general name for all kinds of cordage, but more correctly applied to such as is above one inch in circumference, the smaller sorts being distinguished by the names of twines, cords, and lines.

The art of twisting into lines and ropes various materials, such as thongs of animal hide, the hairs of animals, tough grasses, and vegetable fibres, is of remote antiquity, and has existed even among the rudest people.

The tarabita or rope-bridge of the Peruvians, and the lasso of the Chilian hunter, are formed by twisting together thongs of ox's hide; and in our own country at the present day ropes for particular purposes are made of horse's hair. The coir-ropes of Ceylon and the Maldivian Islands are made from the fibrous husk of the cocoa-nut; the Manila rope from the fibres of a species of the wild banana, the Musa textilis; and the Sinta ropes from those of the Crotolaria juncea.

Many other vegetables have fibres of great tenacity, and fitted for the purposes of the rope-maker; but preference is given to those of the Cannabis sativa, or cultivated hemp, and the Linum usitatissimum, or flax, the fibres of both of which possess in a remarkable degree the essential qualities of flexibility and tenacity. Some idea of the importance of the manufacture under consideration may be obtained from the fact that, in the year ending January 1857, the value of the hemp alone imported into Great Britain and Ireland was £1,953,444, and the value of the cordage exported was £246,925.

The fibres of the hemp are first twisted together to form a thread or yarn. Many yarns are then combined by twisting, and form a strand; three strands are in like manner combined, and form what is properly a rope, and technically termed a shroud-laid rope or hawser-laid rope; and three of these ropes may be again combined, forming what is termed a cable-laid rope. The fibres should be so arranged that each in the finished rope shall offer the greatest resistance to its being torn asunder in the direction of its length.

If we take a bundle of fibres, equal in length and strength, and fasten it at the ends, each fibre will, upon a strain being applied to the bundle, bear its proper share of the stress; and the strength of the bundle will evidently be measured by adding together the strength of the separate fibres. But if we twist this bundle so as to form a thread, the strain will no longer be equally distributed among the fibres; for, by the torsion, the external fibres of the bundle will be wound round those that lie nearest to the centre, and, in proportion to their distance from the heart of the bundle and the amount of twist given, will form spirals more or less inclined from the axis of the thread. The external fibres will in consequence be longer than the internal ones, and the greatest share of the strain will be borne by the latter. Further, by the operation of twisting, the fibres in a thread are strained, and, on account of their position, the external ones the most. It is of importance to consider the proper length of the primary fibres, and the degree of torsion that ought to be given in forming them into a thread.

All threads require the fibres to be so fine, and of such a length, that the quantity of fibres used, and the number of turns each has round its axis, shall be so great as to produce the necessary compression amongst them, to prevent them from sliding upon each other. If the thread be small, the fibres must be fine, and may be short; and if the thread be large, then must the fibres be long. If the fibres be long in proportion to the size of thread to be made from them, less twisting will obviously be necessary to keep them from sliding; and the finer and softer the fibres are, the more may the twist be diminished; for soft fibres enter into closer combination with each other than those that are hard. Long fibres requiring thus less twist than short ones, it has been a standing rule with all theoretical writers, that fibres should always be spun into the thread endlong, and never by their bight or double. Now, in the practice of hand-spinning, the fibres are always spun into the thread by their bights, and never by their ends.

It is certainly an advantage in threads which are to be used merely as such, to secure as great a length of fibre as possible, as any strain tends directly to pull the fibres asunder; and they are retained in their position merely by the compression among the co-fibres, produced by twisting. But many threads are combined in forming strands; new forces are brought into action, and so at every further combination. This will be better explained by the following diagram. Let aa be the primary fibres, formed into threads b; in each thread the fibres are retained in their position by the compression produced by twisting. Let bb be threads twisted together to form a strand. Here the threads mutually compress each other, and the primary fibres of each thread are compressed by the surrounding threads. Let cc be strands twisted to form a hawser-laid rope. In this the compression on the primary fibres is again increased, and so in the next combination, where the three hawser-laid ropes are twisted into the cable-rope d.

We may from this deduce, that it is not the length, so much as the intrinsic strength of the fibre which fits it for the purpose of the rope-maker; and practice perfectly fixes this position, the ropes made from the short waste fibre of the hemp called tow being by no means so weak when compared with those made from the hemp itself, as theory would lead us to suppose, seeing that these fibres are the shortest and weakest of the material. It may therefore be laid down as a rule, that in the making of ropes it is of greater consequence that the fibres should be strong, soft, and finely hackled, than that they should be of great length.

Let us consider a little more how the twist of the thread is affected by its future combination. The fibres are first twisted in a certain direction to form threads. A collection of these threads is then twisted together to form a strand; and this last twist being in a direction contrary to that of the threads, untwists them to a certain extent.

Had the twist in the first instance been no more than would just have kept the fibres from sliding upon each other, it would now be inadequate to produce that effect. Hence one would think it necessary to provide means to put more twist into the threads as they were being formed into strands, or to put as much more twist into the threads while spinning, as the twisting of the strands abstracts from them; but when these strands are combined to form a hawser-laid rope, the direction of the twist is again the same as that of the threads, and restores to them a certain portion of what they had lost. If, however, three of these hawser-laid ropes are formed into a cable-laid rope, the threads are... again to a certain extent untwisted. The untwisting suffered by the thread in forming the strands is much greater than the subsequent retwisting in forming the rope; and if the thread had been at the first too little twisted, or too soft, as it is termed, it would never make a serviceable rope; and for such ropes as require to be impervious to water, it would be totally unsuitable.

It is, then, on the proper angle of twist in the combined threads, and not in the threads when separate, that the efficiency of the rope depends; and this can be determined by experiment alone.

When many threads or yarns are combined to form strands, the effects produced on the latter by strains are analogous to those produced on the fibres when formed into threads, and, from the greater size of the component parts, are more apparent.

In the ordinary method of procedure the threads are all stretched to the same length, and then twisted together in a direction contrary to their individual twist. This, by winding the external yarns round those beneath them, shortens the whole mass, and puckers up the yarns nearest the centre, and thus the greatest share of any strain is thrown on the external yarns. It has therefore been considered of primary importance in all inventions intended to improve the making of ropes, to equalize the strain on the yarns in the strands.

Belfour attempted to effect this by shortening the internal yarns in the degree necessary to prevent their puckering up. Now, although the fibres of hemp are not in themselves very extensible, yet the rope formed from them is; and when such an extension takes place in a rope formed by Belfour's method, the strain is thrown entirely upon the internal yarns, which, if the strain be great enough, will break from the centre outwards.

The manner in which the external yarns of a strand lengthen, will be seen at once by fig. 2. Here \(a\) is a section of a newly formed strand; \(a'\) a section of the same strand after having been used; while \(b'd'\) is a part of the surface of the first, on the stretch out; and \(b'e'\) a part of the surface of the other. By the straining produced by use, the yarns in \(a\) are brought into closer contact, and the diameter of the strand is reduced. If in the strand \(a\), \(be\) represents the angle at which any external yarn is supposed to lie, this, by the reduction of the diameter, will in \(a'\) be changed to \(b'e'\); and if in \(a\), \(de\) represents a heart-yarn, this yarn in \(a'\) must stretch to \(e'\), or break, which, as it is very little extensible, it is likely to do.

It is of importance to observe, that the breaking of the heart-yarns of a strand in this manner is attended with much greater danger than the breaking of the external yarns, as the injury not only remains concealed, but water can easily penetrate to the core of the strand, which in consequence speedily decays.

It would appear, then, that a certain degree of puckering in the internal yarns of a strand is necessary to compensate for the extension that the superficial yarns undergo by use; and where ropes are made by machinery, it would be perfectly possible to arrange it so that, from the central yarn outwards, every one could be wrought into the strand in due length to allow for the stretching.

The further operations are the forming the strands into hawser-laid ropes, and these again into cable-laid ropes. The many uses to which ropes are applied preclude the possibility of applying specific rules to their manufacture. Some require flexibility, others impenetrability to water; strength may in some be of primary importance, or it may be secondary to other qualities which better adapt the rope for its peculiar purpose. The goodness of the rope depends upon the previous operations; but it must be a standing rule in all the processes, never to make use of so much twist as will impair the strength of the fibre.

To prevent the decay of such ropes as are exposed to continual changes from wet to dry, the yarns forming them are soaked in hot tar previously to their being worked up. It would be well if some other substance than tar could be found suited for this purpose, as it unfortunately happens that ropes lose much of their strength in the operation of tarring; and after having been kept for some time, the loss of strength is progressively increased, and this to a greater extent in hot than in cold climates. M. Duhamel made several experiments on this subject in 1741–1746, and from the results obtained he concludes,

1st. That untarred cordage in constant use is one third more durable than the same cordage when tarred; 2dly. That untarred cordage retains its strength for a longer time when kept in store; 3dly. That untarred cordage resists the ordinary influence of the weather one fourth longer than when it is tarred.

Some experiments were made in 1803 by Mr Chapman, civil engineer, to determine the effects of a new process of washing the tar to free it from the soluble substances contained in it, and for which process he had obtained a patent. Yet although the result of these experiments proved beyond a doubt the superiority of Mr Chapman's method, it is singular that it has never come into use. The same gentleman made some other experiments in 1806–1807, confirmatory of those of M. Duhamel. The result of one series is given in the table below.

| Date of Experiment | Girth in Inches | Breaking Weight | Comparative Strength | Cuts, on each Inch Square of Girth | |--------------------|----------------|-----------------|----------------------|----------------------------------| | 1806, Oct. 2 | White rope... | 2'75 | 75 cwt | 100 | | | Tarred rope... | 2'8 | 55 | 73'3 | | 1807, May 8 | Same rope... | 2'8 | 41'4 | 55'2 |

We shall now offer a few of the rules which have been given by different authors for computing the strength of ropes.

Mr Tredgold says, "that in a hawser-rope, it may be proved that the strength of the straight fibres of hemp is to the strength of the rope as the radius is to the mean between the square and the cube of the cosine of the angle of twist, when the fibres are all equally extended, and the angle of twist measured at the greatest stretch the rope will endure without fracture. The cosine of the angle under these circumstances is in general about 0·87, and therefore the strength is about 0·708 times the strength of the hemp, or very little exceeding two thirds of its strength; but in most cases the loss of strength will be greater than one third, because the stretching of the different parts is unequal. And in a cable-laid rope, that the strength of the hemp is to that of the cable as the radius is to the mean of the third or fourth power of the cosine of the angle of twist under the same circumstances as before; or, that its strength is to that of the ropes which form it simply as the cosine of the angle of twist. This, in usual cases, will be nearly as eighty-seven to a hundred, that is, there are thirteen parts in every hundred of the strength lost in forming cable-laid ropes."

The following rule is given by Dr Robison for finding the strength of ropes: Multiply the circumference of the rope in inches by itself, and the fifth part of the product will be the number of tons which the rope will carry. Thus, in the experiment of Mr Chapman, the weakest tarred rope broke with two tons, and by our rule we find that it ought to carry with safety one ton eleven hundredweight. The practical rules of the workshop are as follows:—To find the breaking weight of 3-strand hawsers; square the circumference, and divide by 3. To find the breaking weight of 3-strand cables; square the circumference, and divide by 5.

The following rule may also be of use:—To find the weight in pounds of a foot in length of any hempen rope, multiply the square of the circumference in inches by 0.046 for shroud-laid ropes, and by 0.027 for cables. (x. x.)

**Rope-making** is the art of combining fibrous materials, by twisting in such a manner as to form a continuous flexible cord.

We have before stated that the fibres used for this purpose are those of flax and hemp; the former for small lines and cords only, and the latter for all kinds of cords, from the smallest to the largest. The preparation and manufacture of hemp and flax into such articles as either are adapted for being the same in both, we mean, in the following sketch of these operations, to speak of hemp as the material made use of. This article we obtain from Riga and St Petersburg, whence it is shipped for our ports in great bundles, weighing, according to quality, from forty-five to sixty-five pounds each, the pood being equal to thirty-six pounds avoirdupois. On the arrival of the vessels, these great bundles are cut up, and the hemp is thrown from the hold in small bundles, bound at one end, and weighing each about twelve pounds. These small bundles are termed heads; and in this condition the rope-maker gets his raw material.

The fibres of hemp, of a good quality, should be long, fine, and thin; smooth and glossy on the surface; of a yellowish-green colour; and free from spiles or small pieces of the boom or woody fibre of the hemp plant, which remains after the operation of breaking; and they should, above all, possess the essential qualities of strength and toughness.

Hemp loses many of its good qualities by lying long in warehouses; and when shipped in a damp state it loses its glossy appearance, becomes what is termed rusted, and is then much weaker, and hard and disagreeable to work.

The operations of the rope-maker are carried on in the following order:—

1st, Hackling the hemp; 2d, Spinning or twisting the fibres into threads or yarns; 3d, Tarring the yarns; 4th, Making the yarn into strands; 5th, Laying or forming the strands into ropes, called hawser-laid ropes; 6th, Laying or forming hawser-laid ropes into cable-laid ropes.

1st, **Hackling**.—To prepare the fibres for the use of the spinner, they are drawn over pronged instruments called hackles, which clear from them the refuse, and split them into different degrees of fineness, to suit the size of thread into which they are to be spun.

Fig. 1 is a representation of a hackle of the largest kind, called a cag. Here aa is a strong board; and bb steel prongs, polished and tapered, and made very sharp at the point.

The prongs of the next size of hackle are smaller and closer set, and so on, diminishing to the finest size, which reduces the fibres to the last degree of tenacity.

The operation of hackling is performed in the following manner. The operator stands at a convenient distance in front of the hackles, which are fixed on a steady bench at a proper height. He then takes a bundle of hemp, and divides it into such portions as he can conveniently grasp. One of these he holds firmly by one end, and draws it over the hackle, beginning with the end of the bunch farthest from his hand, and by repeated operations disentangles and splits the fibres nearly to where he grasps the bunch. He then takes hold of the finished end, and operates on the part which he before had grasped. To facilitate these operations, he from time to time oils the hemp with a little whale-oil. When the hemp is combed out and split as perfectly as the first size of hackle enables the workman to do, he carries it, if it be necessary for the purpose intended, to the next in degree, and so on to the last. The short fibres which are pulled out of the bunch by the hackle, and remain sticking to it, are collected from time to time by the workman, as they impede his progress, and are laid aside. They are afterwards drawn over the hackle to lay the fibres straight, and are, under the name of tow, used in making inferior ropes.

As the workman finishes his handfuls of hemp, he lays them aside in handles for the spinner.

The operation of hackling would seem to require little skill on the part of the workman; but this is by no means the case, as bad workmanship would convert the greater part of the hemp into tow. Hackling is performed in a house, which ought, for convenience, to be near to where the threads are spun, that the spinners be not put to unnecessary expense of time in getting their stuff.

2dly, **Spinning**.—The place where the operation of spinning is carried on, is one division of a walk or alley termed the rope-walk, and is generally enclosed by walls, and roofed over; and in some places where ropes and twine are made, the building is in two stories, the rope-yarns being spun below, and the twine in the loft above.

The walk for rope-yarns is, according to circumstances, from 600 to 1200 feet long, and the width is regulated by the extent of the business to be carried on. One end of the walk is termed the head or fore-end, and the other the foot or back-end; at both ends the machines for communicating twist to the yarns are erected; and along both sides of the walk, at equal distances, and opposite to each other, are erected posts. Between every pair of posts a rail stretches across the walk, at the height of eight feet above the ground; and along the under side of the rail, hooks are fixed, on which the yarns are hung as they are spun; and to one of the upright posts of each pair a large hook is fastened, on which the yarns are hung when collected together. Fig. 2 shows this arrangement; aa being the upright posts, bb the rails stretching across the spinning walk, cc the hooks for the yarns, and ee the large hooks on which the collected mass of yarns is hung. At the head of the walk a stout post is fixed in the ground, and to it the yarns are fastened as they are finished. At the foot of the walk a similar post is fixed for the same purpose. These posts must be at that side of the walk on which the large hooks are fixed.

The walks on which small threads for twines and small cords are spun, have, in place of these rails and hooks, rails about three feet long, let loosely into mortises sunk in the top of upright posts, about three and a half feet above the ground; and along the top of the rail upright pins are fixed, to keep the threads separate.

The spinning machines for rope-yarns consist of two up- right posts, and fig. 3, between which the wheel bb is hung over them; and in like manner every pair is tied in. This is called netting. The spinners now set on at the foot or back-end wheel, and spin up the walk. The fore-end wheel-man having unhooked the yarns from the whirls of his wheel, and hung them over the post, and tied them in pairs as at the back-end, proceeds down the walk, collecting the yarns from the hooks of the rails, and laying them in a heap in the large hooks e, e, fig. 2. When the spinners again spin down the walk, these same operations are performed by the back-end wheel-man. When the collected yarns number about 400, they are coiled up in a haul, and are ready either for tarring, or laying into white ropes. Previous to the haul being taken up for tarring, there is a slight turn put into it to keep it from getting entangled in the tar-kettle. In the government rope-works, by the regulations of 1802, the spinners had to produce, from a bundle of hemp weighing 64 lbs., 18 threads of 170 fathoms each; 400 of such threads constituted a haul, and weighed 12 cwt. 2 qrs. and when tarred 15 cwt.

Sally, Tarring.—The next operation is that of tarring. This is variously performed. Here we shall describe the simplest method of doing it.

The apparatus used in tarring consists of a copper bedded in brickwork with a proper furnace below, and flues around it. The copper is termed the tar-kettle, and at one side of it is erected a strong frame, in which a capstan works.

Fig. 4 shows this arrangement. Here a is the kettle; bb the frame; cc the capstan, which may be turned either by manual labour, or horse or other power; dd a truck, on which the haul is being coiled away as it comes from the capstan; and ee small rollers by which the haul is supported. In the upright nearest the boiler is fixed the nipper for squeezing the superfluous tar out of the haul. The nipper is drawn to a larger size in fig. 5. Here aa is a copper-plate with a hole in it about two and a half inches diameter; above it another plate bb slides, and out of its lower edge a semicircular piece is cut, corresponding to the hole in the lower plate, so that by sliding this plate down, the aperture is diminished. A lever dd of the second order is fixed at one end to the chain c, and presses on a stud fixed on the upper plate, so that by moving the weight on the lever the yarn may be pressed to the degree necessary as it passes through the aperture; and as the tar oozes out of the yarn, it is received and carried back to the kettle by the spout f, fig. 4.

The tar having been put into the kettle and heated to the proper degree, which is about the temperature of boiling water, and is known to the workman, in the absence of more correct means, by a scum closing over its surface, the superintendent begins to pass through the haul. A rope attached to the capstan is passed through the nippers, and attached to the end of the haul. The haul is then coiled gradually into the kettle, and the capstan is moved round. The haul is thus drawn slowly through the tar, and the superfluous tar squeezed out of it as it passes through the nippers, the superintendent regulating the weight on the lever, so as to produce the required pressure; and the end of the haul, as it comes from the capstan, is coiled away, or reeled upon large reels. In this operation the heat of the tar is the most important point to be attended to. If it be too hot, the yarn will be charred; and if too cold, it will be black, whereas yarn intended to be made into ropes should be of a bright-brown colour. The proper heat is indicated, as was before stated, by a scum closing over the surface of the tar, which takes place at about 212° Fahrenheit. If this scum do not rise, the tar is too cold; and if there be an appearance of ebullition, the tar is too hot.

**Fig. 6.**

**Fig. 7.**

**Fig. 8.**

**Fig. 9.**

**Fig. 10.**

**Fig. 11.**

**Fig. 12.**

Athly, Forming Strands.—The yarn is now ready for the next operation, which is the making of the strands. This comes under the head of laying. The place where this and the subsequent operations are carried on is termed the laying-walk; it is generally part of the alley of which the spinning-walk forms a portion, and it may be of such a width as to allow of many ropes being made at one time. The fixtures of this walk consist of tackle-boards and wheels for twisting strands, and stakes and stake-heads for supporting them. The tackle-board for twisting large strands is fixed at the head, and is represented in fig. 6; aa strong upright posts, bb a plank pierced with holes corresponding to the number of strands in a rope, which is generally three. Through these holes winches, called forelock hooks, work. Fig. 7 is an enlarged section of the board, with a forelock hook in its place; a is the handle, b a collar working against the board, and c the forelock let into an eye in that end of the hook which points down the walk. Fig. 8 is a representation of one of the wheels for twisting smaller strands; bbb being pinions with their axes prolonged, and bent into hooks at b; aa is the driving-wheel, moved round by the winch e, and dd is a strong post fixed at the head of the walk, and to which the wheel is attached in such a manner that it can be easily disengaged, and a larger or smaller wheel applied, as the rope may require. Corresponding to every twisting apparatus, at the head there is a row of bearers or stake-heads for supporting the strands when twisting, and extending from the top to the bottom of the walk. These are represented in fig. 9, where aa is an upright post, called the stake, firmly fixed, and standing four feet above the ground; and b the stake-head, let through a mortise in the upright at a foot below the head of the post. In the stake-head there are upright pins, between which the strands are laid, as seen by the drawing. There are also posts at the head and foot for fastening the yarns to when run out for laying. As twisting the strands shortens them, it is necessary to provide at the foot moveable machines for communicating twist. These are called sledges; the largest are formed as in fig. 10, and the smaller sizes as in fig. 11.

In fig. 10, aa corresponds to the tackle-board, and is called a breast-board; it is bolted to the uprights bb, which again are firmly fixed and stayed to the frame eee. The part of the frame behind the uprights is called the tail of the sledge, and on it are laid weights to afford pressure enough to keep the strands stretched. These weights consist of old tar-barrels filled with clay, and are called press-barrels. In laying large ropes, sufficient pressure cannot be obtained by the barrells; and in that case a double block and tackle is used, one end being fastened to a strong bolt behind the sledge, and the other to the tail of the sledge, and with the tackle-fall a turn or two is taken round a post. The smaller sledges (fig. 11) have only one upright post, to which some one of the wheels, similar to fig. 8, is fixed; and they have likewise two trucks to run on.

Of the smaller implements used, the first are the tops (fig. 12) for laying the strands into a rope. These consist of conical blocks of wood, of different sizes, having three equidistant grooves along their surface, and pins through them laterally, serving for handles. A piece of soft rope is attached to each handle of the top by its bight, and the ends are used to wrap round the rope in the process of laying. These ropes are called tails. When the top is very large, it requires to be supported on a sledge, as shown in fig. 13; and in that case the tails are attached to the sledge. Woolders are stout pins with a rope fastened to one end, and are used to assist the action of the machine in twisting the rope.

In addition to the above, there is used in making white ropes a rubber, formed of steel rings interwoven like linked mail; and it is probably from the resemblance that it is termed a mail.

In the operation of laying, the yarn is first warped for the strands. The haul is run out along the bearers of the laying walk, and the number of yarns for the size of rope about to be made is separated from it by means of the netting. The separated yarns are then divided into three equal portions. Each portion is laid in a separate division of the bearers, and hung upon its hooks at the tackle-board and sledge. The sledge is then pulled backwards by the tackle-purchase before described, until the yarns are all stretched tight, and press-barrels are now laid on. When things are in this position the threads are examined, and if any be longer than the others, they are drawn up until every yarn is equally tight. The hooks at each end are now heaved round in time, and in a direction contrary to the spinning twist; and each collection of yarns is twisted round its axis, and becomes a strand. The twisting of the strands shortens them, and draws the sledge up the walk.

When the tension in all the strands is sufficient, or when, in technical language, the strands are full hard, the twisting is stopped. The sledge is then drawn up the walk a small piece to slacken the strands and allow the outer ones to be taken off their hooks and hung on the middle hook. It is again drawn back by the purchase, and the top (fig. 12) is inserted among the strands which will occupy its grooves.

The top is now forced back as near the hook of the sledge as possible, and the workmen at the head again turn their hooks in the same direction as before. As soon as the workmen at the sledge perceive it moving forward, they remove some of the pressure, and begin to turn their hook in a direction contrary to its former motion. The top is by this forced forward, and the three strands closing behind it form the rope. When the top gets far enough from the sledge to admit of their application, the tails are wrapped round the rope, and by their friction they enable the workmen to keep the top from moving forward by jerks, and they also make the rope close better. The care of the topman is to regulate the speed of his top in relation to the twist at both ends, the mean of doing which is simple. He makes a mark across the strands at every bearer previous to putting in the top. If, when the top reaches a bearer, he find the mark above the bearer, then the turning at the fore-end is too fast for the motion of the top; and if below the bearer, then the turning is too slow.

In the case of a very thick rope, the power of the men applied to the hook of the sledge is insufficient of itself to pass the turn up the rope. To aid them, other workmen apply the woolders at necessary intervals between the sledge and the top. The strap of the woolder is wrapped round the rope, and the pin used as a lever to heave round the twist; the workmen at the woolders keeping time in their heaving with those at the hook of the sledge. And in the case of a heavy rope, the top sledge (fig. 13) is made use of to support the top.

The mail is used for white ropes only. When the strands are hardened, and before the top is put in, workmen rub the strands with the mail to smooth down any rough fibres, and give a good surface to the rope.

We have now seen that in the processes described, every step is dependent on the skill of the workmen. In supplying fibres of hemp in due quantity to form the thread, in giving the proper degree of twist to the thread, in giving the strand the degree of hardness required, and in the proper speed of the laying top, the workman has no certain guide; and it is surprising that, although machinery for the improvement of almost every other manufacture had been introduced, no attempt appears to have been made to apply it to the art under consideration, until about 1783, when a machine to supersede the necessity of a rope-ground was invented by Mr Sylvester; and this invention was followed up by many others. Such of these as have come under our notice are briefly described in the following account of them, arranged according to their dates.

1783. About this time Mr Sylvester's machinery was invented. In it the threads were spun by bobbins and spindles; the three several quantities required for the strands were wound on three separate reels, which turned individually round their axes, and also round a common centre, by which motions the rope was formed; and by the machinery it was further wound up as it was made. This invention was not patented, and was never carried into effect.

1784. In this year a patent was taken out by a Mr Seymour for improvements in rope-making; but the invention consisted in the substitution of animal for human power to drive the ordinary machinery of the rope-work.

1792. In this year the Rev. Edward Cartwright took out a patent for a rope-machine, which he called a cordeller. A part of this machine was adopted by Mr Huddart in a patent taken out by him in 1805.

In the machines of Sylvester and Cartwright the only advantage proposed was the saving of labour. There was no attempt made to improve upon the old defective principles of rope-making; the merit of the first attempt to do this is due to the next inventor.

1793, March 16. John Daniel Belfour, of Elsinour, obtained a patent for machinery "to improve the manufacture of ropes and cordage, by making every yarn employed in the composition thereof bear its proper and equal proportion of the stress." This the patentee proposed to effect by keeping every yarn tight at the time of its being twisted into the strand, so as to prevent its being puckered up in the inside of it. For this purpose the yarns were by machinery wound regularly on separate reels. The reels were suspended in tiers in a square frame on iron spindles on which they could turn freely; and by a contrivance the reels could be made to turn round along with the spindles when required, and motion in a similar direction could be given to all the spindles at the same time. The yarns were spread regularly on the reels by a simple apparatus. When the yarns were so wound upon the reels in the frame, the ends of those on the first or lowest tier of reels were carried down the rope-walk, and dropped into the separators, one of which was placed at every fifteen fathoms or so. These separators consisted of a series of vertical bars, fixed to a frame at their lower end, the upper ends being left free; into the intervals between these bars the yarns were dropped, and the different tiers kept separate by horizontal iron rods passed through holes in the side bars, so as to divide the whole frame into a series of reticulations; and these rods were so contrived as to be withdrawn separately or together. By being passed through these reticulations, the threads would be suspended at equal distances from each other from the top to the bottom of the walk; and, if meant to form one strand, would be hung on the hook which was to give them motion; and on the reels in the frame would be left just so much yarn as the strand should take up in hardening. The strand would then be ready for twisting; and to do this in such a manner as to make every yarn occupy its proper place, Mr Belfour employed an instrument called a top-miner. This was a block of wood formed somewhat like a sugar-loaf, and having inserted round its larger circumference a number of projecting pins. Into the recesses formed by these pins the yarns were inserted, and motion being given to the wheel, the top was moved slowly up the walk by the workman, the reels at the same time giving out the yarns as they were taken up by the twisting. When the workman arrived at the first separator, the iron rods were, by the contrivance already alluded to, at once withdrawn, and the yarns left free, and so the workman proceeded until he arrived at the reel-frame, when the turning or heaving at the hook was stopped, and the strand prevented from untwisting, by being seized in a kind of nipper formed of iron. The ends of the yarns were then unfastened from the reels, and the strand was completed. By increasing the size of the reel-frames and separators, and by using three top-minors fixed to a sledge or otherwise, three strands could at the same time have been formed. The strands formed by this machinery were then laid together into ropes in the ordinary manner.

1793. In April 12th of this year, Mr Richard Fothergill obtained a patent for rope-machinery, embracing the following objects: First, freeing the hemp from its native hank, and fitting it for the subsequent processes; secondly, dressing the hump, and drawing it out into slivers fit for spinning; thirdly, spinning the hemp; and, fourthly, twisting or making it into ropes or cordage. All these operations required no rope-walk to carry them on. Engravings of the machinery will be found in the fourteenth volume of the second series of the Repertory of Arts.

1793. In April 25th, Mr Joseph Hudgart took out a patent for certain improvements in the formation of ropes. His method of registering the strands, in order to acquire an additional degree of strength, by giving the length of the yarns which compose the strand a certain ratio, according to the angle and hardness or compression the rope is intended to be laid with, and thereby acquiring a more equal distribution of the strain upon the yarns than ropes made in the common way, consisted of the following principles: First, by keeping the yarns separate from each other, and drawing them from bobbins which revolve, to keep up the twist whilst the strand is forming; secondly, by passing through a register which divides them by circular shells of holes, the number in each shell being agreeable to the distance from the centre of the strand, and the angle the yarns make with a line parallel to it, and gives them a proper position to enter; thirdly, by a cylindrical tube, which compresses the strand, and maintains a cylindrical figure to its surface; fourthly, by a gauge to determine the angle which the yarns in the outside shell make with a line parallel to the centre of the strand when registering, and according to the angle made by the yarns in this shell, the length of all the yarns in the strand will be determined; lastly, by hardening up the strand, and thereby increasing the angle in the outside shell, which compensates for the stretching of the yarns and compression of the strand.

In this, as in Belfour's invention, the registering apparatus was moved up the rope-walk by the twisting of the strand; but the machine differs from Belfour's in the following particulars. First, in place of the bobbins or reels being fixed in an upright frame, they are placed in horizontal ranges, each range rising higher from the front towards the back part of the machine. Secondly, in place of the separator of Belfour, sets of horizontal rails, notched to receive the yarns, and hung in cleats fixed to upright posts, are placed at regular intervals down the walk, so as to keep the yarns separate the whole length of the strand. Thirdly, in place of Mr Belfour's top-minor, a plate pierced with concentric circles of holes is made use of, the circles being about two inches asunder; and behind this plate a smaller plate, pierced with a similar number of holes, is fixed, the holes in the latter plate being so close together as merely to keep the yarns clear of each other. Immediately behind this last plate is fixed a tube made of thin steel, of a spring temper, and in two parts longitudinally; the thin edges of the one part overlapping those of the other, and the two parts being compressed by a thong or wire wound round them several times, and fastened to the jaws of an instrument called a beaver. By means of this, the yarns, in passing through the tube, can be compressed by a constant force; and if the yarns be thicker or smaller in different parts of the strand, the tube will expand or contract, to suit the difference of size.

In addition to these, an instrument called a register-gauge is used to measure the angle of twist of the yarns in the strands, with the view to employ the same twist when the strands are formed into a rope. Some of the parts of the machinery above noticed, it will be seen, have been adopted by other inventors, and some of them are still in use.

1797, September 13. At this time Mr William Chapman of Newcastle obtained a first patent for laying, twisting, or making ropes or cordage, of any number of yarns or strands, or any number of threads tarred or untarred, from the size of a cable down to the smallest line formed of more than one thread. The machinery for this purpose was less complicated than those formerly mentioned, but was only capable of forming ropes on the common principle. In the month of January 1798 he obtained a patent for Scotland for further improvements in rope-machinery, and containing the substance of his former one and of another taken out for England on the 6th of March 1798. The inventions embrace the making of ropes either by stationary machines, or by moving machinery on a rope-walk. In the former, the operations of forming the yarns into strands, twisting the strands into a rope, and coiling away the rope, on reels or otherwise, go on at the same time. One of the arrangements of the machinery by which these different operations are carried into effect, is as follows. Three or more discs, according to the number of strands, are placed round a common centre, with their planes inclined to each other in such a manner that their produced axes would meet in a given point. These discs are by the inventor termed strand-tables, and each of them is fixed to a hollow shaft, capable of revolving round its axis; which shaft is called the strand-shaft or upper shaft. These shafts are on the sides of the discs which are inclined to each other. On the opposite sides of the discs yarn-reels are suspended on spindles, on which they can turn freely. The yarns from the reels are passed through the shafts, and by the turning of the discs or strand-tables they are twisted into strands. In a part of the shaft there is a transverse opening to admit of two blocks of hard wood or other matter being applied on each side to press the yarns, and retard their passage through the shafts, so that they may be twisted to the degree required. These blocks are called press-blocks or compressors, and are held together by springs or weights. Instead of blocks the patentee sometimes substitutes rollers moving round their axes, and holding the yarns by their friction. Besides these, the yarns pass through a perforated plate called a yarn-guide.

The strand-tables all move round in one direction, and the strands as they proceed from the shafts are concentrated into a point, over a fixed grooved block, corresponding to the top in the ordinary process. Behind this block the strands are received into a hollow axis, which turns round in a direction contrary to the twist of the strand-tables, and in which the strands are formed into a shroud-lop rope, by being twisted by the apparatus attached to the shaft. This consists of a pair of wheels or sheaves, moving easily on their axes, to admit the rope a free passage, and at the same time compel it to twist equally round with the shaft. These sheaves are grooved in such a manner as to prevent the rope from turning sideways, and are called twisting-sheaves. Instead of the sheaves moving freely on their axes, such a motion may be given to them as, in every revolution of the rope-shaft, which makes one turn... of the rope, the groove of the sheaves shall move such a space as is equivalent to the length of rope that is designed to be made by every turn. When the rope has passed through these sheaves, it is coiled upon a reel in such a manner as merely to require tying up; but if too unwieldy for reeling, it is coiled on a revolving platform. Such is an outline of the process of making shroud-laid ropes by Mr Chapman's machinery. For cable-laid ropes the same or similar machinery is used, the chief difference being, that in cable-laid ropes the twists are contrary, and the disparity of turns in the strands and rope not so great as in shroud-laid ropes; for which reasons, if the same machine be used, the means must be provided for making the shaft to assume contrary motions, and making them to move in different proportions.

"By the method previously described," says Mr Chapman, "for making a complete rope at one operation, I, during the act of making the strands, unite them into a rope by means of what I then call a rope-shaft, in which they are all concentred, and receive the twist which forms them into a rope; but I also occasionally omit the concentring of them, and the subsequent part of the operation, during the making of the strand or strands, and in place of twisting them into a rope, I only draw the strand forward as made, and coil it or them in any manner whatsoever, they in this instance having no rotative motion. The apparatus for drawing them forward is not fixed to the revolving shaft, containing the reel or reels and other necessary appendages, but may be permanent, and receive its motion in any proportion whatever to the revolutions or twists given to the strand by that shaft.

"The principles of making the strand in these two different ways are obviously portions of the process that would, as has been described, make the whole rope at one operation. And these two methods of making the strand, independently of making the complete rope, are reducible to the following principle: That in making a strand simply, one end need only to be twisted, and the other held from turning, but that both be permitted to pass forward, and progressively change place; and that the yarns be, if deemed necessary, so regulated as to come off these reels in such a manner as the part of the strand they come into may require.

"There is a third method of making a strand, compounded of the two preceding, which may be followed, viz., that of using two revolving shafts in place of one; the reels being placed on one of them, and the strand colling upon the other. Those two shafts ought to turn in contrary directions to each other."

The part of the invention in which a common rope-walk is made use of is thus described by the inventor: "At the head of the ropey, or in any other part, I fix upon pins so many reels as will contain all the yarns requisite for a strand, or the given number of strands determined to be made at one time, each reel containing one or more yarns; then in the instance of making three strands, I fix to three different hooks on the foreboard of a sledge, so many yarns, separately concentring to each other, as are requisite; the yarns being previously passed through the openings of these separate fixed tops or yarn-guides, one opposite to or correspondent with each hook. Before, or on the face, or on the face of each top, toward the sledge, there may or may not be fixed a cylinder, such as I have described, below the laying block at the head of the rope-shaft. The yarns are then to be prevented from passing too easily off their reel, either by a pressure on the reels themselves, or on the yarns in their passage to or upon their separate tops, or in any manner that will permit them to come off as wanted.

"The men are then to heave upon, or turn round, the hooks of the sledge in the usual way; and the only remaining difference consists in the sledge being drawn progressively backwards, as the strand is making, until the whole, or any determinate part, of the strand be made. The process of drawing back the sledge may be done in various ways; amongst others, by a rope to a capstan, moved either by a horse or men, according to the strength requisite." When the strands are thus twisted, the rope may be completed in the usual way. Such, then, is a brief outline of the general features of these important inventions of Mr Chapman; but his own specification, with illustrative drawings, will be found in the ninth volume of the first series of the Repertory of Arts.

1798. In this year also Mr Belfour obtained a patent for an improvement on his former machinery; and in 1799 Mr Belfour's machinery was adopted in the government-yards, and the sum of £4000 was paid to the inventor for his superintendence of the erection of his machine, and the use of his patent.

1798. November 8th, Mr Chapman at this time patented an invention, which was so to regulate the motion of the sledge that for every revolution of the strand it should move backward through the exact length of axis assigned to it, and thus render the twist uniform. The sledge, in this case, travelled backwards on a railroad; and along the whole length of the walk, a rope, called a ground-rope, was laid. This rope was passed in the form of an S round two or more grooved wheels, which were pressed together so as to bind the rope, and having upon their axles toothed wheels connecting them with each other, and with the hooks for twisting the strands, which in this case were driven by one great crank. Thus, when the hooks were driven by the crank to twist the strands, the sledge was also moved backwards by the grooved wheels acting upon the rope; and by changing the connecting toothed wheels the backward motion could be given in any ratio to the twist of the hooks. Besides this, Mr Chapman connected the sledge by a rope to a horse capstan at the foot of the walk; and as the horse's power applied to the capstan could not draw the sledge faster backwards than the ground-rope permitted, the spare power was of course given in aid of the twisting of the strands by means of the wheels which connect that operation with the backward motion.

1798. November 17th, Mr John Curr of Sheffield took a patent for forming flat ropes for the use of mines, &c. "The said flat rope may be formed," says Mr Curr, "by connecting two or more small ropes sideways together, by sewing or stitching, lapping, or interlacing them with thread, or small rope made of hemp, flax, or other fit material, or with brass or iron wire, in such a manner as to prevent their separating from each other, and so as to cause them to exhibit, as nearly as possible, a flat form, or flat pliable rope.

1799. April 30th, Mr Belfour obtained another patent for a further improvement on his invention. This consisted, among other things, in winding a number of yarns, not exceeding four, upon each reel, and forming them, as before, into strands. He farther proposed to spin the hemp after having been tarred; and also to place a spinning-wheel at each end of the rope-walk, to enable the spinners to spin both up and down in the manner now practised. If we mistake not, this method of spinning up and down is mentioned by Duhamel as being in use in his time. However this be, it was, on Mr Belfour's recommendation, adopted in the government rope-works, and, according to the report of Mr Fenwick, the master rope-maker at Chatham, a saving was effected by it to the amount of a sixth part of a day's work to each man.

1799. July 26th, Mr William Chapman, in conjunction with Mr Edward Chapman, took a patent for many improvements in the art; the first of which was for machinery to spin the yarns in such a manner that the fibres of hemp, on entering the thread, were shortened in proportion to their proximity to the axis; and further, that by this machinery, women, children, and invalids could be employed as spinners. Although the yarn thus produced was of superior strength to hand-spun yarn, yet, as it was attended with additional cost in the manufacture, the invention was laid aside.

The next part of the invention was in the application of locomotive power to the machinery of the rope-work. Part of this consisted in the application of an endless rope, reaching from end to end of the rope-walk, and moved with considerable speed, to any of the machines, whether stationary like the fore-end wheels, or changing position like the sledges. The application of the endless rope to the sledge was effected by passing a turn round suitable grooved wheels fixed to the sledge, and capable of giving motion to its machinery. By this machinery great advantages were gained, as each revolution of the strands and the rope, and the proper motion of the sledge, were predetermined and fixed by changes of wheels. For this purpose tables were made out to show what wheels were to be used for each kind of rope. Instead of two hundred men, the number usually employed in closing a twenty-one inch cable, fourteen only were required; and they, with the help of the steam-engine, which was only of eight horse power, were able to coil away the rope when made.

1799. In the same month Mr Mitchell obtained a patent for a "method of manufacturing cables, hawsers, or shroud-laid ropes, and other cordage, on scientific principles."

These principles consisted in combining by twisting the integral yarns of a strand, in numbers of two, three, or more, previous to their being formed into the strand; and thereby lessening the strain on the external yarns when ultimately formed into a rope. The strain on the external yarns would doubtless be by this method lessened, but the number of yarns exposed to external injury would, at the same time, be increased. The ropes formed on this principle were by the patentee termed selvage cordage.

1799. August 20th, Mr Huddart took out a patent for an improvement on his apparatus of 1793. In this the registering apparatus, instead of being moved up the walk, was, like Mr Chapman's press-blocks, fixed to the tackle-board, and the machinery for twisting the strands was stationary, and also contained apparatus for winding the strands upon reels as they were formed.

1799. In the same month Mr Grimshaw obtained a patent for improvements in rope-machinery, which consisted, first, in dressing the hemp preparatory to spinning; secondly, in winding up the yarn; thirdly, in preparing the yarns for tarring; and, fourthly, in laying the ropes or cordage. The first step appears to be best entitled to notice. The hemp in this was conducted to rotatory hackles through conical fluted rollers, by which means the hemp was equally mixed.

1800. July 1st, Mr Huddart took another patent for further improvements in the manufacture of cordage. "A considerable expense," says the patentee, "is attached to having the tarred yarns wound upon bobbins; and also the tar, especially when the ropes are laid in cold weather, is not sufficiently incorporated amongst the yarns to render it compact for durability, whether registered or laid in the common way. In order to obviate these inconveniences, I have invented a method of registering the strands of ropes during the operation of tarring the yarns, which may be effected in the following manner. The white yarns must be wound separately on reels or bobbins, and placed upon a frame or otherwise, so that the yarns may be delivered from them with as small and equal a tension as possible, and to pass under rollers, or through holes, or between separating rods of wood or metal, to be guided into the tar, when sufficiently heated in the kettle, and thence to the register, separate from each other, to prevent entanglement, until they enter the tube, which must be placed at the end of the tar-kettle opposite to that where the bobbins of white yarns are placed. The registering tube now acts in a double capacity, viz. in forming the strand fair, as in ordinary cases, and in acting as a nipper to squeeze out the superfluous tar. The strands are now twisted as before, and the twisting forces out some more tar, which must be cleared off by making the strand pass through the common adjustable nipper plate."

1801. July 16th, Mr William Hoard obtained a patent for "a portable machine for manufacturing ropes and cordage of any length in a short space, particularly adapted for shipping." This machine consists of separate reels, one containing the full length and number of yarns for a strand, from which reel they are drawn out to such distance as the two reels can conveniently be placed asunder, and are attached to the other, which is then empty, one of the reels being in a sledge or moveable frame. The process then begins by twisting the intermediate length of strand, until the reels have approached to each other the usual proportional space, namely, one fifth. The length of strand thus made is then wound up on the second described reel, and so much is let off from the first reel as to admit of their being at their greatest distance asunder, which process is necessarily continued until the whole strand be made, and wound up on the second reel. Lastly, three strands thus made have their ends united to a fourth reel placed opposite to them at its greatest convenient distance. By these four reels, the process of making the rope is carried on similarly to that of making a strand, except in the use of a top to regulate the progress of the twist of the rope in its approach to the three strand reels.

In 1801, Mr Archibald Thompson of Plough Court, Lombard Street, took out a patent for "certain new or improved machinery, for the purpose of spinning rope yarn and sail-cloth yarn, and for laying and making ropes and cordage." Mr Thompson's invention includes the whole process of spinning, tarring, and laying the cordage. Preparatory to spinning, he draws out the hemp into a long sliver, by different sets of chain hackles, moving with progressively greater speed; and in the end the sliver is spun by a spindle with its flyer and bobbin into a thread. The threads remain wound up on their bobbins until wanted to be made into a rope, tarred or untarred. The bobbins are then, according to the number of yarns wanted in a strand, placed so as to form two circles of the same diameter, round an open cylinder consisting of three hoops or rings, distant from each other the length of a bobbin, and placed near to one end of a long horizontal axis; and, if the rope be to be tarred, the yarns are led through a ring of a few inches diameter, near that end of the described open cylinder which has the spare length of axis projecting from it. The yarns are then diverged in different degrees, so as to form, when passed longitudinally through an open cylindrical frame of several feet in length, so many different concentric circles round the axis mentioned, as there are different shells or concentric coats of yarns in the strand; and from the further extremity of this last-mentioned cylindrical frame, the yarns are concentrated to one focus at the extremity of the axis, which is there concave, and has an opening through which the yarns pass to the machine which is to twist them into a strand, and draw them forward to be coiled up within itself. At the focal point described, there are nippers to express the tar from the yarns, which is put into them in the following manner, viz. the last-mentioned open cylinder, between the ring from which the yarns enter to it, and the perforation of the axis where they concentre and quit it, lies over a tar-kettle, and has a portion of its lower half immersed in the tar, just so far as to imbue either the whole or any portion of the yarns with tar, as may be deemed expedient. This cylinder must, of course, turn round with such a convenient degree of speed as not to let the yarns be drawn off the cylinder before it comes in their rotation to pass through the tar. When the full length of strand is made, the twist of which is principally given by the revol- lution of the frame, in which it is progressively wound up during the process of making; the yarns are cut off; and three of these strands, from so many stationary strand frames, each of which has performed the operation last described, revolving only round its own separate axis, are concentrated together, and pass through the axis of one end of a rotatory frame, which twists them into a rope, and coils it up, progressively as made, upon a barrel within the frame.

1801. Mr Cutting of the United States invented a method of making lines and ropes. His machinery was of much the same kind as Sylvester's, Fothergill's, and others already described.

1802. January, a patent was granted to Mr Chapman for his invention of the application of certain substances to the preservation of cordage. This has already been noticed under the head Rope.

1802. March 9th, a patent was obtained by Messrs Mitchell and Son for further improvements in rope-making, in addition to their patent of 1799. The specification of this patent will be found in the second series of the Repository of Arts (vol. viii. p. 241).

1804. Mr Huddart took out a patent for a machine for manufacturing hemp and flax into yarn. We have seen that in hand-spinning the fibres of hemp are spun into the yarn by their bight or double, but by this invention they were to be spun into the yarn by their end. The spinner, in this case, instead of walking backwards, remained stationary, with the machine containing the apparatus for twisting at a little distance from him. In front of the spinner a table or other support, containing a number of upright pins like those of the hackle, was fixed. This table was made broad enough to hold on it half the length of the article to be spun, while the other end was held by the spinner. The spinner commenced his work by drawing some fibres of the hemp, and making them fast to the hook of a whirl; the machine was then set in motion, and the spinner with his spinning cloth took hold of and compressed the yarn as it was formed. By this means, says Mr Huddart, in his description, the longest hemp or flax may be spun without having its fibres reduced in length; for the pins before mentioned occasion all the fibres to be drawn out to their full respective length, or nearly so, and also prevent irregular drawing of the fibres.

It may not be amiss to mention in this place, that in France a method of spinning fibres by the end instead of the bight had long existed. Instead of the spinner fastening his bundle of hemp round his waist, it was fastened to a distaff by being laid along it and tied at the upper end, and the distaff was fastened by its lower end to the waist, and lay on the left shoulder of the spinner; the lower end of the bundle of hemp thus hung loose, and the fibres were spun into the thread endlong.

M. Duhamel made certain experiments to ascertain what advantage this method had over the usual way of spinning by the bight, and the result did not warrant him in recommending its adoption where the men had been accustomed to the other mode.

1805. October 30th, Mr Huddard took another patent for improvements in the manufacture of large cables and cordage in general. This invention consisted of a machine for twisting into ropes the strands formed by the machinery formerly invented by him, and resembled in some parts the machine of Mr Cartwright, called the cordelier.

In Mr Huddard's machine the three strands were wound on their separate reels, which were hung in frames having a motion round their own axes, so as to give hardening to the strands; and also a motion round a common centre in an opposite direction, in order to combine the strands into a rope. On the end of the axis round which the reels were carried for the last-mentioned purpose, the top was fixed, having in it three holes for the strands, and behind the top the rope was passed round three whirls, in such a manner as to regulate its tension while twisting.

1805. November 16th, Mr Curr secured by patent an invention of a method of laying or putting together the strands which form a rope.

The invention consisted, first, in so proportioning the teeth of the wheel at the upper end of the walk which twists the strands, to the teeth of that of the lower end which closes the rope, that the workmen, by keeping time with each other in their heaving round the winches of their respective wheels, would give the proper amount of hardening twist to the strands and closing twist to the rope; and, second, in regulating the motion of the laying-top, by having attached to it the end of a line or wire which is wound on a reel fixed to one of the wheels of the sledge, and made to move with a certain velocity according to the size and intended hardness of the rope.

1806. August 9th, Mr Ralph Walker of Blackwall took out a patent for a new mode of making ropes and cordage, applicable to the making of ropes and cordage of any size.

The machinery for effecting these purposes is on the same principles as many of those already described; but the arrangement of the parts is different, and very ingenious. In place of the reels with their yarns being hung on the face of three revolving discs, as in Mr Chapman's machine, they are arranged on the surface of three cylindrical flyers, and the yarns are carried over rollers in the inside of the cylinders, and conveyed to their axes at one extremity, where they are compressed by passing through a hole. These cylinders, like the discs, revolve round their axes, and twist the yarns at that point of the axis where they pass through; and they also revolve round a common axis, which is the main shaft of the machine. When the strands leave the cylinders they are guided by pulleys to a point in the main shaft, where they are formed into a rope. The patentee also describes a manner of tarring the yarns previously to their being wound upon the reels. In this case the tar in the kettle is heated by steam, and the yarns are passed through the kettle under a large roller which keeps them immersed. Engravings of all the machinery may be found in the Repository of Arts, 2d series, vol. xxvi.

1806. In this year Mr Curr took out a patent for proportioning the number of twists in the yarns to the length, moved by the spinners, so that they might elongate equally on being untwisted in forming the strand. To effect this purpose he had a cord wound upon a barrel attached to the spinning-wheel, and receiving a determinate motion from it; the end of this cord, when the spinners were going to set off, was attached to any one of them, whose speed could thus be regulated by the unwinding of the cord, and the other spinners had to keep pace with him.

1807. October 30th, Messrs Chapman obtained a patent for a method or methods of making a belt or flat band of rope for mining and other purposes. This invention consisted in the combination of two or any greater number of the strands of shroud laid-ropes placed side by side so as to form any determinate breadth of belt or band; and in a locomotive machine for stitching or riveting them together when stretched at full lengths.

1808. June 25th, Mr S. Gadd took a patent for a method of forming ropes, which consisted in twisting the threads together in pairs, and forming the strands of these doubled threads.

1808. June 28th, Mr John Hall took a patent for regulating the twist of the thread in spinning, by means of an endless band traversing the walk, and moved with a given speed by pulleys fixed on the head of the spinning-wheel. To certain parts of this band marks are attached. When one of these marks is at the wheel, a spinner sets on, and in spinning keeps pace with the motion of the band, as indicated to him by the mark.

1828. September 4th, Mr Robertson took a patent for im- Improvements in the manufacture of hempen rope or cordage. The improvements consist in impregnating the yarns with tannin, by steeping them in an infusion of oak-bark, catechu, sumach, or valonia, previous to their being twisted into cordage.

1832. February 1st, Mr James Lang, flax-dresser, Greenock, obtained a patent for such improvements in the construction of the gill spreading or drawing heads, and roving or spinning frames, as adapted them for the spinning of rope-yarns. Fig. 14 shows a side view, and fig. 15 a top view, of the first drawing or spreading machine; and fig. 16 on. By them the hemp is drawn into a sliver of a certain state of fineness, and this sliver, after passing through the delivering rollers, falls into the can g. When a certain quantity of sliver is delivered into the can, a bell is rung by the machinery; the filled can is then removed by the attendant, and an empty one substituted. The filled cans are then conveyed to the second drawing machine, which differs from the first chiefly in being smaller, in having no spreading-board, and in having a double set of rollers and gills in the width, as will be seen by the top view, fig. 17. The cans containing the slivers from the first drawing machine are placed at the end of this, in such number as may be required, and many slivers are then passed together through each set of feeding rollers. After having been acted on by the gills and the drawing rollers, the slivers may be delivered separately, or they may be combined, as shown in the drawing, by passing through a tray previous to entering the last pair of delivering rollers. The slivers, after having been subjected to a third drawing, in a machine the parts of which are still finer than those of the second machine, are carried to the roving or spinning machine. This machine has feeding rollers, gills, and drawing rollers similar to the drawing machines; but the parts are still finer than those of the last machine. In fig. 18 the spinning apparatus is shown. The slivers, on leaving the drawing rollers, pass into the trumpet-mouthed tubes aa. The upper part of these tubes is in two halves, one of which is fixed to the cross rail of the machine, while the other is pressed against it by means of a spring, in such a manner as gently to compress the sliver on entering the tube. The bottom of the tube is set into another tube serving as a socket, and into this last tube discs of felt or cloth are put, through which a slit is made for the reception of the thread, which is thus com- pressed and smoothed in the same manner as by the cloth in hand-spinning. From these tubes the threads are led to the flyers \( bb \) and bobbins \( cc \), as in the ordinary spinning apparatus. Any degree of twist and of tension during twisting can be given to the yarn, by making the bobbins take up more or less of it for each revolution of the flyer; and this is simply effected by means of a drag formed of two steel springs fixed to the bobbin-rail. The ends of the springs partly embrace a peculiarly-formed pulley attached to the bottom of the bobbin, and by means of a pinching screw they can be made to bear with a greater or less degree of pressure on this pulley, and, according to the amount of pressure, the motion of the bobbin is in a greater or less degree retarded.

These machines differ from those in common use chiefly in the following particulars: 1st. In the distance between the feeding rollers and drawing rollers being capable of alteration, to suit longer or shorter hemp, by means of the grooves in the framing of the machines, seen in the side view, fig. 14; 2dly, in making the yarn to pass through the compressible tubes and the felt discs, which act in a manner analogous to the cloth in the grasp of the workman in hand-spinning; 3dly, in the power which the manufacturer has in regulating the tension and twist of the yarns while forming, by means of the drag applied to the bobbins.

The yarn produced by this machine is of excellent quality, and is much stronger than hand-spun yarn, as appears from certain experiments made for the purpose of testing them; the result showing, "that the patent-spun yarns are stronger than those of equal grist when spun by hand, and from the best staple or long hemp, by fifty-five per cent."

Mr Lang's machinery has in consequence been adopted by some of the most extensive rope-manufacturers in Great Britain.

1852. August 8th, Mr Crawhall obtained a patent for an improvement in the manufacture of flat rope, such as is used in mines. It will be remembered that in Mr Curr's patent, the method described of forming these bands was by sewing several ropes together side by side; and the improvement of Mr Crawhall consists in adding such wheels to the ordinary rope-work machinery as to enable it to make four ropes of the same size, of the same material, twisted in the same manner, and at the same time. By this equality of the ropes greater strength is insured; and they are put together by sewing or plaiting, as in the other patents.

1832. September 23rd, Mr J. H. Ryan obtained a patent for the application to cordage of his now well-known process of steeping materials in a solution of deuto-chloride of mercury for the purpose of preserving them.

1833. May. Mr Norvel of Newcastle at this time took out a patent for machinery for rope-making. In this machinery the bobbins are, like Mr Walker's, arranged on the surface of cylindrical flyers, and in some of its other parts there is a resemblance to that of Mr Chapman; but there is much that is new, and the general arrangement appears to be excellent.

1838. August 8, a patent was obtained by Mr John Stewart, rope-manufacturer in Glasgow, for machinery for spinning yarn, and forming lines, cords, and ropes.

In figs. 19 and 20 a side and end view of the machine for spinning are exhibited. Here \( aa \) is the framing; \( bb' \), a fast and loose pulley on the principal shaft; \( cc \), bevel-wheels on the same shaft, gearing into pinions fixed on the frames \( ddd \), which run in two bearings, one at the foot, and the other at \( ee \), fixed to the rail of the frame; \( ff' \) are silver-cans, with projecting pins for hanging them in the hooks of the frames \( dd \), so that any can may be shifted without disturbing the machinery; \( gg \) is a roller moved by a belt on the principal shaft, round which roller a turn of the thread is taken as it comes from the cans, and the motion of the roller, which may be increased or diminished at pleasure, draws the thread away from the can more or less rapidly. The action of the machine will now be easily understood. The cans having been filled with sliver at the common drawing-frame, are hung in the hooks of the frames; on motion being communicated to the machine, the frames are turned round, and twist the sliver into a thread; and as it is twisted, it is drawn away by the roller.

An essential part of the machine remains yet to be described. This is the nipper, or apparatus for holding tightly and regulating the twist of the sliver; one of these is fixed to each frame above its upper bearing. Fig. 21 is a section, and fig. 22 a plan, of one of the nippers to a large scale. In it \( aa \) is a part of one of the frames, \( bb \) the upper bearing, \( cc \) the hole through which the sliver passes, \( d \) a pinching screw to fix the nipper in the top of the frame; the part \( e \) works through a parallel mortise cut through the part \( ff' \) of the nipper. By turning the nut \( gg \) the part \( ee \) is thrust into the mortise, so as to allow the sliver to pass through \( cc \) with more or less freedom, as may be required. Any irregularity in the thickness of the yarns is provided for by the spring \( hh \), which allows \( e \) to yield a little when a part of the yarn happens to be thicker, or forces it inwards when any part happens to be smaller, than the general size, while the steady pressure is maintained by means of the nut \( gg \). Through this part of the apparatus, then, the end of the sliver is put previous to being carried to the roller, and it is between this and the roller that the sliver receives its twist to convert it into a thread or yarn. When the yarns leave the roller they are wound on bobbins, or made use of in some other manner. The patentee describes a method of putting a slight twist into the slivers before the cans are hung in the frames of this machine. He also describes a modification of the frame, in which, in place of the cans, bobbins may be used; and he describes an apparatus for filling the bobbins. His machinery for forming lines, cords, strands, and ropes is represented in These can-frames run in brackets dd', d'd", fixed upon an upright spindle ee; the bottom bracket dd' is shown in the ground plan as a round plate, and the parts for the pivots of the can-frames to run in are raised upon it partly on each side. The spindle ee is made to revolve by means of a bevel-pinion f fixed upon it, which pinion gears into a wheel gg fixed upon the shaft hh. A belt from the pulley communicates motion to the main shaft hh, which carries a spur-pinion k, gearing into a wheel l fixed on the shaft mm. Upon this shaft the cone nn is fixed, which by a belt drives the cone o, running loose upon the main shaft h. Upon the large end of this cone the bevel-wheel p is either cast or fixed; and this gears into the pinion q fixed to the wheel r, the teeth of which are in its inner edge. This wheel with its pinion turns on the spindle ee, and its teeth gear into spur-pinions ss, fixed on the bottom of the can-frames. From the nippers at the top of the can-frame, each sliver is conducted to a separate hole near the top of the spindle ee; these holes run upwards in an angular direction from under the bracket i, and meet in one which is carried to the top of the spindle, where is fixed a nipper similar to those of the can-frames. The roller e is for the purpose of pulling away the strand, cord, or rope, as it is formed; and in this case is made slightly conical, so that by shifting it along its shaft, the speed with which it draws may be varied. The action of the machine will be easily comprehended. By the revolution of the spindle ee the can-frames are carried round a common centre; and as they turn they receive a motion, each round its own axis, by means of the wheel r and the pinions ss. If sliver be put into the cans and carried through their nippers, they will be twisted into yarns between the nippers and the holes in the upright spindle, and by the revolution of the spindle they will be combined so as to form a strand or cord. If in place of slivers strands be used, the result will be a rope.

The patentee further describes machinery for the formation of flat ropes, or bands for mines and the like purposes.

Having thus, as far as in our power, given an account of the progressive improvement of the art by the application of machinery, we shall conclude with a description of the most improved forms of machines and apparatus used in laying ropes in the present day.

When the yarns have been spun upon Mr Lang's or other spinning machines, or by hand, they are wound from the bobbins in a haul, upon a large octagonal reel about eight or nine feet diameter; the number of yarns in the haul are, of course, regulated by the conveniences of the manufactory. The haul is then passed from this reel through the tar-kettle, and, after undergoing the action of the nippers, is again wound upon a similar reel. From this reel the yarns are wound singly upon the reels or bobbins to be used in the laying. The bobbins, with their yarns, are then hung in frames, and the further machinery used is an improved form of Mr Chapman's locomotive apparatus. The whole arrangement of these parts will be better understood from the drawings. In the drawings the connection of the different parts with the moving power is not shown. This may be steam, water, or any other power, and may be placed in any convenient situation, so as best to serve all the purposes of the establishment.

Figs. 25 and 26 show the general arrangement of the winding apparatus; fig. 25 an end view, and fig. 26 a back view, of a portion of the winding-table. aa, reel about eight feet diameter, on which the haul is wound; bb, frame containing eight bobbins or reels cee, fastened on vertical spindles dd, on the lower end of which the pulleys ee are fixed; on the horizontal shaft a corresponding number of pulleys are fixed, to drive those of the vertical shaft by belts. One end of the horizontal shaft carries a fast and loose pulley g, to which motion is given by a belt from the driving power. The apparatus for spreading the yarns on the reels consists of a rail \( h \), with loops or eyes opposite to each reel; through these eyes the yarns are passed. The rail is supported by two upright rods \( b, b \), which slide through holes in the brackets \( i, i \). To these rods the alternating motion is given by a chain connecting them with the lever \( k \), which is wrought by the heart-wheel \( m \). Figs. 27, 28, 29, show the arrangement of the apparatus for twisting the strands, and laying them into a rope.

\( aa \) the reel-frame; \( bb \) the register-plate, through the concentric circles of holes of which the yarns are put. These holes are seen in the detached front-view of the plate at B. Immediately behind the plate the yarns are passed through the press-blocks, one of which is figured detached at C. They are then hung on the hooks of the sledge \( cc \).

These hooks are on the prolonged axes of pinions driven by a spur-wheel \( d \), which again is driven by the mitred wheel \( e \). This wheel can be connected with either of the wheels \( f \) and \( g \), by means of a clutch wrought by the lever \( h \). On the end of the axes of these mitre-wheels the pinion \( k \) is fixed, and receives motion from the spur-wheel \( l \), fixed on the axis of the gub-wheel \( m \). Round the gubs of this wheel a turn of the endless band \( mn \), which traverses the walk, is passed, and gives motion to the machinery. On the other end of the gub-wheel axis a pinion \( o \) is fixed, which drives the spur-wheel \( p \). On the middle of the axis of this wheel another gub-wheel is fixed; round it a turn of the ground-rope \( q \) is passed, and by this the sledge is moved progressively backwards: the wheels of the sledge are flanged, and run upon a railroad \( r \). When the endless band is set in motion after the yarns have been hung on the hooks of the sledge, the sledge travels backwards at a rate which may be proportioned to the twist required to be given, by the gubs of the ground-rope wheel being made to shift further from or nearer to its centre, so as to move the sledge through a greater or less space for each revolution of the hooks.

When the sledge has reached the foot of the walk, the strands are hung together on the centre-hook of the wheel, and by means of the lever \( h \) the motion is reversed; at the same time the yarns are cut over by the tackle-board, and hung on the hooks \( s, s, s \), at the fore end. To these motion is given by the spur-wheels \( t, t \), the latter of which may be driven either by the pinion \( u \) and spur-wheel \( w \), or directly by the pinion \( x \), as a quicker or slower motion is required. To the shaft on which the pinion \( x \) and spur-wheel \( w \) are fixed, motion is given by the mitre-wheels \( y, y', y'' \), the two latter being fixed to a vertical shaft, which receives its motion from the driving power by the intervention of cones, by which that motion may be regulated.

The end of the ground-rope is wound upon the barrel \( z \), by unwinding from which it is slackened so as to allow it to be removed from the gubs of the sledge.

Since the above article was written, some improvements have been introduced in the details of the machinery for rope-making. In the spinning apparatus the screw-gill has for the most part superseded the link-gill, represented in figs. 14 to 18. The gill-bars of the screw-gill are moved forward by their ends being forced into the threads of two parallel screws, one placed at each side of the machine. The pressure on the thread, too, in place of being produced by the apparatus shown in figs. 21 and 22, is now more commonly obtained by a dead weight. This consists of a piece of iron which lies over and presses on the thread, and being hinged at its upper extremity, it rises and falls with the slight variations in its thickness. In winding the bobbins, too, a simpler apparatus than the frame (fig. 26) is used. Each bobbin rests on a roller somewhat shorter than itself, which moves freely within its flanges. The roller revolves, and by friction communicates motion to the bobbin, the axis of which moves in vertical slits, so as to allow it to rise as the yarn accumulates on it. The pressure is said to improve the yarn.

In the laying apparatus (fig. 27) the pressure-block \( c \) is heated by being inserted into a steam chest substituted for the former solid bar. This is a great improvement, and is due to Mr Swallow, engineer, Liverpool.

In the sledge (figs. 27, 28, and 29) grooved pulleys have been substituted for the gub-wheels, and the change in velocity is produced by various-sized pinions. In place, too, of loading the sledge, any required amount of pressure is produced by a break-wheel fixed on the axis of the ground-rope pulley. This was introduced by Messrs Garneck and Bibby.

Wire-Rope.—The apparatus used in the making of wire-rope is exceedingly simple. The bobbins containing the wire are mounted in frames set in the periphery of a larger frame like a cage. The larger frame revolves round an axis, on the bottom of which is a fixed spur-wheel; and the lower end of the vertical axis of each bobbin-frame carries a spur-wheel gearing into this. There is thus obtained a sun-and-planet motion; the large frame carrying the bobbins round the central axis, and each bobbin-frame revolving also round its own axis. The wires from the bobbins pass through holes in the top of the central axis, and are there united to form the strand or rope as the case may be. The apparatus for small strands or ropes is sometimes arranged so that the bobbins revolve round a horizontal in place of a vertical axis.