The dominions of the House of Savoy, called in Italian the Regno Sardo, have an area of 29,075 English square miles, with a population (in December 1857) of 5,172,283 inhabitants. They are composed of two separate parts—the continental territories, which in Italian are styled Stati di Terra Ferma, and the islands of Capraia and Sardinia, the latter of which gives the title of King to the head of the state.

The continental possessions, consisting of what formerly were the principality of Piedmont, the duchies of Savoy, Genoa, and Montferrat, the counties of Nice and Asti, the marquisates of Susa, Ivrea, Saluzzo, and Ceva, &c., have an area of 19,774 square miles, with a population of 4,590,206 inhabitants, and extend in N. Lat. from 43° 30' to 46° 27', and in E. Long. from 5° 35' to 10° 9'. With the exception of the southern portion of the Lunigiana, lying east of the Magra, they comprise the country extending between that river and the Var, the Ticino and the Rhone; and are bounded on the N. by Switzerland, on the W. by France, on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the E. by the grand duchy of Tuscany, the duchy of Parma, and the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.

The island of Sardinia, with the adjoining small islands of St Antiocho, San Pietro, Asinara, Maddalena, and several

Sardinia, smaller ones, has an area of 9301 square miles, with a population of (in December 1857) 577,282. It lies north-west of Sicily, north of Africa, and south of Corsica, from which it is separated by a narrow strait called Bocche di Bonifacio, and extends in N. Lat. from 38. 52. to 41. 16., and in E. Long. from 8. 10. to 9. 50. Sardinia is the largest and next to Sicily, the most important island in the Mediterranean Sea. Capraia, which has only 15 miles in circumference, and 4741 inhabitants, is situated east of the northern extremity of Corsica, north-west of Elba, and west of the Tuscan coast.

The surface of the Stati di Terra Ferma presents the greatest possible variety. On the north and west it is covered by the Alps, and on the south by the Apennines; and between these two great mountain chains lies the most fertile and valuable portion of the kingdom, consisting of the slopes, valleys, and plains that form the upper basin of the Po, from its source to its junction with the Ticino below Pavia.

The two divisions of Chambery and Annecy, to the north-west, including what formerly was the duchy of Savoy, are in physical aspect, as well as in the general character and language of their inhabitants, more a part of Switzerland than of Italy. They are an alpine land separated from the plains of the peninsula by an enormous chain of mountains known as the Graian Alps. Its lofty mountains covered with eternal snow and glaciers, its long and deep valleys, its numerous cascades, the raging winds and violent storms of rain, hail, and snow, which occur with frequency in the elevated regions, give Savoy a peculiar and lasting interest. In ancient times it formed part of the country of the Allobroges.

The three divisions of Nice, Savona, and Genoa, formerly the county of Nice and the territories of the Genoese republic, and known by the general name of the Riviera, surround the Gulf of Genoa, and include all the sea-shore of the continental possessions from the Var to the Magra. They are the ancient Liguria, which, according to the division of Augustus, constituted the 9th region of Italy, and are poetically pointed out by Dante as the rugged country, "Tra Lerici e Turbia." It is a narrow strip of land, bordered along its whole extent by the ranges of the Maritime Alps and the Apennines, and cut everywhere by narrow valleys and deep ravines. In some places the mountains rise so abruptly from the sea-shore as to render any passage impossible except by means of galleries cut through their projecting spurs. The chief ports, in the order of their importance, are Spezia, the ancient Portus Lunae, placed at the eastern extremity, one of the most spacious and safe harbours in the Mediterranean Sea, and which of late has been made the principal station of the Sardinian fleet; Genoa; Villafranca; Savona; Nice; Porto Maurizio; and Mentone. The tract from Savona to Sestri di Levante is more thickly inhabited than any other part of the kingdom, with the exception of the neighbourhood of Turin.

The remaining six divisions of Turin, Ivrea, Cuneo, Vercelli, Novara, and Alessandria, comprise the fertile region extending downwards from the Alps and the Apennines, and forming part of a vast valley, or rather plain, which begins at the foot of the Monviso, and only terminates on the easternmost frontier of Italy, at the Adriatic Sea. The River Po divides this valley into two nearly equal portions. Its northern side, which in ancient times formed part of Gallia Transpadana, or the 11th region of Augustus' division, extends to the foot of the Alps, some great projections of which enter it in the provinces of Ossola and Aosta. The southern side, which was part of ancient Gallia Cispadana, or the 8th region, is bordered in its whole length by the ranges of the Maritime Alps and the Apennines. Piedmont, the name given in a large sense to the whole of this country, is divided from Switzerland and Savoy by the Helvetic and the Graian Alps, from France by the Cottian Alps, and from the Riviera by the Maritime Alps and the Apennines.

The mountains of the continental states have already been fully described in this work under the general articles ALPS and APENNINES. The principal rivers are the Po, the largest river of Italy, which has its source in two springs on the eastern slope of Monteviso, at a height of 6562 feet above the level of the sea; the Ticino, which forms the boundary between Lombardy and Piedmont; the Sesia, the Dora Baltea, and the Dora, all tributaries of the Po on its northern side; the Tanaro and the Bormida, which join at Alexandria, and flow into the Po on its southern side; the Var, which constitutes the boundary between the province of Nice and France; and the Magra, which flows into the Mediterranean, outside the Gulf of Spezia.

The larger lakes of the Alps belong only in part to this kingdom. The Leman, or Lake of Geneva, is divided between Sardinia and Switzerland, the southern bank of it only belonging to the kingdom. The Lago Maggiore or of Locarno (Verbano)—for a description of which see Lombardy—has also only its western shores within the Sardinian dominions, the eastern side belonging to the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, and the upper part forming a portion of Switzerland. The lakes exclusively Sardinian are of much smaller extent. The Lake of Orta is a long narrow sheet of water by the side of Lake Maggiore, into which its surplus water is discharged. The Lake of Annecy, in Savoy, is 1350 feet above the level of the sea, and 180 feet in depth. It has an outlet by the rivers Thor and Fior into the Rhone. The Lake of Bourget, near Aix-le-Bains, scarcely exceeds 100,000 acres in extent, but is about 240 feet in depth, and by means of the canal of Savières, discharges much water into the same river. There are some smaller lakes, a few of which are dried up in the summer; others of them are on elevations of great height, the most remarkable of which is one on Mont Cenis, 3740 feet above the level of the sea.

The several states abound in mineral springs; those that have attained greater celebrity are the hot springs of Acqui in Montferrat, which are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen; the medicinal springs of St Vincenzo, in the valley of Aosta; and in Savoy the warm baths of Aix, and the sulphureous wells of Bonneval.

A more detailed geographical description of each of the great divisions of the continental territories is given in this work under GENOA, PIEDMONT, and SAVOY.

The climate of the Stati di Terra Ferma varies excessively in the different provinces. In Savoy, in the valleys of Aosta and Ossola, and among the Alps of Piedmont, a real Swiss climate prevails. The air in these districts, though changeable, is on the whole pure and healthful, but is too raw to bring forth the fruits of Italy; in favoured spots, however, the grapes ripen, and the sides of the hills are covered with chestnut-trees. In the upper valley of Piedmont the thermometer falls below 10 degrees in winter, and in the neighbourhood of the mountains it is not unusual to see the ground covered with snow during twelve days or a fortnight. Night frosts, which begin in November, continue till April; and even in the midst of summer, cold winds occasionally descend from the heights. The mulberry-trees, the vines, and the maize flourish; and the air, when not in the vicinity of rice-fields, is remarkably pure, and has a balmy fragrance. Along the whole coast from Nice to the Magra, which is protected by the mountains from the cold winds, the climate is much milder and more agreeable. In some favourite spots which are entirely sheltered from the north and north-east winds, the thermometer rarely, if ever, falls below the freezing-point; and the vegetation, combining the botany of Southern Europe and Northern Africa with those of the tropics, is of The chief occupation of the inhabitants of this kingdom consists in the cultivation of the land, and is accordingly as varied as the surface of the soil and as the climate, which depends on the elevation. Under the head of Lombardy will be found a detailed account of the agriculture of that district, the greater part of which may be adverted to as a description of what takes place in the richer portion of Sardinia, which belongs to the basin of the River Po, comprehending the greater part of the provinces of Turin, Cuneo, and Alessandria. Here we shall only add that the most important article of cultivation is the mulberry-tree, the produce from which, and the price it fetched in the market for the last six years, was—

| Year | Coconuts | Price | |------|----------|-------| | 1853 | 1,025,287 lb. | £373,987 | | 1854 | 1,410,454 | 529,523 | | 1855 | 1,380,353 | 706,398 | | 1856 | 4,338,345 | 853,306 | | 1857 | 1,001,811 | 824,900 | | 1858 | 724,332 | 30,256 |

In Savoy generally the cultivation is badly conducted. The cultivable land is divided into large portions, belonging to a few great proprietors, and is subdivided into smaller portions to tenants, who, without leases, transmit their lots from one generation to another, paying neither money-rent nor labour to their superiors, but delivering to them or their agents one-half of the produce of the fields, whatever it may be, in its several kinds. The cattle on these lands are commonly the property of the lord, and are maintained on the produce of the soil, before the division is made of what it yields. The power of the tenants to transmit the land to their successors is combined with the power of subdividing it among their several children; and this is carried to such an extent that it has led, and is leading, to such a subdivision that a great number of the farms barely raise sufficient food for the occupants, though their provisions are of the most humble and penurious kind. Savoy is annually deficient in corn to the extent of nearly one-third of its consumption. This is in some measure made up by using chestnuts and potatoes as substitutes for bread. In Aosta and in some other parts the potato is little cultivated, and corn is supplied to them from the neighbouring districts. Along the Riviera the land consists chiefly of narrow strips of valley, which in the greater portion is composed of sand, and is not very appropriate for the growth of grain, though a little is grown in some of the more fertile valleys. The common people derive part of their subsistence from chestnuts, other fresh and dried fruit, fish (especially Sardines, which at some seasons are very abundant), and from an inferior kind of cheese made by themselves; and oil, a useful accompaniment, is at a very moderate price.

The Regno Sardo cannot be considered as a manufacturing country, except for the purposes of domestic consumption. Before the seventeenth century, Genoa was the centre or channel of all the supply of manufactured silks and velvets to the other parts of Europe; but at present the manufacturing industry, as regards silk, is reduced almost to the point which the internal consumption demands, or to the process of preparing the raw material for the manufacturers of France, England, Holland, Germany, and Russia. Their silks are handsome and strong, especially the stockings; but, in the absence of the best descriptions of machinery, they are dearer than elsewhere. Silk stuffs, velvets, paper, musical instruments, and some kinds of jewellery, principally manufactured at Genoa, are almost the only articles of export.

The physical aspect of the island of Sardinia is greatly diversified, and more than eight-tenths of its surface are covered with mountains, of which the main chain extends along the whole eastern side, from the headland called Cape Lurgo Sardo, opposite Corsica, to Cape Carbonara in the south; none, however, of these mountains reach such an elevation as to be covered with perpetual snow. The loftiest range is that of Gennargentu in the Barbagia district, in the middle of the island. Its highest summit, the Punta Bruncu Spina, is 6293 feet above the level of the sea. Next in importance is the granitic chain of Mount Limbara, which covers the district of Gallura in the north; its highest peaks attain an elevation of more than 4000 feet. The mountains in the centre and the south of the island, including the Gennargentu, chiefly belong to the paleozoic formations, through which arose at different ages the numerous extinct volcanoes that render the island so interesting to the geologist. The most important volcanic tract is north of the River Tirsi, between the Gulf of Oristano and Sassari, where the highest lip of the crater of Monte Urtice, near Milis, reaches 3440 feet above the sea-level. Between the Gulfs of Cagliari and Oristano is the extensive plain of the Campidano, scattered with many populous and flourishing villages. Next in extent to the Campidano is the Campo d'Ozieri in the north of the island, south of the Limbara Mountains. The principal rivers are,—the Flumenbosca, which springs from the Gennargentu Mountains, waters the Barbagia district, and falls into the sea near Muravera on the eastern coast; the Coghinas, which has its sources in the Limbara group, and falls into the Gulf of Torres on the north; the Mannu, which waters the Campidano, and joins the sea in the Gulf of Cagliari; the Tirsi, which has the longest course of all, and after traversing most of the island from N.E. to S.W., flows into the Gulf of Oristano; and the Flumenbosca, which rises among the volcanic range on the W., and empties itself into the sea below Bosa.

Mineral springs are numerous, but are for the most part neglected. The principal are those of Sardara, Villa Cidro, and Fordongianus, those at the foot of Castel Doria, at Codrongianus, and the Benetutti springs of the Goceana Mountains. They are all on the W. side of the island. In a secondary rank may be noticed the thermal waters of Marrubin, of Iglesias, and of St. Antonio. Aqua Cotta, at the eastern base of an insulated hillock near Villa Cidro, is a small but constantly limpid spring, of about 105° of Fahr., close by a stream of potable water having a temperature of 60°, whilst that of the atmosphere is 64°. Here most of the cloth of the Campidano is fulled, the makers of it paying to the proprietor for the use of the water.

The situation and the soil of the island are favourable to the cultivation of all those trees and plants which grow in Spain, in Italy, and in Sicily. Its mountains are clothed almost to their summits with forests of cork, green oak, common oak, pine, sweet chestnut, and other trees. The wild olive covers extensive tracts in the hilly districts. Figs, vines, and pomegranates thrive wonderfully, with scarcely any cultivation. The madder and liquorice roots grow wild in some districts. The orange forest of Milis, on the western coast, shows no appearance of cultivation, and has trees compared with which the finest orange-trees in Portugal would seem dwarfs. Lemons, apple, pear, walnut, carrouba, almond, peach, and mulberry trees; flax, hemp, saffron, and every variety of grain, are among its productions. Corn, even under the present system of agriculture, gives a return of 7 or 8 for one, and in some districts the average is said to amount from 16 to 20 fold. There are no wolves. The "mouflon," a ruminating animal, frequenting only the highest and most secluded woods, is a native of the island. Deer, wild boar, and a variety of game abound in the forests; so that there are annually exported about 60,000 skins of hares and rabbits, 5000 of foxes, and 2000 of martins.

With all these natural advantages, this island, which Sardinia, in ancient times was reckoned with Sicily a granary of Rome, was sadly neglected, and remained till very recently in a semi-barbarous state. The Vandalic invasion; the anarchy into which it fell during the middle ages; the establishment of the feudal system in a most vexatious and oppressive form; its having long been a dependency of Spain, and for centuries misruled worse than Spain itself; its partition into vast estates, many of which belonged to distant Spanish grandees; and the numerous restrictions upon industry and commerce, were some of the most prominent causes that paralysed the industry of its inhabitants, diminished their number, and changed its fertile plains and valleys into unoccupied and marshy wastes. In the year 1836, however, most important changes were introduced, which will conspire with the wise and stringent measures passed by the present constitutional government to raise this fine island from the abyss into which bad government and worse laws had plunged it.

Feudal tenure and feudal jurisdiction have entirely been abolished; and lands have been declared to be the free property of individual owners, communes, or the crown. The latter is become the possessor of all waste lands, or such lands as neither individuals nor communes could show any title to. These crown-lands are sold or granted in emphyteusis by the government at a very low price, with a view of attracting population, capital, and industry into the island. There are, scattered over various districts of the island, nearly 510,800 hectares (1,262,200 English acres) of public lands to be sold, of which only 80,000 hectares (197,690 English acres) have some appearance of cultivation. There are, besides, 430,000 hectares (1,062,590 English acres) of communal lands not cultivated, most of which are also offered for sale. The government are empowered to sell 80 hectares (197 English acres) without any auction; but when a greater extent is demanded by a single person or a company, the formality of a public auction must be gone through. The average price at which these lands are being sold varies from 20s. to 32s. a hectare. So that land is to be obtained in an island of proverbial fertility in the Mediterranean Sea at the same price that lands sell in Australia.

Its insular position gives Sardinia some advantages in point of climate over the opposite coasts of Italy. The heat in summer is not so overpowering, and the winter is very mild, snow being rarely seen, except in the elevated districts. December and January are the finest months of the year, and February the most disagreeable. Spring bursts out in great luxuriance towards the end of March. But the great disadvantage of the Sardinian climate, in ancient as well as in modern times, is the unhealthiness of the lower regions in summer. The intemperie, as the malaria is called in the island, is somewhat different from the malaria of Italy and Greece; for although equally or more acrimonious in effect, it does not produce the swelled bodies and sallow skins which are the pathognomonic symptoms of the latter. Both diseases usually commence when the summer heat, assisted by slight showers, disengages the impure gases from the low grounds, and continue till the beginning of November, when the heavy rains have precipitated the miasma, and purified the air. But they differ, inasmuch as malaria is generally supposed to be weak in its effects unless imbibed during sleep; whereas intemperie, though worst at night, is dangerous at all times. Instances have been known of strangers landing for a few hours only, from Italian coasters, who were almost immediately carried off by its virulence; indeed, the very breathing of the air by a foreigner at night, or in the cool of the evening, is considered as certain a death in some parts as if he had swallowed some poisonous drug. While the atmosphere is in this state, the natives never move abroad until an hour after sunrise; and they hasten home before sunset, carefully closing every door and window, or, if obliged to go out, carefully holding a handkerchief before the mouth. The extreme heat of the day is also carefully avoided, for they are apprehensive of the colpo di sole, or stroke of the sun, attributing its frequency and fatal effects to the malignancy of the intemperie.

It is agreed on all sides that fire is an excellent antidote to this evil; and it is recorded that the lords of Oristano were wont, during the unhealthy season, to burn large fires around the town every night, to rarefy the mephitic exhalations. Most of the people remove from the plains to the higher grounds on St John's day in June, when the air begins to be unsafe, although it does not become dangerous before August. Those who, from their circumstances, are obliged to remain, keep themselves well clad in thick woolens, to avert the ardent rays of the sun. Exertion, exposure to summer showers, and fatigue of every kind, are studiously avoided; and a spare but nourishing diet is adopted, with cool acidulated drinks.

It is remarkable that adults who have been accustomed to the insalubrious districts can remain during the summer with comparative impunity, whilst children and new comers are more likely to fall victims to the intemperie. As it is chiefly owing to the extensive marshes and lagoons at the mouths of the rivers, and in all the low coasts or level tracts, there can be no doubt whatever that its ravages will disappear in proportion as marshy districts are drained, the beds of rivers and torrents embanked, and cultivation extended in the island.

The manufactures in the island are in so rude a state that in a commercial view they scarcely require to be noticed.

The foreign trade of the kingdom, both by land and by sea, is yearly increasing. The following table of the number and tonnage of the mercantile navy shows that every year, from 1853 to 1856, there has been an increase in the size of the vessels, and in the number of sailors engaged in trade:

| Year | Ships | Tons | Sailors | |------|-------|------|---------| | 1853 | 3222 | 168,585 | 28,746 | | 1854 | 3174 | 175,744 | 30,782 | | 1855 | 2962 | 184,890 | 31,987 | | 1856 | 2934 | 197,924 | 35,370 |

It is remarkable that, whilst in 1855 the building of ships, as compared with the previous year, shows an increase of 9116 tons, in 1856 the difference reaches 13,064 tons. Of the total number of sailors employed in 1854, 11,398 were furnished by Genoa, 5936 by Chiavari, 4384 by Savona, 4011 by Spezia, 1619 by Oneglia, 1529 by Cagliari, and 1405 by Nice. The great emporium of the trade of the state is Genoa. The number of vessels, national and of other countries, which entered its port from 1850 to 1854 was as follows:

| Year | National | Foreign | |------|----------|---------| | 1850 | 5782 | 278,113 | | 1851 | 5937 | 301,463 | | 1852 | 5886 | 332,792 | | 1853 | 5681 | 307,626 | | 1854 | 5544 | 349,918 |

The other four tables here below annexed will give an ### General Trade, 1852–56

| Year | Imports | Exports | |------|---------|---------| | | Value declared | Official Valuation | Value declared | Official Valuation | | 1852 | L. 10,637,237 | L. 13,189,807 | L. 7,968,592 | L. 9,381,945 | | 1853 | L. 11,199,467 | L. 13,240,615 | L. 8,012,222 | L. 8,747,904 | | 1854 | L. 11,728,380 | L. 12,387,841 | L. 8,043,478 | L. 8,520,134 | | 1855 | L. 12,493,931 | L. 13,165,521 | L. 9,061,462 | L. 9,727,493 | | 1856 | L. 15,693,997 | L. 15,445,366 | L. 12,413,582 | L. 11,503,704 |

### Special Trade, 1852–56

| Year | Imports | Exports | |------|---------|---------| | | Value declared | Official Valuation | Value declared | Official Valuation | | 1852 | L. 5,416,757 | L. 6,656,874 | L. 3,384,578 | L. 5,453,769 | | 1853 | L. 6,658,174 | L. 7,455,013 | L. 4,007,432 | L. 3,747,314 | | 1854 | L. 7,974,343 | L. 7,901,323 | L. 4,512,433 | L. 4,348,017 | | 1855 | L. 8,345,049 | L. 8,205,820 | L. 5,327,191 | L. 5,232,723 | | 1856 | L. 10,559,051 | L. 9,716,477 | L. 7,633,152 | L. 6,155,170 |

### Value of Imports and Exports during the year 1856

#### Articles

- Wine, brandy, other drinks, oil: L. 284,092 L. 371,246 - Coffee, sugar, other colonial and chemical productions: L. 1,256,215 L. 169,228 - Fruit, seeds, vegetables: L. 84,327 L. 155,704 - Cheese, butter, eggs, tallow, &c.: L. 184,709 L. 94,601 - Fish: L. 58,958 L. 4,104 - Oxen, cows, swine, horses, mules, &c.: L. 167,094 L. 283,242 - Skins and furs: L. 140,246 L. 86,930 - Hemp and flax, raw and manufactured: L. 254,038 L. 255,102 - Cotton, raw and manufactured: L. 1,724,119 L. 357,083 - Wool: L. 6,263 L. 5,422 - Silk: L. 1,795,619 L. 3,016,764 - Wheat, maize, rice, pastes, chestnuts, &c.: L. 1,035,938 L. 609,058 - Timber, wood, furniture, charcoal: L. 132,631 L. 118,220 - Paper and books: L. 59,859 L. 115,016 - Mercury: L. 446,938 L. 129,645 - Common metals: L. 634,547 L. 97,428 - Gold, silver, precious stones: L. 95,485 L. 18,247 - Marble, alabaster, coal, building-stone, &c.: L. 252,475 L. 104,482 - Glass, china, earthenware, &c.: L. 86,293 L. 8,254 - Tobacco: L. 165,617 L. 1,945

**Total:** L. 9,710,677 L. 6,193,170

### Table of Imports and Exports

| Country | Degree of Importance | Official Value | Duties Levied | Degree of Importance | Official Value | Duties Levied | |--------------------------------|----------------------|----------------|---------------|----------------------|----------------|---------------| | France | 1 | L. 2,620,685 | L. 206,734 | 1 | L. 2,597,608 | L. 2,533 | | Algeria | 2 | L. 3,739 | 658 | 2 | L. 9,527 | 25 | | Zollverein States | 20 | L. 16,548 | 1,111 | 6 | 275,551 | | | Holland | 9 | L. 311,612 | 7,140 | 14 | L. 24,138 | 43 | | Belgium | 15 | L. 126,809 | 7,802 | 15 | L. 26,148 | 47 | | England | 2 | L. 1,568,639 | 104,179 | 5 | L. 903,958 | 247 | | Portugal | 22 | L. 12,268 | 1,578 | 23 | L. 8,939 | | | Spain | 13 | L. 141,420 | 47,905 | 11 | L. 56,400 | 77 | | Lombardo-Venetian kingdom | 3 | L. 1,274,533 | 18,329 | 2 | L. 849,251 | 16,041 | | Parma, Modena, Tuscany | 6 | L. 563,324 | 12,429 | 7 | L. 168,149 | 1,876 | | Naples | 7 | L. 356,863 | 5,988 | 7 | L. 78,280 | 5 | | Papal States | 14 | L. 135,481 | 338 | 13 | L. 28,802 | 4 | | Switzerland | 4 | L. 915,697 | 73,091 | 3 | L. 624,922 | 1,024 | | Turkey | 10 | L. 201,701 | 1,701 | 8 | L. 84,529 | 55 | | Egypt | 21 | L. 14,189 | 405 | 24 | L. 5,262 | | | Tunis and Trigoli | 12 | L. 18,842 | 422 | 20 | L. 12,940 | 2 | | Morocco | 23 | L. 9,235 | | | | | | United States | 5 | L. 668,991 | 2,153 | 12 | L. 30,256 | 423 | | Brazil | 16 | L. 54,816 | 9,301 | 21 | L. 10,956 | 1 | | South American republics | 11 | L. 141,573 | 10,515 | 4 | L. 442,408 | 1,994 | | Central America and the Antilles | 12 | L. 140,711 | 28,490 | 25 | L. 4,443 | |

**Carry forward:** L. 9,297,981 L. 604,634 L. 6,042,804 L. 24,399 The internal commerce of the country, as well as its land trade with the neighbouring states, has been greatly favoured by the excellent carriage roads and the railways opened within these few years. Two magnificent roads, passing over Mount Simplon and Mount Cenis, and well known to tourists, connect Turin with Switzerland; a road over the Maritime Alps, by the Col de Tende, connects it with Nice; and two roads over the Apennines with Genoa and Savona. Several high roads open communications between Sardinia, Lombardy, and the duchies of Parma and Piacenza; and a beautiful road along the shore from the Var to Sarzana, places all the cities of the Riviera in communication with each other, with the capital, with Milan, and with France and Tuscany. In January 1859 there were open for the public traffic the following railways:—From Turin to—Genoa, 167 kilometres long; Pinerolo, 38 kil.; Cuneo, 87 kil.; Susa, 53 kil.; Ticino, 109 kil.; from Genoa to Voltri, 15 kil.; from Alessandria to—Arona, 102 kil.; Stradella, 59 kil.; Acqui, 34 kil.; from Mortara to Vigevano, 13 kil.; from Tortona to Novi, 16 kil.; from Savignano to Saluzzo, 15 kil.; from Calzo to St Jean de Maurienne, 106 kil.; from Chiavasso to Ivrea, 32 kil.; from Santhià to Biella, 30 kil.; from Vercelli to Valenza, 42 kil.; in all 918 kil., or 570 English miles.

From the reign of Duke Emmanuel Philibert (1553-80), who abolished the political rights of the great feudal vassals, the government of the states of the House of Savoy became a purely absolute monarchy. The head of the state being the only source of law, not only all laws emanated from him, and were promulgated in his name, but he also abrogated them at his will, as well as all judgments and decisions of any judicial body. He had an unrestrained authority of imposing taxes, and the uncontrolled administration of the revenue. Even in the island of Sardinia, though the form of convoking its national assembly, composed of the three Stamenti, or orders,—of the clergy, the nobles, and the representatives of the town—from the transfer of the island to the House of Savoy was sometimes resorted to for an augmentation of the taxes, yet the powers of the Stamenti had gradually been limited to objects only of a local and insignificant nature, and the government was as absolute as in the continental states.

In 1848, however, the unlimited powers of the sovereign were placed under proper restraints by a constitutional charter (Statuto Fondamentale del Regno) freely granted by the late King Charles Albert on the 4th of March of that year.

By this new constitution, whilst the executive power belongs exclusively to the king, the legislative power is collectively exercised by the king and by two chambers, an upper one, called Senato, and a lower one, called Camera de' Deputati. The upper chamber or Senate is composed of an unlimited number of members nominated by the king for life, from among persons at least forty years old, and belonging to one of the twenty-one categories specified by the charter. The princes of the royal family sit by right in the Senate at twenty-one, but do not vote till they are twenty-five years old. The number of senators at present is ninety-eight.

The Lower House, or Chamber of Deputies, is elective. A deputy must be thirty years old, and have the requisites established by the electoral law. The Chamber consists of 204 deputies, who are returned by a corresponding number of electoral colleges or districts, into which the kingdom is divided. Neither senators nor deputies receive any salary or indemnity. The duration of Parliament, unless a dissolution takes place before, is five years. The chambers meet annually, and in case of a dissolution of the Lower House, a new chamber must be summoned within four months. No tax can be imposed or levied which has not previously been assented to by the Chambers and sanctioned by the king. Each of the three powers of the state has the right of introducing bills, but all money bills must be introduced first in the Chamber of Deputies. The sittings of the Chambers are public. No sitting is valid unless an absolute majority of the members are present; the debates must be in Italian. The ministers of the crown are entitled to attend the debates and to address the houses whenever they deem it expedient; but they have no vote unless they are members of either house. The charter also declares the throne hereditary according to the Salic law; guarantees individual liberty and the liberty of the press,—the latter, however, subject to a repressive law; and establishes that judges, except those of Mandamenti, are irremovable after having exercised their functions for a period of three years.

The king's ministry consists of eight departments:—Presidency of the council; Foreign Affairs; Home; Grace and Justice; War and Navy; Finances and Commerce; Public Instruction; and Public Works. The public administration is carried out by an Intendente Generale and a Council in the capital of every division, an Intendente and provincial council in every province, and a Sindaco or mayor in every commune. A Council of state residing at Turin takes cognizance of appeals in all questions relating to administrative matters.

Justice is imparted according to the Codice pel Regno Sardo (which in substance is the Code Napoleon), and is administered by means of—1. Justices of the peace established in the Mandamenti. 2. Provincial tribunals residing in the capital of every province. 3. Several tribunals of commerce, residing at Turin, Genoa, Savona, Nice, and other cities. 4. Six courts of appeal, residing at Turin, Chambery, Nice, Genoa, Casale, and Cagliari; each court has two chambers, one for civil, and the other for criminal matters. A branch of the court of appeal of Cagliari resides at Sassari. 5. A court of cassation residing at Turin, which revises the judgments of the courts of appeal, and in case of a violation of the law, annuls them, and sends the parties before another court of appeal for a new trial. 6. A Sardinia. Regia Camera de' Conti, or audit court, at Turin, with jurisdiction over all the accountable in the kingdom. 7. An Admiralty court at Genoa.

For military purposes the Sardinian states are divided into the five divisions of Turin, Genoa, Alessandria, Savoy, and Sardinia; and the two sub-divisions of Novara and Nice. The army bears a very high character, and by her gallant conduct in 1855 and 1856 earned praise from high military authority in our country. It is recruited yearly, in the continental possessions by means of a conscription, and in the island of Sardinia, which is exempt from it, by means of voluntary enlistment. Every conscript who does not avoid service by providing a substitute, or every volunteer who has enlisted, is bound to serve eight years, after which, on retiring, he is enrolled in the provincial battalion of his respective district, and for another period of eight years is liable to be called into active service in case of war. Without including the provincial battalions, the whole regular force of the kingdom in 1854, whilst on peace footing, numbered 47,524 men and 7602 horses. It was raised to more than 60,000 in 1855, when Sardinia, having joined England and France against Russia, sent 15,000 men to the Crimea as her contingent. In 1858 it numbered altogether 53,330 men, and was composed as follows:

| Infantry | 20 regiments | 23,000 | | Sharp-shooters (bersaglieri) | 11 battalions | 6,600 | | Chasseurs (irregulars) | 1 battalion | 780 | | Cavalry | 9 regiments | 5,715 | | Carabiniers, engineers, artillery, bodyguards, &c. | 12,235 |

Total | 53,330 |

There were also twelve battalions of the National Guards. The carabiniers answer to the French gendarmes, and perform the service of the police.

The fleet in 1858 consisted of four sailing frigates, four steam frigates, four corvettes, three brigs, a schooner, ten steamers, and other small craft; in all, forty ships, carrying 900 guns, and manned by about 3000 sailors and marines. The stations were, Spezia, Genoa, Villafranca, and Cagliari.

According to the budget voted by the Chambers for the present year 1859, the revenue of the kingdom is set at L.5,816,430, 11s. 9d.; expenditure L.5,012,598, 16s. 6d.; thereby showing a deficit of L.196,168, 4s. 9d. Of late years there has always been an annual deficit, which has chiefly been caused by the outlay for the army, the formation of the naval station at Spezia, the repairs of the fortress of Alessandria, and the construction of railways and other public works; and has been met by an increase of the taxation. The national debt, which in 1847 was only of L.4,000,000 sterling, in 1856 had swelled to the sum of L.27,240,000, bearing interest for L.2,000,000 at 4 per cent., and for the remaining 25,240,000 at 5 per cent. Such a great increase in the course of less than nine years was brought on by an expense of nearly L.6,000,000, incurred by the state for the construction of the railways from Genoa to Turin, and from Alessandria to Arona; by the extraordinarily heavy expenses entailed by the war with Austria in 1848-49; and by a loan of L.2,000,000, contracted in 1856 to meet the expenses of the Crimean expedition. The subjoined table will give an idea of the various items of the revenue and expenditure. Here we shall only notice that about L.1,341,997, or more than one-fifth of the whole expenditure, and nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the kingdom, is absorbed by the payment of the interest on the national debt; and yet, on the whole, the finances of Sardinia may be considered to be in a satisfactory state; for though the expenditure has been steadily and yearly increasing since the establishment of a constitutional government, the revenue has equally increased in proportion; and the country, owing to a much greater Sardinian amount of production and a considerable development of commerce, caused by the liberal commercial policy of the present administration, has scarcely felt the corresponding increase of taxation.

Estimated Amount of the Public Revenue and Expenditure for 1859.

| Revenue—Ordinary and Extraordinary. | |-------------------------------------| | Customs and excise | L.2,168,495 | | Direct taxes and domains | 2,760,139 | | Railways and other public works | 563,361 | | Post-office | 160,686 | | Consular offices | 100,417 | | Ministry of the interior | 44,939 | | Ministry of public instruction | 1,644 | | Mint | 9,237 | | General treasury | 108,328 | | **Total** | **L.5,765,671** |

| Expenditure—Ordinary and Extraordinary. | |------------------------------------------| | Finances | L.3,124,172 | | Foreign affairs | 54,411 | | Grace and justice | 209,579 | | Public instruction | 89,982 | | Interior | 285,003 | | Public works | 677,208 | | War | 1,381,838 | | Navy | 237,809 | | **Total** | **L.5,960,222** | | Revenue | L.5,765,671 | | **Deficit** | **L.194,551** |

By the constitutional charter, the Roman Catholic religion is the religion of the state, but perfect freedom of conscience is guaranteed to all existing dissenters. With the exception, however, of some 25,000 Protestants, well known by the name of Waldenses, and about 40,000 Jews, the inhabitants of the Sardinian kingdom all adhere to the Roman Catholic Church. The Waldenses, who have wonderfully withstood long, frequent, and cruel persecutions, are settled in the valleys of Luserna, Perosa, and San Martino, on the eastern slope of the Alps in the western part of Piedmont, besides Susa and Nice. They have fifteen parishes, besides churches at Pinerolo, Turin, Alessandria, Genoa, and Nice; and a college of the Holy Trinity at Torre, near Pinerolo, in which their youths receive literary and theological education. The Jews are scattered over all the continental Italian states, and have twenty universities or synagogues of their own.

The Roman Catholic establishment is very extensive, comprehending no less than seven archbishoprics,—Turin, Chambery, Genoa, and Vercelli, on the continent; and Cagliari, Sassari, and Oristano, in the island; and thirty-five bishoprics, of which nine are in the island,—Galtelli Nuovo, Iglesias, Ogliastro, Alghero, Ales, Ampurias, Tempio, Bosa, and Bisarcio; and twenty-six on the continent,—Marianne, Tarantaise, Annecy, Aosta, Susa, Pinerolo, Acqui, Alba, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano, Ivrea, Mondovi, Saluzzo, Alessandria, Biella, Casale, Novara, Vigevano, Albenga, Nizza, Bobbio, Sarzana, Savona, Tortona, and Ventimiglia. Besides the chapter of ecclesiastics attached to each cathedral, there are seventy-six collegiate churches with their respective chapters. Every see has a seminary for the education of the ecclesiastics. The island of Sardinia is divided into 381, and the continental possessions into 3872 parishes. The number of monks and nuns was very large; but by a law passed by the Chambers in May 1855 all religious and monastic orders were suppressed, with the exception of those actually employed in "preaching, teaching, or tending the sick." On the carrying out of this law, it was found that the various religious orders affected by it were as follows:— Number of Children attending Public and Private Elementary Schools, in each of the years 1855, 1856, and 1857.—The Population in 1848 was 4,916,087, and the estimated number of Children from 6 to 12 years of age 702,433.

| Year | Public Schools for Boys | Public Schools for Girls | Private Schools | |------|------------------------|-------------------------|----------------| | | Higher | Lower | Comm. without | Higher | Lower | Comm. without | For Boys | For Girls | | 1854 | 221 | 5066 | 233 | 58 | 2413 | 1422 | 605 | 797 | | 1855 | 231 | 5332 | 207 | 59 | 2504 | 1289 | 557 | 760 | | 1856 | 234 | 5672 | 145 | 68 | 2833 | 1171 | 477 | 759 | | 1857 | 280 | 5792 | 126 | 88 | 3158 | 1019 | 429 | 859 |

A commission appointed to take possession of and administer the estates of the suppressed orders published the following returns of the income derived from them:

- From the cloisters: L.9,254 - Other establishments: 12,005 - Landed property: 41,290 - Capitals: 11,497 - Various sources: 28,908

Gross income: L.102,954 Passive: 26,003 Nett income: L.76,959

The education of the people, which formerly was little attended to, has of late attracted the attention of the government, and thereby made considerable progress. The kingdom is divided into the four academical districts of Turin, Genoa, Cagliari, and Sassari, with a university in each of those cities for the attainment of the higher branches of knowledge. The university of Turin, the most important of them, was founded in 1412, and is now very flourishing. It consists of five faculties: theology, with eight chairs; law, with fourteen; medicine and surgery, with fourteen; humanities, with twelve; and natural philosophy and mathematics, with fourteen. In each faculty there is a council of doctors, by whom the academical degrees are conferred. The number of young men who attended the various faculties in 1858 was reckoned at about 1300. In the provinces there are colleges and schools, in which young men are prepared for the university degrees; technical schools for artisans; and the seminaries already noticed, in which those intended for the church receive their education. By a law passed under the constitutional regime, every commune must provide teachers for the elementary education of both sexes; and the tables here annexed show the number of these elementary schools, the attendance at them, the total expenses for their support, as well as their steady increase from 1854 to 1857. They also show the number of private schools, and their decrease in proportion as public schools increased. It will be seen that in 1857 there still were 126 communes without any elementary schools for boys, and 1019 communes that had no schools for girls.

Of the teachers at all these schools, 2854 were in 1854 ecclesiastics, and 2510 laymen; and in 1857, 3055 belonged to the former, and 3917 to the latter class. In 1848, out of a population of 4,916,087, there were able to write and read 754,809 men and 323,535 women; and able only to read 195,504 men, and 230,899 women. The lowest state of education was in the island of Sardinia, in which, out of 547,112 inhabitants, there were able to write and read 68,484 men and 4238 women; and only to read, 2928 men, and 3082 women. The returns of the last census, when published, will no doubt show a very considerable improvement, especially in the continental possessions; for in the town of Turin alone, which in 1848–49 had only 22 public elementary schools, with a yearly expense of 43,362 francs (L.1734, 10s.), in 1857–58 there existed 174 schools, the support of which cost altogether 275,000 francs (L.11,000). Such are some of the blessings that a constitutional government has bestowed upon Sardinia.

The kingdom is divided into fourteen administrative Divisions, of which eleven include the continental possessions, and three the island of Sardinia. Each division is divided into Provinces, each province into districts called Mandamenti, and each mandamento into Communes; a commune sometimes consists of several villages. There are altogether 50 provinces, 502 mandamenti, and 3088 communes. There is a regular census taken every tenth year on the 31st of December. As the detailed official returns of the last census, taken on the 31st December 1857, have not yet been published, the following table will show the extent of each province, its population, and that of its chief town, the number of mandamenti into which it is divided, and of the communes in each mandamento, according to the returns of the census taken in December 1847. It will also show the population of each administrative division as returned in December 1857. Of the island of Sardinia, which has not yet been regularly surveyed, there is only given the supposed area of the whole, with the dependent smaller islands. The name of the capital, when it differs from that of the province is also given, as well as the names of the other towns in the kingdom with a population of more than 6000 inhabitants. ## Sardinia

| Administrative Divisions | Provinces | Area in Square Miles | Population in 1848 | |--------------------------|-----------|----------------------|-------------------| | | | | Provinces | Divisions | Capitals | Divisions | | Turin | 1. Torino | 1,117 | 411,959 | 143,157 | | | | | 2. Pinerolo| 563 | 133,233 | 627,026 | | | | | 3. Sassari| 539 | 81,834 | 3,370 | | | | | 4. Genoa | 338 | 285,230 | 100,382 | | | | | 5. Chiavari| 334 | 116,077 | 545,182 | | | | | 6. Novi | 289 | 65,016 | 10,915 | | | | | 7. Levante| 251 | 78,839 | 10,772 | | | | | 8. Savona | 311 | 78,905 | 18,668 | | | | | 9. Acqui | 445 | 101,292 | 8,254 | | | | | 10. Albenga| 263 | 59,592 | 4,416 | | | | | 11. Nizza | 1,180 | 118,777 | 30,804 | | | | | 12. Pegna | 175 | 82,672 | 242,990 | | | | | 13. San Remo| 255 | 64,541 | 10,552 | | | | | 14. Cuneo | 1,003 | 179,636 | 20,594 | | | | | 15. Mondovi| 679 | 148,450 | 17,370 | | | | | 16. Alba | 408 | 118,844 | 8,577 | | | | | 17. Saluzzo| 622 | 153,942 | 14,438 | | | | | 18. Alessandria| 332 | 117,870 | 41,653 | | | | | 19. Asti | 351 | 136,055 | 24,446 | | | | | 20. Voghera| 308 | 101,695 | 11,454 | | | | | 21. Tortona| 257 | 58,833 | 12,383 | | | | | 22. Bobbio | 269 | 37,833 | 4,090 | | | | | 23. Novara | 533 | 178,059 | 21,725 | | | | | 24. Lomellina| 480 | 139,649 | (Mortara) 6,686 | | | 25. Villanuova| 312 | 102,960 | 453,958 | | | | | 26. Ormea | 521 | 36,331 | 2,435 | | | | | 27. Vallesia| 292 | 35,879 | (Domodossola) 2,916 | | | 28. Ivrea | 562 | 168,561 | (Varallo) 3,318 | | | 29. Acata | 1,233 | 81,232 | 9,570 | | | | | 30. Vercelli| 473 | 121,806 | 18,353 | | | | | 31. Biella | 377 | 130,691 | 8,302 | | | | | 32. Cassale| 335 | 129,428 | 22,303 | | | | | 33. Chambery| 634 | 152,468 | 16,169 | | | | | 34. Alta Savoia| 377 | 50,872 | (Albertville) 3,894 | | | 35. Moriana| 798 | 64,239 | (St Jean) 3,098 | | | 36. Tarantasia| 706 | 45,723 | (Montiers) 2,072 | | | 37. Genevese| 620 | 107,474 | (Annecy) 9,074 | | | 38. Faugigny| 785 | 105,474 | (Bonneville) 2,168 | | | 39. Chabrias| 356 | 57,632 | (Thonon) 4,488 | | | Total | 19,774 | 4,338,975 | 4,690,260 | | |

### Island of Sardinia

| Provinces | Area in Square Miles | Population in 1848 | |-----------|----------------------|--------------------| | Cagliari | 40. Cagliari | 165,388 | | | 41. Iglesias | 42,598 | | | 42. Isili | 48,938 | | | 43. Ortano | 78,189 | | | 44. Nurra | 58,882 | | Nuoro | 45. Lannu | 27,530 | | | 46. Cuglieri | 37,522 | | | 47. Sassari | 65,821 | | Sassari | 48. Alghero | 34,108 | | | 49. Ozieri | 24,456 | | | 50. Tempio | 22,650 | | | Sardinia | 9,301 | | | Continental States | 19,774 | | | Caprera | | | | Total | 29,075 |

*Of the total 4,920,627, 2,484,059 were men, and 2,436,568 were women.*

The following is a List of the other Towns with more than 6000 Inhabitants:

- Possano - Vigevano - Savignano - Chieri - Carmagnola - Rapallo - Riccoglì - Voltri - Ceranesco - Boves - Trino - Dronero - Carignano - Oleggio - San Damiano - Demonte - Porto Maurizio - Cavour - Varrese - Lavagna - Paesana - S. Salvatore - Castelnuovo Scrì - Via - Ventimiglia - Rivarolo - Vigone - Ovada - Caraglio - Peveragno - Sta Margherita - Galilìa - Quarto - Polirone - Garelo - Chiussa - Stradella - Bena - Corio - 6,421 - 6,361 - 6,222 - 6,330 - 6,202 - 6,046 - 6,044 - 6,039 - 6,027 Sardinia. The population for the last thirty years has steadily though slowly increased. Thus the Stati di Terra Ferma, which in 1838 had 4,125,735 inhabitants, in 1848 had 4,368,975, and 4,590,260 in December 1857. The variations in the population of the island of Sardinia were greater. In 1775, 426,375; in 1800, 361,445; in 1809, 359,344; in 1815, 362,405; in 1828, 436,357; in 1838, 496,205; in 1848, 547,112; and in 1858, 577,282. The great fall of the population from 1775 to 1800 has never been well accounted for; and it is remarkable that the decrease continued even after the island had become the residence of the royal family, on the occupation of the continental possessions by the French. According to the census of 1838, which is taken in preference, as its returns were not in any way affected by revolutions or wars, the Stati di Terra Ferma, on the 31st December 1837, were inhabited by 2,072,707 men and 2,053,028 women. In the course of that year there had been 306,902 marriages, 1,303,250 deaths, and 1,457,493 births, of which 30,474 illegitimate,—the average of illegitimate being 2-09; and that of legitimate births 97-91 per cent. The maximum of natural children is of 3 per cent. at Turin, and the minimum is of 1-03 per cent. in the province of Alessandria. The maximum of births takes place in the following order:—March, April, January, October; the minimum in June and December. The greatest number of marriages take place in February, January, April, November; and the smallest number in December and March. Out of their total number in 1837 there had been in February, 62,188; January, 47,022; April, 32,108; November, 26,131; March, 13,055; December, 10,054. With regard to age, the greatest number marry from 20 to 25 years old. In 1837, 23 men and 288 women had married from 12 to 14, and 4052 men and 949 women more than 56 years old. The maximum of deaths occurs in February and August; the minimum in June and October. An idea of the longevity in the continental possessions may be formed from the following numbers:—Out of 1,303,250 deaths that occurred in 1837, 15,734 were still-born; 158,542 died before they were a month old; 152,843 from 1 month to 1 year old; 95,333 from 1 to 2 years old; and so on, decreasing to the minimum of 5130 from 12 to 13 years old; 92,956 had died from 50 to 60; 121,655 from 60 to 70; 100,614 from 70 to 80; 59,274 from 80 to 100; and 362 more than 100 years old.

Little is known of the early history of the various states which now form the continental possessions of Sardinia before they fell under the Roman power. From that time they followed the fate of Rome, and eventually were overrun by the various northern nations that overthrew the empire. Most of the territories south of the Alps, in the sixth century, fell under the Longobards, in whose history the dukes of Ivrea, of Asti, of Aosta, of Turin, &c., play an important part. When Charlemagne put an end to the Longobard kingdom the country fell under the sway of several small counts, dukes, and marquises, who, sometimes as vassals of the empire, sometimes asserting their independence, succeeded in holding possession of it till they were gradually swept away by a more able, more powerful, or more fortunate one of their number, and their petty states absorbed into a monarchy.

The House of Savoy is one of the most ancient sovereign families in Europe. Its earliest historical progenitor, and the founder of its power, was Umberto Biancamano, or Whitehand (flour. 1003–1045), a liege baron of the Burgundian kings, and a descendant, according to some genealogists, of Berengarius II., Marquis of Ivrea and King of Italy; and according to others, of Louis the Blind, King of Provençe and Italy, and emperor. Umberto's original possessions seem to have been the county of Salmoirec in the Viennois, to which eventually he added the counties of Noyon and Bellay, the Chablais, the Maurienne, the Tarentaise, Savoy, and Aosta. Rudolph III., at his death without issue in 1032, having appointed his joint heirs his widow Ermengarda and Conrad the Salique, the Burgundian Barons refused to comply with his will, and asserted their independence. Umberto alone remained faithful, and having led an army by the valley of Aosta across the Alps, enforced obedience to the widow and to Conrad. This act of chivalry strengthened the foundation of his power. His son Odo, by marrying Adelaid, only offspring of the royal family of the Harduns, added the county of Turin and great part of the surrounding country to his paternal states. The power of the House of Savoy was established. Ever since, through the course of eight centuries—through many vicissitudes of fortune, such as at times had nearly brought it to its total ruin—the House of Savoy has gone on slowly, but steadily gaining power and influence; and whilst all the other great mediæval Italian families, such as the Estes, the Gonzagas, the Viscontis, the Sforzas, the Carraras, the Medici, have disappeared, the descendants of Umberto Biancamano are still powerful and flourishing. As it is not consistent with the plan of this work to give a regular history of the Sardinian states, we shall confine ourselves to a short notice of the principal events by which they were gradually brought together into a monarchy.

The reign of Charles III., in the beginning of the sixteenth century, was a period of great misfortunes for the House of Savoy. The progress of the new religious opinions tore away from his possessions the Canton de Vaad, Geneva, and the lower Valais, and deprived him of the alliance of Berne and Fribourg. During the contests between Francis I. of France and the Emperor Charles V., Duke Charles III., having attended the coronation of the emperor at Bologna, Francis invaded Piedmont, and, by a royal edict of February 1537, declared it a French province, which had been unlawfully detached from the kingdom. Charles died in misery at Vercelli, attended only by his barber, in 1553. Emmanuel Philibert (1553–80), the heir to the ducal crown of Savoy, was living in poverty at the court of Charles V.; but he was a man of great energy of character, of an iron will, and of remarkable military talent. The battle of St Quentin is well known in history. By the treaty of Chateau Cambresis that followed it, Emmanuel Philibert, to whose wisdom and valour the Spaniards chiefly owed their victory, recovered all the possessions of his ancestors, and was the second real founder of the greatness of his house. One of his most important measures was that of abolishing political feudality, and, by substituting a fixed annual payment in money instead of the military service of the great vassals, forming a stipendiary regular infantry, which enabled him to restore order in the country, and to defend it from foreign enemies. His successors in the dukedom were Charles Emmanuel I. (1580–1630), Victor Amadeus I. (1630–37), Francis Hyacinth (1637), Charles Emmanuel II. (1638–74), and Victor Amadeus II. (1675).

The latter sovereign, who during his long reign (1675–1730) was almost constantly at war with France or Spain, was the first king of Sardinia. On the breaking out of the war of the Spanish succession in 1700, at first he followed the part of the French; but, indignant at the treatment he met with from Louis XIV. and his generals, for a whole year he took no part in the war. But at length, tempted by the offers of the allied powers, Austria, Holland, and England, in 1703 he declared himself against France. After many reverses, which had nearly deprived him of all his possessions, finally the battle of Turin, won by the imperial army under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy on the 7th September 1706, compelled the French to raise the siege of his capital and retire from Italy. By the treaty of Turin of March 13, 1707, all the possessions which the French held by virtue of the rights and in the name of Spain in Italy, were surrendered to Austria; and the latter power ceded to Victor Amadeus, as the price of his cooperation, the Lomellina, the Montferrat, the district of Alessandria, and the Valsesia. The power of the House of Savoy was thus extended into Lombardy, which Victor Amadeus used to compare to an artichoke that was to be eaten leaf by leaf. At the final end of the war, by the peace of Utrecht in April 1713, and the treaties of Rastadt and Basle in March and September 1714, Spain gave up the island of Sardinia to the emperor, and the island of Sicily to Victor Amadeus, who thereupon assumed the name of King of Sicily. This arrangement, favourable to the House of Savoy, was due chiefly to the influence of England.

But at the death of Louis XIV., Spain, which was then governed by Cardinal Alberoni, tried by going to war to recover her losses, and at once re-took possession of Sicily and Sardinia. The quadruple alliance formed against her compelled her in 1720 to a peace, by which the House of Austria retained Naples, and had Sicily added to it, and the island of Sardinia was given to the House of Savoy, to make up for the loss of Sicily. From that time the dukes of Savoy became kings of Sardinia.

The early history of this island is wrapped up in darkness, and the accounts that the ancient writers have left us of the origin of its first settlers are extremely various and conflicting. But whatever may be thought of them, the high antiquity of its settlement is attested by durable monuments, the materials, height, and construction of which are different from almost any other that are to be found. These Cyclopean structures are very numerous, more than twelve hundred of them having been found and recorded in the island. They are called Nuragis both by ancients and moderns, being in height about 50 feet, and in diameter at the base about 90 feet. They are strong buildings, in the form of a truncated cone, composed of masses of stone from 2 to 5 or 6 feet square, arranged in layers without cement. The materials are lava, freestone, porphyry, or such other substances as the respective sites afford; and they generally crown the summits of hills commanding plains, where they are seen in every state, some being nearly complete, and others a mere heap of rubbish. On entering these edifices, which is effected by a low door, the structure is found to extend below the surface of the surrounding earth. The interior space is almost invariably divided into two floors, each consisting of a vaulted room, to which access is gained from a ramp between two concentric walls, and leading to the summit, where a flight of steps completes the ascent. The nuragis are of two distinct kinds. Those which are the most common have no marks of the chisel, and are constructed of massive blocks with irregular faces, and smaller stones in the interstices; the materials of the others exhibit exteriors formed by tools, though the stones are not exactly square, but are placed with a stricter regard to keeping the horizontal layers, and gradually diminish in size towards the summit.

There have been various conjectures respecting the probable object of these buildings. The darkness of their interior, and the fragments of terra-cotta found in them, would indicate their having been monuments for the dead; a belief so general that they have obtained in their neighbourhood the name of Domu de Orcu, or the house of death; but the pottery being evidently Roman, and in some instances accompanied by coins of the lower empire, indicates only that such was the use made of them at a late period. Captain Smyth, who examined these ancient monuments, says, "From their laborious construction, their number, and their general situation on curcuredus, or eminences, more or less distant from each other, I cannot but suppose they were designed to answer the double purpose of mausolea for the eminent dead, and as asyla for the living, especially as many of them are flanked with smaller nuragis having a subterraneous communication. But the mystery in which they are involved will probably remain impenetrable, since none of them exhibit the least trace of either literal or symbolical characters."

At whatever periods these remarkable works were erected, a long time elapsed before any precise notice is to be discovered of the history of Sardinia, until about the year 500 before Christ, when the Carthaginians under Malchus, after a victorious campaign in Sicily, attempted the conquest of the island. They were repulsed with such loss, however, as left it in repose for some time; but at length the Carthaginians succeeded in gaining a footing and maintaining themselves in the island, till they surrendered their claims over it to the Romans, n.c. 233. The latter, however, did not effect its subjugation till after several campaigns.

At the fall of the Roman empire, Sardinia, by successive conquests, passed into the hands of the Vandals, the Saracens, and the Spaniards, in whose power it remained from 1324 till they lost it, as has already been noticed, during the war of the Spanish succession.

The war of the Polish succession (1733-38), which caused important changes in Italy, brought to the House of Savoy Tortona and Novara; and by the war of the Austrian succession, on the death of the Emperor Charles VI., Sardinia gained the districts of Vigevano and Bobbio, which Maria Theresa ceded to Charles Emmanuel in reward for his services.

Such was the state of Sardinia when the French attached it in 1792. In 1798 their successes were such as to compel the king, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abandon the capital, Turin, and the whole of his continental dominions. He withdrew to Leghorn, where he received with delight deputies from the Stanmenti of the island of Sardinia, assuring him of the entire devotion of the people to his person and government. Satisfied with these assurances he embarked, and, escorted by an English frigate, arrived at Cagliari on the 3d of March 1799, where he was enthusiastically welcomed.

The successes of the Russian general Suvarof induced his majesty to return to the Continent, till, hearing while in Tuscany of the battle of Marengo, and being inconsolable for the death of his wife, the sister of Louis XVI., he abdicated in favour of the Duke of Aosta in March 1802, and resided in privacy at Rome, where he died in 1819. His successor, Victor Emmanuel, remained some time in Italy, in the hope of gaining his continental dominions; but seeing little prospect of succeeding, he left Naples, at which place he had resided since his accession, and arrived in Sardinia on the 17th of February 1806, where he remained secure under the protection of England.

The son of Charles Emmanuel followed the footsteps of his father in opposing the principles of the French revolution, which was then spreading its effects over all Europe, and nowhere more generally than in the continental part of the kingdom of Sardinia. The events of that period are to be found narrated in this work in the historical part of the article FRANCE. We need only state here, therefore, that the King of Sardinia returned to his continental capital in 1814, and by the treaty of Vienna the duchy or ancient republic of Genoa was added to his dominions. By the same treaty he ceded to the state of Geneva the circles of Carouge and Chesne, containing 12,700 inhabitants.

Victor Emmanuel on his restoration re-established, as far as could be done, the old order of things, except that he confirmed the purchases of confiscated property made under the French, restored to the former owners only the few estates that had not been sold, and allotted an annual sum of L.16,000 as some compensation to those whose property

had been plundered. But he became a zealous member of the Holy Alliance, again introduced the Jesuits, established a very severe censorship of the press, and introduced such restrictions on the process of education in the universities and the colleges and seminaries as he judged advisable to check the prevailing tendency to infidelity and immorality. These measures, combined with the general state of Italy, caused in 1821 an insurrection, the particulars of which, as well as a summary of the events of 1848, and the establishment of a liberal constitutional government in the country, are given in this work under ITALY.

The liberal institutions granted by the late King Charles Albert in 1848, have been maintained by his son and successor, the present King Victor Emmanuel; and during the last seven years the country, under a wise and enlightened administration, has made great progress in agricultural improvements, in commerce, in general wealth, and in education.

Such was the state of Sardinia in January 1859. Since that time important events have happened, which seemed to endanger, not only her constitutional liberties, but even her very existence as an independent power. The gigantic struggle that for two months strewed the plains of Northern Italy with human bodies, has just come to an end; but its results being dependent upon peace, the real terms of which are still wrapped up in mystery, and are at this moment being arranged at Zurich, we shall only give here a very rapid sketch of the causes and the course of the war we have recently witnessed.

Ever since the conclusion of the disastrous war with Austria in 1848 and 1849, the relations between Sardinia and that country, far from being on a friendly footing, had been such as to lead at last to an interruption of diplomatic relations. For an explanation of their hostile attitude, we must go back, at least, to 1815; since which time, whenever an attempt was made on the part of any of the Italian States for freedom—as in 1820 at Naples, and in Piedmont; and in 1830 in the Legations and the Duchy of Modena—the iron hand of Austria interposed, and re-established the stringent despotism of previous governments. It was either at the direct bidding of Austria—as in Tuscany, Parma, and Modena; or by Austrian counsel, countenance, and support—as in Naples and the Papal dominions,—that the constitutional charters, granted in 1848, were, in the course of 1849 and 1850, suppressed, and a despotic and reactionary policy resorted to.

Sardinia alone, after 1848, preserved her liberal institutions, and fairly worked out a regular constitutional government. Hence her very position as a free state, in direct antagonism to the military despotism by which the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was swayed, became a standing menace to Austria. The feeling of nationality, and the liberal aspirations of the Italian subjects of the latter power, not only were kept alive by the constitutional liberties thriving in a neighbour Italian state, but found expression and sympathy, and were constantly fanned by the free Sardinian press, which never failed to register and expose any general act of despotism, or any instance of individual wrong and oppression, exercised by the Austrian rulers of Lombardy and Venice. For the attacks by the press Austria often demanded redress from Sardinia; and was uniformly answered, that the press being free by the constitution, the government had no control over it; but if the newspapers made false statements, they might be prosecuted for libel. Many Lombards and Venetians, to escape persecution after 1849, availing themselves of the permission to expatriate given by the Austrian laws, had established themselves in Sardinia, where some of them even sat in the Chambers, or filled high official situations. It was in the nature of things, that as Austria was the countenance and supporter of the despotic rulers, so the constitutional party, all over Italy, should look up to Sardinia as their representative and leader, and the power by which they might expect a voice to be raised in their behalf.

Under such circumstances it was evident that Austria would never have a peaceful supremacy in Italy, so long as a constitutional government existed in Sardinia; and that, on the other hand, the liberal institutions of the latter country were constantly in danger of being trampled upon by the former, whenever a favourable opportunity occurred.

This state of things had almost daily been growing worse, when a few significant words of menace offered by the French emperor to the Austrian ambassador, at Paris, on New Year's day, 1859, accelerated a crisis, which otherwise would have been only delayed, not avoided. Austria, suspecting the existence of an accord against her between France and Sardinia, poured a formidable force into Italy, and assumed a threatening attitude towards the latter power, by bringing a division of her army up to the frontier, on the Ticino, and by strongly fortifying and garrisoning Piacenza, in the duchy of Parma.

Sardinia protested against the Austrian movements, especially against the fortification and occupation of Piacenza, contrary to the treaties of 1815. At the same time she made preparations for defence, and applied to France and England for assistance, in case of attack. The relations between France and Sardinia grew at this time closer, by means of a marriage between Princess Clotilde, a daughter of King Victor Emmanuel, and Prince Louis Napoleon.

Our government, under Lord Derby's administration, endeavoured to bring the parties to an understanding; and to that effect Lord Cowley, from the embassy at Paris, was sent by Lord Malnesbury on a special, but, as it turned out, fruitless mission to Vienna. It was proposed that Austria should give up the separate treaties she had made, since 1815, with the smaller Italian powers, and should withdraw from the Duchies and the Legations. The efforts of England were, in a certain way, thwarted by the proposal of a congress by Russia. But the rather too favourable attitude we assumed towards Austria, by raising a hope, that, in case of war, we would eventually join her, may possibly have tended to induce her to take the step which finally led to the rupture of peace. For whilst arrangements for a pacific solution of the difficulties were still going on, Austria addressed to Sardinia a peremptory summons to disarm within three days. The Sardinian government having answered, that though it was unreasonable for the strong to ask the weak to disarm, yet they would abide by the decision of France and England. After a few days, at the end of April, the Austrian army, in three bodies, crossed the Ticino, and invaded the Sardinian territory.

Had Count Gyulai, the Austrian commander-in-chief, pushed on with the greatly superior force he had, the Sardinians would scarcely have been able to cover Turin; and they were so much prepared to give it up, if necessary, that the state archives had been removed to Chamberg. But before the arrival of the French, the Austrians lost an invaluable time in comparative inaction, and in exacting heavy, and almost marauding, requisitions of provisions of every kind, and money, in the provinces of Lomellina, Vercelli, and Novara.

Meanwhile a large French force, which was sent on the first news of the Austrian summons, began to pour its numbers into Italy, across the Mont Cenis and the Mont Genevre, and by Genoa, in aid of the Sardinians; and, on the 12th of May, the French emperor himself landed at the latter place, and assumed the command-in-chief of the French and Sardinian armies.

An imperial manifesto promised the independence of Italy, from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic Sea; and for

A time it seemed as if the promise was to be fulfilled. In less than two months from the commencement of hostilities, the Austrians, beaten in every encounter, were driven back from the Sesia and the Po, beyond the Mincio.

The main body of the French army assembled at first round Alessandria. Large forces were afterwards concentrated on the right, and seemed to aim at Piacenza, and forcing a passage of the Po, between that fortress and Pavia. An endeavour of the Austrians to dislodge them from their position led, on the 20th, to the battle of Montabello. The French were repelling within their lines, when, at 11 A.M., the Piedmontese outposts gave the alarm. A Sardinian cavalry, covered with blood and dust, galloped into the French camp, calling out, "To arms! the Austrians!" A detachment of Sardinian cavalry, under General Somazz, and two French battalions of the line, commanded by General Forey, had to sustain for hours an unequal combat against overwhelming forces. At length, strong French reinforcements having been brought up from Voghera, the head-quarters of Marshal Baraguay D'Hillier's division, the Austrians, after a sanguinary struggle of six hours' duration, were repulsed, driven out of Montabello, and, fairly beaten, retreated to Casteggio.

After several skirmishes on the 31st, the main body of the French army crossed the Po at Casale, and took the road to Vercelli, where the passage of the Sesia was carried out by the successful action of Palestro, to cover their rapid march on Novara. At the same time, two actions, gallantly fought by the Sardinians, made the Austrians believe that the French were marching on Mortara, in the centre of their line.

By these strategic movements the allies outflanked the right wing of the Austrian army. On the 2d of June, General McMahon, with his division, threw a bridge over and crossed the Ticino at Turbigo, and marched towards Magenta, on the road to Milan; whilst the emperor, with other army corps, advanced towards the bridge of Buffalora.

The Austrians having learned, on the night of the 2d, the passage of the Ticino at Turbigo, rapidly sent across that river, at Vigevano, three army corps, and on the 4th opposed at once the passage at Buffalora, and attacked McMahon's division at Magenta. A fearful struggle took place, in which the troops on each side engaged in the action exceeded 100,000 men. After a sanguinary conflict, which lasted more than eight hours, during which the Imperial and Sardinian guards took and retook the position six times, at half-past eight p.m., the allies remained masters of the field of battle; and the Austrians, who, according to the French accounts, had 15,000 killed and wounded, withdrew, leaving 4 guns, 2 flags, 5000 prisoners, 12,000 muskets, and 30,000 knapsacks. The loss of the allies was put down at 4000. Two French and one Austrian general fell in battle. General McMahon, to whom the victory was chiefly owed, was created a field-marshal and Duke of Magenta.

This victory was followed up by another signal success at Melegnano, from which place Marshal Baraguay D'Hilliers, on the 8th, dislodged bodies of Austrian troops that had entrenched themselves. The Austrian loss was estimated at nearly 2000; the French at 943, among whom were 69 officers.

The Austrian accounts, which admitted a loss only of 5000 men at Magenta, greatly deprived the action of its former proportions, and represented it more like a drawn battle than a victory. Its great importance, however, was proved by its practical results. In conjunction with the brilliant action of Melegnano, not only it opened the way to Milan to the allies, but it cleared Lombardy of the Austrians; at first, as far as the Adda, and afterwards the Mincio, Pavia, Brescello, Pizzighettone, and Piacenza, were hastily evacuated; and the great fortifications, constructed at the latter place with so much labour and expense, which gave one of the pretexts for the present war, were destroyed. In every direction the Austrians fell back upon their reserves in the fortresses beyond the Mincio. They precipitately retired even from Ancona and Bologna, in the Papal States, which they had occupied since 1849.

On the 8th of June, the day of the battle of Melegnano, Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan, among the enthusiastic greetings of the inhabitants.

On the same day, by a proclamation to the Italians, Napoleon III., after disclaiming any view of personal ambition, or enlargement of the territory of France, and only claiming the moral influence of contributing to render free one of the most beautiful parts of Europe, invited them all to unite in one sole object, the enfranchisement of their own country. "Form a military organization," he continued; "hasten all of you to place yourselves under the flag of King Victor Emmanuel, who has already so nobly shown you the path of honour. Remember, that without discipline there is no army; and, animated with the sacred fire of justice, be nothing to-day but soldiers. To-morrow you will be free citizens of a great country."

The Austrians, under General Count Schlick, the successor of Gyulai, who was deposed in consequence of the defeat of Magenta, continued their retreat along the north bank of the Po, within the quadrangle of the fortresses of Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnano; and the allies, keeping the northerly road, crossed the Adda and the Oglio without opposition.

On the 22d of June, the hostile armies had come so nearly face to face, as to make it evident that a great battle was imminent. The allies were encamped between the Chiese and the Mincio, occupying Leno, Castiglione, and Montechiaro; and having their left wing resting on the high ground near Brescia and the southern end of the lake of Garda. At their extreme left was General Garibaldi, who, with the Cacciatori della Alpi, a body of volunteers, after a most daring and brilliant series of manoeuvres round the extreme northern frontiers of Lombardy, had come down on the Lake of Garda. The Austrian forces were on the left bank of the Mincio, resting with their right on Peschiera and Verona, and with their left wing on Mantua.

On the 23d, the Austrians poured out their numbers from Mantua, Verona, and Peschiera; and, led by their young emperor, Francis-Joseph, who had assumed the command-in-chief, in the course of the evening crossed the Mincio at four different places, confident of defeating the allies, and driving them beyond the Chiese.

On the 24th, one of the bloodiest battles on record took place. The Austrians began the attack at daylight; and at 10 A.M. the whole of the two armies had come into collision. The battle lasted fifteen hours, and extended along a line of nearly 18 miles, from the neighbourhood of Brescia down towards Mantua. The right wing of the Austrians occupied Pozzolengo, where they met the Sardinians; their centre was at Caviana and Solferino, whilst their left wing marched on Guidiolo and Castel Goffredo, and for a time succeeded in repulsing the French.

The day was decided by a concentrated attack, made about three o'clock p.m., by the French Emperor on Solferino, a village in a commanding situation, where the Austrians had fortified themselves. After several hours of desperate fighting, the place was carried by the French, who, thereby breaking the Austrian centre, moved large masses against their left wing, which, having pushed on almost to the Chiese, was in danger of being surrounded and cut out. Late in the evening, the young Emperor of Austria, with tears in his eyes, saw that the day was irrecoverably lost, and gave the order for the retreat beyond the Mincio, which was accomplished under the protection of a violent storm, that had begun to rage since three o'clock in the afternoon.

Few battles, in modern history, have been marked with more slaughter and horror. More than 300,000 human beings were brought into a close fight, and at night 35,000 of them, at least, were dead or dying. The French, according to their own statement, had 12,720 killed and wounded; and the Sardinians 5525. The Austrian loss, which was put by them at 11,213, is generally asserted to have exceeded 18,000. Numerous prisoners, 13 pieces of cannon, 2 flags, and large quantities of arms and ammunition, fell into the hands of the allies; and Napoleon III. slept at Solferino, in the very apartment which, the previous night, had been occupied by Francis-Joseph.

After the battle of Solferino, the command-in-chief of the Austrian army was given to Baron Hess, who offered no opposition to the passage of the Mincio by the allies. On the 1st of July, the latter received a reinforcement of 35,000 men, brought by Prince Napoleon through Florence and Modena.

Whilst the Sardinians were investing Peschiera, a French division was at Goito to watch Mantua; Garibaldi's Cacciatori dell' Alpi, supported by General Cialdini's division, were moving to close up the valley of the Adige; and the emperor, with the main body of the army, was approaching Verona,—the startling news was received that Napoleon had sent an aide-de-camp to ask for an armistice; and that, on the 7th July, an armistice was actually concluded between him and Francis-Joseph, and commissioners already appointed to agree upon its terms. Events took at once a pacific turn. On the 11th, the two emperors met at Villafranca, and signed a peace, the basis of which were thus vaguely announced:

" Italian Confederation under the honorary presidency of the Pope.

"The Emperor of Austria cedes his rights to Lombardy to the Emperor of the French, who transfers them to the King of Sardinia."