death by his nephew Otto Spazier, to whom we are also indebted for a biographical commentary. A second edition of the works appeared at Berlin, 1840, in 33 volumes. The Paris edition, in 4 vols., 1837, is said to be a more faithful reprint of the original editions. A complete French translation was projected in 1834 by M. Philarette Chasles, but only four volumes, containing *Titan*, appeared. *Levana*, portions of the *Flegeljahre* and of the *Blumen, Frucht, und Dornen Stücke* have been translated into English; *Quintus Fixlein*, by Carlyle, in his "German Romances," vol. 3, 1827, with a characteristic notice prefixed, which remains still the best word spoken on Jean Paul; the *Campaner Thal*, by Miss Gower, in 1857; besides many fragments and short sketches in magazines.