for 4, 5, 6), are made heavy for the long vowels, and light for the short ones. When a vowel is placed on the left-hand side of a perpendicular or sloping consonant, it is read before the consonant; and when placed on the right-hand side, it is read after the consonant. A vowel placed above a horizontal letter, is read before the consonant, and when written under, is read after the consonant. This, it may be observed, is the way in which we read all European languages; namely, from left to right, and from top to bottom. The vowels are written at the side of the consonant, in three places,—at the beginning, middle, and end; the beginning of the consonant, whether written upward or downward, being the place of the first vowel-sign ah. The letter l, for instance, when written downward, has its vowels' places reckoned downward; and when written upward, the vowels are reckoned from the bottom upward.

Vowels placed at the beginning of a consonant (ah and ow, for example), are called first-place vowels; vowels written in the middle are called second-place vowels; and those written at the end are called third-place vowels.

The vowel points and strokes must be written at a little distance from the consonants to which they are placed. If allowed to touch, except in a few cases, they would occasion mistakes. The short vowels should not be called—No. 1, "short eh;" No. 2, "short ee;" No. 3, "short i (eye);” &c.; but—No. 1, "short ah;" No. 2, "short eh;" No. 3, "short ee," &c. It will be found more convenient when speaking of these short vowels to affix the letter t to each, and call them severally at, et, it, ot, ut, &c.

The double vowels heard in the words ice, owt, ay, boy, are represented by small angular marks.

I and ow are close diphthongs, accented on the second element; ai and ai (yes), oi, are open diphthongs, accented on the first element. Each is pronounced as one syllable. The shorthand signs for i, ow, oi, may be written in any place: ai is written in the first place.

The letters y and w are unlike any other consonants. They are, in fact, consonants made from vowels; y being a modification of ee, and w a modification of oo; as may be heard in pronouncing:

yah, yeh, yih (or yee); yaw, yoh, yuh (or yoo). wah, wah, wih (or wee); waw, woh, wuh (or woo).

It has been found expedient to represent these letters in connection with the succeeding vowel, by a single sign, having a vowel character; thus, y, w. These signs, like those for the simple vowels, are written by the side of consonants, in three places, heavy for long vowels, and light for short ones. When joined to consonants, they express y or w alone.

By prefixing w to the diphthong i, the treble sound wi is heard, as in twice. It is represented by a small right angle, which may be written in any position.

The shorthand signs for the diphthongs, and double and treble letters of the y and w series, are always written in the same direction; that is, they do not accommodate themselves to the consonant to which they may be written, as do the signs for the simple vowels aw, o, oo.

Y and w are also furnished with full-sized consonantal forms, which are used like other consonants; thus,

yea, Yeo, use; way, away.

They give greater distinctness than the small curved double letters, in the writing of words which contain no other consonant than y or w; they are also serviceable when either of these letters is followed by s.

The aspirate occurs in English only when preceding a vowel, or y, w, which are modifications of vowels. It is expressed by a small dot prefixed to the vowel sign. When it is more convenient to use a consonantal form for this letter, it is written either downward, or upward, whichever may be most convenient for joining with the preceding or following letter. The names of the letters y, w, h, are gay, way, aitch.

In consequence of the deficiencies of the English alphabet, and the unphonetic character of our orthography, the general spelling of a word can seldom be taken as a guide to its rules for pronunciation. To write any given word, therefore, phonographically, its several sounds must first be ascertained: the student should then write the phonographic letters which represent them. The practice of phonography and the reading of phonotypy will improve the student's pronunciation, and train his ear to discriminate differences in orthoepy.

The circle s is generally used in preference to the stroke z. In any word that contains the circle s, the vowel is placed and read to the stroke-consonant, and not to the circle s, to which no vowel can be placed or read. The circle s, at the beginning of a word, is always read first; and at the end of a word it is always read last. It may be made double-sized for ss. When a word begins with a vowel followed by s or z, or ends with a vowel preceded by s or z, the stroke form of the letter is used. The stroke s is used whenever it is necessary to place a vowel to this consonant. The stroke z is used in all words that begin with the sound of z.

When a vowel comes between two consonants, it is possible to write it either after the first, or before the second. Care must be taken not to write the vowel sign in an angle between two letters; as —, which might be read either kee-p or k-alp. The three following rules are of general application.

First-place vowels are written after the first consonant. Second-place vowels are written after the first consonant when long, and before the second when short: it is thus known whether a second-place vowel sign is intended to express a long or a short vowel, independently of the heaviness or lightness of the vowel sign. Third-place vowels are written before the second consonant. If the second consonant is the circle s, the vowel must necessarily be written after the first consonant.

When the diphthongs y i, ow, are written by themselves, for the words I, how, v I is placed above the line, and v ow on the line. When either of these diphthongs commences a word, the first place is the most convenient; in other cases they are both more easily written in the third place.

From the kr series of double consonants, a series of treble consonants is formed by making the hook into a circle; thus, — shr, — str, — spr. They are used only initially.

The same signs with a thick stem will represent spr, shr, sbr.

The w hook double letters (see Plate XXXIX., w, w, w, w, w) differ from those of the kl, kr series with respect to vocalization. The kl, kr double letters (or consonant diphthongs) are vocalized like the single consonants; that is, a (a dot in the first place), before kl is read aht, and a after kl is read kla; but with the w hook double letters (which are not consonant diphthongs), vowels can be written either before or after the n, m, l, r, represented by the stem of the letter, because w is represented by the hook.

N following a straight letter, is expressed by a final hook on the under side of a horizontal stroke, and on the corresponding side of any other straight letter (see Plate XXXIX.); thus, — cane. By making the hook into a circle, s or z is added; thus, — comes. The ns circle is made double-sized for nse; thus, — expenses. After curves, the a hook is written inside the curve.

F or z, when following a straight letter, is expressed by a final hook on the upper side of a horizontal stroke, and on the corresponding side of any other straight letter; thus,

— hf, — chf, — pf, — ef (upward);

as in — tough, — cough. By halving any of the preceding letters, \( t \) or \( d \) is added, according as the letter is thin or thick; \( t \) being generally added when the letter is thin, and \( d \) when it is thick; thus, \( \text{bake} \), \( \text{baked} \); \( \text{rub} \), \( \text{rubbed} \).

A vowel after a half-sized consonant is read next to the primary single, double, or treble letter, and before the added \( t \) or \( d \); thus, \( \text{point} \), \( \text{bread} \). \( N \), \( m \), \( l \), and \( r \) are shortened for the addition of \( t \), and these shortened strokes, when thickened, represent \( nd \), \( md \), \( ld \), \( rd \). \( Lt \), when standing alone, is written upward; in other cases, either upward or downward; \( ld \) is always written downward. The practised phonographer may use a half-sized letter to represent either an added \( t \) or \( d \). The only consonants that do not admit of being halved are \( y \), \( w \), \( ng \), and the irregular \( mp \). (All hooked letters are halved for the addition of \( t \) or \( d \)).

A full-sized and a half-sized consonant, or two half-sized consonants, should not be joined unless they form an angle at the point of union; because it would sometimes be doubtful whether such combinations were meant for a single letter, or a full-sized and a half-sized letter, or two full-sized letters.

The termination -tion (\( \text{shun} \)), is expressed by a large final hook, twice as large as the \( j \) hook. After a curve it follows the direction of the curve. At the end of a straight letter beginning with a hook or circle, or springing from a curve, the \( \text{tion} \) hook, when final, is written on the opposite side, that the straightness of the letter may be preserved. In other cases, -tion when final, and following a straight letter, is written on the side opposite to that on which the preceding vowel is written, for convenience in vocalizing; thus, \( \text{caution} \), \( \text{action} \). After simple \( t \) or \( d \), the -tion hook is always written on the right; thus, \( \text{addition} \).

The \( n \), \( f \), and -tion hooks may be used in the middle of a word, when it is convenient.

\( St \) is written by a small loop; as, \( \text{stock} \), \( \text{fast} \). This loop is used chiefly as initial or final, but it may be employed medially when the loop can be distinctly formed; as in \( \text{justify} \). A loop half as long as a consonant, represents \( str \); thus \( \text{strike} \), \( \text{muster} \). These loops may be combined with the initial \( kr \) and the final \( kn \) series of straight letters; thus, \( \text{against} \), \( \text{striker} \). \( S \) may be added to a final loop or to the large \( s \) circle by continuing the stroke of the loop or circle; thus, \( \text{crusts} \), \( \text{exercises} \). A hook made by continuing the \( s \) circle to the other side of the consonant, adds -tion (\( \text{shun} \)) or -sion (\( \text{shn} \)); thus, \( \text{possession} \).

When a curved consonant is written twice its usual length, it expresses the addition of \( thr \) (in father), \( tr \), or \( dr \); thus, \( \text{neither} \).

The prefixes in Plate XXXIX. are written near the following part of the word; but in reporting (except the dot con) they are joined, when it is convenient to do so, to save lifting the pen. When com or com is preceded by a consonant, either in the same word or the preceding word, com or com is understood by writing the syllable that follows, under or close to the consonant that precedes; thus, \( \text{inconstant} \), \( \text{discompose} \), \( \text{you will comply} \). The preposition in may be expressed before the treble consonants, skr, str, spr, by a back hook; thus, \( \text{inscription} \), \( \text{instruct} \). Any consonant when disjoined from that which precedes it, expresses thereby the addition of \( ality \) or \( arity \), or any other termination of similar sound; thus, \( \text{penalty} \), \( \text{vulgarity} \).

The learner should not attempt, at first, to bring into use all these abbreviating principles. He should be content to practise, for two or three weeks, a rather lengthened style of phonography, making much use of the simple consonants, until he feels confidence in the use of the phonographic characters, and in the principle of phonetic spelling. He may then gradually adopt the double and treble letters, and the prefixes and affixes, &c., as he requires them; that is, as he feels that the style he is employing is not brief enough for the manual dexterity he has acquired. In selecting one out of two or more possible forms for any word, the student must recollect that great ease in writing, and, consequently, the saving of time, is not secured by using hooked and grouped, and especially half-sized, letters, on all possible occasions; but he must learn to make a judicious selection, and employ those which are most easily written in any given case.

The single and compound letters are used in phonography to represent the most frequent words in the language. To write the, and, that, &c., in full, would be unnecessarily tedious; nor would these words, thus written, be more legible than when expressed by one simple and distinct character. Words so abbreviated are called grammalogues, or sign-words, and the shorthand letters that represent them are called logograms, or word-signs. The table in Plate XXXIX. is the result of numerous experiments in writing, continued through many years, for the purpose of ascertaining the most useful words to be abbreviated, and the shorthand letters by which they may be best represented. The stroke-vowels \( ae \), \( o \), \( oo \), are used as logograms in each of these directions \( \text{v} \); thus,

all, too, two; oh, owe; awe, he; of, to; on, but; and, should.

And and should are written upward. And and he are represented by dashes instead of by their respective dot vowels, for the purpose of joining other words in reporting, and thus writing whole phrases without lifting the pen.

In the table of grammalogues (Plate XXXIX.), a word is occasionally printed with a hyphen; thus, \( \text{give-n} \); or, with a double termination; thus, \( \text{important} \); to intimate that the corresponding logograms represent both \( \text{give} \) and \( \text{given} \), \( \text{important} \), and \( \text{importance} \). The context will show which is meant. \( S \) may be added to a logogram to mark the plural number or the possessive case of a noun, or the third person singular of a verb in the present tense.

In general, the positions of the grammalogues, above, on, and through or under the line, are determined by their vowels; and in the case of a word of more than one syllable, by its accented vowel. The positions of the vowels are:—1, \( ah \), \( aw \), \( i \), \( oi \), \( ui \); 2, \( a \), \( o \), \( e \), \( oo \), \( ou \), \( u \); and the corresponding short vowels. The positions of the logograms are:—1, above the line; 2, on the line; 3, if down or up strikes, through the line; but if horizontal or half-length sloping, below it. Double-length curves take only the following positions:—Perpendicular, through the line for all words; sloping, on the line for words containing first and second-place vowels, through the line for words containing third-place vowels; horizontal, 1, above the line, 2, on the line, 3, under the line.

The rules that determine the position of a grammalogue are, specifically, these four:—1. Common words are written, generally, on the line, because this position is most convenient; sometimes they are written in the first position, for the purpose of attaching other words in phraseography. 2. In the case of a word that contains several consonants, the letter chosen to represent it is written in the position which it occupies when the word is written in full. 3. In all other cases the logogram is written in position, in accordance with the vowel or accented vowel of the word which it represents. 4. But if that position is occupied by some other word, it is placed in the most convenient unoccupied position. In the following cases the name of the letter is the same as the sound of the word; the letter, therefore, represents the word; these may be called natural grammalogues:

- be, v, I, ace, O! oh! owc, y, you, we.

These natural grammalogues it is not considered necessary to repeat in the list. Theoretically, you, yous, or si, is si, but the light sign yoo may be used in all cases. The double vowels, e, ei, e, when representing the words with, ice, are written above the line, although they are third-place vowels, because this position is the best for attaching other words and forming phraseograms.

As three letters in the phonographic alphabet (y, s, r) have duplicate forms, w three forms, h four forms, and two others (sh, l) are written either upward or downward; and as many groups of consonants may be expressed either by their alphabetical forms, or by abbreviations, it is evident that many words may be written in more than one way. For any given word the writer should choose that form which is most easily and rapidly written, and is at the same time capable of being clearly vocalized. The briefest outline to the eye is not always the most expeditious to the hand. The student will insensibly acquire a knowledge of the best forms by practice and observation.

When K occurs between ng and sh, or ng and t, P between m and t, or T between s and another consonant, the k, p, or t may be omitted.

The downward h, when occurring before m, stroke s, sh, downward r, upward l, nr, &c., may be contracted to the simple tick ; thus, hm (him).

The, the most frequent word in the English language, may be expressed by a short slanting stroke joined to the preceding word, and generally written downward; thus, in the, but when more convenient, it is written upward. The first stroke of on the is made sloping to keep the sign distinct from v I. The tick never begins a phrase.

The connective phrase "of the," is intimated by writing the words between which it occurs near to each other, thus showing that the one is of the other.

A or An.—A or an is joined to the preceding word by , or -

The pupil is recommended to be sparing in his use of contractions in the first style of phonography. In the second, or reporting style, every legible contraction may be brought into use.

In longhand, swift writers join all the letters of a word together, and sometimes write several words without lifting the pen. So, in phonography several words may often be united. This practice, which is called phraseography, gives great assistance to the writer in following a rapid speaker. Some examples will be seen in Plate XL.

Stops should be written in the usual way, except the period, for which a small cross is used; thus, ; : x

The hyphen is written thus, - ; the dash thus, ---;

§ Interrogation (placed before the sentence); § Exclamation; § a smile. Accent may be shown by writing a small cross close to the vowel of the accented syllable. Emphasis is marked as in longhand, by drawing one, two, or more, lines underneath; a single line under a single word must be made wave-like, thus ---, to distinguish it from — k.

In preparing manuscript for the press, a single line thus drawn underneath (wavy for a single word, and straight for more than one), signifies italic; two lines (which need not be waved) SMALL CAPITALS, and three lines LARGE CAPITALS. An initial capital is marked by two short lines under the word; thus, - The Times newspaper,

§ Abel. Figures are written as usual, or the words may be expressed in phonography. One and two, being grammalogues, are represented by their respective logo-

grams. When the figures one and six are written by themselves, they should be formed thus, /, 6, that they may Byzantines not be mistaken for shorthand characters.