The province of Sindh, in the Bombay Pre-Extent and sidency of British India, extends from N. Lat. 23. 37. to boundaries: 28. 32., and from E. Long. 66. 43. to 71. 3. It is bounded on the N. by Bilochistan and Bhawalpur; on the E. by the Rajput States of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur; on the S. by Kachh and the Indian Ocean; and on the W. by Makran and the other territories of the Khan of Kalat. It contains an area of 60,240 square miles, being 360 miles long, and 270 miles broad in its greatest breadth.
The province derives its name from the Sindhi, or Indus, without whose fertilizing waters the whole country would become a desert.
In its general appearance Sindhi much resembles the General valley of the Nile. It is one vast flat, bounded on the aspect of west by the Hala Hills, and on the east by the Great Desert, which girdles Rājputāna on the north and west. In the centre of this level valley flows the Indus, from which myriads of canals and water-courses are drawn, so as to intersect in all directions the adjacent country. Near Sakkar, in Upper or Northern Sindhi, groves of palm-trees fringe the river, and lower down these are succeeded by dense forests of small trees, principally the Babūr, or Acacia Arabica, which were formerly used as Shikarghās, or "hunting grounds" by the Amirs, and are now carefully protected as supplying wood fuel for steamers, and preserving cultivated tracts from the encroaching sands of the desert. At about 60 miles in a direct line from the sea the Indus separates near Thāthā into two great branches, the Satī, or Eastern, and the Baghār, or Western, thus forming a delta, which is more arid and barren than the tract to the north of it as far as Sakkar.
The source of the Indus, the river of Sindh, whose total course is reckoned in round numbers at 1800 miles, is at the north of the Kailās Mountain, one of the loftiest peaks of the Himalayas, in N. Lat. 32°, E. Long. 81°. The stream near its rise is called the Sind Kāl Bāb, or "lion's mouth." After a course of about 858 miles, through regions for the most part wholly unexplored by Europeans, the river reaches, in Lat. 33° 54', Long. 88° 48', the fort and small town of Atak, a word which signifies "stop," the Hindús believing that the sovereignty of their princes ought to extend thus far, and no farther. The name of Atak is applied to the river from the town so-called to Kālābhāg, in Lat. 32° 57', Long. 71° 35'. Thence to Sakkar the stream is called the Upper Indus, and from Sakkar to the sea Lower Indus; but by the natives the Daryā, "Great river," or "Sea." The breadth of the Indus from Atak to the sea, in the dry season, varies from 480 to 1600 yards, the usual width being 680. At this season the depth averages from 9 to 15 feet in the main channel, but in the freshes it is 24 feet. In some parts, however, the depth is very great. Thus, between Kālābhāg and Atak 186 feet have been sounded; and near Sehwān, also, the river is very deep. Its rapidity during the freshes is 7 miles an hour, and about 3 in the dry season, and the maximum discharge per second is in August, when the river is at its height, 446,080 cubic feet, and in December 40,857. The fall per mile is from Atak to Kālābhāg, 20 inches, thence to Mithan 8 inches, and thence to the sea 6. The temperature of the water during July and August is no less than 88°, or only 7° less than that of the air in those months. The Indus is easily navigable as far as Dera Isma'il Khān, in N. Lat. 31° 50', above which there are
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1 Bombay Selected Records, No. xvii., 1855, p. 43. 2 The name "Young Egypt" has been applied to it, and is even used in the titles of books of travels in Sindhi. 3 Bombay Selected Records, No. xviii., 1855, p. 546. great difficulties, though boats may ascend even to Makkad in 33° 10', at all seasons. Hence to Atak the upward navigation is altogether restricted to the months when the river is low, and the current without force.
The climate of Sindh is remarkable for excessive heat and dryness. Lord¹ gives 98° 5' as the mean maximum of temperature in the shade at Haidarabad during the six hottest months. At Sakkar it is much hotter, and between Shikarpur and Bagh hotter still, the thermometer sometimes rising to 120° in a good tent. The monsoon reaches no farther than the north-western frontier of Kachhi, and Sindh is never visited by the refreshing periodical rains that cool other parts of India. At Karachi the annual fall of rain does not exceed 8 inches; at Haidarabad it averages about 3 inches; while in Upper Sindh a shower is of very rare occurrence. Thus Hamilton records that, at the period of his visit in 1699, the Larkhan district had been three years without rain. On the other hand, there was a remarkable fall of rain at Haidarabad in 1839, and on the 15th of July in that year, the day the Amirs signed the new treaty with the British,² many houses and part of the city-wall fell in consequence of the heavy rain, which continued at intervals for four days. The prevailing winds from April to September are from the south, and from the north during the rest of the year. An east wind seldom lasts twelve hours. A kind of samum, or hot wind of the desert, is occasionally felt, and brings with it clouds of sand, that obscure the light of day. Notwithstanding the great heat, Upper Sindh is tolerably healthy, and though the climate is not well suited for Europeans, the natives, especially the Bhitichis, attain to great ages. Thus Mir Sohrab, the father of Mir Rustam, was a vigorous man when, at the age of a hundred years, he was killed by a fall from a high terrace; and Mir Rustam himself was approaching ninety when he died. In Lower Sindh there is much malaria, and fever is rife in September and October. Cholera, too, sometimes commits great ravages, especially at the otherwise healthy station of Karachi.
The soil of the delta is a light, loose clay, mixed with sand,³ and except in cultivated spots, this is covered with a low tamarisk jungle. Near the river there are patches of a richer soil deposited by the waters, and this is the case along the whole course of the Indus. Eastward of Khairpur, and west of Shikarpur, there are sandy deserts wholly devoid of water, and differing only in that there are ranges of sand-hills in the former direction, and a perfectly dead-level to the west. With regard to cultivation, it has been justly remarked,⁴ that "whatever is cultivated in Egypt, in Arabia, and in the countries bordering the Persian Gulf, may be grown with success in Sindh." There are two crops in the year—the vernal, sown from August to November, and the autumnal, sown from May to the end of July. The former is brought forward by the heavy dews and cool nights of the winter, and is reaped in March and April; while the latter, reaped in December, is wholly dependent on the inundation, which prevails from June to September. Rice, wheat, barley, jauari, or Indian millet, bajri or zea mays, Bengal grain, vetches, salfowers are the principal crops. Rice is grown very abundantly in Sindh, and is of good quality, and Panicum spicatum, arzam, or Panicum plosum, barley, sesamum, and various kinds of vetches, pulse, and millet, all yield good crops. Oats, too, have been found to thrive admirably; but it is for its Jauari, or Holcus sorghum, that Sindh is especially famous. In the districts near Shikarpur, tracts of miles in extent may be seen covered with a waving forest of this grain, in which even camels and their riders would be utterly lost to sight, the stalks being sometimes 20 feet in length.⁵ Cotton of a very superior kind is grown in Chanduka, as also sugar, indigo, and tobacco; but, according to Thornton, experiments made in the cultivation of American cotton and Mauritius cane, have been unsuccessful. Wool forms one of the chief exports from Sindh, but is brought chiefly from the country beyond the Hala Hills, subject to the Khan of Kalat. The pearl oyster has been found of late years in Karachi harbour, and at the Piti mouth of the Indus; but the pearls are extremely small, and, from their bad shape and colour, of little value even for seed-pearl.
The embroideries of Sindh are renowned, and the manufacturers of silk tissues at Haidarabad gained medals both at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and at that of Paris. Enameling, seal-engraving, lacquered work, and the making of coloured tiles, are all carried to great perfection in Sindh, especially at Thatta and Haidarabad. The manufacture of arms was very flourishing under the Amirs, but is now fast declining.
The wild animals of Sindh are far less numerous than those of India. Tigers are not uncommon in the jungles to the north of Sakkar, and in the opposite district of Burdika, but seldom wander southwards. Lieutenant James, however, speaks of having seen two in Chanduka, in 1846, and the one at the shrine of Lal Shah Baz, at Schwam, was probably captured in that neighbourhood. In the forests near the Indus, which were formerly the hunting preserves of the Amirs, wild-hog and hog-deer abound. The antelope is found farther from the river, and the ibex in the hills to the west. Wolves, foxes, jackals, and hares are common. The wild-ass, said in former years to have been met with in the desert beyond Rojan, is probably now extinct. In the sand-hills east of Rohri and Khairpur, porcupines are plentiful. Amongst domestic animals the buffalo and camel take the first place. The latter animal is reared in great numbers in the delta of the Indus, and is thought to be of an uncommonly hardy breed. The dromedary, however, is brought from the Brahui country, or from Rajputana. The horses, asses,⁶ and cows are all much smaller than those of India. Of birds, the most remarkable species are the pelican, various kinds of falcons, and the Ubdrah, or bustard. The black and the grey partridge, quail, snipe, and wild-ducks, are most numerous. The Indus abounds with fish, the most valuable kind being the palia, which resembles the salmon in appearance and flavour, and forms the chief food of a large part of the population of Sindh. The bolan, or river porpoise, is occasionally seen; it weighs upwards of two cwt., and has a projecting snout, armed with formidable teeth. The alligator is less common in the Indus than in the Ganges, but grows, perhaps, to a larger size. It is scarcely ever found to be dangerous to man. Among the reptiles may be mentioned the iguana, the river tortoise, and several kinds of snakes. Scorpions and centipedes are not common, but the plague of insects has called forth the anathemas of all travellers in Sindh. In the districts near the Manchar Lake the people sleep on platforms raised upon tall pieces of timber,⁷ to escape the tormenting attacks of the mosquitoes and sandflies. These insects are literally innumerable, and most venomous. In no country is the white ant more destructive; and instances have occurred of the roofs of buildings falling in, the beams being completely hollowed out by these pests. Thus, in 1840, the roof of the post-office at Shikarpur fell suddenly without any warning, but fortunately when the rooms were empty of people, the only person injured being the sentry who was standing at the door.
Under the Amirs, Sindh was divided into three principalities, Khairpur or Upper Sindh, Haidarabad, and Mir-
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¹ Med. Memoir, p. 12. ² Murray's Handbook for Bombay, p. 468. ³ Bombay Selected Records, No. xvii. of 1855, p. 197. ⁴ Ibid., p. 591. ⁵ Dry Leaves from Young Egypt, p. 128. ⁶ Dry Leaves from Young Egypt, p. 32. ⁷ Dr Heddle, however, in his Memoirs of May 1836, speaks of the mules and asses of Sindh as of unusual size and value. pér, which two latter were comprised in Lower Sindh.
Under the British Government, the country has been apportioned into three chief collectories, Shikárpúr, or Upper Sindh, Haidarábád, and Karáché. These again are subdivided, Karáché into 12 talúks, and Haidarábád into 13, of which 5 are in the deputy-collectorate of Mirpur, and 3 in that of Hála. Under the collectorate of Shikárpúr are the frontier districts of Kachhi, rendered famous by the inroads of the robber Bilúchis, and the entire subjugation of those tribes by General Jacob, who built and garrisoned the town of Jacobabad, in the centre of the country once held by the plundering Dumkís and Jakránís. These districts are bounded by a wavering line drawn from Khairi Garhi, in Lat. 28° 8', Long. 67° 58', to Roján, in Lat. 28° 20', Long. 68° 20', and thence eastward, to the north of Khairi, in Lat. 28° 35', Long. 69° 40'. The area of the Shikárpúr collectorate, including 5412 square miles of territory resumed from Mir Ali Murád, comprises 11,532 square miles; that of the Haidarábád and Karáché collectorates, 30,000 and 16,000 square miles respectively. Mir Ali Murád's territory is not included in the above estimates, and has an area of 5000 square miles, with a population of 105,000.
The revenue of Sindh, for the year 1855-56, is thus given:
- Shikárpúr C., 1,127,611 rupees; Ali Murád's territory, 295,500 rs.; Haidarábád, 996,036 rs.; Karáché, 534,375 rs.
The first-named collectorate has a population of 693,259. Haidarábád has 703,296 inhabitants, and Karáché 372,182.
The principal towns are: Shikárpúr, Larkhánah, Sakkar, Rohri, and Khairpúr, in Upper Sindh; and Haidarábád, Thattáh, and Karáché, in Lower Sindh.
Shikárpúr, in Lat. 28°, Long. 68° 39', was founded by the Dáúdputras in 1617, and now contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It is a mart of some importance, and much of the trade between India and Khurasán passes through it. The bázár extends about 800 yards through the centre. There are no edifices worth notice, and masses of ruins encumber the suburbs, and even the best streets in the Larkhánah town itself. Larkhánah, in Lat. 27° 30', Long. 68° 10', has a population of 12,000, and is one of the principal grain-marts in Sindh. It is rudely fortified, and has a citadel at the western end. The surrounding country is thought to be one of the richest tracts in Sindh. Sakkar, in Lat. 27° 40', Long. 68° 54', is a town, once flourishing and populous, on the western bank of the Indus, opposite Rohri. It was taken and destroyed about the year 1800, by Mir Rustam. In 1839 it became the site of a British cantonment, when many of the ruined edifices were cleared away, and a few rebuilt or repaired. The most remarkable edifices remaining are—the tomb of a Mughul princess, on a hill directly above the Presidency, and a tower 100 feet high, erected to the memory of Muhammad Míssám, a celebrated nobleman of the Delhi court, who flourished during the early part of the seventeenth century, A.D. Rohri, or Rori, in Lat. 27° 38', Long. 68° 55', is situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, exactly opposite Sakkar; the island of Bakkar, on which is an ancient fort, being between them, and in mid-stream. Rori has a population of 8000 inhabitants. In it are some curious buildings, worthy of inspection. The chief mosque was built during the time of Akbar, who conquered Sindh in 1572. An inscription of some length sets forth that the founder was Fath Khán. There is also a shrine where a hair from the prophet's head is preserved in a jewelled case. This building is about 300 years old, and seems to have been built by one 'Abúl Báki, who came to Sindh from Constantinople.2 Khairpúr is 13 miles S. of Rori, and 15 E. of the Indus. It has a population of 15,000 souls, and under the Amirs was the seat of the government of Upper Sindh. There is nothing remarkable about it. Haidarábád is entitled to be considered the capital of Sindh, as it was of the Amirs, the principal branch of the Tálpúr family ruling there. It is situated Haidarábád, in Lat. 25° 22', Long. 68° 28', and 4 miles E. of the eastern bank of the Indus, on a rocky ridge called the Ganjah Hills. The fort is about three-fourths of a mile in circumference, and was built or repaired by Fath Khan Tálpúr. Beyond the market-place are the tombs of the Tálpúrs, and of the family that preceded them, that of Ghulám Sháh Kalhora being the most beautiful of all. Haidarábád contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It is famous for its embroideries, enamelling, lacquered work, and seal-engraving. Thattáh, vulgarly called Tatta, in Lat. 24° 44', Long. 68° 68', is an ancient city, now greatly fallen to decay. It is probably not less than a thousand years since it was founded. In 1555 it was pillaged and partly burned by the Portuguese; but in 1699 Alexander Hamilton describes it as a great and populous city. The ruins of noble edifices are to be traced for miles around. Of those that remain, the most remarkable are—the Grand Mosque of Sháh Jahán, begun in 1647 and finished by Aurangzeb in 1661; the Tégáh of Yúsuf Khán, Governor of Sindh, built in 1683; the mosque of Tughrál, and some others. Thattáh now contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Karáché, the sea-port of Sindh, has grown up to importance under British rule. It is situated in Lat. 24° 51', Long. 67° 2', and being the only place of safety for vessels on the coast, the whole commerce of the Indus passes through it. The population has risen from 13,000 persons in 1813, to nearly 25,000. The harbour is being improved at a vast outlay, and though the bar is a great obstacle to the trade of the place, there being but 16 feet water upon it at high tide, it is hoped that even this difficulty will be overcome, partly by dredging and partly by directing the full sweep of the ebb-tide upon it. The town is 3 miles from the landing-place at low-water, but a good communication has been made, by a mole and road, which cost upwards of L30,000. The total trade of the place is now valued at about two millions sterling. The chief exports are wool, vegetable oils, and sugar, indigo and cotton, from the Panjáb. The place was annexed by the Governor-General, on receiving the report of Admiral Maitland, who, on the 5th of February 1859, with the fire of the Wellesley, 74, battered down Manor Fort, from which no resistance was made—the garrison, indeed, consisting only of four or five men.
The population of Sindh is given at 1,873,737. The Races. majority of these are Játs, or Sindhis, properly so called, numbers of whom are Muhammadians of the Hanífah sect, being the descendants of those who were converted from Hinduism after the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Kásím, and in subsequent centuries. The general proportion of Hindús to the Muslims is about 1 to 4. Thus, the Hindú census exhibits a total of 363,295, and that of Muslims 1,354,891, but this latter is no doubt understated as regards females. There are, besides, 50,551 persons of other sects. The Sindhis are a tall, muscular race, but, according to Burton, "idle, apathetic, notoriously cowardly and dishonourable, addicted to intoxication, unclean and immoral in the extreme." Their language is a peculiar dialect, compounded of Sanskrit and Arabic words, with a grammatical structure—Sanskrit, as regards the nouns; and as to the verb, formed upon the Persian model. The character is a most corrupt Devanágari, quite unreadable to the natives of India, and possessing the peculiarity of exhibiting no medial vowels. The same authority divides the Muslim population into, besides Sindhis, Saiyids, Afghans, Bilúchis, Africans, Memons, and Khwájahs. The Saiyids are often Sh'fahs, and belong chiefly to four great
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1 According to another authority, 18,679 square miles. 2 Pottinger's Travels, p. 344.
VOL. XX. Singapore families, the Bakhari, Mathari, Shirazi, and Lekhiniyi.
The Afghans are found chiefly about Haidarabad and Shikarpur. They are a finer and fairer race than the Sindhis. The same must be said of the Bilochis, who are men of great size and strength. They are of such vigorous constitutions as to live to great ages, even under the unparalleled heat of Upper Sindh. Thus, Turk 'Ali Jakhani, who headed an insurrection against the British in 1844, was then ninety-three years old, and in 1854 was still living and in robust health. The Bilochi language is little known, but appears to be an Ugrian dialect, with abundance of Persian words incorporated. The chief Biloch tribes are—the Bugti, Chang, Jakhani, Jatoi, Khosa, Laghari, Mari, Maghi, Mazari, Nizamani, Nothani, Rind, and Talpur. The Memons were originally Hindus, who entered Sindh during the Kalhora rule from Kach. They became converts to Islam. The Khwajahs are Persians by descent, of the Ismailiyah sect. The present Hindu race in Sindh is chiefly of Panjabi origin. There are two orders of Brahmins, and no out-castes. The rest are Vaisyas, of whom those who served the native government adopted Muslim costume. Some of the women are remarkably beautiful.
History.
The Rig-Veda mentions the Indus, and in such a manner as to leave no doubt that the Aryan nation was then settled on its banks. Sindh, therefore, 1400 years before the Christian era, was occupied by the people who had, in the time of Alexander the Great, extended their conquests to the mouth of the Ganges. Earthquakes, however, as attested by the buried city of Brahmanabad, and the natural dyke thrown across the Indus, called the Allah hand, and the inundations of the river, have so altered Sindh that the course of Alexander can no longer be traced. From his time, 326 B.C., to 711 A.D., nothing is known of the history of Sindh. In that year the Khalifah and son of Abdul Malik, according to the Mas'ud Namaq, sent an army to invade Sindh. It was commanded by Muhammad bin Kasim, who soon captured Nirankot and Alor, and subdued the whole country. From that time till 1026 A.D., the governors of the Khalifs governed with greater or less success in Sindh; but in the latter year, 'Abdu'l Razaz, general of the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, conquered the province. The dynasties of Ghazni and Ghuri continued to hold Sindh until the end of the eleventh century. The Summa tribe then rose to power, and seem to have ruled in Sindh till 1340, when they were succeeded by the Sammao, another native tribe. These were overthrown in 1541 by Shah Beg Arghun, who had been driven from Kandahar by Babar. In 1590 Akbar conquered Sindh, which continued under the Mughul emperors of Delhi till 1736, when the Kalhoras made themselves independent of Delhi, though they acknowledged fealty to the Afghan kings of Kabul. The detestable cruelty of one of this race, named Ghulam Nabi, caused the Talpurs, under Fath Ali Khan, to revolt, and the sceptre now passed into their hands. In 1813 they entirely threw off all dependence on Kabul, whence the Saddozaye family had been expelled by that which now rules there. Their sway continued until the conquest of Sindh by the British, on the 24th of March 1843. Of that conquest different accounts are given; some writers arguing, with Sir W. and Sir C. Napier, that the Amirs were rightly dethroned; and others, with Sir J. Outram, that the attack upon them was unjust and indefensible. The weight of evidence, however, is in favour of the latter view; and it seems now decided, that the treachery of one of the Amirs, aided by the ignorance of the language and customs of the country, which led the British general to decide against the Amirs on insufficient grounds, was the real cause of their downfall.