THIBET, or TUBET, the name given by Europeans to a large country of Central Asia. The name is unknown to the natives, but has passed to us through the Persians and Turks; the true native name of the land being Bod, or Bodyud, i.e., Land of Bod. By the Hindoos it is called Bhot, and by the Chinese Tsang.

It lies between 27. and 35. N. Lat., 74. and 103. E. Position Long., and is bounded on the N. by Chinese Turkestan, and divided by the desert of Gobi, and the Koko-Nor territory; E. and S.E. by the Chinese provinces of Se-chuen and Yunnan; S. by the Birman Empire, Assam, Bootan, Sikkim, Nepaul, and the N.W. provinces of British India; and W. by Cashmore and Badakshan. The southern frontier is formed by the Himalaya range, and the northern partly by that of Kuen-Lun, and partly by that of Karakorum, but on the east and west the boundaries are less clearly and certainly defined. The north-eastern and eastern frontiers are formed by the Bayen-Kharat Mountains, and the River Ya-Loung-Kiang, which flows southwards from them, and joins the Yang-tse-Kiang; but the countries about this part are frequently at war with one another, and are sometimes subject to China, sometimes to Tibet. The extreme west limit of Tibet is marked by the Indus at the point where it turns southwards into India, and by the lofty spurs of the Karakorum range, which project southwards to the bank of that river. But here, too, various tribes are mingled together in a very wild and little-known country. The whole area is about 30,200 square miles. The extensive country marked out by these limits is divided into three great parts—Eastern, Central, and Western Tibet; or by their native names, Khiam, Bod, and Nari. Khiam extends from the Chinese frontier to the gorge through which the Brahmaputra passes the Himalaya Mountains. This division is probably the largest of the three, as it is much broader than the others, and is sometimes called Bodchun, i.e. Great Tibet. The line that separates Central from Western Tibet may be considered as a continuation of that which forms the eastern boundary of Nepaul, separating it from Sikkim. Bod or Central Tibet is also called Utang, and it is subdivided into the provinces of Kangbo, Takpo, Uz, and Tsang, lying in that order from east to west. Nari, or Western Tibet, forms a long narrow tract, extending from the east end of Nepaul to the west border of Badakshan; and is subdivided into three large provinces; Mangyul, extending along the borders of Nepaul as far as the water-shed between the Brahmaputra and the Indus, Khorsum, occupying the upper, and Maryul the lower part of the valley of the Indus. Little is known to us of the greater part of Tibet. The only parts that have been explored by the English are those which border on our East Indian empire; where Captain Strachey and others have reached the mountain-range that forms the northern boundary of Tibet; and, more recently, the brothers Schlagentweit have penetrated still farther north, though unfortunately one of them has perished among the wild and barbarous tribes of Turkestan. The independent kingdom of Nepaul, which is itself closed against English travellers, forms a barrier against the exploration of Central Tibet; and for our knowledge of Eastern Tibet, we are almost entirely indebted to the researches of the French missionaries Hue and Gabet, who traversed the country from the borders of the Koko Nor to Lhasa, and again from that capital to the western frontiers of China.

As far as is known, Tibet is throughout a mountainous country. It contains the highest elevations, and is traversed by the head waters of some of the largest rivers of the continent of Asia. The Indus, the Brahmaputra, and the Yang-tse-kiang, all have their origin in this country; and the regions which they severally water correspond nearly, though not quite exactly, with the divisions of Western, Central, and Eastern Tibet. The general position and features of the basin of the Indus, which comprises the districts of Maryul and Khorsum in Western Tibet, is thus described by Captain Strachey:—"If we conceive the whole breadth of Asia towards its medial meridian to be divided into three great zones, approximately parallel to the equator, of which the northernmost or Siberian drains into the Polar Seas, the central or Turkish into inland seas or sandy deserts, and the southern or Indian into the Indian Ocean,—the western half of Tibet will occupy the very northernmost border of the last region, forming in this respect an easterly continuation of Afghanistan, and the great south Asiatic water-shed will lie along the northernmost confines of the Tibetan table-land, dividing Tibetan from Turkish waters, and altogether behind the Indian Himalaya." This region is estimated to be 600 miles in length by 150 in average breadth, which would make its area about 90,000 square miles. Of this area about 40,000 square miles are occupied by the province of Maryul, or the low country, a name that is now almost obsolete and superseded by those of its two divisions Balti and Ladak. Khorsum signifies the three continents or regions, and comprises Ruduk in the north, occupied chiefly by lakes; Guge in the south-west, by rocks; and Purang in the south-east, by glaciers; to which must be added that of Gar, in the centre. This whole region consists of a mass of lofty rocky mountains, with a few plains and valleys among them. The bottom of the lowest valley, which is that of the Indus in the northeast, is nearly a mile above the sea-level, the mountains in many places are 4 miles high, and some of the loftiest summits attain an elevation of 5 miles. About a tenth of the whole surface consists of alluvial beds, which are composed of the detritus from the rocks, and from the bottoms of the valleys. In the upper part of the country these beds are generally about 15,000 feet high, and further down about 10,000 feet, being in the latter case narrower and less extensive. The mountains are very irregularly disposed, but the general direction of the chains is from S.S.E. to N.N.W. The only extensive plain is one in the province of Guge, between 15,000 and 16,000 feet high, 120 miles in length, and from 15 to 60 in breadth. The principal river in this part of Tibet is the Indus, which is here called the Senge Tsangpo, or Lion River, and traverses the country from S.E. to N.W. for a distance of 750 miles. It receives from the right a branch 300 miles long, which waters the most of the north of the country. Next to it, the most important streams are the Langchen Tsangpo, or Elephant River, afterwards called the Sutlej, and the Moepcha Tsangpo, or Peacock River, which is the Karnali, an affluent of the Ganges. It is estimated that not less than 12,000 square miles are here occupied with lakes. Of these, the most important are those called Pangong, Rul, Shaddat, Konkhy, Mapham, and Langak; none of which has any outlet, while the water of all is more or less salt, of some excessively so. The central portions of Tibet are known to us almost exclusively through the reports of Chinese geographers, and our information is very scanty. Along the borders of Nepaul and Bootan there are three parallel mountain-chains, the most northerly of which is not traversed by any rivers, while several affluents of the Ganges flow through passes in the other two chains. North of these mountains lies the valley of the Tachok Tsangpo, or Horse River, the principal stream in this part of Tibet. It rises near the Lake of Mapham, and flows south-east, receiving numerous affluents from both sides until it reaches the debatable land on the borders of the Birman empire, where it turns to the south through a pass in the mountains. This river is in all probability identical with the Brahmaputra, although the Chinese assert that it is one of the chief affluents of the Irrawaddy; and the truth has not yet been quite conclusively ascertained. North of this river there are other chains of mountains, but this region is hardly at all known. Probably a continuation of the Karakorum range traverses the country from W. to E.; and beyond this rises the chain of Kuen-Lun, forming the northern boundary of Tibet. The country, as a whole, though mountainous, is not destitute of many large valleys, and abounds in lakes and rivers. Of the lakes, the largest is the Tenkiri, which lies in a large and extensive valley; and the most important of the others are the Pahan, the Ekir, the Lank-poo, the Leo, the Tunkong, and others. Eastern Tibet, like the rest of Eastern the country, as far as it has been described at all, is described as a land of mountains. The north-eastern part is desert, cold, barren, and uninhabited, save by nomadic tribes, who live by plunder: the journey from the Koko Nor territory to Lhasa traverses a series of mountain-ranges and plateaus, where the cold is excessive, and the vegetation scanty in the extreme. The Bayen-Kharat range, which forms the boundary between Tibet and the Koko Nor territory, is the water-shed between the rivers Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-bo, which here flow very near each other, though they afterwards diverge widely. The former of these rises and flows for a considerable distance in Tibet, where it is known first by the name of the Mouroui Ousson, afterwards by that of the Kara Ousson, and still further down by that of the Kin-Cha-Kiang. It flows at first S.E., then S., turning towards the E. as it approaches the borders of China. The other most important river is the Ya-Long-Kiang, which is formed by the confluence of the Dza-Tchou and Om-Tchou, and is believed to flow S.E. through Cochin China into the Chinese Sea. The southern portion of the country is less barren and desolate than the northern; it contains many fertile and well cultivated valleys, but the mountains are not less remarkable for their height and rugged character. Their general direction here is from N. to S. The largest plain in this part of Tibet is that of Bathang, near the Chinese frontier, which is about 350 miles in length. In Western Tibet the prevailing geological formations consist of primitive and metamorphic rocks; but limestone, greenstone, porphyry, Tibet and marble also abound. In Central and Eastern Tibet the mountain-ranges are almost exclusively formed of granite, except in the extreme east, where calcareous chains occur.

The climate of the different parts of Tibet varies very considerably, according to their position and elevation. In general, owing to the mountainous character of the country, it is in winter very cold; while during the summer the sun's rays are often intensely hot. In all the neighbouring countries Tibet is commonly regarded as a land of snow and ice; and in some parts the cold is so intense as to render them uninhabitable. But there are exceptions to this general character; for some of the plains and valleys, such as that in which Lhasa stands, enjoy a mild and genial climate. In Western Tibet the air is extremely dry; rain seldom falls, and snow only in small quantities. This is especially the case in Ladak; but in the regions further east, tremendous thunderstorms usher in the summer, and rain frequently falls during that season.

In such a barren and rugged country, the vegetable productions are naturally far from abundant. But little wheat, and still less rice, is raised. Corn is indeed exported in the extreme west; but the staple article of food for the inhabitants is black barley, from which a liquor is distilled that forms their chief luxury. Pulse, turnips, and cabbages are grown. Fruit and wood are very scarce, except in some more favoured valleys towards the east, where grapes, peaches, apricots, melons, &c., are raised; and forests of pines and other trees cover the sides of the mountains. The animals, however, both wild and tame, are numerous. The horses are small, but spirited and handsome. Large droves of sheep and cattle graze on the mountain pastures; and form an important part of the wealth of Tibet. Among animals peculiar to the country are the bharal, intermediate between the sheep and deer, and remarkable for its long fur; the yak, or bushy-tailed bull; the musk-deer; and the shawl-goat, which affords a valuable wool, largely exported to Cashmere. Of the wild beasts, lynxes, bears, tigers, and elephants are the most numerous. Wild-fowl abound near the rivers and lakes, which are also well supplied with fish. In mineral treasures Tibet is very rich. Gold is found in great abundance, in nuggets, in veins, and in the sands of the rivers; and the fact that many speculators are willing to pay to the government in advance 400 lb. of pure metal for the privilege of mining, proves that it must be very abundant. The principal mines are at Lunchee, Tardsong, and Lethang. At the last of these places there is also a silver mine. Iron is found in several places; and in the plain of Bathang mercury and cinnamon are obtained. Tibet also contains rock-salt, lapis lazuli, turquoises, &c.

Many manufactures are carried on by the Tibetans, especially at the capital. They are good goldsmiths, and excel in sculpture and in cutting precious stones. Weaving is also carried on to a large extent; and the cloth that is made is narrow but of firm texture, and of all degrees of fineness, from the thickest and most shaggy to the finest possible merino. Idols are also made, and sticks of perfume to burn in their honour. Dyeing is carried on with good success; and much pottery is made. The trade of Tibet, though not very extensive, is on the increase. It is carried on chiefly with China, India, and Assam. The chief emporiums for the Chinese commerce are Lhasa and Si-ning. Caravans come to Tibet with cattle, mules, horses, camels, tea, silk, cotton, tobacco, furs, porcelain, European cutlery, &c.; which are exchanged for gold, woollen cloth, idols, incense, and wax-candles. The annual value of this trade is not less than 2 millions of taels (£750,000). Chinese productions are exported to Nepaul, Bootan, and Bengal, in exchange for rice, indigo, paper, spices, &c. From Assam, Tibet receives silk, gums, and iron; and to Cashmere it exports shawl-wool, bullion, tea, borax, salt, and turquoises.

The Tibetans have a coin about the size of a shilling, Tibullus, which is broken into pieces for smaller values, and all larger transactions are carried on by means of silver ingots valued by weight.

The people of Tibet belong to the large family usually called Mongolian. They are of middle size, and slightly tawny complexion; though in the higher classes there are some as fair as Europeans. Their hair is dark, their beards thin; and they have small eyes, prominent cheek-bones, large mouths, and thin lips. They have all the pliancy and agility of the Chinese, with the strength and vigour of the Tartar; and in character they are brave, generous, and frank, honest, and superstitious, though not so much so as the Tartars. Of foreigners the principal classes are the Péboum or Bootanees, who are the chief workers in metals, and the Katchi or Mohammedans from Cashmere, who are mostly merchants. The religion of Tibet is Buddhism, which has here its great seat and centre. The origin and chief features of this singular faith are described in the article Gotama Buddha. In the province of Balti in the extreme west, the Mohammedan religion prevails; and there are believed to be throughout Tibet about 8000 Roman Catholics; but these are almost the only exceptions to the universal prevalence of Buddhism.

The language spoken in Tibet is, like that of China, composed of monosyllables, without inflexions. It is well adapted for the expression of religious and philosophical ideas; and there is an extensive literature, which consists, however, chiefly of translations of the sacred books of Buddhism.

The government of Tibet is entirely ecclesiastical, being Governed in the hands of lamas or priests, and especially in those men, of the Talé or Dalai-Lama, who is not only, as it were, the pope of the Buddhist hierarchy, but the visible deity and incarnation of Buddha. He has the supreme executive, legislative, and administrative power; but on account of his great sanctity it is only in affairs of high importance that he directly interferes. Most of the ordinary business of the state is managed by an officer called the Nomekhan, appointed for life by the Talé-Lama, and inferior only to him; and by four ministers called Kalons. On the death of the Talé-Lama, it falls to the grand council, or Houtouktou, of lamas of the highest rank to elect a successor; or rather to discover the person into whom, as they say, the soul of Buddha has transmigrated. This is decided, after numerous religious ceremonies, by lot; and the choice generally falls on an infant. The various provinces of Tibet are subdivided into principalities, governed by Lamas of the Houtouktou, who receive their authority from the Talé-Lama and acknowledge his supremacy. Of these, the highest is the Banchin Erdeni, who resides at Djachi Loumbo, the capital of Tsang; and is second only to Talé-Lama. Ambassadors are frequently sent from China to Tibet; and in all the principal towns there is a Chinese governor who commands the military forces. The whole Chinese force in the country is estimated at 60,000 men, of whom 50,000 are infantry. Although the country enjoys a nominal independence, the court of Pekin exerts a predominant influence.

The principal towns in Tibet are—Lhasa, the capital and seat of the Talé-Lamas; Djiambo, the capital of Kham or Eastern Tibet; Djachi Loumbo, the capital of Tsang; and Leh, the capital of Ladak; and principal town in Western Tibet. The entire population of the country is estimated at 6,000,000.