(Germ. *Sachsen*, Fr. *Saxe*), a kingdom of Germany, lying between N. Lat. 50° 10' and 51° 23', E. Long. 11° 23' and 14° 34'; bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Prussian provinces of Saxony and Silesia, S.E. and S. by Bohemia and Bavaria, and W. by Reuss, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Altenburg, and Prussia. Its form is nearly triangular; its length from N.E. to S.W. about 150 miles, breadth about 75; area, 5760 square miles. The northern part of the kingdom is for the most part a level or an undulating country; but on the south it is very mountainous. The principal mountain ranges are the Erzgebirge, extending along the Bohemian frontier, and reaching their highest elevation in the Fichtelberg, 3818 feet high; the Lusatian mountains, forming a continuation of the former range on the E. of the Elbe, with Lausche, 2530 feet high; and the Elbe sandstone range, extending along both sides of the Elbe, from Dresden to Bohemia.

This last mountainous district, usually denominated Saxon Switzerland, has peculiar charms for the lovers of picturesque scenery. It is about 28 miles in length and 23 in breadth, displaying deep chasms bordered by perpendicular rocks, some naked, and others clothed with every variety of trees. Rapid streams pour from declivities, forming cascades in some parts, and in others in deep vales, meandering through verdant meadows, without their entrance or their egress being discoverable by the observer from the precipices which enclose them. Through this mass of mountains the River Elbe has worn itself a passage by a most tortuous course, and washes the bases of rocks, in some parts of nearly 1000 feet in perpendicular height. From the surface of this mountain-plain rise pinnacles of rocks, on which castles in the feudal times were erected, some of the ruins of which add to the romantic grandeur of the prospect; whilst others, such as Königstein, have had applied to them all the arts of modern fortification, and are the most impregnable fortresses in the Saxon dominions. Königstein has on its apex strong walls, surrounding buildings in which the treasures of the crown are secured in times of danger. Few spots in Europe create greater interest in the geologist, the botanist, or the lover of picturesque scenery, than this portion of the country so appropriately denominated Saxon Switzerland.

The principal river of Saxony, and that to which almost all the others contribute their streams, though not till it has left this kingdom, is the Elbe. It enters from Bohemia, and is navigable through the whole of its Saxon course. The other rivers are the Black Elster, which rises in Lusatia, and soon enters the Prussian territory; and the Spree, which comes out of Bohemia, divides itself into two branches near Bautzen, and then passes into Prussia. These rivers fall into the Elbe on its right bank. On the left bank it receives the Mulde, which is formed by the confluence of the Zwickau or western, and the Freiberg or eastern Mulde, both rising in the Erzgebirge, and flows northwards till it joins the Elbe at Dessau. The White Elster rises in the Voigtländ, or south-western portion of the Erzgebirge, with many curvatures reaches the suburbs of the city of Leipzig, and, receiving there the small river Pleisse, falls into the Saale, and is ultimately lost in the Elbe above Magdeburg. The only river that does not run to the Elbe is the Neisse, which rises in the eastern corner of the kingdom, and, passing into Silesia, at length empties itself into the Oder. There are no considerable lakes in Saxony, nor any canals, except such as are used in the mining districts for conveying the ore to the mills.

As compared with most parts of Germany, the agriculture of Saxony is much advanced. Wherever the soil is capable of cultivation it is worked with diligence; and the more hilly and poorer soils have a good herbage, and yield pasture to numerous flocks and herds. The sides of the mountains towards the Elbe, from Pirna to Meissen, are covered with vines which yield both red and white wine, to the amount of 145,320 gallons in 1855. The extent of arable land in the kingdom is estimated at 1,839,000 acres, of meadow land at 413,000 acres, of gardens and vineyards at 45,000 acres, and of forests at 1,131,000 acres.

The arable land is chiefly cultivated on a three-course system, though in the Voigtländ there are generally four courses. Rye, wheat, barley, and oats are the crops most generally raised. Notwithstanding the attention paid to farming, and the natural excellence of the soil in several parts, there is not produced more than enough of grain to supply the wants of the dense population. Peas, beans, lentils, and vetches are grown. The culture of potatoes is very extensive, and they form almost exclusively the food of the labouring classes in the mountainous districts. Tobacco, hemp, flax, wood, hops, and chicory, are grown in some parts of the kingdom, but none of them to the extent which the consumption of the country requires. The forests of Saxony form one of the chief sources of wealth to the country. Timber of excellent quality is obtained from them to the amount of more than 62,000,000 cubic feet annually. Pastoral occupations afford employment to a great number of the inhabitants. The cattle are good, especially in the Voigtländ and Erzgebirge, where large quantities of butter are produced. As to the rearing of sheep, generally of a good breed, this country occupies the first rank in Germany; and poultry and pigs are also numerous. There were, in 1853, 94,925 horses, 610,836 horned cattle, 485,147 sheep, 74,726 goats, and 124,158 pigs. The wild animals of the country are at present of little importance.

Saxony abounds in minerals, and the ore is tolerably rich; which, added to superior skill and economy in working the mines and separating the metals, makes them very beneficial to the crown, to whom the greater portion of them belong. In 1854 there were in operation 362 mines in all, besides a large number of smelting-houses. The value of the silver obtained in 1850 was £206,176; and the total value of the mineral produce about £428,000. Besides silver, iron, lead, copper, tin, coal, sandstone, sulphur, saltpetre, and many other minerals, are found in the kingdom. Salt, however, is entirely absent, and has to be imported from Prussian Saxony.

In no part of the continent has manufacturing industry been carried to so great an extent, or occupied so large a proportion of the population, as in Saxony. It is in the mountainous regions of Lusatia and the Erzgebirge that manufactures are most extensively carried on; and in these regions there are not only many manufacturing towns, but villages, which in size, architecture, and activity of business, surpass many towns. The first manufacturing town of the country is Chemnitz. More than the half of the people are engaged in manufactures. The annual value of the whole produce of Saxon industry is estimated at thirteen millions sterling. It would include almost the whole catalogue of European manufactures to enumerate the respective kinds of goods made in Saxony. Woollens, linens, cottons, and silks for clothing; iron, brass, and copper wares; paper, leather, earthenware, hats, musical instruments, and turnery ware; various chemical and dyeing preparations; clocks, watches, swords, guns, and pistols, are all comprehended in the list of Saxon manufactures.

The commerce of a country whose inhabitants are chiefly Saxony, occupied in manufactures, and produce an insufficiency of food for their own consumption, must necessarily be extensive. The trade of Saxony chiefly centres in the city of Leipzig, where, at the time of the three annual fairs, the greater part of the manufactures are disposed of, and contracts are made for such foreign commodities as the supply of the country demands. The roads in Saxony are generally good, and these, as well as the railways, of which there were in 1856 nearly 400 miles in operation, and the navigation of the Elbe, greatly facilitate the trade of the country. Saxony exports sheep's wool, fine woollen goods, linen and thread lace, yarn and worsted, ironmongery, cutlery, and braziers, and also books. It receives in return corn, wine, salt, colonial wares, &c. The annual excess in value of the exports over the imports of Saxony is above L700,000; and the share of the kingdom in the net receipts of the German Zollverein amounted in 1855 to L318,976. The quantities of the principal articles exported and imported in 1855 are exhibited in the following table:

| Principal Articles | Import | Export | Transit | |--------------------|--------|--------|---------| | Books | 9,404 | 12,059 | 672 | | Cattle | (head) | 74,686 | 8,044 | | Coal | (cwt.) | 7,734 | 15,621 | | Copper and brass | | 9,693 | 7,264 | 1,242 | | Cotton pulps, seeds, berries (bushes) | 1,727,105 | 387,275 | | | Cotton and cotton stuffs (cwt.) | 260,628 | 150,856 | 162,094 | | Drugs, colours, &c.| | 203,841 | 126,929 | 139,684 | | Glass and glass ware | | 8,309 | 262,386 | 792 | | Grocery, &c. | | 322,779 | 83,305 | 278,311 | | Hardware | | 401 | 5,712 | 3,824 | | Hides, &c. | | 33,301 | 8,228 | 2,448 | | Iron and steel | | 110,335| 21,065 | 94,476 | | Leather, &c. | | 1,557 | 17,538 | 6,644 | | Linen, linen yarn, &c.| 17,508 | 1,565 | 13,173 | | Oil | | 4,285 | 10,711 | 6,139 | | Paper, pasteboard, &c.| 4,421 | 4,973 | 1,690 | | Potash | | 2,917 | 3,863 | 595 | | Silk and silk fabrics | | 3,569 | 5,122 | 3,887 | | Tallow and stearine| | 2,627 | 306 | 2,329 | | Tar, pitch, &c. | | 3,400 | 761 | 456 | | Tin and tin wares | | 1,353 | 116 | 966 | | Wood and wooden fabrics | 19,937 | 10,475 | 982 | | Wool and woollens | | 87,944 | 30,921 | 22,902 |

The government is a monarchy hereditary in the Saxon Albertine line, and, in failure of that, in the Ernestine or Saxe-Weimar branch of the family. The king enjoys the whole executive power, confirms pardons, bestows commissions, nominates the supreme judges, and enjoys the power of making peace and war, and of concluding all treaties. In making new laws, and in imposing new taxes, the states have the right to be consulted. The legislative body is a diet composed of two chambers, which meet at the same time, and possess equal rights and privileges. The first chamber includes, besides the nobility, a deputy from the University of Leipzig, one of the Evangelical and one of the Roman Catholic clergy, the supreme magistrates of Dresden, Leipzig, and other towns, &c. In the second chamber there are twenty deputies from the possessors of manors, twenty-five from the towns, twenty-five from the country, and five representing the manufacturing and commercial interests. When the king pleases these states are convoked; but they must hold an ordinary meeting at least once every three years, and an extraordinary one on each change of ministry. The administration is conducted by a cabinet council, under which, through the privy council, orders are communicated to the departments of finance, war, domains, police, and foreign affairs. According to the budget for 1858-60, the income and expenditure each amounted to L1,873,048; and the public debt at the end of 1857 was L12,264,802.

The military force of Saxony is composed of the following troops:

- Infantry of the line, forming 4 regiments: 15,748 - Chasseurs: 4,605 - Cavalry: 3,208 - Artillery: 2,430 - Commanding officers: 15

Total (exclusive of the reserve): 25,406

The whole contingent of Saxony to the German confederation is 18,000 men.

Although the royal family professes the Roman Catholic religion, the most of the people belong to the Lutheran Church. In 1855 the number of Lutherans was 1,995,891; of Roman Catholics, 36,730; of the Reformed Church, 3602; of German Catholics, 1753; and of Jews, 1200. Toleration is extended to all sects recognised by the law; and these are the Lutheran, Reformed, Roman, Greek, and German Catholic Churches; but over all alike the civil government exercises the supreme ecclesiastical power.

The educational institutions comprise the University of Leipzig, and in the endowed classical schools of Meissen and Grimma, as well as in 11 gymnasia, 9 normal seminaries, 1892 elementary schools, and various other institutions. Both the higher and lower kinds of schools are well managed, and popular education is widely spread throughout the country; so that in intellectual culture Saxony stands in the foremost rank among the nations of Europe. The fine arts have been cultivated with considerable success, and both statuary and painting receive valuable assistance from the fine productions which are contained in the collections of Dresden. The capital of Saxony is Dresden and the country is divided into four circles, as follows:

| Circle | Sq. Miles | Pop. (1855) | |--------------|-----------|-------------| | Dresden | 1,669 | 528,714 | | Leipzig | 1,338 | 454,262 | | Zwicken | 1,785 | 759,328 | | Bautzen | 968 | 295,771 | | Total | 5,700 | 2,039,075 |

The early history of the Saxon people is involved in considerable obscurity. According to the most ancient traditions of the people, they are represented as being the aboriginal inhabitants of the wide forests of their own country, living by agriculture and the chase. As the population gradually increased, and became too great for the country, colonies were sent out from time to time. These settled on the coasts of the Cimbrian peninsula, where they pursued a different mode of life from the inland tribes,—devoting themselves to commerce, and partly also to piracy. They rendered themselves so terrible to the Romans by their devastations that, in the reign of Theodosius, a Saxon frontier, guarded by Roman armies, was established along the shores of the German Ocean. It was from these maritime Saxons that the bands came over to colonize Great Britain.

After the ecclesiastical council at Worms in 774, Charlemagne began a long and bloody war against the Saxons. He made repeated invasions into their country, in which he was almost uniformly successful; but as soon as his back was turned the enemy was again in arms. The result of the war was that, in 804, a great part of the Saxons were compelled to adopt Christianity, and submit to the power of the Franks. They were then governed by counts, generally of Frank origin, who were afterwards raised to the rank of dukes. Of these the most celebrated is Henry the Fowler (912-936), who was elected German emperor, the first of the Saxon family who wore that crown. The duchy at that time did not correspond with the present Saxony, but with Westphalia, Hanover, and Holstein.

The nucleus of the present kingdom of Saxony was formed by the erection in 926, by Henry the Fowler, of the margraviate of Meissen, comprising the country between the Elbe, the Saale, and the Erzgebirge, as a bul- work against the Slavonian tribes beyond. In 1139 the office of margrave became hereditary in the family of Wettin, who added to the territory of Meissen their own possessions in Thuringia, Saxony, Sambia, &c.

Meanwhile the Duchy of Saxony, afterwards raised to an electorate, passed into the Ascanian family, the last elector of which, Albert III., died in 1422. As he left no issue, numerous claimants appeared for his land and dignity; but the Emperor Sigismund conferred them, in 1423, on Frederick the Quarrelsome, Margrave of Meissen, on account of the services he had rendered to the empire in the war against the Hussites.

The territory of the house of Wettin had by this time extended far beyond its original limits, and stretched from the Werra to the Oder, and from the Erzgebirge to the Harz Mountains. The accession of Frederick to Saxony gave him little additional territory, but conferred much importance, by raising him to the second place among the temporal electors. Thus the name of the purest in blood of all the German tribes, passed over to a different people; and that of Saxony came to designate what had been formerly known as the margraviate of Meissen. The country had been very much improved by the discovery of its great mineral wealth, which led to the clearing of the immense forests; but in the beginning of the fifteenth century great devastations were caused by the incursions of the Hussite troops from Bohemia. Under the wise and energetic rule of Frederick the Quarrelsome, the University of Leipzig, an offshoot from that of Prague, was founded in 1409. Frederick was succeeded in 1428 by his son of the same name, surnamed the Gentle, who died in 1464, leaving two sons, Ernest and Albert, from whom the Ernestine and Albertine families of Saxony are descended. For some time they reigned conjointly; but in 1485 proceeded to a division of the country. Ernest, the elder of the two, obtained, along with the electorate and the territory attached to that office, the greater part of Thuringia, the Vogtland, and the district of Coburg; and Albert, the ancient Meissen, and the rest of Thuringia.

The successors of Ernest in the electorate did good service to the cause of truth and freedom in supporting the rise of the Reformation. Frederick III. (1486–1525), founded the University of Wittenberg, and afforded his patronage to Luther, who was made professor there. John the Constant (1525–32) stood at the head of the protesting princes at the Diet of Spires in 1529; and John Frederick the Magnanimous (1532–47) took the lead against Charles V. in the Schmalkaldic war; and was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Mühlberg in 1547. For this act of rebellion he was deprived by the emperor of his electoral dignity and lands; and these were conferred on his cousin Maurice, duke of Saxony.

While the Ernestine branch of the family were thus contending in favour of liberty and protestantism, Albert and his immediate successor, who possessed the present kingdom of Saxony, were exerting their power on the opposite side. The former, in 1488, led an army to the Netherlands, and delivered from captivity Maximilian, king of the Romans, for which service he was appointed, in 1495, hereditary viceroy in Friesland, and general of the imperial army. He died, however, in 1500, in a vain attempt to subdue the Frisians; and his son George, who succeeded to the duchy, and in 1504 obtained Friesland from his brother Henry, being equally unsuccessful in his efforts, gave up this province in 1515 to the Archduke of Austria for 20,000 gulden about (£200,000). George strongly opposed the progress of the Reformation, and attempted to exclude, by will, any Protestant prince from the succession; but dying in 1539, leaving his will unsigned, he was succeeded by his brother Henry, a Lutheran, who introduced the reformed religion into the country. His son Maurice, who became duke in 1541 and elector in 1548, though he adhered to Charles V. in the Schmalkaldic war, afterwards opposed and put an end to the despotic designs of that emperor; and by the treaty of Passau in 1551, obtained for the Protestants the free exercise of their religion. Maurice's brother and successor, August (1553–86), assisted in bringing about the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, by which the Protestants obtained equal rights with the Roman Catholics, and also did much for the improvement of the laws and constitution of Saxony. Various additional districts were added to the electorate in this reign.

The reigns of Christian I. (1586–91) and Christian II. (1591–1611) were distinguished only for religious disputes; but that of John George I., the brother and successor of the latter, includes the whole period of the Thirty Years' War, in which he played no very illustrious part. He refused the Bohemian crown, which was offered to him, and not only advised the elector of the Palatinate to do the same, but refused to afford him any assistance. He remained on the emperor's side till the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus; and after his death made terms with the emperor at Prague in 1635, by which he obtained part of the see of Magdeburg, and the two Lusatian margraviates. His eldest son, John George II., succeeded in 1666; while the younger sons, August, Christian, and Maurice founded the lines of Wessenfels, Merseburg, and Zeitz, which became extinct in 1746, 1738, and 1718, respectively. John George III. (1680–91), the son and successor of the last elector, distinguished himself by the assistance he gave to the emperor against the Turks in Hungary, and against France on the Rhine.

After the short reign of John George IV., Frederick August I., surnamed the Strong, succeeded in 1691; and, in order to obtain the elective crown of Poland, went over, in 1697, to the Roman Catholic Church. By this increase of power and territory, however, he involved himself in a war with the greatest soldier of the age, Charles XII. of Sweden, in which Saxony was invaded by the Swede, and suffered the loss of an immense amount of money and blood. Frederick August II., who succeeded his father in 1733, was also elected King of Poland. During this reign, as in the preceding, the wars and extravagance of the court reduced Saxony to the lowest pitch of misery. In the war of the Austrian succession, Frederick August took part with France and Prussia against Austria; but in the Seven Years' War he placed himself on the imperial side. In the latter contest Saxony was devastated alike by friend and foe, and was the scene of many of the victories of Frederick the Great. The wretched state of the country began to be ameliorated in the long reign of Frederick August III., who obtained the electorate in 1763 at the age of thirteen, and ruled at first under the guardianship of his uncle Xaver. A system of strict economy, justice, and mildness was introduced; the people were relieved from many burdensome imposts; the use of torture was abolished; and much was done for the material improvement of the country. A rising of the peasantry, which took place in 1790, was put down without loss of blood, and the grievances complained of were removed. In the wars which followed the French Revolution, Saxony took part with Prussia at first; but after the power of that kingdom was overthrown by the decisive battle of Jena in 1806, Frederick August made peace with Napoleon, and was made, with the title of king, a member of the Rhenish confederacy. By the peace of Tilsit in the following year he obtained several accessions of territory, and the sovereignty over the newly erected grand-duchy of Warsaw. During this time of his prosperity the monarch acted a very upright and honourable part, in not taking advantage of his power to enrich himself at the expense of the surrounding small states, as he might easily have done. But a great reverse of fortune befell him after Saxony was treated as a conquered country; the king was kept in confinement for some time; and a partition of the kingdom was effected by the Congress of Vienna, whereby, besides the loss of the duchy of Warsaw, an area of 791 square miles, with a population of 845,218, was ceded to Prussia, to make up to that kingdom for its part of Poland, which Russia obtained.

Notwithstanding this spoliation of more than half its territory, Saxony has since risen to a more flourishing and prosperous condition than ever. Frederick August I., (as king) died in 1827, having deservedly obtained the surname of the Just; and was succeeded by his brother Anthony, who carried on the various measures of reform which his predecessor had begun in the later years of his reign. Still the people suffered under many grievances, and had as yet very little share in the legislative power. The outbreaks which took place in 1830 in Dresden and Leipzig did not indeed cause any serious disturbance; but they led to the introduction of a new constitution in the following year. On the death of the king in 1836, his nephew, Frederick August II., who had been regent since 1830, ascended the throne.

The constitutional system now established did not succeed altogether in the best possible way. A powerful party was formed in opposition to the government; and in the year 1843 violent contests began, in which the opposition gradually gained the upper hand. The chief points in dispute were the freedom of the press and the publicity of judicial proceedings. The government followed the fatal policy of delaying to yield as long as possible, so that the concessions which would in 1843 have been received with universal joy, were granted in 1846 without any effect. An attack was made in Leipzig in 1845 upon Prince John, the heir-apparent; and having been put down by the military, led to a still more violent opposition on the part of the popular party. The ministry, however, still held their ground during the stormy session of 1845-6; but were at last compelled to resign in March 1848, when a liberal cabinet was formed. Various changes were introduced in the following year, especially with regard to the mode of electing the legislature, but these were not of long continuance; and the diet of 1852, elected after the old manner, restored the constitution almost entirely as it was before 1848. Falkenstein, who was one of the ministry previous to 1848, and resigned in that year, is now again in the cabinet, and has been since 1853. In 1854, the king was killed by an accident while travelling in the Tyrol, and was succeeded by his brother John, the present king.

Saxony (Germ. Sachsen), a province of the Prussian monarchy, lying between 50° 55' and 53° 5 N. Lat., 9° 22' and 13° 21' E. Long.; bounded on the N.E. by the province of Brandenburg, S. by the kingdom of Saxony and the Saxon duchies, W. and N.W. by Electoral Hesse, Brunswick, and Hanover. Area, 9760 square miles. It has several detached portions lying among the Saxon duchies, and encloses portions of these as well as the duchies of Anhalt and the principalities of Schwartzburg. It is for the most part a flat country, consisting of the land lying between the Thuringian Mountains in the S., the Harz Mountains in the W., and the Elbe in the E. and N. The Harz Mountains belong partly to this province, and within its limits is their highest summit, the Brocken, a granite peak 3508 feet high; and another called Konigsberg, which attains the height of 3100 feet, besides others of less elevation. To that part of the Thuringian mountain which is included in the province belongs the summit of Dolmar, 2100 feet high. The lower portions of the country are watered by the Elbe, which enters the province at its south-eastern extremity, and flows in an irregular course to the north-west, never very far from the borders of Brandenberg, which it touches in the lower part of its course. This river receives, either directly or indirectly, all the other streams of Saxony. The Saale flows northwards from the Thuringian Mountains into the Elbe; the Mulde, also an affluent of the Elbe, flows in the same direction further east, and nearly parallel to the Saale; and the Unstrut flows from the west and joins the Saale. The whole of the soil of Saxony is not only very fertile, but exceedingly well cultivated; and it enjoys a mild and salubrious climate. The extent of arable land in the province was, in 1852, 3,377,069 acres; of gardens, vineyards, &c., 70,487 acres; of meadows, 424,701 acres; of pasture land, 394,597 acres; of forests, 955,511 acres; and of waste land, 1,403,689 acres. Cattle, sheep, and horses are raised in great numbers in Saxony. There were in 1855, 152,485 horses; 502 mules and asses; 522,380 horned cattle; 1,938,945 sheep; 144,255 goats; and 332,490 pigs in the province. The mineral productions comprise silver, iron, lead, copper, coal, and salt. Marble, alabaster, granite, sandstone, and porcelain clay are also found. Manufactures are actively carried on here, especially those of woollen and cotton cloth. Education is well provided for, and the proportion of the population who have enjoyed its advantages is higher here than in any other province of Prussia. There are in all 2872 public elementary schools, with 3794 teachers and 304,318 scholars; 66 intermediate schools for boys, with 11,480 scholars; 49 girls' schools, with 11,036 scholars; 11 normal seminaries; 4 progymnasia; and 21 gymnasia. Saxony contains also one university, that of Halie, with which the former one at Wittenberg has been united. The great majority of the inhabitants are of German extraction; 1,758,130 belong to the Evangelical Church, 118,064 to the Roman Catholic; 5 to the Greek Church, 16 are Mennonites, and 5320 Jews.

Saxony is divided into three circles, as follows:

| Square Miles | Pop. (1850) | |--------------|------------| | Magdeburg | 4453 | 727,052 | | Merseburg | 3999 | 781,947 | | Erfurt | 1308 | 352,536 | | Total | 9760 | 1,881,535 |

The greater part of this province till 1815, formed part of the kingdom of Saxony; but by the congress of Vienna it was annexed to Prussia.