The early history of Sweden, like that of most other countries, is involved in fable. Some historians pretend to give regular lists of the kings who reigned over this country from very early times, but these differ so much from each other, that no degree of credit is to be given to any of them. It is generally agreed that Christianity was first established here in the beginning of the eleventh century, by Olaf, surnamed Skotkonung; but different lists of kings are given down to the twelfth century. This may be partly accounted for from there being sometimes two kings reigning in the country at the same time, one over the Goths, the other over the Swedes, and sometimes either of these races would have two kings ruling over them.

On the death of Inge II. in 1129, the Swedes conferred the royal dignity on a private individual, named Sweker I.; and to conciliate the Goths, who supported the claims of Eric, descended from a female branch of the royal family, it was agreed that Eric should succeed Sweker, and that afterwards the representatives of each of the two families should reign alternately. Accordingly, on the death of Sweker in 1155, Eric ascended the throne, and signalled his reign by the subjection of the Fins and the establishment of Christianity among them, and by the compilation of a code of laws. The arrangement came to an end with respect to the succession led, as might have been expected, to endless disputes, but the order was observed with several succeeding sovereigns. About the year 1319, Magnus Smeck, then an infant, ascended the throne, and subsequently, in right of his mother, succeeded to the crown of Norway. In 1343 he was deposed by the diet, and his son Eric raised to the throne, but on the death of the latter, in 1359, he was restored. He established his son Haquin in Norway, and induced him to marry Margaret, daughter of Waldemar IV., king of Denmark; and having strengthened himself by his connection with these states he attempted to obtain absolute power in Sweden by abolishing the senate. The Swedes, however, immediately rose in defence of their liberties, expelled Magnus, and elected Albert, second son of the Duke of Mecklenburg, in his room. Albert soon after entered into a league, offensive and defensive, with the Earl of Holstein, the Jutland nobility, the Dukes of Sleswick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse Towns, against the Kings of Denmark and Norway. At that time he proved very successful against Waldemar king of Denmark, driving him entirely out of his dominions; but he himself was defeated by the King of Norway, who laid siege to his capital. A new treaty was soon afterwards concluded, by which Albert was allowed to enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace. Having, however, formed a design of rendering himself absolute, he so displeased his subjects that Margaret of Norway was proclaimed queen of Sweden by the malcontents. A war immediately ensued, in which Albert was defeated and taken prisoner; but as the princes of Mecklenburg, and taken the earls of Holstein, and the Hanse Towns, entered into a prisoner by league in his favour, the war raged with more fury than Margaret ever. At length the contending parties were reconciled. Albert was set at liberty, on condition that he should in Set at liberty three years resign to Margaret all pretensions to the city of Stockholm; and the Hanse Towns engaged to pay the sum of 60,000 marks of silver if Albert should break that treaty. Eric, the son of Albert, died not long afterwards; and having no other child, he did not think it worth his while to contend for the kingdom of Sweden; he therefore acquiesced in the pretensions of Margaret, and passed the remainder of his days at Mecklenburg.

Margaret died in 1415, and was succeeded by Eric of Pomerania. This prince's reign was cruel and oppressive, succeeded His misdeeds produced a revolt; and Charles Canutson, by Eric, a grand marshal of Sweden and governor of Finland, having joined the malcontents, was declared commander-in-chief of their army. Eric was now formally deposed, and Canutson was chosen regent; but beginning to oppress the people, and aspiring openly to the crown, the Swedes and Danes revolted. This event was followed by a revolution; and Christopher duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chosen king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1442.

On the accession of this prince, complaints against Charles Canutson were presented from all quarters; but through the interest of his friends he escaped punishment; and in 1448, Christopher having died, after a tyrannical reign of about five years, he was raised to the throne to which he had so long aspired. The kingdoms of Denmark and Norway however refused allegiance to him, and a war immediately ensued. In 1454 peace was concluded, and Denmark for the present freed from the Swedish yoke. Nor did Canutson long enjoy the crown of Sweden. Having quarrelled with the magistrates and the Archbishop of Upsala, the latter formed so strong a party that the king could not resist him. Canutson died in 1470, after a long and turbulent reign.

The affairs of Sweden continued to be involved in the utmost confusion till the year 1520, when a great revolution was effected by Gustavus Ericson, a nobleman of the first rank, who restored the kingdom to its liberty, and laid the foundation of its future grandeur. In 1518, Christiern king of Denmark had invaded Sweden, with a design to subdue the whole country; but being defeated with great loss by young Steen Sture, at that time regent, he set sail for Denmark. Meeting with contrary winds, he made several descents on the Swedish coast, which he ravaged with all the fury of an incensed barbarian. The inhabitants bravely defended themselves, and Christiern was reduced to the utmost distress. He then thought of a stratagem which had almost proved fatal to the regent; for having invited him to a conference, at which he designed either to assassinate or take him prisoner, Sture was about to comply, when the senate, who suspected the plot, enteredposed to prevent him. Christiern then offered to proceed in person to Stockholm in order to confer with Sture, on condition that six hostages should be sent to his place. They were accordingly sent; but the wind happening then to prove favourable, he set sail for Denmark with the hostages, of whom Gustavus Ericson was one. Next year he returned, and having drawn Sture into an ambush, the regent received a wound, of which he died some time after. The kingdom being thus left without a head, matters soon came to the most desperate crisis. The army disbanded itself; and the senate, instead of taking proper measures to oppose the enemy, spent their time in idle debates. Christiern in the mean time advanced into the heart of the kingdom, destroying every thing with fire and sword; but on his arrival at Stragnez, he granted a suspension of arms, on condition that they would elect him king. To this condition they submitted, and Christiern proved one of the most bloody tyrants that ever sat on the throne of any kingdom. Immediately after his coronation, he gave grand entertainments for three days; during which time he projected the diabolical design of extirpating at once all the Swedish nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people from revolting, by depriving them of their proper leaders. As the tyrant had signed articles by which he promised indemnity to all who had borne arms against him, it became necessary to invent some cause of offence against those whom he intended to destroy. To accomplish his purpose, Gustavus Trolle, formerly archbishop of Upsala, but who had been degraded from that dignity, in an oration before his majesty lamented the demolition of Stecka, his place of residence, and the losses sustained by the see of Upsala, amounting to a very large sum of money. He then proceeded in a bitter accusation against the widow and the son-in-law of Sture, the late regent, comprehending in the same accusation about fifteen of the principal nobility, the whole senate, and the burgheers of Stockholm. In consequence of this, about eighty of the principal nobility and people of the first rank in Sweden, among whom was the father of Gustavus Vasa, were hanged as traitors. Innumerable other cruelties were committed, part of which are owned by the Danish historians, and the whole are minutely related by those of Sweden. At last he departed for Denmark, ordering gibbets to be erected, and causing the peasants to be hanged on them for the slightest offences.

This monstrous cruelty, instead of securing him on the throne, exasperated the whole nation against him. It has already been mentioned, that Gustavus Ericson, or, as he is commonly called, Gustavus Vasa, was among the number of the hostages whom Christiern had perfidiously carried to Denmark in 1519. At length he escaped from confinement and fled to Lübeck, which he in vain endeavoured to gain over to his aid, and afterwards he took refuge in the mountains of Dalecarlia. A price being set upon his head, and death threatened to every one who afforded him the least assistance, he was frequently reduced to the deepest distress. He wrought for some time as a labourer in the mines of Falhun; and on more than one occasion he narrowly escaped detection. At length he seized a favourable opportunity to reveal himself at an annual feast of the peasantry, who were soon excited to enthusiasm in his cause, and instantly resolved to throw off the Danish yoke. Gustavus did not allow their ardour to cool, but instantly led them against the governor's castle, which he took by assault, and put the garrison to the sword. This inconsiderable enterprise was attended with the most happy consequences. Great numbers of the peasants flocked to his standard; some of the gentry openly espoused his cause, and others supplied him with money. Christiern was soon informed of what had passed; but despising such an inconsiderable enemy, he sent only a slender detachment to assist his adherents in Dalecarlia. Gustavus advanced with 5000 men, and defeated a body of the Danes; but he was strenuously opposed by the Archbishop of Upsala, who raised numerous forces for Christiern. The fortune of Gustavus, however, still prevailed, but the archbishop was defeated with great loss. Gustavus then laid siege to Stockholm; but his force being unequal to such an undertaking, he was forced to abandon it with loss.

This check did not prove in any considerable degree detrimental to the affairs of Gustavus; the peasants from all parts of the kingdom flocked to his camp, and he was joined by a reinforcement from Lübeck. Christiern, unable to suppress the revolt, wreaked his vengeance on the cruelty of mother and sisters of Gustavus, whom he put to death. His barbarities served only to make his enemies more resolute. Gustavus having assembled the states at Waldstena, he was unanimously chosen regent, the Diet taking an oath of fidelity to him, and promising to assist him to the utmost. Having thus obtained the sanction of legal authority, he pursued his advantages against the Danes. A body of troops appointed to throw succours into Stockholm was cut in pieces; and the regent sending some forces into Finland, struck the Danes there with such terror, that the Archbishop of Upsala, together with the Danish governors, fled to Denmark. Christiern then sent express orders to all his governors and officers in Finland and Sweden, to massacre the Swedish gentry without distinction. The Swedes made reprisals by massacring all the Danes that they could find, so that the country was filled with slaughter.

In the mean time Gustavus had laid siege to the towns of Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm; but Norby found means to oblige him to retire with loss. Gustavus, in revenge, laid siege to the capital a third time, and applied to the regency of Lübeck for a squadron of ships and other succours for carrying on the siege. This request was granted on condition that Gustavus should oblige himself, in the name of the states, to pay 60,000 marks of silver as the expense of the armament; that, until the kingdom should be in a condition to pay that sum, the Lübeck merchants trading to Sweden should be exempted from all duties on imports or exports; that all other nations should be prohibited from trading with Sweden, and that such traffic should be deemed illicit; that Gustavus should neither conclude a peace, nor even agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concurrence of the regency of Lübeck; and that if the republic should be attacked by Christiern, he should enter Denmark at the head of 20,000 men. On these hard terms Gustavus obtained assistance from the regency of Lübeck; nor did his dear-bought allies prove very faithful. They did not indeed transfer their services to his enemy; but in a seafight, where the Danes were entirely in their power, they suffered them to escape, when their whole force might have been entirely destroyed. This treachery had nearly ruined the affairs of Gustavus; for Norby was now making preparations effectually to relieve Stockholm, and would probably have succeeded in the attempt, if at this critical period news had not arrived that the Danes had revolted, and driven Christiern from the throne; and that the king had retired into Germany, in hopes of being restored by the arms of his brother-in-law the emperor. On hearing this intelligence, Norby retired with his whole fleet to the island of Gotland, leaving but a slender garrison in Calmar. Gustavus did not fail to improve this opportunity to his own advantage, and quickly made himself master of the town.

In the meantime Stockholm continued closely invested, but he thought proper to protract the siege till he should be elected king. Having for this purpose called a general diet, he first filled up the vacancy in the senate occasioned by the massacres of Christiern. He had the address to procure the nomination of such as were in his interest. The assembly was no sooner met, than one of his partisans made a speech, containing the highest encomiums on Gustavus, setting forth in the strongest terms the many eminent services which he had rendered to his country, and concluding that the states would show themselves equally ungrateful and blind to their own interest if they did not immediately elect him king. This proposal was acceded to by such tumultuous acclamations that it was impossible to collect the votes; so that Gustavus himself acknowledged, that their affection exceeded his merit, and was more agreeable to him than the effects of their gratitude. He was urged to have the ceremony of his coronation immediately performed; but this he delayed, in consequence of some designs which he had formed to reduce the exorbitant power of the clergy. He had himself embraced the doctrines of the reformed religion, and did all in his power to establish the reformation in his new kingdom. His design could not fail to raise against him the enmity of the clergy, and of all the more superstitious part of his subjects. The first years of his reign were accordingly embittered by internal disturbances and revolts, which were aided and fomented by the deposed Christiern, who was at one time very near regaining possession of the Swedish dominions.

Christiern having established a powerful interest in Norway, once more made an attempt to recover his kingdoms, and was joined by the Dalecarlians; but being defeated by the Swedish forces, he was compelled to return to Norway, where, being obliged to capitulate with the Danish generals, he was detained in captivity during the remainder of his life.

In 1542, Gustavus having happily extricated himself out of all his troubles, prevailed on the states to make the crown hereditary in his family; after which he applied himself to the encouragement of learning and commerce. A treaty was set on foot for a marriage between his eldest son Eric and the princess Elizabeth of England; but this negotiation failed of success.

Gustavus Vasa died in 1560, and was succeeded by his son Eric XIV. The new king was possessed of all the exterior ornaments which gave an air of dignity to the person, but he had neither the prudence nor the penetration, of his father. He created the first nobility that were ever known in Sweden; but this he had no sooner done than he quarrelled with them, by passing some act which they thought derogatory to their honour and dignity. The whole course of his reign was disturbed by wars with Denmark and disputes with his own subjects. In the former he was unfortunate, and towards the latter he behaved with the greatest cruelty. At last, he is said to have become mad. He afterwards recovered his senses, but was soon dethroned by his brothers; one of whom, named John, succeeded him in the kingdom.

This revolution took place in the year 1568, but with no great advantage to Sweden. Disputes about religion between the king and his brothers, and wars with Russia, threw matters into the utmost confusion. Prince Sigismund, the king's son, was chosen king of Poland, which proved the source of much trouble to the kingdom. In 1590 King John died, and as Sigismund was at a distance, public affairs fell into the utmost confusion; the treasury was plundered, and the royal wardrobe spoiled, even before Duke Charles could come to Stockholm to undertake the administration till King Sigismund should return. This however was far from being the greatest crown of disaster which befell the nation at this time. It was known in Sweden, that the king had embraced the popish religion, and it was with good reason suspected that he would attempt to restore it upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigismund was also obliged, on leaving Poland, to promise that he would remain no longer in Sweden than was necessary to regulate his affairs. These circumstances served to alienate the minds of the Swedes from their sovereign, even before they saw him; and the universal dissatisfaction was increased by seeing him attended on his arrival in Sweden in 1598 by the pope's nuncio, to whom he made a present of 30,000 ducats to defray the expenses of his journey to Sweden.

What the people had foreseen was too well verified. A party The king refused to confirm the protestants in their religious privileges, and showed such partiality on all occasions against the papists, that a party was formed against him, at the head of which was Duke Charles, his uncle. Remonstrances, accompanied with threats, took place on both sides. Sigismund was apparently reconciled to his uncle, and promised to comply with the inclinations of the people, though without any inclination to perform what he had promised. The agreement indeed was scarcely made, before Sigismund conceived the horrid design of murdering his design of uncle at the Italian comedy acted the night after his coronation. The duke, however, having notice of the plot found means to defeat it. This enraged the king so much, that he had resolved to accomplish his designs by force; and he therefore commanded a Polish army to march towards the frontiers of Sweden, where they committed all the ravages that could be expected from an enraged and cruel enemy. Complaints were made by the protestant clergy to the senate; but no other answer was returned than that, till the king's departure, they should abstain from those bitter invectives and reproaches, which had provoked the Catholics, and that during his absence they would be at more liberty.

In 1595 Sigismund set sail for Danzig, leaving the administration in the hands of Duke Charles. The consequence of this was, that the dissensions which had already taken place being continually increased by the obstinacy of the king, Charles assumed the sovereign power; and in 1604 Sigismund was formally deposed, and his uncle Charles deposed IX. raised to the throne. He proved a wise and brave prince, restoring the tranquillity of the kingdom, and carrying on a war with vigour against Poland and Denmark. He died in 1611, leaving the kingdom to his son, the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus.

Though Charles IX. by his wise and vigorous conduct had in some measure retrieved the affairs of Sweden, they Sweden on were still in a very bad condition. The finances of the kingdom were entirely drained by a series of wars and revolutions; powerful armies were preparing in Denmark, Poland, Adolphus, land, and Russia, while not only the Swedish troops were inferior in number to their enemies, but the government was destitute of resources for their payment. Though the Swedish laws required that the prince should have attained his eighteenth year before he was of age, yet such striking marks of the great qualities of Gustavus appeared, that he was allowed by the states to assume the administration before this early period. His first act was to resume all the crown-grants, in order that he might be enabled to carry on the wars in which he was engaged, and to fill all places, both civil and military, with persons of merit. At the head of domestic and foreign affairs was placed the chancellor Oxenstiern, a person every way equal to the important trust, and the choosing of whom impressed Europe with the highest opinion of the young monarch's penetration. Soon after his accession, Gustavus received an embassy from James I of Britain, exhorting him to make peace with his neighbours. This was seconded by another from Holland. But as the king perceived that the Danish monarch intended to take every opportunity of crushing him, he resolved to act with such vigour as might convince him that he was not easily to be overcome. Accordingly, he invaded Denmark with three different armies at once; and though the enemy's superiority at sea gave them great advantages, and the number of the king's enemies distracted their attention, he carried on the war with such spirit, that, in 1613, a peace was concluded on terms favourable to himself. This war being finished, Gustavus applied himself to civil polity, and made some reformation in the laws of Sweden. In 1615, hostilities were commenced against Russia, on account of the refusal of that court to repay some money which had been formerly lent. The king entered Ingria, took Kexholm by storm, and was laying siege to Plescov, when, by the mediation of James I, peace was concluded, on condition of the Russians repaying the money, and yielding to Sweden some part of their territory. In this and the former war, notwithstanding the shortness of their duration, Gustavus learned the rudiments of the military art, for which he soon became so famous. He is said to have taken every opportunity of improvement with a quickness of understanding seemingly more than human. In one campaign, he not only learned, but improved, all the military maxims of La Gardie, a celebrated general; brought the Swedish army to a more steady and regular discipline; and formed an invincible body of Finnsanders, who had afterwards a very considerable share in the victories of Sweden.

Peace was no sooner concluded with Russia, than Gustavus was crowned with great solemnity at Upsala. Soon afterwards he ordered his general La Gardie to acquaint the Polish commander Codekowitz, that as the truce between the two kingdoms, which had been concluded for two years, was now expired, he desired to be certainly informed whether he was to expect peace or war from his master. In the mean time, having borrowed money of the Dutch for the redemption of a town from Denmark, he had an interview on the frontiers with Christiern, the king of that country. At this interview, the two monarchs conceived the utmost esteem and friendship for each other; and Gustavus obtained a promise, that Christiern would not assist Sigismund in any design he might form against Sweden. In the mean time, receiving no satisfactory answer from Poland, Gustavus began to prepare for war. Sigismund entered into a negociation, and made some pretended concessions, with a view to seize Gustavus by treachery; but the latter having some intimation of his design, the whole negociation was changed into reproaches and threats on the part of Gustavus.

Immediately after this, Gustavus made a tour in disguise through Germany, and married Eleonora the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg. He then resolved to enter heartily into a war with Poland; and with this view set sail for Riga with a great fleet, which carried 20,000 men. The place was well fortified, and defended by a body of veterans, enthusiastically attached to Sigismund; but after a vigorous siege, the garrison, being reduced to extremity, were obliged to capitulate, and were treated with great clemency.

After the reduction of Riga, the Swedish monarch entered Courland, where he reduced Mitau; but ceded it again on the conclusion of a truce for one year. Sigismund, however, no sooner had time to recover himself, than he began to form new enterprises against the Swedes in Prussia; but Gustavus setting sail with his whole fleet for Dantzig, where the king of Poland then resided, so defeated his measures, that he was obliged to prolong the truce for another year. Sigismund was not yet apprised of his danger, and refused to listen to any terms of accommodation: Gustavus entering Livonia, defeated the Polish general, and took Dorpat, Hockenhausen, and several other places of less importance; after which, entering Lithuania, he took the city of Birzen. Notwithstanding this success, Gustavus proposed peace on the same equitable terms as before; but Sigismund was still infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the emperor of Germany, he should be able to conquer Sweden. Gustavus finding him inflexible, resolved to push his good fortune. His generals, Horn and Thurn, defeated the Poles in Semigallia. Gustavus himself, with 150 ships, set sail for Prussia, where he landed at Pillau. This place was immediately surrendered to him, as were several other towns. Sigismund, alarmed at the great progress of Gustavus, sent a body of forces to oppose him, and to prevent Dantzig from falling into his hands. But this measure did not produce any powerful effect; and in May 1627, Gustavus arrived with fresh forces before Dantzig, which he would probably have carried, had lie not been severely wounded by a cannon-shot. The states of Holland sent ambassadors to mediate a peace between the two crowns; but Sigismund, depending on the assistance of the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, determined to hearken to no terms, and resolved to make a winter campaign. The king of Sweden was however so well intrenched, and all his forts were so strongly garrisoned, that the utmost efforts of the Poles were to no purpose. The city of Dantzig, in the mean time, made such a desperate resistance as greatly irritated him. In a sea engagement the Swedish fleet defeated that of the enemy; after which Gustavus, having blocked up the harbour with his fleet, pushed his advances on the land side with incredible vigour. He made a surprising march over a morass fifteen miles broad, assisted by bridges of a peculiar construction, over which he carried a species of light cannon invented by himself. By this unexpected manoeuvre he obtained the command of the city in such a manner, that the garrison were on the point of surrendering; when, by a sudden inundation of the Vistula, the Swedish works were destroyed, and Valtujs the king was obliged to raise the siege. In other respects, raising the affairs of Gustavus proceeded with their usual good fortune. His general Wrangel defeated the Poles before Brodnitz. At Stum the king gained another and more considerable victory in person. The emperor had sent 5000 foot and 2000 horse under Arneheim, who joined the main army commanded by the Polish general Conieczkowski, in order to attack the Swedish army encamped at Quilzim. The enemy were so much superior in number, that the friends of Gustavus warmly dissuaded him from attacking them. But the resolution of the king was not to be shaken, and the engagement commenced. The great Swedish cavalry charged with such impetuosity, contrary to their sovereign's express order, that they were almost surrounded by the enemy; but, coming up to their assistance, he pushed the enemy's infantry with so much vigour, that they gave way, and retreated to a bridge that had been thrown over the Werder. But here they were disappointed, for the Swedes had already taken possession of the bridge. A new action ensued, more bloody than the former, in which the king was exposed to great danger, and thrice narrowly escaped being taken prisoner; but at last the Poles were totally defeated, and with immense loss. The slaughter of the German auxiliaries was so great, that Arneheim scarcely carried off one half of the troops which he brought into the field. This defeat did not hinder the Polish general from attempting the siege of again, but here he was as unsuccessful as in his previous enterprises. Arneheim was recalled, and was succeeded by Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg and Philip Count Mansfeldt; a truce of six years, consequences to the Poles; a famine and plague raged in their camp, so that they were at last obliged to consent to a truce for six years, to expire in the month of June 1633. Gustavus kept the port and citadel of Memel, the harbour of Pillau, the towns of Elbing, Brunsberg, and all that he had conquered in Livonia.

Gustavus having thus brought the war with Poland to an honourable conclusion, began to think of resenting the conduct of the emperor in assisting his enemies and oppressing the protestant states. Before embarking in such an important undertaking, it was necessary that he should consult the diet. Here the propriety of engaging in a war with Germany was warmly debated; but, after much altercation, the king, in a very noble speech, determined the matter, having declared in such strong terms the virtuous motives by which he was actuated, that the whole assembly wept, and every thing was granted which he could require.

It was not difficult for him to begin his expedition. His troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened by a succession of severe campaigns in Russia, Finland, Livonia, and Prussia. His fleet exceeded seventy sail, carrying from twenty to forty guns, and manned with 6000 seamen. Embarking his troops, he landed at Usedom on the 24th of June 1630, the Imperialists having evacuated all the fortresses which they there possessed; and the isle of Rugen had been before reduced by General Leslie, in order to secure a retreat if fortune should prove unfavourable. Passing the strait, Gustavus stormed Wolgast, and another strong fortress in the neighbourhood, leaving a garrison for the defence of these conquests. He then proceeded to Stettin, which consented to receive a Swedish garrison, and the king persuaded the duke of Pomerania to enter into an alliance with him. In consequence of this the Swedish troops were received into several towns of Pomerania; and the most bitter enmity took place between the Imperialists and Pomeranians.

These successes of Gustavus struck the empire with consternation; for, being already overwhelmed with civil dissensions, they were in no condition to resist so impetuous an enemy. At last Count Tilly was invested with the dignity of field-marshal. In the mean time, the king, being reinforced by a considerable body of troops in Finland and Livonia under the conduct of Gustavus Horn, defeated the Imperialists before Griftenhagen, and soon afterwards took the place by assault. By this and some other conquests, he opened a passage into Lusatia and Silesia; but in the mean time Tilly cut off 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg. This advantage, however, was soon overbalanced by the conquest of Frankfurt on the Oder, which Gustavus took by assault, making the whole garrison prisoners. Thus he commanded the rivers Elbe and Oder on both sides, and had a fair passage, not only to the countries already mentioned, but also to Saxony and the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria. He soon afterwards laid siege to Landsberg, which he took by assault.

About this time the protestant princes held a diet at Leipzig, to which Gustavus sent deputies, and conducted his negotiations with such address as tended greatly to promote his interests. Immediately after this he reduced Pomerania, Greifswald, and with it all Pomerania. Having then marched to Gostrow, he restored the dukes of Mecklenburg to their dominions.

All this time Tilly was employed in the siege of Magdeburg; but being alarmed at the repeated successes of the Swedes, he now left Pappenheim with part of the army before that city, while he marched with the rest into Thuringia, to attack the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and the elector of Saxony. After a most obstinate defence, Magdeburg fell into the hands of Pappenheim, who committed all imaginable cruelties. The king formed a plan of recovering the city; but was obliged to abandon it, by Pappenheim's treachery, throwing himself into the place with his whole army, and by the progress which Tilly was making in Thuringia. Relinquishing this enterprise, he ordered an attack on Havelland, which was conducted with such resolution, that the place was forced in a few hours, and all the garrison made prisoners. Werben was next obliged to submit after an obstinate conflict, in which many fell on both sides. These successes obliged Tilly to attempt in person to check the success and progress of the Swedes. He detached the vanguard of his cavalry army, composed of the flower of the Imperial cavalry, within of the limits of the Swedish camp. An action ensued, in which Bernstein the Imperial general was defeated and killed, with 1500 of his men. Gustavus, after this advantage, placed himself in a situation so much superior to that of his enemies, that Tilly was fired with indignation, and marched up to the Swedish lines to give him battle. The king kept within his works, and Tilly attacked his camp, though almost impregnable fortified, and maintained a most terrible fire from a battery of thirty-two pieces of cannon; which, however, produced no other effect than obliging the Swedish monarch to draw up his army behind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed his chief hopes in being able to count upon the enemy's cannon, or set fire to their camp; after which he proposed making his grand attack. With this view he bribed some prisoners; but they betrayed him, and communicated his design to Gustavus. The king ordered fires to be lighted in different parts of his camp, and his soldiers to imitate the noise of a tumultuous disorderly rabble. This had the desired effect. The count led his army to the breach made by the cannon, where he was received with such a volley of grape-shot as cut off the first line, and put the whole body in disorder, so that they could never be brought back to the charge. In this confusion the Imperial army was attacked, and after an obstinate conflict obliged to quit the field.

Soon after this action the queen arrived at the camp with a reinforcement of 8000 men; at the same time a treaty British settlement was concluded with Charles I. of England, by which that monarch allowed the marquis of Hamilton to raise 6000 men for the service of Gustavus. These auxiliaries were to be conducted to the main army by a body of 4000 Swedes; and were in everything to obey the king while he was personally present, but in his absence were to be subject to the orders of the marquis. With these troops the king had resolved to make a diversion in Bremen; but the marquis finding it impossible to effect a junction with the Swedish army, resolved, without debarking his troops, to steer his course for the Oder, and land at Usedom. Gustavus was very much displeased at finding his project thus disconcerted; but making the best of the present circumstances, he commanded the British troops to act on the Oder instead of the Weser. The number of this little army was magnified exceedingly by report, insomuch that Tilly had some thoughts of marching against them with his whole force; but on the departure of the marquis for Silesia, he reinforced the army in that country with a large detachment, which was thought to contribute not a little to the defeat which he soon after received.

Since the late action Gustavus had kept within his intrenchments, where his army was well supplied with provisions and stores. Tilly made several attempts to surprise or draw him to an engagement; but finding all his endeavours fruitless, he marched into Saxony, and laid siege to Leipzig. This precipitate measure proved highly advantageous to the Swedish monarch. A treaty offensive and defensive was immediately concluded with Gustavus; and the elector willingly promised everything that was required of him. Tilly, in the mean time, carried fire and sword Saxony into the electorate. At the head of an army of 44,000 veterans, he summoned the city of Leipzig to surrender; de-Count Til- nouncing, in case of refusal, the same vengeance against Leip- it as had been executed on Magdeburg. The governor was so much intimidated, that he instantly submitted; and he also surrendered the castle of Passenberg, which was in a History: condition to have resisted till the arrival of the Swedish army. The elector, enraged at the loss of these valuable places, ordered his army to join the Swedes with all expedition, and pressed the king so warmly to engage, that at last he yielded to his desire. On the 7th of September 1631, Gustavus led out his army in the finest order, the Swedes forming one column on the right, and the Saxons another on the left; each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up his men in one vast column, probably with a view of surrounding the flanks of the king's army. The king led his troops against that wing of the Imperialists commanded by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to a considerable distance. General Banner in the mean time cut in pieces the troops of Holstein, and mortally wounded the duke, who commanded them. Pappenheim conducted his troops seven times to the charge, but was as often repulsed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while was engaged with the Saxons; but having at last driven them off the field, the whole strength of the Imperial army was turned against the Swedish left wing. The Swedes sustained the attack with the greatest firmness, until the king detached the centre to assist them. The Imperialists then were no longer able to maintain their ground; but gave way everywhere except in the centre, which was composed of eighteen regiments of veterans accustomed to victory, and deemed invincible.

They made incredible efforts to maintain their reputation; and, though swept off in great numbers by the Swedish artillery, never shrunk or fell into confusion. Four regiments, after their officers had been killed, formed themselves, and withdrew to the skirt of a wood. Tilly retired at the head of 600 men, and escaped by the coming on of the night. Seven thousand Imperialists lay dead on the field of battle; 4000 were taken prisoners; a fine train of artillery was lost, with upwards of 100 standards, ensigns, and other military trophies.

Gustavus now determined to penetrate into Franconia, where he reduced several places, especially the fortress of Würzburg. Tilly having collected his scattered troops, which formed an army still superior in number to that of Gustavus, marched to the relief of this place, but came too late. He then directed his march towards Rottenberg, where four regiments were cut in pieces by a Swedish detachment. After this, the king reduced Hanau, Frankfurt on the Maine, and Mentz, having destroyed a body of Spaniards who had attempted to obstruct his passage.

The court of Vienna was now thrown into the utmost confusion, and sent everywhere begging assistance, and soliciting the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their religion. The emperor was most embarrassed in finding a general capable of opposing Gustavus in the field; for the late misfortunes of Count Tilus had entirely sunk his reputation. Wallenstein, an old experienced officer, was selected; but as he had formerly been disgraced, it was apprehended that he would not accept of the command of which he had once been deprived. This objection however was surmounted; and Wallenstein not only accepted of the command, but, at his own expense, augmented the army to 40,000 men.

During the whole winter the Swedish army kept the field, and before the approach of summer had reduced a great number of places, while the landgrave William made great progress in Westphalia. Gustavus Horn was repulsed before Bamberg, but soon had his revenge, by entirely destroying two regiments of Imperialists. To prevent the troops from being affected by the loss before Bamberg, the king resolved to give battle to Tilly, who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes from gaining a footing in that electorate. He pursued the Imperial general through a vast tract of country, defeated his rear-guard, and having reduced a variety of towns and fortresses on the Danube, penetrated as far as Ulm. Advancing to the river Leck, the count posted himself in a Historywood on the opposite side, to dispute his passage. Gustavus endeavoured to dislodge him by a regular fire from seventy pieces of cannon. The slaughter was dreadful, and Tilly himself, being wounded by a cannon-ball in the knee, died a few days before he was to have been succeeded by Wallenstein. The following night the Imperial army evacuated the post. Gustavus immediately crossed the river, and seized the towns of Rain and Neuburg, which the enemy had abandoned, and Augsburg next submitted. From Augsburg the Swedes advanced towards Ratisbon, but were disappointed in their design of obtaining possession of that city, as the Bavarians had thrown a numerous garrison into the place. In the mean time, ambassadors arrived from Denmark, offering the mediation of that crown for obtaining a lasting peace between the contending parties. This negociation however failed of success, as the ambassadors had not been instructed to offer terms favourable to the protestants. Gustavus, now resolving to retort on themselves the cruelties which the Bavarians had inflicted on the protestants, laid the towns of Morzburg, Friesengen, and Landsbut, in ashes. The inhabitants of Munich saved themselves by submission. Gustavus also defeated the forces of the elector, who had been joined by a considerable body of militia.

While the king was thus employed, Wallenstein had assembled a very numerous army. He was strongly solicited by the elector of Bavaria to come to his assistance; but, in revenge of the elector's having formerly obtained the command for Tilly in preference to himself, he drew off towards Bohemia to encounter the Saxons. Arneib, who commanded the Saxon forces in that place, was an enemy to Gustavus, who had formerly rallied him for his cowardice. He therefore permitted Wallenstein to gain an easy victory, in hopes that his master, the elector of Saxony, a prince entirely devoted to his pleasures, might be induced to relinquish the friendship of such a restless and warlike ally as Gustavus; and indeed he used all the eloquence of which he was master to detach him from the Swedish cause. Several advantages were in the mean time gained by the Imperialists. Pappenheim defeated the archbishop of Bremen's cavalry at Werden; and three Swedish regiments were cut off near Kadingen. Pappenheim was however forced to retire, and to withdraw his forces from Stade, of which the Swedes took possession. Wallenstein and the elector of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces, threatened Gustavus with greatly superior numbers. The king, being reinforced with 15,000 men, no longer declined the engagement; but Wallenstein was too wise to trust the fate of the empire to a single battle against such an enemy as the king of Sweden. Gustavus attacked his camp, but was repulsed with the loss of 2000 men. Several other misfortunes happened to the Swedes; and at last, after various manoeuvres, Wallenstein directed his course towards Misnia, in order to oblige the elector of Saxony to declare against the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria. Gustavus, notwithstanding the inconstancy of Augustus, immediately set out to assist him. With incredible diligence he marched to Misnia, where the Imperialists were assembling their whole strength. Hearing that the enemy were encamped at Weissenfeld, and that Pappenheim had been detached with a strong corps, Gustavus resolved to engage them before they could effect a junction. With this view he marched to Lützen, where he attacked Wallenstein with incredible fury. The Swedish infantry broke the Imperialists in spite of their utmost efforts, and took all their artillery. The cavalry not being able to pass the river so expeditiously as the king thought necessary, he led the way, attended only by a single regiment and the duke of Saxe-Launenburg. Here, after charging impetuously, he was killed. The news of his death was in an instant spread. History. over both armies. The courage of the Imperialists revived, and they now made themselves sure of victory. But the Swedes, eager to revenge the death of their beloved monarch, charged with such fury that nothing could resist them. The Imperialists were defeated a second time, just as Pappenheim, with his fresh corps, came up to their assistance. On this the battle was renewed, but the Swedes were still irresistible. Pappenheim was mortally wounded, and his army finally routed, with the loss of 9000 killed in the field and in the pursuit.

This victory proved more unfortunate to Sweden than the greatest defeat. The crown devolved on Christina, the daughter of Gustavus, an infant of six years old; the nation was engaged in an expensive foreign war, without any person equal to the arduous task of commanding the armies, or regulating domestic affairs, as Gustavus had done. Christina was immediately proclaimed queen. The regency devolved on the grand bailiff, the marshal, the high admiral, the chancellor, and the treasurer of the crown. Oxenstiern was invested with the chief management of affairs, and conducted himself with the greatest prudence. The reign and character of Christina have been detailed under the article Christina, to which we may refer our readers.

From the treaty of Westphalia, Sweden enjoyed some years of repose. Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine, having gained the favour of Christina, was appointed generalissimo of the forces, and heir-apparent to the crown. A marriage was proposed between them; but the queen would never listen to this or any other proposal of the kind. In 1650, the ceremony of the queen's coronation was performed; but in four years after, she resigned the crown in favour of Charles.

The new king found himself involved in considerable difficulties on his accession to the throne. The treasury was quite exhausted; great part of the revenue was appointed for the support of Christina's household; the people were oppressed with taxes; and the nation having been disarmed for several years, began to lose its reputation among foreigners. To remedy these evils, Charles proposed to resume all the crown-lands which had been alienated by grants to favourites during the late reign; to repeal a duty which had been imposed on salt; to put the kingdom in a posture of defence; and to enter on a war with some neighbouring state. Under a pretence that Casimir king of Poland had questioned his title to the throne, he prepared to invade that kingdom. Several embassies were sent from Poland to Stockholm; but some point of ceremony always disappointed them of an audience of the king, so that they were obliged to return without executing their commission. As soon as matters were in readiness, General Wittemberg made an irruption into Poland from the side of Pomerania. The Poles opposed him with an army of 15,000 men; but instead of fighting, they began to negotiate, and in a short time entirely dispersed. Charles himself soon followed with a powerful army, and pursued his march without obstruction, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as he approached. As he advanced to Cracow, Casimir resolved to make one effort to save his capital. His army amounted only to 10,000 men; and these were unfortunately such as had never stood fire. After a feeble resistance, they fled with precipitation, having lost 1000 men killed and taken prisoners. A few days after this Charles defeated the Poles a second time, about eight leagues from Cracow; on which Casimir fled with his family to Oppeln in Silesia. The capital was then invested, and, though defended with the utmost valour, was in a short time obliged to capitulate. Thus in less than three months Charles apparently became master of Poland; but it was soon evident that the Poles had no intention of abandoning their former sovereign.

In 1656, a war took place with the elector of Brandenburg. While Charles was employed in the conquest of Poland, that prince had invaded Royal and Ducal Prussia, and reduced the most considerable towns with little opposition. The king of Sweden took umbrage at his progress; and the elector having marched against him, defeated his forces in several slight encounters, and obliged him to acknowledge himself a vassal of Sweden. These rapid conquests alarmed all Europe; and the different powers sought for means of driving the Swedes out of Poland, which they had so unexpectedly and unjustly seized. The Poles were no sooner assured that they should obtain assistance, than they every where revolted and massacred the Swedes. Casimir returned from Silesia; and those very troops and generals who had before submitted to Charles without opposition, now ranged themselves under the banners of his antagonist. Charles immediately marched from Prussia to chastise the insolence of the Poles, and totally defeated a body of 12,000 against a vicem. This event did not hinder all the Poles incorporated with his troops to desert. Their defection considerably re-duced his army; and the campaign being performed in the depth of winter, he was at last obliged to retreat to Prussia. In his march he was harassed by the Poles; and a body of 4000 Swedes was surprised and defeated by them at Warka. This loss however was soon after recompensed by a complete victory gained by Adolphus the king's brother, and General Wrangel. In the mean time the king was taking measures for laying siege to Dantzig; but was prevented by the Dutch, who threatened to oppose him, unless a proper regard was paid to their interest. Charles accordingly grant-ed them advantageous terms; and afterwards gained over a treaty the elector of Brandenburg, by ceding to him the sovereignity of Prussia, that he might be at liberty to turn his whole strength against Poland.

By the treaty just concluded with the elector, the latter denburg, was to assist Charles in his war with Poland; but the elector was so tardy in his measures, that the Poles, having obtained assistance from the Tartars, had reduced the city of Warsaw. The two princes now marched in concert against their enemies, who were encamped in a strong situation in the neighbourhood of the city above mentioned, their camp being fronted by the Vistula. The Poles were driven from their entrenchments with prodigious slaughter. The Poles and Tartars then laboured to break the alliance; and with which view, having entered Ducal Prussia, they defeated the electoral army, and took many prisoners. The Swedes soon obtained their revenge. General Steinbock attacked the same Polish army at Philippowa, and overthrew it with such slaughter as obliged the Poles for that season to quit the field. A more formidable enemy than the Poles now began to make their appearance. The Russians invaded the provinces of Carelia, Ingermania, and Livonia; while the elector of Brandenburg began to waver in his fidelity. To preserve this only ally at such a critical juncture, Charles The Rus-sian was obliged to grant him more advantageous terms than those already mentioned; and the Russians were repulsed in the provinces of Carelia and Ingermania. But in Livonia they had better success. For seven months, however, they battered the walls of Riga, without venturing to pass the ditch or storm the practicable breaches.

Charles, notwithstanding the number of his enemies, was now become so formidable by the valour and discipline of his troops, that entire armies often fled on his approach. At last, in 1657, the Poles, finding they could not resist him in the field, contented themselves with harassing the Swedes on their march, and cutting off the foragers and convoys. This proved much more destructive to the Swedes than their former method; so that Charles was obliged to enter into an alliance with Ragotski, prince of Transylvania, with Ragotski, in order to furnish himself with irregular troops, who might prove of fight the Poles in their own way. He did not thus obtain any Transylva-real advantage; for the confederates, after wasting a whole campaign in Lithuania, were obliged to retire without accomplishing more than the reduction of a single fortress. Charles then returned with the Swedish army to Prussia.

Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having long beheld the Swedes with a jealous eye, now resolved to declare for Poland. The more effectually to curb the ambition of the Swedish monarch, he solicited the king of Denmark to come to a rupture with him. This application was attended with immediate success, and the Danes invaded Bremen.

Charles hastened to oppose this new enemy, and he thus gave great offence to Ragotski, who, by neglecting to take the proper measures for his own defence in the absence of the Swedes, suffered his army to be destroyed by the Poles and Tartars. At the same time the Turks invaded Transylvania, under pretence that Ragotski, being a vassal of the grand signior, had no right to invade Poland without his permission. Ragotski, opposing them in the field, was defeated and killed, leaving Charles destitute of the only ally on whom he could depend.

The king, however, not dismayed by this misfortune, traversed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg; after which he attacked Holstein, while General Wrangel with another corps entered the duchy of Bremen. The general executed his measures with the utmost vigour. In fifteen days he retook all the towns which the enemy had reduced; defeated and drove the Danish army out of the country, killing 3000 of their best soldiers. In Holstein the king reduced several fortresses, laid Itzehoe in ashes, defeated a body of Danes, and laid siege to Frederic Udda, into which the Danes had thrown a strong garrison. Leaving to Wrangel the conduct of this siege, he himself retired to Wismar in order to observe the situation of affairs in Poland; and no sooner was he departed than Wrangel attacked the place with such fury, that he became master of it in two hours. In the province of Halland the Swedes were defeated, but the enemy derived no advantage from their victory. At sea the fleets met, and maintained an engagement for two days, without any considerable advantage on either side. In Poland affairs were not better conducted. The house of Austria had now declared for Casimir; and a German army having entered Poland, reduced Cracow, though not without sustaining great loss.

The king of Sweden was now surrounded by enemies. The elector of Brandenburg had declared against him; and he had besides to engage the armies of Austria, Poland, Russia, and Denmark. In this dangerous situation he resolved to attack Denmark, so as to oblige that state to come to a speedy accommodation. His designs were forwarded by a very early frost, which enabled him to transport his troops without shipping. Having marched over the ice to the island of Funen, he cut in pieces a body of 4000 Danish soldiers and 500 peasants. The whole island was reduced in a few days; after which he passed to Langeland, then to Laaland, after that to Falster, and lastly to Zealand. The Danes were terrified at this unexpected invasion, and were resigning themselves to despair, when Charles offered to conclude a peace on equitable terms. The king of Denmark gladly consented, intending to renew the war as soon as he thought it could be done with safety.

Charles was no sooner retired, than the king of Denmark began to act secretly against him; on which, resolving to anticipate him in his designs, he appeared unexpectedly with a fleet before Copenhagen. The Swedish monarch laid siege to the capital, but with so little prudence that he made no progress, and was at length compelled to turn the siege into a blockade, which continued to the end of the war. Charles X. died of an epidemic fever, and was succeeded by his son Charles XI.

Charles XI. The new king, Charles XI., was a minor at the time of his father's death; and as the kingdom was involved in a dangerous war with so many enemies, the regency determined to conclude a peace, if it could be obtained on reasonable terms. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Oliva, by which Casimir renounced his pretensions to the crown of Poland, and that state gave up all pretensions to Livonia. Bornholm and Drontheim were ceded to Denmark, and an equivalent in Schonen remained with Sweden. During the minority of the king, nothing remarkable occurs in the history of Sweden. In 1672 he entered into war with alliance with Louis XIV., which two years after involved Brandenburg in a war with the elector of Brandenburg. At first the Swedes carried all before them. Almost all the towns in Brandenburg were reduced, when the elector arrived with an army to the relief of his distressed subjects. He retook several towns, defeated the Swedes in a general engagement, and soon after forced them to abandon all their conquests. In conjunction with the Danes, he then invaded the Swedish dominions; many places of importance were reduced; and, in 1676, Sweden received a most destructive blow by the defeat of her fleet in an engagement with the combined fleets of Denmark and Holland. The king soon afterwards took the government into his own hands, and in some degree restored the fortune of Sweden; but although he was more successful where he commanded in person, the same losses and disgrace attended the Swedish arms in every other quarter. In 1678, the Swedish fleet was defeated in two engagements. At Landskrona a most obstinate battle was fought, from ten in the morning till six at night, when both parties were obliged, by fatigue, to retire to their respective camps. At Oldevald, in Norway, the Swedes were defeated; and the Danes laid desolate the islands of Oeland, Smaaland, Unno, and Kuno; while the electoral troops and Imperialists reduced Count Königsmark to the utmost distress in the neighbourhood of Stralsund. In this deplorable situation of affairs Königsmark found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to such advantage, that he obtained a complete victory; after which he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg. Notwithstanding this success, he could not prevent the elector from reducing Stralsund. He was afterwards obliged to evacuate Pomerania; and, to complete his distress, the fleet which transported the Swedish army from Pomerania was wrecked on the coast of Bornholm.

At this unprosperous crisis a peace was concluded at St Germain between France and her enemies, by which the Swedes and Danes were left to decide their quarrel between themselves. Denmark was by no means a match for Sweden, even in the distressed situation to which she was reduced; and a treaty was therefore concluded, on terms much more favourable to Sweden than could have been expected. The peace was confirmed by a marriage between Charles, and Ulrica Eleonora, daughter to the king of Denmark. From this time the Swedish monarch applied himself to the reformation of the state; and by artfully managing the disputes between the nobility and the peasants, he obtained a decree empowering him to alter the constitution as he pleased. The proceedings of the king after this decree were such as to exasperate the nobility, and produce violent commotions.

On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XI., leaving his crown to his son, the celebrated Charles XII., at that time a minor. On his accession, he found himself under the tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had governed the kingdom during the minority of the late king. Though Charles was at that time only fifteen years of age, he showed a desire of taking the government into his own hands. His counsellors, Count Piper and Axel Sparre, signified his desire to the queen-regent. By her they were referred to the states, and there all were unanimous; so that the queen, finding that opposition would be vain, resigned her power with a good grace; and Charles was invested with absolute authority in three days after he had expressed his desire of reigning alone. He was scarcely seated on the throne when a powerful combination was formed against him. Augustus king of Poland formed designs on Livonia; the king of Denmark revived his disputes with the duke of Holstein, as a prelude to a war with Sweden; and Peter the Great of Russia began to form designs on Ingria, formerly a province of Russia. In 1699 the king of Denmark marched an army into Holstein. Charles sent a considerable body of troops to the duke's assistance; but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged the country, taken the castle of Gottorp, and laid close siege to Tonnigen. Here the king of Denmark commanded in person, and was assisted by the troops of Saxony, Brandenburg, Wolfenbuttel, and Hesse-Cassel. Britain and Holland, as guarantees of the last treaty with Denmark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles against this confederacy, and sent fleets to the Baltic. They proposed a termination of the war on equitable terms; but these were haughtily refused by the Danish monarch, who despised the youth and inexperience of Charles, and relied too much on the alliance which he had formed with Saxony, Brandenburg, Poland, and Russia. Tonnigen, however, resisted all his efforts; and when he ordered the place to be stormed, he had the mortification to see his troops driven headlong from the walls by a handful of Swedes.

In the year 1700, Charles, having intrusted the affairs of the nation with a council chosen out of the senate, set out on the 8th May from his capital, to which he never afterwards returned. He embarked at Carlscrona, and defeated the fleet of the allies. Having made a descent on the island of Zealand, he defeated a body of cavalry that opposed his march, and then proceeded to invest Copenhagen by sea and land. The king of Denmark saw the necessity of either having his capital destroyed, or of doing the justice to the duke of Holstein. He chose the latter; and a treaty was concluded on much the same terms as formerly. Charles, being thus at liberty to turn his arms against the other princes who had conspired his destruction, resolved to lead his army against Augustus king of Poland. On the road, however, he received intelligence that the czar of Russia was on his march to oppose him, and had laid siege to Narva with an army of 100,000 men. The contest that ensued between Charles and Peter, with the celebrated battles of Narva and Pultava, have been already related under Russia, so that we shall here confine ourselves chiefly to those events in which Peter the Great was not immediately concerned. Peter was the chief support of Augustus, and he took the most active measures to oppose the progress of the Swedish monarch. His want of success, and the subsequent contests between him and Charles, till the decisive battles of Pultava, are related in the same article.

In 1701, as early as the season permitted, Charles, having received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the field, and appeared suddenly on the banks of the Duma, along which the Saxon army was posted to receive him. The king of Poland being at that time sick, the army was commanded by Ferdinand duke of Courland, Marshal Stenau, and General Paykel, all officers of valour and experience. They had fortified some islands in the mouth of the river, and taken every other precaution against an attack; the soldiers were hardy, well disciplined, and nearly equal to the Swedes in number; yet Charles, having passed the river in boats with high sides, to screen the men from the fire of the enemy, attacked them with such fury, that they were entirely defeated, and with great loss. This victory was followed by the surrender of all the towns and fortresses in the duchy of Courland. Charles then passed into Lithuania, where every town opened its gates to him. At Birsen, an army of 20,000 Russians retired with the utmost precipitation on the news of his approach. Here Charles, perceiving that the kingdom of Poland was greatly disaffected to Augustus, began to project the scheme of dethroning him by means of his own subjects. This scheme he executed with more policy than he ever showed on any other occasion.

Augustus, in the mean time, finding his scheme of peace frustrated, had recourse to the senate; but met with such a rough answer from them, that he determined to apply to Charles. To him therefore he sent his chamberlain; but a passport being forgotten, the ambassador was arrested. Charles continued his march to Warsaw, which surrendered Warsaw on the first summons; but the citadel held out for some days. Augustus, finding at last that no dependence was to be placed on the Poles, determined to trust his fortune wholly to the Saxon army and the nobility of the palatinate of Cracow, who offered to support him to the utmost of their power. The Saxon army had now advanced to the frontiers, and Augustus immediately put himself at its head. Being joined by the nobility of Cracow, he found that his forces amounted to 30,000 men, all brave and well disciplined. With these he marched in quest of his enemy; nor did the Swedish monarch decline the combat, though he had with him only 12,000 men. Though the Saxons were strongly posted, having their front covered by a morass, besides being fortified with pallisadoes and chevaux de frise, they were defeated, attacked with irresistible impetuosity, and entirely defeated. This victory was followed by the loss of Cracow. Charles Cracow then set out in pursuit of the flying army, with a design of taking, preventing them from re-assembling; but his horse falling under him, he had the misfortune to break his thigh, by which he was confined six weeks, and thus Augustus obtained some respite. He improved this interval. Having convoked a diet, first at Marienburg, and then at Lublin, he obtained the following resolutions; that an army of 50,000 men should be raised by the republic for the service of the prince; that six weeks should be allowed the Swedes to determine whether they were for war or peace; and that the same time should be granted to the turbulent and discontented nobles of Poland to make their concessions. To counteract the effects of these resolutions, Charles assembled another diet at Warsaw; and while the two armies assembled disputed concerning their rights and privileges, he recovered from his wound, received a strong reinforcement from Pomerania, and utterly defeated and dispersed the remains of the Saxon army.

The ill fortune of Augustus continued still to prevail. In Augustus 1704 he was formally deposed by the diet, and the crown deposed, was conferred by Charles on Stanislas Leszinsky, palatin of Stanislas of Posenia. Augustus however did not yet tamely relinquish his kingdom. His adherents daily skirmished with the Swedes; and Augustus himself, being reinforced by Warsaw 9000 Russians, retook Warsaw, and had nearly surprised the new king, who lived in perfect security in the city while Charles fought his battles. Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes, vigorously defended the citadel; but at last, finding it no longer tenable, he was obliged to surrender at discretion. The reduction of Warsaw was among the last advantages gained by Augustus in the course of this war. His troops were now composed of Saxon recruits and undisciplined Poles, who had no attachment to his person, and were ready on all occasions to forsake him. Charles and Stanislas advanced with the victorious army; the Saxons fled before them, and the towns several miles round tendered their submission. The Poles and Saxons were under the command Excellent of Schullemberg, a most sagacious and experienced general, who used every expedient to check the progress of the Swedes. With all his conduct and caution he found himself outwitted, and Charles in the neighbourhood of his camp, ready to fall on him, while he thought him at fifty leagues distance. The Swedish monarch attacked him with his excellent army, but entirely composed of horse. Schullemberg had posted his men in such a manner as rendered it impossible to surround them. His first rank, being armed with pikes and muskets, presented a rampart of bayonets; the History. second line, stooping over the first, who kneeled, fired over their heads; while the third rank, who stood upon their feet, kept up an incessant fire, by which the Swedish horse were exceedingly galled and put in disorder. Charles lost the opportunity of cutting off the whole Saxon army, by omitting to order his men to dismount. This was almost the first time that infantry had been regularly opposed to cavalry, and the superiority of the former was evident. After the engagement had continued about three hours, the Saxons retreated in good order; which no enemy had ever done before in any engagement with Charles. The Swedes pursued their enemies towards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through thick woods, almost impervious even to infantry. The Swedish horse, however, pushed their way, and at last enclosed Schullemberg between a wood and the river, where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to surrender at discretion, or die sword in hand, as having neither boats nor bridges; but the genius of Schullemberg supplied every defect. In the night he ordered planks and floats of trees to be fastened together, on which he carried over his troops, while the Swedes were employed in dislodging 300 men, whom he had placed in a wind-mill for the purpose of defending his flank, and diverting the attention of the enemy. Charles spoke of this retreat with admiration, and said he had been conquered by Schullemberg.

No material advantage however resulted to Augustus, who was again obliged to leave Poland, and fortify the capital of his hereditary dominions, which he expected every moment to see invested. In the mean time, the Russians having recovered their spirits, attacked the Swedes in Livonia with the utmost fury. Narva, Dorpat, and several other towns, were taken, and the inhabitants and garrison treated with great barbarity. An army of 100,000 Russians soon afterwards entered Poland. Sixty thousand Cossacks under Mazepa entered the country at the same time, and committed every outrage with the fury of barbarians. Schullemberg, perhaps more formidable than either, advanced with 14,000 Saxons and 7000 Russians, disciplined in Germany, and reputed excellent soldiers. Could numbers have determined the event of war, the Swedes must certainly have been at this time overpowered; but Charles seemed to triumph over his enemies with more ease the more numerous they were. The Russians were so speedily defeated, that they were all dispersed before one party had notice of the misfortunes of another. The defeating an army of 40,000 men scarcely obstructed the march of the Swedes, while their astonished enemies looked on these actions as the effects of witchcraft, and imagined that the king of Sweden had dealings with infernal spirits. With these apprehensions they fled beyond the Dnieper, leaving the unhappy Augustus to his fate. Schullemberg, with all his skill and experience, was not more successful. The Swedish general Renschild engaged and defeated him in half an hour, though the Swedes were vastly inferior in number, and their enemies posted in a most advantageous situation. Nothing could be more complete than the victory. This extraordinary victory, indeed, is said to have been owing to a panic which seized the troops of Schullemberg; but it was regarded with admiration, and thought to make the renown of Renschild equal to that of his sovereign. Charles himself was jealous, and could not help exclaiming, "Surely Renschild will not compare himself with me!"

Soon after this victory, which was gained on the 12th of February 1706, Charles entered Saxony at the head of 24,000 men. The diet at Ratisbon declared him an enemy to the empire if he crossed the Oder. But to this declaration no regard was paid: Charles pursued his march, while Augustus was reduced to the condition of a vagrant in Poland, where he possessed not a single town except Cracow. Into this city he threw himself with a few Saxon, Polish, and Russian regiments, and began to erect some fortifications for his defence; but the approach of the Swedish general Meyerfeldt, and the news of the invasion of Saxony, disconcerted all his measures, and plunged him into despair. The Russians indeed were his faithful allies, Augustus but he dreaded them almost as much as the Swedes; so begs for that he was reduced to the necessity of writing a letter to peace on Charles with his own hand, begging for peace on whatever terms he thought proper to grant. As he was then at the mercy of the Russians, this transaction was concealed with the greatest care. His emissaries were introduced to the Swedish court in the night-time, and being presented to Charles, received the following answer: that King Augustus should for ever renounce the crown of Poland, acknowledge Stanislas, and promise never to re-ascend the throne, should an opportunity offer; that he should release the princes Sobieski, and all the Swedish prisoners made in the course of the war; surrender Patkul, at that time resident at his court as ambassador for the czar of Russia, and stop proceedings against all who had passed from his into the Swedish service. These articles Charles wrote with his own hand, and delivered to Count Piper, ordering him to finish them with the Saxon ambassadors.

After his defeat at Pultava (see Russia) Charles fled in a mean calash, attended by a little troop involuntarily attached to his person, some on foot, and some on horseback. They were obliged to cross a sandy desert, where neither herb nor tree was to be seen, and where the burning heat and want of water were more intolerable than the extremities of cold which they had formerly endured. The whole had almost perished for want of water, when a spring was fortunately discovered. They reached Otchakoff, a Charles town in the Turkish dominions, the pacha of which supplied the king with every necessary. It was, however, some Turkey time before boats could be got ready for transporting the whole of the king's attendants; by which accident 500 Pultava, Swedes and Cossacks fell into the hands of the enemy. This loss affected him more than all his other misfortunes. He shed tears at seeing, across the river Bogs, the greater part of his few remaining friends carried into captivity, without having it in his power to assist them. The pacha waited on him to apologise for the delay, and was as severely reprimanded by Charles as if he had been his own subject.

The king remained but a few days at Otchakoff, when the seraskier of Bender sent an aga to compliment him on his arrival in the Turkish dominions, and to invite him to that city. Here he was treated with hospitality. The Turks practised to its full extent their generous maxim of receiving, regarding as sacred the persons of unfortunate princes who had taken shelter in their dominions; and they perhaps regarded him, notwithstanding his misfortunes, as an ally that Russia might be useful to themselves against the Russians. Every one indeed regarded him in his distress. The French king gave him a safe passage from the Levant to Marseilles, from whence he might easily return to his own dominions. But Charles was too obstinate to receive advice. Puffed up with the notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he disdained to return except at the head of a numerous army; and he yet expected, by means of the Turks, to dethrone his adversary the czar. Negotiations for this purpose were carried on in the Turkish divan, and it was proposed to escort Charles with a numerous army to the frontiers of Poland; but the revolution which there took place put an end to all such projects. Augustus thought himself no longer bound to observe the treaty which he had made, recover when Charles was at hand to compel him. After the battle of Pultava, he entered Poland, and took every measure, in concert with the czar, for the recovery of his kingdom. Stanislas was not able to encounter such enemies, but was obliged to leave his dominions and fly to Bender, in the disguise of a Swedish officer, in order to share the The Danes invaded Sweden.

Swedish affairs began to suffer in consequence of the defeat at Pultava. The Danes invaded the province of Schonen with an army of 13,000 foot and 2500 horse. Only 13,000 Swedish forces remained to defend all the territories possessed by Charles in Germany, and of these only a small part was allotted for the defence of Schonen. The regency of Sweden, however, exerted themselves to the utmost to repel this ungenerous invasion; and having collected an army of 12,000 militia and 8000 regulars, despatched them under General Steenboek into Schonen. Some Saxon troops were incorporated in this army; but among these a prodigious desertion took place, which the general found it impossible to prevent; and thus the Danes gained several advantages, and at last took Christianstad.

Their insolence on this success was so great that the Swedes demanded to be instantly led against them. Here the good fortune of Sweden seemed once more to revive. The Danes were driven from a very strong situation, with the loss of 8000 killed and taken prisoners, besides a vast number wounded. The king received the intelligence of this victory with the greatest exultation, and could not help exclaiming, "My brave Swedes, should it please God that I once more join you, we shall conquer them all."

In the mean time, Charles, by means of his agents the count Poniatoffski and Neugebar, used his utmost efforts to procure a rupture between the Porte and Russia. For a long interval the money bestowed by Peter on the vizirs and janissaries prevailed; but at last the grand signior, influenced by his mother, who was strongly in the interest of Charles, and had been used to call him her lion, determined to support his quarrel with Peter. He therefore gave orders to the vizir to fall on the Russians with an army of 200,000 men. The vizir promised obedience, but at the same time professed his ignorance in the art of war, and dislike to the present expedition. The khan of Crim Tartary, who had been gained over by the reputation and presents of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty of assembling his army at Bender, that Charles might see that the war was undertaken on his account. See Russia.

The treaty of the Pruth was most violently opposed by Poniatoffski and the khan of Tartary. The former had made the king acquainted with the situation of both armies; on which he instantly set out from Bender, filled with the hopes of fighting the Russians, and taking ample vengeance. Having ridden fifty leagues post, he arrived at the camp just as the czar was drawing off his half-famished troops. He alighted at Poniatoffski's tent; and being informed of particulars, instantly flew in a rage to the vizir, whom he loaded with reproaches, and accused of treachery. Recollecting himself, however, he proposed a method by which the fault might be remedied; but finding his proposal rejected, he posted back to Bender, after having by the grossest insults showed his contempt of the vizir.

The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his interest. The vizir perceived that his stay in Turkey might prove fatal to himself, and he therefore determined to remove him as soon as possible. Succeeding vizirs adopted the same plan; and at last the grand signior himself wrote a letter to Charles, in which he desired him to depart by next winter, promising to supply him with a sufficient guard, with money, and every thing else necessary for his journey. Charles gave an evasive answer, and determined to procrastinate his journey, as well to gratify his own stubborn temper, as because he discovered a correspondence between Augustus and the khan of Tartary, the object of which, he had reason to believe, was to betray him to the Saxons. When he was again pressed to fix the day of his departure, he replied, that he could not think of going before his debts were paid. Being asked how much was necessary for this purpose, he replied, a thousand purses. A purse, it is to be remarked, consists of thirty sequins. Twelve hundred purses were instantly sent to the seraskier at Bender, with orders to deliver them to the king of Sweden, but not before he should have begun his journey. By fair promises, Charles persuaded him to part with the money; after which, instead of setting out, he squandered away his treasure in presents and gratifications, and then demanded a thousand purses more before he would set out. The seraskier was astonished at this behaviour. He shed tears; and turning to the king told him that his head would be the forfeit of having obliged him with the money. The grand signior, on being acquainted with the shameful behaviour of Charles, flew into a rage, and called an extraordinary divan, where he himself spoke; a practice very unusual for the Turkish monarchs. It was unanimously agreed that such a troublesome guest ought to be removed by force, should other means fail.

Positive orders were therefore sent to Charles to depart; and the Turks in case of his refusal, instructions were given for attacking resolve to him in his quarters. Nothing could equal his obstinacy on this occasion; in spite of the menaces of his enemies, in spite of the entreaties of his friends, he persisted in his resolution; and at last determined to resist, with 300 Swedes, being the entire number of his attendants, an army of 20,000 rate resolunjanissaries well armed and furnished with cannon. At length, to resist, he was attacked in good earnest; though it must be owned that even in this extremity, the Turks showed their regard to him, and were tender of his safety. Most of the Swedes surrendered at once, perhaps as thinking it the only method of saving the king's life. This conduct, however, had an opposite effect. Charles became the more obstinate, the more desperate his affairs seemed to be. With only forty menial servants, and the generals Hord and Dardorff, he determined to defend himself to the last extremity. Seeing his followers lay down their arms, he told the generals, "We must now defend the house. Come," added he with a smile, "let us fight pro aris et focis." The house had been already forced by the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the door, and where his domestics had assembled. Charles forced his way through the janissaries, attended by the generals Hord and Dardorff, joined his people, and then barricaded the door. The moment he entered, the enemy who were in the house threw down their booty, and endeavoured to escape at the windows. Charles pursued them from room to room with much bloodshed, and cleared the house in a few minutes. He then fired furiously from the windows, killed two hundred of the Turks in a quarter of an hour, so that the pacha who commanded them was at length forced to set the house on fire. This was effected by discharging arrows with lighted matches into the roof; but Charles, instead of quitting his post, gave orders for extinguishing the fire, and he himself assisted with great diligence. All efforts were however vain; the roof fell in, and Charles, with his few faithful companions, was ready to be buried in the ruins. In this extremity one called out that there was a necessity for surrendering. "What a strange fellow!" cries the king, "who would rather be a prisoner with the Turks than mix his ashes with those of his sovereign." Another had the presence of mind to cry out, that the chancery was but fifty paces off, had a stone roof, and was proof against fire. Pleased with the thoughts of again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, "A true Swede! Let us take all the powder and ball we can carry." He then put himself at the head of his troops, and sallied out with such impetuosity, that the Turks retreated fifty paces; but having fallen in the midst of his fury, they rushed upon him, and carried him by the legs and arms to the pacha's tent. This extraordinary adventure, which savours not a little of insanity, happened on the 12th of February 1713. He was now kept prisoner with all his retinue; and in this situation... he was visited by the unfortunate Stanislas, the dethroned king of Poland.

Charles seemed at last inclined to submit to his fate, and began seriously to think of returning to his kingdom, now reduced to the most deplorable situation. His habitation had been fixed at Demotica, a small town about six leagues from Adrianople. Here he was allowed provisions for his own table and those of his retinue; but only twenty-five crowns a day in money, instead of five hundred which he had received at Bender. During his residence here, he received a deputation from Hesse-Cassel, soliciting his consent to the marriage of the landgrave with Eleonora, princess royal of Sweden; to which he readily agreed. A deputation was also sent him by the regency of Sweden, requesting that he would prepare for returning to his own dominions, which, in his absence, were ready to sink under a ruinous war.

On the 14th of October 1714, Charles set out for Sweden. All the princes through whose territories he was to pass had given orders for his entertainment in the most magnificent manner; but the king, perceiving that these compliments only rendered his imprisonment and other misfortunes more conspicuous, suddenly dismissed his Turkish attendants, and assembling his own people, bid them take no care about him, but make the best of their way to Stralsund. After this he set out post, in the habit of a German officer, attended only by Colonel During. Keeping the by-roads through Hungary, Moravia, Austria, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, the Palatinate, Westphalia, and Mecklenburg, he arrived on the 21st of November at midnight before the gates of Stralsund. Being unknown, he was admitted with difficulty; but being soon recognised by the governor, the greatest tokens of joy were manifested all over the town.

Sweden was now in the greatest distress. On the news of the defeat at Pultava, the Danes had invaded Schonen, but were defeated by General Steenbock. This victory did not, however, put an end to the war. The kings of Denmark and Poland, with the czar of Russia, entered into stricter bonds of amity than ever. They dreaded the return of Charles to his own dominions, and apprehended that numberless victories would soon efface the remembrance of Pultava. They determined to make the best use of their time; and perhaps Charles never took a more imprudent resolution than obstinately to remain so long in the Turkish dominions. His return seemed to give new life to the whole nation. Though the number of inhabitants was visibly diminished, the levies which he had ordered were completed in a few weeks; but the husbandmen left to cultivate the earth consisted of the infirm, aged, and decrepid; so that a famine was threatened in consequence of the military rage which had seized all the youth of the kingdom.

The presence of Charles did not now produce those consequences which the allies had feared. The kingdom was too much reduced to furnish the necessary supplies of men and money; and though the king's courage and military skill were not in the least diminished, the efforts which he made, instead of restoring Sweden to its splendour, served more completely to ruin it. In 1715, Prussia declared against him, on account of his demanding back the town of Stettin, which that monarch had seized. To complete his embarrassment, the elector of Hanover, George I. of Britain, also became his enemy. The forces of Denmark, Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover joined to invest Wismar, while a body of 36,000 men formed the siege of Stralsund; and at the same time the czar, with a fleet of twenty large ships of war, and 150 transports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every part of the Swedish coast into the greatest consternation. The heroism of Charles could not prevail against so many enemies; yet he was still so much dreaded, that the prince of Anhalt, with 12,000 brave troops, did not think himself a match for this furious enemy when at the head of only 2000, till he had intrenched his army behind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frise. It appeared indeed, that this precaution was not unnecessary; for in the night Charles with his men clambered up the ditch, and attacked the enemy in his usual manner. Numbers, however, at last prevailed, and Charles was obliged to retire, after having seen his favourite Grothusen, General Dardoff, and During, the companions of his exile, killed by his side, he himself being wounded in the breast.

This rash attempt was made in order to save Rugen, Stralsund whence the town of Stralsund was supplied with provisions. The place was well fortified, and garrisoned with 9000 men, with Charles himself at their head; but nothing could resist the efforts of the enemy. By the 17th of December it was proposed to give the assault. The attack on the horn-work was desperate; the enemy was twice repulsed; but at last, by dint of numbers, effected a lodgment. The next day, Charles headed a sally, in which he dealt terrible destruction among the besiegers, but was at length overpowered and obliged to retreat into the town. At last his officers, apprehending that he must either fall into the hands of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the place, entreated him to retire. A retreat, however, was now almost as dangerous as to remain in the town, on account of the fleets of the enemy with which the sea was covered; and it is thought that this very circumstance induced the king to consent to it. Embarking in a small boat with sails and oars, he passed all the enemy's ships and batteries, and arrived safe at Ystedt in Schonen.

To revenge himself for these losses, Charles invaded Norway with an army of 25,000 men. The Danes were everywhere defeated and pursued with that vigour for which the king of Sweden was so remarkable; but strong reinforcements arriving from Denmark, and provisions failing, he was at last obliged to retire. Soon after this the Swedes lost Wismar; but when everything seemed hopeless, Baron with the Goertz, the chief minister and favourite of Charles, contrived to make overtures for a treaty with the czar of Russia, by which the most formidable of all Charles's enemies was taken off. The minister found means to work on the inflexible temper of Charles, by representing to him that the cession of certain provinces to Peter would induce him to assist him in his projects of again dethroning Augustus, and of replacing James on the throne of Britain; which last scheme he had projected out of revenge for the elector of Hanover having seized on the duchies of Bremen and Verden. In consequence of the conferences between the czar and Goertz, the former engaged to send into Poland an army of 80,000 men, in order to dethrone that prince whom he had so long defended. He also engaged to furnish ships for transporting 30,000 Swedes to Germany, and 10,000 into Denmark. This treaty was not however ratified, and the death of Charles put a final stop to all the great prospects of Sweden.

The king had resolved on the conquest of Norway before he dethroned Augustus; and as no difficulties ever deterred him, he marched his army into that cold and barren country in the month of October, when the ground was covered with frost and snow. With 18,000 men he formed the siege of Fredericksshall, though the severity of the frost rendered it almost impossible to break ground. He resolved to form trenches; and his soldiers cheerfully obeyed, digging into the ground with the same labour as if they had been piercing a rock. On the 11th of December the king visited the trenches in the midst of a terrible fire from the enemy, imagining that his men might be animated by his presence. He took his post in the most dangerous station that he could select, standing on a gabion and leaning with his arm over the parapet, while the enemy were firing chain shot at the very spot where he stood. He was entreated to change his station, but he remained obstinate. At last he was seen to fall mortally wounded, but whether by the enemy or by an assassin has been much disputed, and will probably ever remain matter of doubt. He soon afterwards expired.

Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister the princess Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Hesse. On this occasion the states took care to make a previous stipulation for the preservation of their liberties, and obliged the princess, before entering on the government, to sign XII. to the document to this effect. Their first care was to make peace with Great Britain, which the late king intended to have invaded. In order to prevent their further losses by the progress of the Russian, the Danish, the Saxon, and other arms, the Swedes made many great sacrifices to obtain peace from these powers. The French, however, about the year 1738, formed a dangerous party in the kingdom, which not only broke its internal quiet, but led it into a ruinous war with Russia, by which it lost the province of Finland. Their Swedish majesties having no children, it was necessary to settle the succession; especially as the duke of Holstein was descended from the queen's eldest sister, and was, at the same time, the presumptive heir to the empire of Russia. Four competitors appeared; the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, nephew to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke of Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holstein would have carried the election, had he not embraced the Greek religion that he might mount the throne of Russia. The czarina interposed, and offered to restore all the conquests she had made from Sweden, excepting a small district in Finland, if the Swedes would receive the duke of Holstein's uncle, Adolphus Frederic, bishop of Lübeck, as their hereditary prince and the successor to the crown. This was agreed to; and a peace concluded at Abo, under the mediation of his Britannic majesty. The peace was so firmly maintained by the empress of Russia, that his Danish majesty thought proper to drop all resentment for the indignity offered his son. The prince-successor married the princess Ulrica, third sister to the king of Prussia; and in 1751 he entered into the possession of his new dignity, which proved to him a crown of thorns. The French had acquired great influence in all the deliberations of the Swedish senate, who of late had been little better than pensioners to that crown. The intrigues of the senators forced Adolphus to take part in the war against Prussia; but as that war was disagreeable, not only to the people, but also to the king of Sweden, the nation never made so mean an appearance; and on Russia's making peace with the king of Prussia, the Swedes followed the example. Adolphus died dispirited in 1771, after a turbulent reign of twenty years, and was succeeded by his son Gustavus.

The most remarkable transaction of this reign is the revolution which took place in the government in the year 1772, by which the king, from being the most limited, became one of the most despotic monarchs in Europe. Ever since the death of Charles XII. the whole power of the kingdom had been lodged in the states; and this power they had much abused. Gustavus therefore determined either to seize on that power of which they made such a bad use, or to perish in the revolution. The revolution was effected in the following manner. On the morning of the 19th of August 1772, a considerable number of officers, as well as other persons known to be attached to the royal cause, had been summoned to attend his majesty. Before ten he was on horseback, and visited the regiment of artillery. As he passed through the streets he was more than usually courteous to all he met, bowing familiarly to the lowest of the people. On the king's return to his palace, the detachment which was to mount guard that day being drawn up together with that which was to be relieved, his majesty retired with the officers into the guard-room. He then addressed them with all that eloquence of which he is said to have been a History master; and after insinuating to them that his life was in danger, he exposed to them in the strongest colours the wretched state of the kingdom, the shackles in which it was held by means of foreign gold, and the dissensions and troubles arising from the same cause which had distracted the diet during the course of fourteen months. He assured them that his only design was to put an end to these disorders, to banish corruption, restore true liberty, and revive the ancient lustre of the Swedish name, which had been long tarnished by a venality as notorious as it was disgraceful. Then assuring them in the strongest terms that he disclaimed for ever all absolute power, or what the Swedes call sovereignty, he concluded with these words: "I am obliged to defend my own liberty and that of the kingdom against the aristocracy, which reigns. Will you be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus? I will then risk my life for your welfare and that of my country." The officers, most of them young men, of whose attachment the king had been long secure, and who did not perhaps perceive the real tendency of his majesty's request, were allowed no time to reflect, immediately gave their assent, and took an oath of fidelity to him. Only three refused. One of these, Frederic Cederström, captain of a company of the guards, alleged he had already, and very lately, taken an oath to be faithful to the states, and consequently could not take that which his majesty then exacted. The king, looking at him sternly, answered, "Think of what you are doing." "I do," replied Cederström; "and what I think to-day I shall think to-morrow; and were I capable of breaking the oath by which I am already bound to the states, I should be likewise capable of breaking that which your majesty now requires me to take." The king having then ordered Cederström to deliver up his sword, placed him under arrest. His majesty, however, apprehensive of the impression which his proper and resolute conduct might make on the minds of the other officers, soon afterwards softened his tone; and again addressing himself to Cederström, told him, that as a proof of the opinion which he entertained of him, and the confidence which he placed in him, he would return him his sword without insisting on his taking the oath, and would only desire his attendance that day. The undaunted captain continued firm; he answered, that his majesty could place no confidence in him, and that he begged to be excused from the service.

While Gustavus was shut up with the officers, senator Ralling, to whom the command of the troops in the town had been given two days before, came to the door of the guard-room, and was told that he could not be admitted. The senator insisted on being present at the distribution of the orders, and sent to the king to desire it; but was answered, he must go to the senate, where his majesty would speak to him. The officers then received their orders from the king; the first of which was, that the two regiments of guards and of artillery should be immediately assembled, and that a detachment of thirty-six grenadiers should be posted at the door of the council-chamber to prevent any of the senators from coming out. But before the orders could be carried into execution, it was necessary that Gustavus should address himself to the soldiers; men wholly unacquainted with his designs, and accustomed to pay obedience only to the orders of the senate, whom they had been taught to hold in the highest reverence. As his majesty, followed by the officers, was advancing from the guard-room to the parade for this purpose, some of them, the more cautious, or perhaps more timid, than the rest, began, on a short reflection, apprehensive of the consequences of the measure in which they were engaged: they began to express their fears to the king, that unless some person of greater weight and influence than themselves... were to take a part in the same cause, he could scarcely hope to succeed in his enterprise. The king stopped a while, and appeared to hesitate. A sergeant of the guards overheard their discourse, and cried aloud, "It shall succeed. Long live Gustavus!" His majesty immediately said, "Then I will venture;" and stepping forward to the soldiers, he addressed them in terms nearly similar to those which he had employed to the officers, and with the same success. They answered him with loud acclamations. One voice only said, No; but it excited no attention.

In the mean time some of the king's emissaries had spread a report about the town that his majesty was arrested. This drew the populace to the palace in great numbers, where they arrived as he had concluded his harangue to the guards. They testified by reiterated shouts their joy at seeing him safe; a joy which promised the happiest conclusion to the business of the day. The senators were now immediately secured. They had from the window of the council-chamber beheld what was going forward on the parade before the palace; and, at a loss to know the meaning of the shouts which they heard, were coming down to inquire into the cause of them, when thirty grenadiers, with their bayonets fixed, informed them it was his majesty's pleasure they should continue where they were. They began to speak in a high tone, but were only answered by having the door shut and locked upon them. The moment the secret committee heard that the senate was arrested, they separated of themselves, each individual providing for his own safety. The king then mounting his horse, followed by his officers with their swords drawn, a large body of soldiers, and numbers of the populace, went to the other quarters of the town where the soldiers whom he had ordered to be assembled were posted. He found them all equally willing to support his cause, and to take to him an oath of fidelity. As he passed through the streets, he declared to the people, that he only meant to defend them, and save his country; and that if they would not confide in him, he would lay down his sceptre, and surrender up his kingdom. So much was the king beloved, that some of the people even fell on their knees, and many more, with tears in their eyes, implored his majesty not to abandon them.

The king proceeded in his course, and in less than an hour made himself master of all the military force in Stockholm. In the mean time the heralds, by proclamation in the several quarters of the city, summoned an assembly of the states for the ensuing morning, and declared all members traitors to their country who should not appear. Thither his majesty repaired in all the pomp of royalty, surrounded by his guards, and holding in his hand the silver sceptre of Gustavus Adolphus. In a very forcible speech, he lamented the unhappy state to which the country was reduced by the conduct of a party ready to sacrifice everything to its ambition, and reproached the states with adapting their actions to the views of foreign courts, from which they received the wages of perfidy. "If any one dare contradict this, let him rise and speak." Conviction, or fear, kept the assembly silent, and the secretary read the new form of government, which the king submitted to the approbation of the states. It consisted of fifty-seven articles; of which the five following were the chief: 1. The king has the entire power of convoking and dissolving the assembly of the states as often as he thinks proper. 2. His majesty alone has the command of the army, fleet, and finances, and the disposal of all offices civil and military. 3. In case of an invasion, or of any pressing necessity, the king may impose taxes, without waiting for the assembly of the states. 4. The diet can deliberate on no other subjects than those proposed by the king. 5. The king shall not carry on an offensive war without the consent of the states. When all the articles were recited, the king demanded if the states approved of them, and was answered by a general acclamation. He then dismissed all the senators from their employments, adding, that in a few days he would appoint others; and concluded this extraordinary scene by drawing out of his pocket a small psalm-book, from which, after taking off the crown, he gave out Te Deum. All the members very devoutly added their voices to his, and the hall resounded with thanksgiving.

The power which he had thus obtained, he employed for the good of his subjects. He took care that the law should be administered with impartiality to the richest noble and poorest peasant, making a severe example of such judges as were proved to have made justice venal. He gave particular attention and encouragement to commerce; and being himself a man of letters, was a liberal and enlightened patron of literature and science. He strenuously laboured to introduce into his kingdom the most valuable improvements in agriculture that had been made in foreign countries.

But while thus active in promoting the arts of peace, he was not inactive in the art of war. The fleet, which he found decayed and feeble, he in a few years restored to a respectable footing; and, besides changing the regulations of the navy, he raised a new corps of sailors, and formed them to the service by continual exercise. The army, which, like the navy, had been neglected during the aristocracy, was next to be reformed. The king began by giving cloaks, tents, and new arms to all the regiments. Afterwards, under the direction of Field-marshal Count de Hessenstein, a new exercise was introduced, and several camps were formed, in which the soldiers were manoeuvred by the king himself. The sale of military offices, which had been permitted for many years, was entirely suppressed; and the king provided not only for the re-establishment of discipline and good order in the army, but for the future welfare of the individuals who composed it. These warlike preparations were necessary to a plan which he had formed for entirely abolishing the power of the aristocracy, and freeing Sweden from the factions which had long been formed in it by the court of St Petersburg. The change which he had introduced was very inimical to the intrigues of that court; and the Russian ambassador exerted himself openly to bring about a rupture between the king and the discontented nobles. Gustavus ordered him to quit the kingdom in eight days, and immediately prepared for war with Russia. To this apparently rash enterprise he was invited by the Ottoman Porte, at that time unable to oppose the armies of the two empires; and his own ambition, together with the internal state of his kingdom, powerfully concurred to make him lend every assistance to his ancient ally. It is needless for us to enter into a detail of the particulars of that war, the principal circumstances of which have already been noticed under Russia. Suffice it to say, that neither Gustavus Adolphus nor Charles XII. gave greater proofs of undaunted courage and military conduct in their long and bloody wars than were given by Gustavus III. from the end of the year 1787 to 1790, when peace was restored between the courts of St Petersburg and Stockholm. When the court of Copenhagen was compelled, by the means of England and Prussia, to withdraw its troops from the territories of Sweden, the king attacked Russia with such vigour both by sea and land, displayed such address in retrieving his affairs when apparently reduced to the last extremity, and renewed his attacks with such pertinacious courage, that the empress lowered the haughtiness of her tone, and was glad to treat with Gustavus as an equal and independent sovereign.

Sweden now enjoyed peace; but the nobles continued discontented, and a conspiracy was planned against Gustavus under his own roof. He had entered into the alliance that was formed against the revolutionary government of France; and in order to raise an army, which he was to History. lead in person, to co-operate with the emperor and the king of Prussia, he was obliged to negotiate large loans, and to impose on his subjects heavy taxes. The nobles took advantage of that circumstance to prejudice the minds of many of the people against the sovereign who had laboured so long for their good. On the 16th of March 1792 he received an anonymous letter, warning him of his immediate danger from a plot that was laid to take away his life; requesting him to remain at home, and avoid balls for a year; and assuring him that, if he should go to the masquerade for which he was preparing, he would be assassinated that very night. The king read the note with contempt, and at a late hour entered the ball-room. After some time, he sat down in a box with Count d'Essen, and observed that he was not deceived in his contempt for the letter, since, had there been any design against his life, no time could be more favourable than that moment. He then mingled, without apprehension, among the crowd; and just as he was preparing to retire in company with the Prussian ambassador, he was surrounded by several persons in masks, one of whom fired a pistol at the back of the king, and lodged the contents in his body. A scene of dreadful confusion immediately ensued. The conspirators, amidst the general tumult and alarm, had time to retire to other parts of the room; but one of them had previously dropped his pistols and a dagger close by the wounded king. A general order was given to all the company to unmask, and the doors were immediately closed; but no person appeared with any particular distinguishing marks of guilt. The king was immediately conveyed to his apartment; and the surgeon, after extracting a ball and some slugs, gave favourable hopes of his recovery. But the prognostication of his medical attendants soon appeared to be fallacious, and on the 28th of March a mortification was found to have taken place. He expired on the following day; and on opening his body there were found within the ribs a square piece of lead and two rusty nails.

The king had by his will appointed a council of regency; but convinced by recent experience how little dependence was to be placed on the attachment of his nobles, and aware of the necessity of a vigorous government in times of such difficulty and danger, he appointed his brother, the duke of Sodermania, sole regent, till his son, then a minor, should attain the age of eighteen years. In his dying moments he desired that all the conspirators, except the perpetrator of his murder, might be pardoned.

The young king, who was about fourteen at his father's death, was proclaimed by the name of Gustavus IV. The regent soon took the most vigorous and active measures to apprehend and punish the projectors and perpetrators of the murder of his brother. A nobleman of the name of Ankarström confessed himself the assassin, and gloried in the action, which he called liberating his country from a monster and a tyrant. He was executed in a most cruel manner on the 17th of May. Other two noblemen, and two officers, also suffered death; but the rest of the conspirators were either pardoned, or punished only by fine and imprisonment.

From the accession of Gustavus IV. till the revolution which has been recently effected in Sweden, few transactions of any importance have occurred. Soon after the king had assumed the administration of affairs, he engaged warmly in the war against France, and till the time of his deposition continued a most faithful ally of Britain. The efforts of the Swedish monarch towards humbling the power of Bonaparte have been already noticed under the articles BRITAIN and FRANCE; and the war with Russia, in which his alliance with Britain had involved him, has been sufficiently touched in the article RUSSIA. This prince seems to have been endowed with amiable qualities; but he was certainly rash and imprudent, and perhaps in some degree tinctured with insanity. He thus materially injured his kingdom, and alienated the affections of his principal nobles, especially of his uncle the duke of Sodermania.

In the beginning of March 1809, the plan which appears to have been concerted between the duke of Sodermania in favour of and the principal nobility was carried into effect. The king was arrested; the duke assumed the reins of government, and issued a proclamation, announcing that, under existing circumstances, the king was incapable of conducting the affairs of the nation. Gustavus, now in close custody, was easily prevailed upon to abdicate the government. The diet was assembled; the duke of Sodermania was declared king of Sweden, under the title of Charles XIII.; Prince Augustenburg was chosen crown prince; and various changes were introduced into the constitution, confirming the powers of the diet, and removing what the prevailing party held to be encroachments of the crown during the late and preceding reigns. The people, wearied or disgusted by the late king's folly and rashness, readily acquiesced in all the alterations. Peace was then made with Russia; a measure which had become absolutely necessary, as the military force of the kingdom was completely broken, and no means were left for checking the progress of the enemy. By this peace Sweden lost Finland, a country of peculiar importance to her, on account of the supplies of grain which she was accustomed to draw from it; but in the treaty she reserved the right of yearly importing a certain quantity of grain, duty free. Swedish Finland, with Lapmark, now annexed to Russia, was estimated to contain about 120,000 square English miles, with 895,000 inhabitants. On the 6th of January 1810, peace was also concluded with France, which restored Pomerania.

Sweden was now enjoying tranquillity, when the sudden and unexpected death of the crown prince Augustenburg, in April 1810, became a new source of perplexity. The duke of Sodermania was old and in a feeble state of health; and as there was no person within the kingdom who had any title by blood to the throne, it was necessary, for the security of the new order of things, to choose a successor. The threatening position which the acquisition of Finland gave to Russia induced the noblemen who in concert with the court took a lead in this business, to look for some man of military talents. It happened that Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, who had lately commanded in the north of Germany, had, by his liberal and kind treatment, gained the peculiar esteem of the Swedish officers and soldiers whom he had made prisoners in Gustavus's ill-concerted operations in Pomerania. He was besides highly respected for his military skill; and had been still further raised in general estimation, in consequence of Napoleon having removed him from his command for his lenity and humanity in the exercise of his power. Some of the Swedish officers, to whom his character was known, first conceived the idea of offering him the succession to the crown. The scheme was for some time kept as secret as possible; but it received so much countenance from the most considerable men, that it was at length opened to Bernadotte himself at Paris. He received it as might be expected, and his friends redoubled their intrigues. The prince of Denmark had been proposed, but the ancient enmity against that country was an invincible obstacle to his success. At length, when every thing was prepared, the diet was called, and Bernadotte was with acclamation elected crown prince by all the four orders, on the 21st of July. Of all the changes in the fortune and station of individuals which arose out of the French revolution, this is perhaps the most singular. Bonaparte seized the royal power and dignity for himself; and by force of arms he compelled some of the weaker states to accept his relations and followers as kings. But it does not appear that he was ever consulted as to Bernadotte's elevation, or had the smallest influence in it, except that the example given in his own person and that of his followers had contributed to destroy some of the old illusions as to birth and hereditary honours, and had prepared men's minds for great innovations. It was thus that a Frenchman who began his career as a common soldier, was raised to the Swedish throne by the spontaneous choice of a body of nobles, proud of their birth and ancestry.

The appearance of Bernadotte in the Swedish capital was followed by numerous feasts and spectacles. He received congratulations from all the public bodies; and though not immediately called to the throne, was, from the king's infirmities, intrusted with the entire conduct of the government. One of his first acts was to recommend to the diet the introduction of a conscription law like that of France, a measure which certainly hazarded his popularity. It was however adopted; and on this occasion he prevailed with the nobles to make a voluntary surrender of their ancient privilege of exemption from military service, as well as from taxation. Pressed by France and Russia, Sweden, in November 1810, professed her adherence to the continental system, and declared war against Britain. The war however was only nominal, and the British cruisers returned, in most cases, their captures untouched. This state of things continued till Bonaparte was preparing for his great Russian campaign, when the Swedish government, solicited by both parties, and tempted by great offers, at length signed treaties of alliance with Russia and Britain in 1812 and 1813. By these treaties, the two powers mentioned engaged to assist the king in conquering Norway from Denmark. The French, for the purpose of intimidation, had previously seized Pomerania. Bernadotte carried over an army of 30,000 Swedes to Germany in 1813; and being joined by several large bodies of Prussian and German troops, he was encountered by Marshal Ney between Berlin and Leipzig on the 6th September, and, after an obstinate engagement, drove back the French army with the loss of 16,000 men. In the battle of Leipzig, fought on the 18th October, he likewise bore a conspicuous share. After the victory, he continued to act against Marshal Davout's corps, and against the Danes, till he reduced the latter to the necessity of capitulating. He lost no time in improving this advantage; and by a treaty concluded at Kiel on the 14th January 1814, compelled Denmark to cede Norway, on surrendering to her the possession of Pomerania, and thus securing a great advantage by the exchange of territory. He now advanced to the Rhine; but, satisfied with reducing Napoleon's power, and, from views of interest, most probably adverse to ruining him, he was thought to be rather dilatory in improving his advantages. The success of the allies at length left him at liberty to secure Norway, the prize for which he had fought. As the Norwegians announced their intention of resisting, he crossed the frontier with an army in July, and, by judicious manoeuvres, which placed the Norwegian force in his power, he obliged them to capitulate, and obtained possession of the country almost without bloodshed; Norway preserving its ancient constitution, and having states of its own. On the death of Charles XIII. in 1818, Bernadotte ascended the throne as Charles XIV., and was crowned at Stockholm and Drontheim. The subsequent history of Sweden presents few points of special interest. It has been characterized by a rapid and steady advance in prosperity, as will be seen from our account of the present state of the country. Bernadotte and his successors have devoted themselves to the establishment of peace and order among the people, and to the development of the industrial resources of the country, and their labours have been crowned with success. Commerce and the arts and manufactures have made rapid progress, and a very marked change has taken place in the moral and social condition of the people. Charles XIV. died in 1844, in the eightieth year of his age, and was succeeded by his son Oscar I. The present monarch, Charles XV., succeeded his father Oscar in 1859.

Kings and Queens of Sweden.

| A.D. | Kings and Queens | |------|-----------------| | 1129 | Sweerker I. | | 1155 | Eric X. | | 1162 | Charles VII. | | 1168 | Canute. | | 1192 | Sweerker II. | | 1210 | Eric XI. | | 1220 | John I. | | 1223 | Eric XII. | | 1251 | Waldemar. | | 1279 | Magnus IX. | | 1290 | Berge II. | | 1320 | Magnus II. | | 1335 | Albert. | | 1369 | Margaret. | | 1410 | Eric XIII. | | 1442 | Christopher III. | | 1448 | Charles VIII. | | 1483 | John II. | | 1520 | Christiern II. | | 1523 | Gustavus Vasa. | | 1560 | Eric XIV. | | 1568 | John III. | | 1590 | Sigismund. | | 1604 | Charles IX. | | 1611 | Gustavus Adolphus | | 1630 | John. | | 1633 | Christina. | | 1654 | Charles X. | | 1660 | Charles XI. | | 1697 | Charles XII. | | 1719 | Ulrica Eleonora | | 1751 | Adolphus Frederick (of Hesse). | | 1771 | Gustavus III. | | 1799 | Gustavus IV. | | 1809 | Charles XIII. | | 1818 | Charles XIV. | | 1844 | Oscar. | | 1859 | Charles XV. |

STATISTICS.

Sweden occupies the eastern and larger portion of that part of Northern Europe known as the Scandinavian peninsula. It is bounded on the N.E. by Russia, from which it is separated by the rivers Tornia, Muona, and Kongoäma; on the N.W. and W. by Norway, the range of mountains and tablelands, which form the watershed of the peninsula, being, for the most part, the boundary between the two countries; on the S.W. by the Cattegat and Sound, separating it from Denmark, the former from Jutland, the latter from the Island of Zealand; on the S.E. by the Baltic; and on the E. by the Gulf of Bothnia. Sweden is thus chiefly bounded by water, and has a coast-line, exclusive of indentations, of more than 1400 miles. Its coasts are indented with numerous bays and inlets, and skirted by an immense number of islands. They are generally of moderate elevation and rocky; but they are sometimes low and sandy, particularly in the north. Connected with the coast of Sweden, it is deserving of notice, that in many parts a gradual elevation of the land has been observed to be taking place. This was remarked by Celsius so early as the beginning of the last century, and attributed by him to a gradual subsiding of the waters of the Baltic. Von Buch, during his travels in Scandinavia, in the early part of the present century, found at several points on the Norwegian coast, above the sea level, marine shells of species still existing in the neighbouring sea; and from this, and information obtained from the inhabitants, he was led to believe that Celsius was correct in averring, that a gradual change was taking place in the relative level of the land and water; but he concluded that it was occasioned by the rising of the land, and not by the subsiding of the waters. This view has since been confirmed by Sir Charles Lyell, who, in 1834, found the marks made on the rocks at water-level, fourteen years before under the direction of the Royal Academy of Sweden, to be then in some parts four or five inches above it. The rise has taken place principally in the north; at Stockholm, it was very slight; and in the south of Scania it was imperceptible.

Sweden is about 900 miles in length from north to south, surface, and is in general from 150 to 200 miles in breadth; lying between 55. 20., and 69. 10. N. Lat.; and 11. 15. and 24. E. Long. As compared with Norway, its surface is tame and uninteresting. In general, it rises gradually from the sea to the highlands on the borders of Norway. In the north, where these highlands are most elevated, the slopes are usually steep and irregular; in the central region, they form extensive plateaux; while in the south, where the highlands are of slight elevation, or altogether cease, the country is mostly flat, with here and there low ranges of hills. In the north, the surface is diversified with mountains, glens, and deep valleys, whereas, in the south, it con- Sweden is extremely well-watered by numerous rivers and lakes. From the nature of the country, however, the rivers are generally of small size, and not suited for navigation. The longest are in the north, rising in the Kjolen Mountains, flowing generally from north-west to south-east, and falling into the Gulf of Bothnia. The principal of these, beginning with the most northern, are the Tornæa, Calix, Lulea, Pitea, Skelleftea, Windel, Umea, Angerman, Indals, Ljusne, and Dal. None of these much exceed 300 miles in length, and with the exception of the Angerman are not navigable for any distance from their mouths. Several of them traverse, or have their sources in considerable lakes; and form in their course beautiful falls and cataracts. Few of the rivers of Southern Sweden are of any considerable size, and notwithstanding the generally flat nature of the country through which they flow, they are little suited for navigation, being impeded by rocks and rapids, and subject to frequent inundations. There are numerous mineral springs in the country, and some of the watering-places, as Medewi, Ramkisa, Loka, &c., are much frequented.

The lakes of Sweden are very numerous, and some of them are of great size. The Wener, which, after the Ladoga and Onega, is the largest lake in Europe, has a length of about 90 miles, and a breadth, where widest, of about 56. The Wetter is 82 miles in length by 16 in extreme breadth. The Milar Lake extends westward from Stockholm, and is nearly 70 miles in length by 2 to 20 in breadth. The Heilmar Lake, which lies to the S.W. of Lake Milar, with which it is connected by a canal, is 35 miles in length by 15 in extreme width. In the north, the lakes are usually long and narrow, some of them being 40 or 50 miles long by 4 or 5 wide.

The geological structure of Sweden is very simple, and the formations few. Granite and gneiss are the prevailing rocks, especially the former, gneiss being less common here than in Norway. It is, however, very rich in mineral products, the most important of which are iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, lead, antimony, gold, silver, alum, nitre, and sulphur. Iron and copper, the two most important of these, will be afterwards more particularly noticed in treating of the mines of the country. Porphyry, marble, alabaster, limestone, millstone, potter's earth, &c., are also found. Coal has been found in the south near Helsingborg, but only to a small extent, and of very inferior quality.

The climate of Sweden, from the great extent of the country, of course, varies considerably; but it is upon the whole much milder than might be expected from its high latitude. As compared with Norway, its mean annual temperature is about 2° less; but, being protected on all sides from the extreme cold of the arctic regions, its winters are 5° warmer, while its summers are 1° colder. Thus, at Stockholm, the mean annual temperature is 42°; winter, 25°; summer, 62°. The atmosphere is remarkably dry and clear, and is in this respect a striking contrast to that of Norway; the fall of rain at Stockholm being only 17½ inches per annum. At Stockholm, the longest day is 18½ hours; the shortest nearly 6 hours in length. In the north, the whole surface of the country is covered with snow and ice for five or six months in the year; in the central parts, winter seldom lasts more than three or four months; and, in the south, the climate is very similar to that of northern Germany. In the north, about N. Lat. 71°, the limit of perpetual snow is 2300 feet above the level of the sea; at N. Lat. 64°, it is 4650 feet; at N. Lat. 62°, 5100 feet; and at N. Lat. 60°, 5600 feet. The transition from winter to summer is usually rapid, especially in the north, where it often takes place within the space of a few days.

The forests of Sweden are extensive, covering about two-sevenths of its entire area. The varieties of timber, however, are few. In the north the pine, birch, and fir are the principal trees; in the central parts, the ash, alder, willow, beech, elm, and lime are met with. In the plain of Scania, the mulberry, chestnut, pear, apple, and walnut trees flourish. Till lately the forests of Sweden were very much neglected, but now more attention is bestowed upon them, and timber constitutes one of the most important articles of export. They likewise furnish almost the sole article of fuel used in the country.

Agriculture, though little favoured by either soil or climate, has lately been making rapid advances. The improvements, however, are as yet chiefly confined to gentlemen possessed of large estates; the peasant farmers still mostly adhere to the old system. In consequence of the uncertainty of the climate, there are on an average of seven years only three years of good crops, three of indifferent crops, and one of entire failure. In the north scarcely one crop out of three succeeds. It is estimated that only 1/6th part of the entire area of the country is arable. The most fertile tracts lie north of Lake Wener, between Lake Wetter and the Baltic, and in the plain of Scania. In consequence of the improved state of agriculture, and of the increased growth of the potatoe, not only is the annual produce of grain equal to the consumption, but generally there is a considerable surplus for exportation. In 1858 the quantity of grain exported (principally oats and barley) was 5,467,000 imperial quarters. In 1822 the quantity of grain produced was 5,867,570 tons; in 1847, 8,398,451; in 1850, 8,791,950; and, in 1858, about 11,000,000 tons. Of potatoes, the quantity produced in 1822 was 2,374,205 tons; in 1847, 5,328,503; in 1850, 4,890,311; and, in 1858, about 7,000,000 tons. The principal crops are rye, barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, peas, hemp, flax, &c. In the north, in consequence of the short summer, almost the only grain crop raised is barley, which is sown and reaped in seven or eight weeks. It is grown as far north as 69°. Rye cannot be grown with advantage north of 66°, and oats do not ripen north of 64°. Wheat does not, in general, succeed north of 62°. The cultivation of the potatoe is very general in all parts of the country, and in the north this root supplies the deficiency of corn. From the poverty of the soil, and the short duration of the summer, agricultural operations, especially during harvest, require the labour of a great number of persons, for whom, during the long winter, there is little or no employment. This must ever form a great obstacle to agricultural improvement, especially in the northern districts.

The length of the winter is also unfavourable to the keeping of cattle, for though there are considerable tracts of good meadows, yet, as the cattle require to be housed from four to six, or seven months in the year, their number is very limited. The horses and horned cattle are small; but the former are active and spirited, and the latter afford excellent milk and beef. The sheep are generally of an inferior kind, but great pains have been taken to improve them by crosses with the French, English, and Spanish breeds. Towards N. lat. 63°, sheep disappear, and are superseded by goats, which are most numerous in the woodland districts of Dalarne and Nordland. In Lapland the reindeer and dog are the only domestic animals. In 1850 the number of horses in the country was 384,464; of horned cattle, 1,807,909; sheep and goats, 1,725,274; and pigs, 556,288. In 1822 the numbers respectively were—horses, 378,353; horned cattle, 1,484,984; sheep and goats, 1,477,709; pigs, 471,814: showing, in horses, an increase in 28 years of only 2 per cent., in horned cattle 22 per cent.; sheep and goats scarcely 17, and in pigs about 18 per cent, while the population had increased during that period 32 per cent. In 1855 there were 1,921,568 horned cattle, and 1,792,070 sheep in the country. Wild animals are numerous, especially in the northern parts. Among the more common of these may be mentioned the wolf, bear, fox, lynx, glutton, elk, deer, hares, &c. Among wild birds are eagles, falcons, capercalizes, woodcocks, partridges. Both the sea and the fresh waters swarm with fish, which afford employment and subsistence to many of the inhabitants. The fresh waters contain perch, pike, salmon, trout, grayling, char, roach, bleak, &c.; but of these the salmon is the most important, and is caught abundantly in almost all the rivers and lakes. The sea-fish include the sturgeon, cod, lamprey, ray, sole, turbot, pilchard, herring, and the stromming, a small species of herring.

Next to agriculture, the mines of Sweden are the chief source of her wealth. Iron exists in great abundance, and is esteemed the best in the world. The mountain Gellivara in Lapland, 1800 feet in height, is one mass of the richest iron ore; but its situation, beyond the arctic circle (in lat. 67° 20' N.), far from the sea, and in an unpeopled region, deprives it of value. Iron ore, however, is found in almost every district of Sweden. The largest quantities of iron are produced in Carlstad, Orebro, Gefle, Falun, and Westerås; but the best iron is obtained from the mines of Dannemora, in the län of Upsala. The quantity of iron ore raised, during the five years ending 1854, averaged about 300,000 tons annually; the quantity of pig-iron manufactured was nearly 140,000 tons; and of bar-iron about 100,000 tons. The quantity of bar-iron exported in 1858 was 59,449 tons, and of wrought-iron 2405 tons. This was, however, an unfavourable year, for in 1857 the quantity of bar-iron exported was 85,556 tons; and, in 1856, 83,281 tons. Next to iron, copper forms the most important of the mineral products of Sweden. The most important copper mines are those of Falun in Dalarna; but mines are also worked at Otvidalberg in Linköping-län, Areskuta in Jemtland, Hakano in Nerike, Bastras in Westerås-län, and other places. The amount of copper obtained in 1855 was 1671 tons. Gold is found at Falun, and a few other places, but the quantity is too small to pay the expense of working. The principal silver mine is at Sala in Westerås, and the produce of that metal, in 1850, was over 405,000 oz. Of lead about 130 tons were produced, and of nickel 320 tons.

Manufacturing industry has of late years been making great progress in Sweden. The manufactures of cotton, woollen, linen, and silk stuffs, sailcloth, cutlery, and hardware, paper, glass, earthenware, are all actively carried on. At Motala is a large establishment for the manufacture of steam-engines, iron steamers, &c., employing about 800 men, besides a branch establishment at Norrköping, where 400 more are employed. A very large paper-mill has also recently been established at Motala. Near Hudiksvall extensive saw-mills have recently been erected by an English company at a cost of upwards of L52,000. The best native cutlery is produced at Eskilstuna, but it is much inferior to the British manufacture. Ship and boat-building is carried on to some extent at most of the ports. The distillation of brandy has of late much decreased, in consequence of a rise in the rate of duty, and other restrictions. In 1835 there were no fewer than 85,172 small, and 670 large distilleries; whereas, in 1855, there were only 3456 small, and 397 large; and, in 1858, 2477 small, and 326 large distilleries. The quantity of spirits produced in 1858 was 5,031,958 gallons, 3,442,749 gallons of which were made in the large distilleries. The amount of revenue derived from the distilleries in 1858 was L293,530. Little or none of the brandy distilled in Sweden is exported, being almost entirely consumed at home. Domestic manufactures are largely carried on, for which the long winter nights are very favourable. The peasantry make not only their own clothes, but likewise their own furniture and agricultural implements. The following table gives the number of the several kinds of manufactories, the number of workmen employed therein, and the value produced thereat in 1851:

| Manufactories | Number | Workmen | Value | |---------------|--------|---------|-------| | Cotton and linen | 31 | 1,023 | L55,463 | | Cloth | 156 | 4,377 | 470,369 | | Silk | 17 | 805 | 75,805 | | Ribbon | 11 | 101 | 4,023 | | Yarn, linen, and cotton (by machine) | 14 | 2,175 | 273,291 | | Sailcloth | 12 | 1,148 | 31,191 | | Stockings and socks | 18 | 372 | 11,332 | | Sugar | 21 | 679 | 391,988 | | Tobacco | 79 | 1,277 | 134,816 | | Paper | 91 | 1,299 | 76,839 | | Leather | 519 | 1,686 | 109,721 | | Dyeing | 444 | 1,639 | 54,386 | | Calico printing | 20 | 138 | 7,370 | | Glass | 17 | 909 | 60,376 | | Porcelain | 2 | 650 | 33,703 | | Stone and earthenware | 49 | 332 | 9,801 | | Oil mills | 65 | 208 | 65,841 | | Porter breweries | 1 | 71 | 16,290 | | Wax candles | 2 | 6 | 846 | | Stearine candles | 2 | 57 | 5,280 | | Soap | 12 | 45 | 12,040 | | Rope | 23 | 175 | 6,904 | | Clocks and watches | 137 | 313 | 2,915 | | Playing cards | 11 | 86 | 2,994 | | Paper hangings | 14 | 128 | 5,668 | | Chemical manufacturers of colours and acids | 20 | 63 | 4,050 | | Carriages | 19 | 127 | 6,676 | | Chemical tinder-boxes | 7 | 311 | 5,737 | | Mechanics workshops | 23 | 857 | 33,313 | | Linen yarn spinners | 1 | 118 | 9,244 | | Various smaller works | 699 | 2,073 | 58,222 |

Total | 2,537 | 23,248 | L2,025,467

In 1854 there were 2413 manufactories employing 25,062 persons, and producing goods to the value of L2,121,525. The amount of taxes paid by manufacturers on account of their businesses was L3893.

The trade of Sweden is only now beginning to develop itself, having been kept back by the unwise restrictions imposed upon it by the government. These having now, in some measure, been relaxed, commerce is beginning to progress. In 1842 the total value of the imports was L1,438,150; of the exports, L1,620,802; in 1849, imports, L2,126,750; exports, L2,195,800; in 1852, imports, L2,420,750; exports, L2,304,833; in 1854, imports, L4,369,750; exports, L4,400,000; in 1856, imports, L5,880,250; exports, L5,135,160; and, in 1857 (an unfavourable year) imports, L4,738,333; exports, L4,357,417.

At the close of the year 1854, the total number of sailing vessels amounted to 2783, of 235,296 tons burden, being a decrease of 42 vessels upon the previous year, but an increase of tonnage to the amount of 6044 tons. During the same year 44 foreign built vessels, of 10,548 tons, were naturalized in Sweden. At the close of 1857 the number of merchant vessels belonging to Sweden was 8190, with 295,410 tons. "I may here mention," says the British consul, in his report on the trade of Sweden during the year 1855, "the very great increase that has taken place in the carrying trade of Sweden since the alteration in the navigation laws in 1849. The number of Swedish vessels employed to carry freight from foreign countries to England was 28, tonnage 4176; whereas, in 1854, that number had increased to 212 vessels, with a tonnage of 42,198 (in 1858 the number was 351 vessels, with 77,698). I would at the same time remark, that in consequence of the superior education of the masters and mates of Swedish mercantile vessels, the subordination and steadiness of their crews, combined with great care in loading and unloading their cargoes, they and the Norwegians have become the favourite carriers with merchants of all nations. This pre- The trade of Sweden with the United Kingdom has within the last few years been rapidly increasing. The following remarks from the report already quoted bear upon the year 1854—"The value of the import trade, which in 1845 amounted to L200,916 and in 1850 increased to L277,666, has since risen without interruption. No preceding year however shows so important an increase as that of 1854, when the value of the imports, which in 1853 amounted to L472,750, rose to L772,000, in consequence of the increased importation of almost every article. The most remarkable increase is to be observed in the importation of cotton yarn, which more than doubled that of any preceding year. The importation of coal has increased by nearly three hundred per cent. during the last ten years, and the importation of raw cotton from Great Britain, which in the year 1850 amounted to 1,649,160 lbs., had risen in 1854 to 6,675,915 lbs. The value of the exports to Great Britain, which in 1853 amounted to L1,182,166 (exclusive of the silver coin which was sent to England in that year), rose in 1854 to L1,924,416, or nearly as much as the whole exports of Sweden in the year 1845. This important increase is chiefly attributable to the unusually great exportation of grain, which amounted to 244,040 quarters, or 131,495 more than the exportation of the preceding year, as well as to the high prices obtained for grain. The export of timber and tar was also much greater in 1854 than in any former year." The following tables give the value of the principal articles of commerce between Sweden and the United Kingdom:

### Exports

| Articles | Computed real value | |----------|---------------------| | Iron, unwrought, in bars | L528,133 | | Bloom | L3,100 | | Steel, unwrought | L7,116 | | Timber, not sawn or split | L352,078 | | Deals, boards, battens, &c. | L1,043,954 | | Lath and firewood | L33,629 | | Tar | L141,079 | | Corn, wheat | L131,511 | | Barley | L22,930 | | Oats | L416,633 | | Other kinds | L39,408 | | Bones | L2,282 | | Oil seed-cake | L20,220 | | All other articles | L42,098 |

Total: L2,825,171

### Imports

| Produce and Manufactures of the United Kingdom | Declared real value | |------------------------------------------------|--------------------| | Apparel | L4,728 | | Coal, cinders, and calm | L48,447 | | Copper | L6,468 | | Cotton goods | L26,758 | | Yarn | L146,202 | | Hardware and cutlery | L14,117 | | Iron, wrought and unwrought, including unwrought steel | L88,909 | | Machinery | L83,888 | | Tin and tin plates | L5,709 | | Woollen goods | L63,347 | | Yarn | L1,437 | | All other articles | L55,314 |

Total: L545,384 The internal commerce of Sweden is very considerable, and enjoys several advantages. The roads throughout the country are generally good, and for four or five months in the year the whole country is covered with snow, which renders the conveyance of goods by sledges easy and expeditions. The great extent of sea-coast also affords great facilities for internal trade as there are few provinces that are not washed by the sea. The most important canal of Sweden is the Gothia canal which connects the Cattgat and Baltic, and was completed in 1832. It traverses Lakes Wener and Wetter, and has a total length of 260 miles. Another canal connects the river Arboga, which flows into Lake Malar, with Lake Hielmar. The Söderelge Canal connects Lake Malar with the Baltic, while the Strömsholms canal unites it with the mineral region of Dalecarlia, terminating in Lake Barken. On this lake is situated the town of Smedjebacken, which is almost entirely composed of forges and ironworks. The first railway constructed in Sweden—that between Nora and Orebro, 23 miles in length—was opened on 5th March 1856, and since that time several others have been opened or are in course of construction. A branch line from Dylta, on the Orochro-Nora line, 12 miles long, connects these towns with Arboga, and a short line connects the two towns of Malmö and Lund. A line between Stockholm and Gottenburg is in course of formation, and is open for traffic from Gottenburg to Toreboda, a distance of about 113 miles. The railway between Gefle and Falun is nearly completed, and is open for traffic for two-thirds of its length.

The inhabitants of Sweden are Swedes, Fins, and Laplanders. The Swedes are a branch of the same family as the Danes and Norwegians, and speak a dialect of the same language, considerably modified, however, in consequence of the long political separation and international enmity of the two nations. Books are translated from the one language to the other, but the language of the peasantry in Norway and Sweden does not differ more than broad Scotch and Cockney English. The roots of the words, construction and idioms, are the same in both, or have a common origin. The Fins are supposed to have at one time occupied the whole country, and to have been driven to the forests and fastnesses of the North by an irruption of Goths some centuries before our era. They are now few in number, and are to be found as colonists, here and there, in some of the northern provinces. The Laps also inhabit the north, but they are said not to amount to more than 4000.

In 1751, the population of Sweden amounted to 1,785,727; in 1800, it was 2,347,303; in 1830, 2,888,032; and in 1850, 3,482,941. Sweden is divided into three large districts, viz., Norrland in the north, Swealand or Sweden Proper in the centre, and Götaland or Gothland in the south; and into 24 lans or provinces, which with their areas and populations at the end of 1850 and 1855 were as follows:

| Foreign and Colonial Produce and Manufactures | Computed real value | |-----------------------------------------------|---------------------| | | 1850 | 1855 | 1857 | 1858 | | Coffee | 574 | 1,717| 83 | 23,723| | Cotton, raw | 137,641| 54,155| 49,221| 117,983| | Guano | 99,111| 53,099| 25,760| 1,135 | | Hides, untanned | 19,066| 22,752| 20,908| 8,849 | | Indigo | 21,125| 23,748| 13,387| 14,755| | Rum | 3,264 | 12,580| 1,634 | 222 | | Sugar, unrefined | 10,725| 56,606| 15,808| 21,733| | Tea | 5,836 | 3,668 | 414 | 906 | | Wine | 13,560| 11,028| 11,274| 5,534 | | Wool | 19,319| 13,137| 17,949| 3,170 | | All other articles | 39,881| 46,305| 40,573| 23,241| | Total | 279,515| 309,795| 196,341| 221,281|

Most of these lans have other names, as Westerås, Westmanland; Nyköping, Södermanland; Carlstadt, Wermland; Fahlun, Kopparberg; Halmstad, Halland; Carlakrona, Blekinge; Wexio, Kronberg; Linköping, Östergotland; Mariestad, Skaraborg; Wenersborg, Eldfarn; Wisby, Gotland; Hernosand, Westernorrland; Ostersund, Jemtland; Umca, Westerboetens; Pitca, Norrbottens. The following are the other towns having in 1855 more than 2000 inhabitants:—Eskilstuna (4031) in the lan of Nyköping; Norrköping (17,116) and Vadstena (2236) in Linköping; Westervik (5038) in Calmar; Carlshamn (5214) in Carlscrona; Lund (7254), Ystad (5056), Landscrona (4833), and Helsingborg (4473) in Malmö; Warberg (2360) in Halmstadt; Uddewalla (3859) in Gottenburg; Boras (2815) in Wenersborg; Lidköping (2883), and Skara (2096) in Mariestadt; Christinshamn (2002) in Carlstadt; Sala (3308) and Arboga (2387) in Westerås; Hudiksvall (2266) and Söderhamn (2183) in Gefleborg; and Sundsvall (3661) in Hernosand. At the beginning of 1859 Stockholm had 101,502 inhabitants, Gottenburg 30,576, Norrköping 18,062, Malmo 16,823, and Carlscrona 14,513. The population of the 90 towns of Sweden had increased from 378,394 in the end of 1855 to 398,142 in the beginning of 1859. In 1855, the male population was 1,764,118, the female 1,875,214; in 1850, males 1,687,248, females 1,795,293. Of the male population in 1850, 10,074 were engaged in trade and commerce; 12,566 in the merchant service; 37,508 in manufactures; 55,465 in arts and handicrafts; 40,514 in the army and navy; 8917 landed proprietors; 165,308 owners and cultivators of land; 40,621 tenants; 96,810 peasants on private land; 17,026 peasants on crown land; 80,215 able-bodied cottagers, &c.; 832,145 sons of peasants, labourers, &c., above 10 years of age; 2664 gardeners, &c.; 3430 islanders and fishermen; 25,232 domestic servants; 5530 clergymen, professors, and masters of universities and public schools.

The people of Sweden are divided into four classes—classes, the nobility, clergy, burghers, and peasants. The aristocracy of Sweden is among the oldest in Europe, and Nobles consists of about 2400 families, numbering in all about 11,000 persons of both sexes. They at one time exercised Statistics, great power and possessed a fifth part of the kingdom, but now their landed possessions are estimated at under L.6,000,000, which gives an average of less than L.2500 to each family. Hence many of this class are very poor; yet so great is their pride and so absurd are their notions as to what may compromise their personal dignity, that as a class they repudiate all commercial or industrial pursuits, and prefer remaining in a state of penury rather than make an effort to relieve themselves by means which their false ideas proclaim to be derogatory. Every office in the state, about the court, and in the army, is eagerly sought for by the aristocracy, while appointments that require any deep knowledge of the sciences, or demand profound study, are generally left to those of more plebeian birth. Not that this arises from any want of capacity in the higher ranks, but from their strict adherence to the rules and traditions of caste. Next in order after the nobility is the clergy, at the head of whom is the archbishop of Upsala; besides whom there are eleven bishops. There are in all nearly 1300 beneficed clergymen, while about 1900 more are attached to the universities and other educational establishments, or are not invested with full pastoral charges, the whole with their families amounting to about 15,000 persons male and female. The fixed revenues of the church are derived from property valued at about L.85,000; but independent of this, the clergy receive incomes from tithes, official grants, and some casual sources which produce sufficient funds to give a comfortable and even liberal stipend to every incumbent. The established religion is Lutheran, and the clergy as a whole, are a highly educated, intelligent, and respectable body of men. Charges of immorality are seldom brought against them, and even complaints of laxity of principle are not frequent. They conscientiously discharge the routine duties of their office, but they possess little of that true spirit of Christianity by which alone the preaching of the gospel can be made effectual. Baptism and confirmation are indispensable to the holding of any office, or even to the possession of civil rights. A Swede cannot marry before being confirmed; neither can he take oath as a witness in any court. Hence it is that the sacred ordinances of religion have come to be generally regarded as mere forms, necessary to the enjoyment of certain privileges, and true religious feeling and pure morality are at a very low ebb. A religious spirit, however, has been manifesting itself lately in certain parts of Sweden; and a dissenting sect known as Läsera or readers, from their reading the Scriptures, are becoming numerous, especially in the north. They meet with great opposition from the clergy; for though Protestant, the Established Church in Sweden is an eminently persecuting church, and as such is supported by the civil laws. The exercise of other religious worships is indeed permitted under certain restrictions, but no one but a member of that church can hold any office, and dissenters are debarred from the enjoyment of many privileges; while every proselyte from the national creed is subject to fine, imprisonment, confiscation of property, and even to banishment. In 1856, certain proposals were laid before the diet in the royal speech, for the purpose of granting some degree of toleration to other sects, and in particular for the abrogation of the punishment of banishment for apostacy; but such was the influence of the clergy that the measure was negatived in the houses of assembly. The archbishop and bishops are nominated by the king from a list of candidates presented to him by each diocese. Literary, scientific, or administrative talents are qualifications quite as likely to assist their possessor to a bishopric as any amount of piety or deep theological lore. The Swedish clergy possess an unlimited control over the national education of the country which is under the immediate direction of each diocesan consistory, a body invested with considerable powers, composed of the principal clergy, and presided over by the bishop. It appoints all schoolmasters, disposes of many clerical offices, and presents pastors to nearly all the livings not in the royal gift. It also unites judiciary with administrative powers, judging in all causes relating to the spiritual concerns of the church, or education, adjudicating in cases where the clergy are guilty of any dereliction in their ecclesiastical duties, and deciding in complaints against the parochial assemblies. The third class is the burgesses, in Burgesses, which there are about 70,000 persons of both sexes possessing real property to the amount of about L.3,000,000. They are members of guilds or handicrafts in the cities, or iron manufacturers, or have been in the magistracy. The privileges secured to this class have acted very injuriously upon the industry and trade of the country. Connected with every trade or craft is a guild or corporation, the members of which are by law secured in the possession of certain important rights and privileges. The fourth order, that of peasants, comprises in all about 2,250,000 persons, and possesses landed property to the value of about L.15,000,000. These peasants are a well-educated, intelligent, prudent, and industrious class of people. They are all land-owners, and by their wealth they are gradually absorbing much of the land that is passing from the hands of the nobility. It is calculated that between 1831 and 1841 land to the value of L.1,500,000 was sold or mortgaged from the demesnes of the Swedish nobility.

Besides these four orders there are upwards of 1,200,000 persons in Sweden without any representatives in the legislature. These consist chiefly of the labouring population, but they also include a numerous body possessing considerable landed and personal property, members of the learned professions, distinguished literary and scientific men, and others who have amassed fortunes by their talents and industry. (See Danes and Swedes, by C. H. Scott, London, 1856; from which work we have principally derived the preceding account of the several classes of the people.)

The diet or parliament of the kingdom is composed of The Diet representatives of each of the four orders. The chief of every noble family has by right a seat in the diet, and has even the power of appointing a substitute in case of non-attendance. Usually, however, not more than 400 attend the meetings of the diet. This arises partly from the inability of many of them to bear the expenses; and also from a feeling of pride which leads them to abstain from taking a part in public affairs. The clerical order is represented at the diet by 72 members, of whom the archbishop of Upsala, the eleven bishops, and the pastor primarius of Stockholm, are ex officio members, the others being elected by and from the clergy of the dioceses. Among these are included a certain number of lay professors from the universities and the academy of sciences; but those from the last must be neither of noble blood nor hold any but purely civil rank. The clergy are the most independent and influential of the four estates, and hence they exercise a great influence over the proceedings of the diet. The burgesses rank as the third order, and elect 102 representatives to the diet. To be eligible for election the candidate must belong to the order of burgesses, be twenty-five years of age, and profess the Lutheran faith. The peasants, or fourth order, are represented at the diet by 150 members. The diet assembles at Stockholm every fifth year, and usually sits for three or four months. The representatives of each of the three lower orders are paid by their constituents during the sitting of the diet. Each body assembles separately for discussion and deliberation, and an ordinary measure is carried if three out of the four orders pass it; but all constitutional questions must receive the sanction of the whole. When a measure is supported or opposed by two of the orders, it is either dropped or submitted for decision to a committee composed of an equal number of members from each order. The king nominates the presi- dent of each of the three orders of nobles, burghers, and peasants, and possesses an absolute veto on all decrees affecting the constitution passed by the diet; but has no controlling power over their deliberations. He has the right to introduce measures for their consideration, but cannot impose new taxes nor contract loans without their sanction.

The government is a hereditary monarchy in the male line. The council of state is nominated by the king, and is composed of ten members, including a minister of justice, a minister of foreign affairs, and the heads of each of the departments of finance, the interior, marine, ecclesiastical affairs, and war. The king cannot decide in any matter of government without consulting the council, except in such as refer to military or diplomatic affairs. The king is Commander-in-Chief of the Forces by land and sea, but no requisition of men or money can be made for purposes of war without the full consent of parliament. Careful provision is made for the impeachment of the Council of State if they are found to have counselled the king to unconstitutional measures, or have themselves transgressed the laws of the kingdom. The liberty of the press is one of the fundamental provisions of the constitution.

The 24 lans of Sweden are subdivided into 117 fægderier, or districts, each comprising one or more härader, or cantons. At the head of each län is a governor, who is charged with its civil and military jurisdiction and the receipt of the revenue. Every canton is under the superintendence of an executive officer. There are 264 härad courts, or courts of original jurisdiction, with a judge presiding over each. These courts sit three times a year, and 12 peasants are elected by the peasantry of each härad to serve as jurymen for two years. There are three royal judicial courts, viz., at Stockholm, Jönköping, and Christianstad. The supreme court of justice, or final court of review, is composed of 12 councillors, and presided over by the chancellor of justice.

Elementary instruction is very generally diffused in Sweden. It is reckoned that of the whole population, even including the Laps, the proportion of grown-up persons unable to read is less than one in a thousand. Parents in even the humblest circumstances are able to give instruction to their children in reading and writing; and every adult must give proof of ability to read before he can exercise any act of majority. This general diffusion of elementary instruction is ascribed to the zeal of Gustavus Vasa (1523-1560) and his immediate successors. John III., in 1574, ordered that any nobleman having no knowledge of book-learning should forfeit his nobility. Charles XI., in 1684, required the clergy to have every Swedish subject taught to read, and decreed that no marriage should be celebrated unless the parties had previously taken the Lord's Supper; and that none should be allowed to communicate who could not read and was not instructed in religion. In 1842 a law was passed commanding the erection of a school in each parish; but owing to the sparseness of the population, this was found to be in many cases impracticable, and hence the necessity in many parts for ambulatory schools. According to the census of 1850, there were 143,526 children receiving instruction at the parochial schools; 126,178 at ambulatory schools; 6228 at public schools; 17,465 at private schools, and 128,996 at home; making in all 422,393 children receiving instruction. There are also in most of the towns gymnasia or grammar schools for preparing students for the universities. In 1856 a new law was promulgated, with the view of establishing an efficient system of secondary education. At Stockholm and Gothenburg there are normal schools for the training of teachers. There are two universities in the country, those of Upsala and Lund. The Upsala university was founded in 1477 by Sten Sture the elder. It received its greatest endowments from Gustavus Adolphus, and has continued to be the leading university in Sweden. It has faculties of philosophy, law, medicine, and theology; and in 1859 had 31 professors and 1451 students. The annual expenditure is about L17,500. The Lund university was founded in 1668, and has also four faculties. The number of students in 1859 was 610; professors, 28; substitutes, 18. The annual expenditure is about L14,300. Every one, before entering the church or practising either law or medicine, is compelled to take his degree; while candidates for many government offices are required to take degrees in philosophy previous to entering upon a particular study of the sciences necessary to a proper fulfilment of their duties. The examinations are all of a high standard, and well adapted to test the qualifications of the individuals submitted to them.

The prevalence of immorality and crime in a country like Sweden is not a little remarkable. The general diffusion of education and religious instruction, and the pursuits of the people being chiefly agricultural, would lead one to expect a low rate of crime. Such, however, is very far from being the case. In 1835 the number of persons prosecuted for criminal offences was 26,275, of whom 21,262 were convicted, 4915 acquitted, and 42 under examination; there being thus 1 prosecution for every 114 of the population, and 1 conviction for every 140. The number of prisoners in Stockholm in 1850 was 3394, or 1 to 28 of the population; while in the whole of Sweden the proportion of prisoners was 1 to 261 of the population. This high rate is doubtless in some measure to be accounted for from certain peculiarities in its criminal code. Thus there are many offences of a very venial kind, which cannot with any propriety be called crimes, considered and punished as such in Sweden; but even after making every allowance for such cases, there still remains enough to show that crime in Sweden is unusually high. Illegitimacy is very prevalent in Sweden, especially in Stockholm and the other towns. In Stockholm in 1850 the total births were 3190, of whom 1424, or nearly one-half, were illegitimate; in the other towns the total number of births were 7803, of whom 1538 were illegitimate; while in the country districts, of 99,404 births, only 7358 were illegitimate; making for the whole country a total of 100,079 legitimate, and 10,520 illegitimate.

The Swedish army is composed of four different kinds of troops, viz., the enlisted or regular troops, the indelta, the Gothland militia, and the conscription. The regular troops (förtrande) amount to about 7692 men, of whom nearly two-thirds are artillery and 1000 cavalry. They usually serve for six years. The indelta is composed of men furnished and supported by the landed proprietors. Every holder of a certain amount of crown-land is bound to provide a man, to whom he assigns a croft of land with a cottage, and pays a small annual money allowance. The croft is cultivated by the soldier himself while at home, and during his absence on service by the landholder for his behoof. Once a year during four weeks they are called out for drill. They are retained as long as they are considered fit for service. This force numbers about 33,400 men. The Gothland militia is specially for the defence of that island, and amounts to about 7620 men. The conscription or militia is composed of males between the ages of 20 and 25, all of whom are bound to serve or procure substitutes. They are assembled once a year for drill and exercise, and amount to about 95,000 men. The total force amounts to 144,000 men, besides officers.

The navy of Sweden consists of 10 ships of the line, 6 frigates, 4 corvettes, 4 brigs, 9 steam-corvettes, 20 war schooners, 77 large and 122 smaller gun-boats, with other crafts, making in all 897 vessels of all kinds. The permanent seamen at command of the government amount to about 8000. They are maintained in the same manner as the