(from תַלְמוּד, doctrine) is the work which embodies the civil and canonical law of the Jewish people. It contains those rules and institutions by which, in addition to the Old Testament, the conduct of that nation is regulated. Hence the contents of the Talmud are of a diversified character, relating not merely to religion, but to philosophy, medicine, history, jurisprudence, and the various branches of practical duty. The oral law is an interpretation of the written, and constitutes the text of the Talmud. To the oral law the same antiquity is assigned as belongs to the written. According to the Jews, Moses received both on Mount Sinai. It was received by Joshua from Moses; Joshua again delivered it to the seventy elders, from whom it was received by the prophets, who transmitted it to the men of the great synagogue, the last of whom was Simon the Just. From the men of the Synagogue it was received by the Rabbins. After the second destruction of Jerusalem under Adrian, and the consequent dispersion of the Jews throughout the world, fears were entertained lest the oral traditions which they held so sacred should be lost, particularly as their number rendered it inconvenient, or rather impossible, to preserve them in the memory. Hence arose the necessity of committing them to writing, that they might be handed down from age to age as a national treasure. It is generally agreed that Rabbi Judah Hakadosh (i.e. the holy) made the first permanent record of them, about 120 or 150 years from the destruction of the Temple, A.D. 190 or 220. R. Judah is said to have lived under Antoninus Pius. Such was the origin of the Mishna or text. It must not be supposed, however, that all the traditional interpretations were embodied in the official Mishna. Many others existed which were not incorporated in that work.

A twofold commentary, or series of commentaries, was subsequently appended to the Mishna; one called the Babylonian Gemara, the other the Jerusalem Gemara. The former was begun by R. Asche, who died A.D. 427, and was completed A.D. 500. It is the work of several Rabbins, whose names continue to be venerated by the learned Jews. These portions, committed to writing, after the Mishna, constitute notes on that text, and make up, together with it, the Babylonian Talmud. The Jerusalem Gemara proceeded from the academy at Tiberias, and embodied the comments of the Palestinian Jews. It is said to have been written chiefly by R. Jochanan, rector of that academy. It is not agreed when R. Jochanan lived; but most writers follow Buxtorf, who places him in A.D. 230. David Ganz prefers A.D. 270; while Moses Maimonides, Abarbanel, Simeon Mikkonen, and Elias Levita fix upon A.D. 370. But internal evidence shows that it was composed towards the end of the last half of the fourth century, which would agree nearly with the opinion of Maimonides. Hence R. Jochanan could not have been the principal author. The Jerusalem Talmud has contributed to the Babylonian, since there are evident traces of it in the latter.

From this statement it will be seen that the two Talmuds differ in their Gemaras or notes upon the text, while both have the same Mishna. The term Mishna (משנה) signifies repetition, because it is, as it were, a repetition of the written law, or a second law (secondaries). The word gemara (גמרא), according to Buxtorf, denotes completion or supplement, inasmuch as it completes the work; but it is better to regard it as synonymous with Talmud, "doctrine," from the Armenian word, to learn. By the Jews the Babylonian is always preferred to the Jerusalem Talmud. It is far more copious and abundant in its expositions. Hence, in speaking of it, they call it the Talmud, while the other is never mentioned without prefixing the name Jerusalem. Yet Christians generally value the Jerusalem Talmud more than the Babylonian; its brevity and succinctness recommend it to them; besides, it is generally free from the absurdities and fables of the other; it is, however, more difficult to be understood; both, indeed, partake of obscurity. The Mishna is written in the Hebrew dialect, but the Gemara in Aramaean. The former is tolerably pure, and free from the admixture of foreign terms, but the latter contains many Persian, Greek, and Latin words—a circumstance which contributes to the difficulty of understanding it. The style of the Babylonian Gemara differs from that of the Jerusalem commentary. The latter is more in the Palestinian dialect, approaching to the Syriac.

The earliest edition of the Jerusalem Talmud was published at Venice by Bomberg, in 1 vol. folio, about the year 1523. No date is attached to it. Another edition was published at Cracow in 1609, folio; and another at Amsterdam in 1710, folio. The Babylonian Talmud was published by Bomberg at Venice in 12 folio vols. in 1520-30. This edition contains the comments of Rashi and others, as also various appendices by different Rabbins. In the years 1578, 1579, 1580, the celebrated Froben of Basel published the same work; but passages which calumniated Christ were rejected by command of the Tridentine bishops. Accordingly the Jews prepared a new and complete edition at Cracow, in 13 vols., folio, in 1603, and following years. Another edition was prepared and published at Frankfort and Berlin, 1715, in 12 vols., folio; and another at Amsterdam, 1763, in 18 vols., folio, with additions and notes, besides various passages not found in preceding impressions. This last has been pronounced the best. The best edition of the Mishna is that of Surenhuisen, published at Amsterdam, 1698, and following years, in 6 folio vols., with a Latin version and copious commentaries by the Rabbins. The best lexicon to the Talmud is still that of Buxtorf, Basel, 1639, folio. The celebrated Maimonides, in the twelfth century, made a digest of all the laws and ordinances contained in the Talmud. This excellent abridgment is sufficiently copious for most readers, since it contains everything of value in the whole work. It is entitled Yad Hachazakah, seu manus fortis quam fecit Moses in conspectu Israel, and was first published at Soncino, 1490, folio; republished at Venice, 1524, 3 vols., folio; and at Amsterdam, dated 1561, 4 vols., folio. Selections from it have also been published in Hebrew and English, with notes by Bernard, in a book entitled, The Main Principles of the Creed and Ethics of the Jews, exhibited in selections from the Yad Hachazakah of Maimonides, with a literal English translation, copious Illustrations from the Talmud, &c. Cambridge 1832, Svo.