UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.

Origin.

The establishment of the University of London forms a new era in the history of academical institutions in this country; and thus demands from us as minute an account of its extensive, and perhaps too ambitious aims and objects as our limits will admit. It embraces in its constitution a portion of the ancient element, inasmuch as it is not limited to any particular spot, nor to buildings specially set apart for the instruction of its alumni. It differs, however, from the universities of the middle ages in this, that the regents in these, though sometimes forced to find accommodation for their pupils at a distance, were still under the direct control of the university. The University of London is separate and distinct from all the establishments which it has admitted to the enjoyment of its privileges, and receives for examination candidates educated in any portion of her Majesty's dominions at home or abroad. It thus ignores the advantages of academical training and habits; and recognises mere knowledge, wherever that has been acquired, irrespective of any disadvantages which may accompany the mode of acquiring it. It is, in fact, a great literary incorporation, legalised for the purpose of testing the qualifications of young men who present themselves as candidates for literary and scientific honours; and of conferring these honours on the candidates who are found to possess the necessary requirements. It is, besides, placed under the control of the executive government, and some of its most important regulations require the sanction of a secretary of state, or of the Lords of her Majesty's Treasury, and thus involves a principle which has not hitherto existed in any of our universities. In the latter respect, it bears some resemblance to the Royal University of France, with the important exception that its enactments are not imperative, but are left open for acceptance to any educational institutions which find it advantageous to adopt them. The experiment is a bold one, and it would be premature yet to express an opinion of its results. In the meantime the university goes on prosperously.

History

The University of London was created in 1836 by a royal charter of William IV., granted during "royal will and pleasure;" and was confirmed by a new charter, revoking the former and not so determinable, granted by Queen Victoria in 1837. The object of the university was declared, in the latter charter, to be "the advancement of religion and morality, and the promotion of useful knowledge, by holding forth to all classes and denominations of her Majesty's subjects, without any distinction whatsoever, an encouragement for pursuing a regular and liberal course of education, by offering to persons who prosecute or complete their studies in the metropolis or in other parts of the United Kingdom, such facilities, and conferring on them such distinctions and rewards as may incline them to persevere in their laudable pursuits; and for the purpose of ascertaining by examination the persons who have acquired proficiency in literature, science, and art, by the pursuit of such course of education, and of rewarding them by academical degrees as evidence of their respective attainments, and marks of honour proportioned thereunto." The institution was incorporated under the style and title of the "University of London," and was to consist of a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows, nominated by the crown, with the usual provisions as to acquiring, holding, and disposing of property, and with the power, after due investigation and examination, to confer upon candidates the usual degrees in arts, laws, and medicine. In 1849 a supplementary charter was granted, confirmatory of the former, and extending some of its provisions, which continued in force till 1856. In this last mentioned year another charter was granted, whereby the others were revoked, and a more extended and definite constitution was given to the university. In addition to the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows, the university, as now incorporated, consists of all persons on whom it has conferred, or shall hereafter confer, "any of the degrees of Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Medicine, Master of Arts, Bachelor of Laws, Bachelor of Medicine, or Bachelor of Arts." All goods and property formerly belonging to the university have been transferred to the new incorporation; the degrees previously conferred have been sanctioned, and the bye-laws and regulations declared to be still in force.

The body politic and corporate thus consists of a chancellor, a Constituting-vice-chancellor, fellows, and graduates. The number of fellows is thirty-six, exclusive of the chancellor and vice-chancellor; and consists of such persons as the crown shall from time to time appoint under the sign-manual, and such as shall be appointed by the members of the Senate from the graduates of the university, under the powers conferred by the charter.

The chief officers of the university are the chancellor, the vice-Officer-chancellor, the registrar, and the chairman of Convocation, with London. the Queen as the visitor. The chancellor is appointed by the crown, and holds his office for life. The vice-chancellor is elected by the fellows from their own body, and remains in office for one year.

The business of the university is conducted by two courts,—the Senate and the Convocation. The Senate consists of the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows, and is invested with the entire management and superintendence of the affairs, concerns, and property of the university, with power to make and alter any by-laws and regulations which may appear to be necessary, with the exception of "imposing on any person any compulsory examination or test;" such by-laws and regulations being binding on all candidates for degrees after the common seal of the university has been affixed to them; and after they have been submitted to one of the principal secretaries of state, and been signed off, and countersigned by him. The Senate also appoints, and, if necessary, removes all examiners, officers, and servants of the university, and forms regulations for the examinations, and the conferring of degrees. The chancellor, if present, presides as chairman; in his absence the vice-chancellor; and, failing him, a fellow elected by the members present. All questions brought before the Senate are decided by a majority of the members present; the chairman having, in the case of equality, a second or casting vote. No question is decided unless six members are present.

The Convocation consists of the graduates of the university, viz., all doctors of laws, doctors of medicine and masters of arts, all bachelors of law of two years' standing, all bachelors of medicine of two years' standing, and all bachelors of arts of three years' standing. Those graduates only are entitled to vote whose names appear in the register, kept by the officer appointed for that purpose; and for the registration of which a reasonable annual fee, sanctioned by the commissioners of the treasury is exacted. The functions of convocation are very limited. They elect their own chairman, who holds office for three years; have the power of nominating three persons for every fellow to be appointed in the manner already mentioned; of discussing any matter relating to the university, and declaring their opinion; but are not "entitled to interfere in any way whatever over the affairs of the university." The Senate is bound to convene a meeting of the Convocation at least once a year; and the Chancellor is empowered to convene an extraordinary meeting on a requisition signed by twenty or more members. Thirty members are necessary to constitute a meeting; and all questions are decided by a majority of votes; the chairman having, in the case of equality, a casting vote. All meetings of the Senate and Convocation take place in Burlington House.

The university having no collegiate establishments under its immediate control, is empowered to receive into connection with itself such educational institutions in Great Britain, Ireland, and the British Colonies, as shall transmit to the Senate sufficient evidence that they furnish to young men in states populous all course of instruction in one or more departments of knowledge so as to justify their being taken on examination for degrees. The following institutions are already in connection with the university:

- The universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the several colleges and houses of learning in these universities; the universities of Durham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St Andrews; the King's College of Aberdeen; the Marischal College, Aberdeen; the University of Dublin; the Queen's University in Ireland; the University of Sydney; University College, London; King's College, London; the Queen's College at Belfast; the Queen's College at Galway; the Queen's College at Cork; St Cuthbert's College, Ushaw; Stonyhurst College; Manchester New College, London; St Mary's College, Oscott; St Patrick's College, Carlow; St Edmund's College, near Ware; Spring Hill College, Moelery, near Birmingham; the College, Regent's Park (late St Stephen's College); College of St Gregory the Great, Downside, near Bath; College of Huntington's College at Chester; the Baptist College at Bristol; Airalads College, Undercliffe, near Bradford; Protestant Dissenters' College at Rotherham; Presbyterian College at Caernarvon; St Kyran's College, Kilkenny; Huddersfield College; Lancashire Independent College; Wesley College, near Sheffield; Queen's College, Birmingham; Wesley Collegiate Institution, Taunton; Western College, Plymouth; West of England Dissenters' Proprietary School, Taunton; St Patrick's College, Thurles; New College, London; Owen's College, Manchester; Bedford Grammar Schools; Brecon Independent College; Horton College, Bradford; Hackney Theological Seminary; Trevecca College, Brecon; Springfield College, Emsis; Bishop Stortford Collegiate School; Working Men's College, London; the University of Toronto; Queen's College, Liverpool, &c. &c. It is in the power of the Senate, with the consent of one of the principal secretaries of state, to add to, alter, vary, and amend the list, by striking out any of the institutions included therein. Subject to the same sanction and approval, the Senate have the power to admit persons not educated in any of the institutions connected with the university for matriculation, and as candidates for any of the degrees other than medical, on such conditions as shall from time to time be determined. The Senate are further called upon to report from time to time to one of the principal secretaries of state, what appear to them to be the medical institutions and schools from which, either singly or jointly with other medical institutions and schools in this country, or in foreign parts, it may be fit and expedient to admit candidates for medical degrees; such report to be approved of by the said secretary; and no persons to be admitted as candidates for degrees unless they shall satisfy the Senate that they have, in one or more of such institutions or schools, completed the requisite course of instruction. Of these medical institutions and schools, a large number are already in connection with the university.

The chancellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows, have the power, after examination, to confer the several degrees of bachelor, master, tons, and doctor, in arts, laws, science, medicine, music; and also in such other departments of knowledge, except theology, as they by regulations in that behalf shall from time to time determine. The examinations are held at least once a year, and embrace such branches in the several departments of knowledge as the Senate consider necessary. All the examinations, including the matriculation examination, are conducted by means of printed papers, the examiners reserving to themselves the power of putting extra questions to any candidate for the purpose of ascertaining his competency to pass. In every case, with the exception of the matriculation examination and the scriptural examination, the successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, those being bracketed together between whom there is not, in the opinion of the examiners, a clear difference. Those of the first division are admissible to examination for honours. All the examinations take place annually, except that for matriculation, which is held twice a year; and for each a reasonable fee is exacted, subject to the sanction and approval of the Lords of the Treasury. In the case of failure no fee is returned; but it is available in the event of the candidate presenting himself at a subsequent examination. There are at present 26 examiners, all elected by the Senate—14 in arts; 1 in laws; and 11 in medicine. No fellow is eligible as an examiner; and no examiner is eligible for re-election for more than four years consecutively.

Every candidate for the degree of bachelor of arts, bachelor Matriculation of science, or bachelor of medicine, is required to have passed examination in the Matriculation Examination. This examination takes place twice a year,—on the second Monday in January, and the first Monday in July; for admission to which it is necessary for each candidate to have transmitted to the registrar of the university a certificate, showing that he has completed his sixteenth year. The examination embraces the following subjects:—Mathematics, Arithmetic and Algebra; the ordinary rules of arithmetic,—fractions, extraction of the square root, addition, subtraction, &c., of algebraical quantities, proportion; Geometry; the first four books of Euclid, &c.; Natural Philosophy; mechanics, hydraulics, hydraulics, pneumatics, acoustics, and optics; Chemistry; powers of matter, heat, combustion, the atmosphere, &c.; Classics; one Greek and one Latin subject, selected one year and a half previously by the Senate, from the works of certain Greek and Latin authors, and published; the classical papers containing simple and easy sentences of English to be translated into Latin, and also questions in grammar, history, and geography; The English Language; orthography, writing from dictation, &c.; Outlines of English History; the French or the German Language. Simultaneously with the examinations in London, examinations are conducted in such provincial cities, towns, and colleges, as have obtained the sanction of the Senate. The candidates who have passed are arranged in three divisions, each in alphabetical order; and pass certificates, signed by the registrar, are given to those who apply for them. Fee for matriculation £2.

Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours in Honours, mathematics and natural philosophy, classics, chemistry, and natural history. The candidates who acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners are arranged in the order of proficiency, according to the several departments; and in determining their relative position, regard is had to the proficiency evinced by them in the same departments at the matriculation examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates of not more than twenty years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in mathematics, and the highest candidate in classics, receive each an exhibition of £30 a year for the next two years, on condition of their pledging themselves to proceed, within three years, either to the degree of B.A., or to the first examination for the degree of M.B. The highest candidates in chemistry and in natural history, if they possess sufficient merit, receive each a prize to the value of £10 in books or money. Candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts are required to have passed the matriculation examination, and to pass two subsequent examinations. The first B.A. examination commences on the third Monday of July in London, and the pass examination is also held at the same time, under special arrangement, in other cities, towns, and colleges of the United Kingdom. No candidate, with the exception of those who have obtained honours either in classics or in mathematics and natural philosophy at the preceding matriculation examination, can be admitted to the examination within one academical year of the time of his passing the matriculation examination, unless he has produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct.

Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Mathematics; Arithmetic and Algebra; Geometry; Plane Trigonometry; Latin and Roman History; The Latin Language; The English Language, Literature, and History; The French or the German Language. Candidates are not approved by the examiners, unless they show a competent knowledge in (1) Latin and Roman history; (2) English language, literature, and history; (3) Mathematics; (4) Either the French or the German language. Fee for the examination, L5.

Any candidate who has passed the first B.A. examination may be examined for honours (1), in mathematics and mechanical philosophy; (2) in Latin; and (3) in English; and for prizes in the French and German languages and literature. The successful candidates in each department are arranged in the order of proficiency; and in determining their relative positions, regard is had to the proficiency evinced by them in their respective departments, and in the first B.A. examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates not more than twenty-two years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in mathematics, and the highest candidate in Latin, each receive an exhibition of L40 a year for two years, on condition of declaring their intention of presenting themselves, within two years, at the second examination for the degree of B.A. On the same conditions, the highest candidate in English receives an exhibition of L50 a year for two years. The highest candidates in French and German receive each a prize to the value of L10 in books or money.

This examination commences on the fourth Monday in October; and no candidate can be admitted to it within one academical year of the time of his passing the first B.A. examination; nor unless he have produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. The examination embraces the following subjects:—Mechanical and Natural Philosophy; Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics; Optics (geometrical); Acoustics; Optics (physical); Astronomy; Animal Physiology; Classics; Greek and Latin Languages.—One Greek subject and one Latin prose subject, selected two years previously by the examiners, and published; papers containing passages of Greek and Latin to be translated into English; and passages of English to be translated into Latin with questions in grammar, history, and geography; History; Logic and Moral Philosophy. Candidates are not approved by the examiners, unless they show a competent knowledge in (1) Classics; (2.) Grecian history; (3) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (4) Animal physiology; (5) Logic and moral philosophy. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; and a certificate under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each successful candidate. Fee for the examination, L5.

Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours in (1) Mathematics and natural philosophy; (2.) Classics; (3.) Logic and moral philosophy; (4.) Chemistry; (5.) Animal physiology; and (6.) Vegetable physiology and structural botany. A list of the successful candidates, in the order of proficiency in each subject, is published by the examiners; and in determining the relative position of candidates, regard is had to the proficiency evinced by each at the second B.A. examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates of not more than twenty-three years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in each of the first three branches receives L40 a year for the next three years, with the style of University Scholar. Under the same circumstances, the highest candidates in the other three branches receive each a prize to the value of L10 in books or money.

The examination for the degree of master of arts commences on the first Monday in June. While in the two great English universities, this degree is conferred almost as a matter of course after the lapse of a certain period from the candidate taking the B.A. degree, in this university the examination is of a stricter and more extensive character than any of the preceding examinations. No candidate can be admitted to examination until after the expiration of one academical year from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.A. in this university, or in one of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, and Durham, nor unless he has shown evidence of having completed his twentieth year.

The examination embraces the following branches of knowledge, and no candidate is approved by the examiners, unless he has shown a competent knowledge in one of these:—I. Classics. II. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. III. Logic and Moral Philosophy; Political Philosophy; History of Philosophy; Political Philosophy. The examination includes in Classics—The Greek and Latin classic authors; prose composition in Greek, Latin, and English; with ancient history, and the history of Europe to the end of the eighteenth century; in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy—The subjects required for the B.A. honour examination, with the addition of plane astronomy and physical astronomy; and in Branch III. the subjects already enumerated. The candidates who pass to the satisfaction of the examiners are arranged in the order of proficiency. The most distinguished candidate in each branch, if in the opinion of the examiners he possesses sufficient merit, receives a gold medal of the value of L20; and if the same candidate distinguishes himself the most in two or more of the branches, he receives a gold medal for each branch in which he distinguishes himself. Fee for the examination, L10.

Examinations in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, in the Scriptural Greek text of the New Testament, in the evidences of the Christian religion, and in Scripture history, take place once a year, and, like honours, the others, are conducted entirely by means of printed papers. Each examiner has the power of putting a veto upon any question proposed; and no question is put bearing on any doctrinal point disputed by Christians; or such as to require an expression of religious opinions on the part of the candidates; nor is any answer or translation objected to on the ground of its expressing any peculiarity of doctrinal views.

No candidate is admitted to this examination unless he shall first have previously obtained the degree of B.A. in this university. The subjects of examination are:—1. The Hebrew text of the Book of Genesis; 2. The Greek text of the Gospel of St Luke; 3. Paley's Evidences and Butler's Analogy; 4. Scripture history. Candidates who show a competent knowledge in any two out of the four subjects of examination are approved by the examiners.

No candidate is admitted to this examination unless he has passed further the first examination at least two years previously. The subjects of examination are:—1. The Hebrew text of one of the larger or two of the smaller historical books, and of one of the larger or two of the smaller prophetical or poetical books of the Old Testament; 2. The Greek text of one of the historical books, and of one of the larger or two of the smaller epistles of the New Testament; 3. The evidences of the Christian religion; 4. Biblical history, including the history of the books of Scripture. The passages are selected and published from time to time. Candidates who show a competent knowledge in any three out of the four subjects are approved by the examiners, and are alphabetically arranged in three classes according to their proficiency. The highest candidate in each class, in both examinations, receives books to the value of L5.

Candidates for the degree of bachelor of science are required to first B.Sc. have passed the matriculation examination, and to pass two subsequent examinations. Bachelor of arts of the university, and under-graduates of the university, who have passed the first B.Sc. examination for the degree of bachelor of medicine, are admitted to the degree of B.Sc. on passing the second examination only. The first B.Sc. examination commences on the third Monday in May; and no candidate is admitted within one academical year of the time of his passing the matriculation examination, nor unless he has produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Mathematics; The same departments which are required for the first B.A. examination; Mechanical and natural philosophy; The same departments which are required for the second B.A. examination, with the addition of heat, electricity, and magnetism; Chemistry; Elementary substances and combinations; Botany and Vegetable Physiology; Zoology and Animal Physiology. The extent of acquirement in natural philosophy, chemistry, and biology, is such as may fairly be attained by attendance on a course of lectures on each of these subjects, extending through an academical session.

No candidates are approved by the examiners unless they show a competent knowledge in the fundamental principles of (1.) Mathematics; (2.) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (3.) Chemistry; (4.) Biology, including botany and vegetable physiology, and zoology and animal physiology. The successful candidates are alphabetically arranged in two divisions; and pass certificates, signed by the examiners, are given to those who apply for them. Fee for the examination, L5.

Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours, Honours (1) in mathematics and mechanical philosophy; (2) in chemistry and natural philosophy, and in biology. A list of the successful candidates is published, arranged in the order of proficiency in each department. In determining the relative position of the candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the corresponding subjects at the pass examination. If, in London. the opinion of the examiners, there are candidates of not more than twenty-two years of age who possess sufficient merit, the best in each department receives an exhibition of L40 a year for the next two years, on condition of declaring his intention to present himself at the second B.Sc. examination within two years.

This examination commences on the fourth Monday in October. Every candidate must have passed the first B.Sc. examination at least one academical year previously, or have obtained the degree of B.A., or have passed the first M.B. examination in the university, and must also have produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. The subjects of examination are the following:—(1.) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (2.) Chemistry (theoretical and practical); (3.) Animal physiology; (4.) Geology and Palaeontology; (5.) Logic and moral philosophy. The requirements in the first, third, and fifth branches are the same as those necessary for the second B.A. pass examination; and in Branch IV., the elementary portions of descriptive geology and the general stratigraphical distribution of organic remains. The candidates who pass are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order, and a certificate, under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. Fee for the examination, L5.

Honours. Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours:—(1.) In mathematics and moral philosophy; (2.) In chemistry and biology; (3.) Geology and palaeontology; (4.) In logic and moral philosophy. Candidates for honours in Branch I. are examined in the subjects which are required for the second B.A. honour examination; those for honours in Branch II. in the subjects of the previous examinations in a more advanced state; those for honours in Branch III. in descriptive geology, physical geology, and palaeontology; and those for honours in Branch IV. in the subjects required for the second B.A. honour examination. A list of the successful candidates in each branch, arranged in the order of proficiency, is published; and in determining their relative position, the examiners have regard to the proficiency in their several branches evinced by them at the pass examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, there are candidates of not more than twenty-three years of age who possess sufficient merit, the most distinguished candidate in each branch receives L50 a year for the next three years, with the style of university scholar.

D.Sc. examination. The examination for the degree of doctor of science takes place within the first fourteen days of June; and no candidate is admitted to it until after the expiration of two academical years from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.Sc. in the university. Every candidate is examined in some one of the following branches of knowledge, to be selected by himself; and no candidate is approved by the examiners unless he show a thorough practical knowledge of the principal subject, and a general acquaintance with the subsidiary parts, as specified as belonging to the branch so selected. The following are the branches required:—Mathematics; 2. Mechanical science; 3. Astronomy; 4. Inorganic chemistry; 5. Organic chemistry; 6. Electricity; 7. Magnetism; 8. Physical optics, heat, acoustics; 9. Animal physiology; 10. Comparative anatomy; 11. Zoology; 12. Vegetable physiology; 13. Systematic botany; 14. Geology; 15. Palaeontology; 16. Logic and moral philosophy. Fee for the examination, L10.

LL.B. examination. The examination for the degree of bachelor of laws takes place within the last fourteen days of June. No candidate can be admitted to it until after the expiration of one academical year from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.A. in this university, or in one other of the universities of the United Kingdom, unless he shall have taken the degree of M.B. in this university. The following are the subjects of examination:—Stephen's Blackstone; the three portions of Dumont's edition of Bentham's Morals and Legislation, which contain the principles of legislation, the principles of a civil code, and the principles of a criminal code. The successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order.

An examination for honours subsequently takes place, to which all who have passed the previous examination are admissible. Candidates are examined in one or more of the following subjects:—Principles of legislation; conveyancing; law of the courts of equity; law of the courts of common and Roman law; law of the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. Lists of the successful candidates are afterwards published; and, in fixing their relative position, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them at the previous examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidate possesses sufficient merit, the candidate who distinguishes himself most in the principles of legislation receives L50 a year for the next three years, with the style of university law scholar. Fee for the examination, L10.

LL.D. examination. The examination for the degree of doctor of laws takes place within the first fourteen days of July. No candidate under the age of thirty is admissible until after the expiration of two academical years from the time of his obtaining the degree of LL.B. For persons above the age of thirty, no interval is required. There is required from candidates a practical professional knowledge of the law of the common law courts of England, and of one of the three following other branches of positive law according to the laws of England and Ireland—1. Conveyancing; 2. Law of the courts of equity; 3. Law of the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. There is also required a knowledge of one of the seven following subjects:—1. Roman law; 2. Principles of international law; 3. Of civil law; 4. Of criminal law; 5. Of the law of evidence; 6. Of judicial organisation; 7. Of procedure. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit has been evinced, the candidate who distinguishes himself most receives a gold medal of the value of L20. Fee for the examination, L10.

Candidates for the degree of bachelor of medicine are required—Medicine. 1. To have been engaged during four years in their professional studies at one or more of the institutions or schools recognised by the university; 2. To have spent one year at least of the four in one or more of the recognised institutions or schools in the United Kingdom; and, 3. To pass two examinations.

The first M.B. examination commences on the first Monday in First M.B. August. No candidate is admitted unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having completed his nine-tenth year; 2. Of having taken a degree in arts in the university or in another university degree granted by which are recognised by the senate of the university, or of having passed the matriculation examination; 3. Of having been a student during two years at one or more of the medical institutions or schools recognised by the university, subsequently to having taken a degree in arts, or passed the matriculation examination; 4. Of having attended a course of lectures on each of four of the subjects in the following list:—Descriptive and surgical anatomy; general anatomy and physiology; comparative anatomy; pathological anatomy; chemistry; botany; materia medica and pharmacy; general pathology; general therapeutics; forensic medicine; hygiene; midwifery and diseases peculiar to women and infants; surgery; medicine; 5. Of having dissected during nine months; 6. Of having attended a course of practical chemistry, comprehending practical exercises in conducting the important processes of general and pharmaceutical chemistry; in applying tests for discovering the adulteration of articles of the materia medica, and the presence and nature of poisons, and in the examination of mineral waters, animal secretions, urinary deposits, calculi, &c.; 7. Of having attended to practical pharmacy during a sufficient length of time to enable him to acquire a practical knowledge in the preparation of medicines. Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Anatomy, physiology, chemistry, botany, materia medica, and pharmacy; and are also required to translate passages from the Latin pharmacopoeia. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; those only who, in the opinion of the examiners, are admissible to the examination for honours, being placed in the first division.

Any candidate who has been placed in the first division may be Honours-examined for honours in any or all of the following subjects:—Anatomy and physiology (candidates may illustrate their answers by sketching the parts they describe), chemistry, materia medica, and pharmaceutical chemistry; structural and physiological botany. In determining the relative position of candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the same subjects at the pass examination. Candidates who pass the examinations and acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners, are arranged according to the several subjects and according to their proficiency in each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit is evinced, the candidates who distinguish themselves most in anatomy and physiology, in chemistry, and in materia medica respectively, receive each an exhibition of L30 a year for the next two years. Under the same circumstances the first and second candidates in each of the preceding subjects, and the most distinguished candidate in structural and physiological botany, receive each a gold medal of the value of L5. Fee for the examination, L5.

The second examination for the degree of bachelor of medicine Second commences on the first Monday in November. No candidate is M.B. examined to it within two academical years of the time of his passing the first M.B. examination, unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having passed the first M.B. examination; 2. Of having subsequently to having passed the first M.B. examination, attended a course of lectures on each of two of the subjects enumerated in No. 4 of the requirements for that examination, and for which he had not presented certificates previously; 3. Of having, subsequently to having passed the first M.B. examination, dissected during six months; 4. Of having conducted at least six labours; 5. Of having attended the surgical practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during twelve months, and lectures on clinical surgery; 6. Of having attended the medical practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during other twelve months, and lectures on clinical medicine; 7. Of having, subsequently to the completion of his attendance on surgical and medical hospital practice, attended to practical medicine in a recognised hospital, infirmary, or dispensary during six months; 8. Of moral character.

Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Physiology (the papers include questions in comparative anatomy), general pathology, general therapeutics, hygiene, surgery, midwifery, forensic medicine. The candidates are also required to translate passages of the Latin pharmacopoeia into English, and of the English pharmacopoeia into Latin. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; and a certificate, under the seal of the university and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. Those candidates only who, in the opinion of the examiners, are admissible to the examination for honours are placed in the first division.

Honours.

Candidates who have been placed in the first division may be examined for honours in any or all of the following subjects:—Physiology and comparative anatomy, surgery, medicine, midwifery. In determining the relative positions of candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the same subjects at the pass examination. Candidates who pass the examinations, and acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners, are arranged according to the several subjects and according to their proficiency in each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit is evinced, the candidates who distinguish themselves the most in physiology and comparative anatomy, in surgery and in medicine, receive each an exhibition of L50 a year for the next two years, with the style of university medical scholar. Under the same circumstances, the first and second candidates in each of the preceding subjects, and the most distinguished candidate in midwifery, receive a gold medal of the value of L2. Fee for the examination, L5.

M.D. examination.

The examination for the degree of doctor of medicine commences on the fourth Monday in November. No candidate is admitted to the examination unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having taken the degree of bachelor of medicine in the university, or a degree in medicine or in surgery at a university the degrees granted by which are recognised by the senate of the university. Candidates who have not taken the degree in this university must produce a certificate of having completed their twenty-third year; 2. Of having attended, subsequently to having taken one of the above degrees in medicine, (a.) to clinical or practical medicine during two years in an hospital or medical institution recognised by the university; (b.) or, to clinical or practical medicine during one year in an hospital or medical institution recognised by the university, and of having been engaged during three years in the practice of his profession; (c.) or, if he have taken the degree of bachelor of medicine in the university, or having been engaged during five years in the practice of his profession. One year of attendance on clinical or practical medicine, or two years of practice, are dispensed with in the case of those candidates who, at the second M.B. examination, have been placed in the first division; 3. Of moral character, signed by two persons of respectability.

Candidates are examined in logic and moral philosophy, and medicine. Candidates who have taken a degree in arts in this or in any other university in the United Kingdom, are exempted from the examination in logic and moral philosophy. The subjects of examination in this branch are:—Names, notions, and propositions; syllogism, induction, and sublatory operations; the senses, the intellect, the will, including the theory of moral obligation. The successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order, and a certificate under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit is evinced, the candidate who distinguishes himself the most at the examination receives a gold medal of the value of L20. Fee for the examination, L10.

Candidates who commenced their professional studies in or before January 1839, and practitioners in medicine or surgery who obtained their licenses or commissions prior to 1840, are admitted to examination for the degrees of bachelor and doctor of medicine on different conditions, for which see Calendar.

University College and King's College, London, though not falling strictly within the scope of this article, deserve a passing notice, from the prominent position which they occupy as seminaries of education. With the exception of conferring Degrees, they perform all the functions of universities.

University College had its origin in a scheme for establishing a university in the metropolis, which was first promulgated by the author of The Pleasures of Hope in 1825, and was speedily adopted by the friends of education. The objects held out by the promoters of the scheme were three:—1. To furnish to the inhabitants of London, at a moderate rate, and within easy reach, a complete education; thus enabling them to educate their sons, while continuing to reside under the parental roof, without incurring the additional expense and risk of residence at the old universities; 2. To afford the opportunity of receiving a university education to the various classes of society in England who, not being members of the Church of England, were excluded from a greater or less degree, from Oxford and Cambridge; 3. To establish extended and systematic courses of education for professional pursuits, in law and medicine, and for civil engineering. Within a few months after the scheme was announced, funds sufficient for setting the institution on foot were raised by subscriptions for L1,100 shares, and by donations of L50 each; and before the close of 1828 the classes in the faculties of arts, laws, and medicine were in full operation. The college being established on the principle of free admission to all sects and denominations, the department of theology was not included in the curriculum. The exclusion of theology from the course of instruction gave rise to a long and acrimonious opposition on the part of those who could bear no departure from the established order of things. Even the universities of Oxford and Cambridge shared in the alarm, and, supported by the church party, prevented the granting of a charter of incorporation till 1836. Students are admitted without reference to their religious opinions; and none of them live within the walls of the college. The academical discipline is thus confined to the class-room. The professors are dependent on the fees which they receive from their pupils; and, as in the Scottish and German universities, communicate their instructions by means of public lectures, accompanied by catechetical examinations. There are also public examinations at the end of the session, whose prizes are awarded to the most distinguished students. The government is divided into five bodies:—1. The annual meeting of the members of the corporate body—i.e., of the founders of the institution and the representatives of founders; 2. The council; 3. The senate; 4. The faculty of medicine; 5. The faculty of arts and laws. The council, the members of which are elected by the general meeting, consists of a president, vice-president, treasurer, and twenty-one other members; and has power to regulate the teaching of the various branches of literature and science, to accept endowments, appoint professors, tutors, &c.; and to manage, generally, the affairs of the college. The college contains forty-one professorships: twenty-seven in the faculty of arts and laws, and fourteen in the faculty of medicine. In some cases two professorships are held by the same person. The session in arts commences in the middle of October, and terminates at the end of June. The medical session is divided into two terms—the winter term, commencing in the beginning of October and continuing till the end of March; and the summer term—extending from the beginning of May to the end of July.

King's College owes its origin chiefly to the opposition made to King's University College, on the ground of excluding theology from the College curriculum of study. The friends of the Church finding that, notwithstanding their strenuous opposition, the other was being fast realised, commenced a movement in 1828 for establishing another college on principles which they approved. The ground on which it is situated, forming the east wing of Somerset House, was presented to the foundation by George IV. The funds for the erection of the building and the institution were raised partly by share and partly by donations; and a charter of incorporation was granted to it in 1829. The fundamental principle on which the college was established is the following:—"That every system of general education for the youth of a Christian community ought to comprise instruction in the Christian religion as an indispensable part, without which, the acquisition of other branches of knowledge will be conducive neither to the happiness of the individual nor to the welfare of the state." It was thus instituted professedly, although not exclusively, for the instruction of young men according to the tenets of the Church of England. Rooms are provided within the walls of the college for a limited number of matriculated students, who are placed under the superintendence of the censor. The government is vested in a council consisting of three classes:—The visitor, who is the Archbishop of Canterbury; the perpetual governors by virtue of their offices, as the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of York, Bishop of London, and other high functionaries; the governors for life, and those who are councillors simply. There are sixty-three professorships, lectureships, &c.; eight in divinity; twenty-three in general literature and science; twelve in applied sciences; seventeen in the medical department; and three in the military department. The year is divided into three terms—Michaelmas term; Lent term; and Easter term. The chief distinction between the two institutions consists in the fact of there being professors of divinity attached to King's College. Both have received large benefactions, which are distributed in the form of scholarships, prizes, &c. By nothing, perhaps, is the recent institution of these colleges more distinctly marked than by the provi- UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM.

The great and increasing population of the north of England, and its distance from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, had long pointed out the expediency of establishing in that part of the kingdom an institution which should secure to its inhabitants the advantages of a sound yet not expensive academical education. The first attempt which was made to establish such an institution at Durham was in 1649, during the time of the Commonwealth, and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, after the passing of the act for the abolition of deans and chapters. It was not, however, carried into effect till eight years after, when, in virtue of letters patent granted for the purpose, the houses formerly belonging to the deans and prebendaries were converted into a university to be called "the Mentor, or Provost, Fellows and Scholars of the College of Durham, of the foundation of Oliver, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland," &c.

The same letters patent assigned to the university rent charges to the amount of L.900 annually, for the support of the persons belonging to the foundation, and authorized them to purchase and enjoy lands and revenues to the amount of L.6000 a year. These arrangements were never carried into effect. At the Restoration the dean and chapter resumed possession of their houses and lands; and the projected foundation totally disappeared. For nearly two centuries the scheme remained in abeyance; and it was not till during the incumbency of the late Bishop Van Mildert that it was again seriously entertained.

This munificent prelate, along with the dean and chapter, believing that the means of supplying the acknowledged deficiency might be provided from the resources of that body, without contravening the principles on which it was incorporated, agreed, by an act of chapter in 1831, to appropriate property producing L.3000 per annum to the support of an academical institution in connection with the cathedral church; the bishop at the same time promising to provide eventually for the warden, the professor of divinity, and the professor of Greek, by attaching prebendal stalls to the two offices.

In pursuance of this arrangement, an act of Parliament was obtained in 1832, empowering the dean and chapter to appropriate an estate at South Shields, "for the establishment and maintenance of a university for the advancement of learning, in connection with the cathedral church; such university to consist of such warden or principal, of such professors and readers in such branches of learning and science, of such tutors, students, and other officers and persons, and generally to be established and instituted, and continued according to such scheme and regulations as the said dean and chapter for the time being shall, with the consent of the Lord Bishop of Durham, order and prescribe."

Under the authority of this act, the university was opened in 1833, and in July 1835, a statute was passed by the dean and chapter, and approved by the bishop, entrusting the ordinary management of the university under the bishop as visitor, and the dean and chapter as governors, to the warden, a senate, and a convocation. After a constitution and the studies of the university had been satisfactorily arranged, a royal charter was granted under the great seal on the 1st of June 1837, incorporating the persons therein described by the name of "the Warden, Masters, and scholars of the University of Durham," and granting to them "all the rights and privileges which are assumed to the university by the act of Parliament, or are incident to a university established by royal charter." It consequently possesses and exercises the right of granting degrees in all the faculties.

The appointment of the ecclesiastical commission prevented the intentions of Bishop Van Mildert respecting the endowment of the university from being fully carried into effect, but by an order of her Majesty in council, 4th June 1841, it was provided that the office of warden should be permanently annexed to the deanery of Durham; a canonry in the cathedral church was annexed to each of the professorships of divinity and Greek; a professor of mathematics and astronomy, with an increased salary was appointed; provision was made for founding hereafter a professorship of Hebrew and the other Oriental languages; and, in addition to the six fellowships which had previously been established by the dean and chapter, eighteen other fellowships were founded. For providing funds for these purposes, certain estates were assigned to the university immediately; and power was reserved for making a farther endowment at a future period. This power has since been exercised by orders in council, conferring on the university an additional grant in money, and vesting in it certain landed estates formerly belonging to the deanery, or prebendal stalls.

In framing their plans for an efficient academical education, the founders of the university provided, not only for the delivery of able lectures, but also furnished the means of uniting a system of domestic discipline and superintendence with academical instruction. With this view they formed a college within the university, to which they gave the name of "University College," and placed it under the superintendence of the warden as master. The accommodation for students has been subsequently much enlarged by the addition of the Castle of Durham, which is held in trust for the university by the bishop. In pursuance of the same object, and with the special view of placing these advantages within the reach of persons of limited means, two halls have since been opened, "Bishop Hatfield's Hall" in 1846, and "Bishop Cousin's Hall" in 1851; and regulations have been framed for licensing and opening additional halls or houses. The rooms in these halls are let furnished, and the other arrangements are all made on an economical scale. Students in every faculty are received in the halls as well as in the colleges; and with a few exceptions, are eligible to the same endowments. The university thus embraces a college and two halls. Every student must reside in his college or hall, unless a dispensation to reside elsewhere has been granted by the warden.

The university consists of the visitor, governors, a warden or Constituent principal, a professor of divinity and ecclesiastical history, a professor of Greek and classical literature, a professor of mathematics and astronomy, two proctors, tutors, and readers in law, medicine, Hebrew, history and polite literature, natural philosophy, chemistry, registrar and librarian; with the graduates and scholars. The warden and the professors of divinity and Greek are appointed by the Bishop of Durham; the professor of mathematics and astronomy, and the other officers, are nominated by the dean and chapter. The business of the university is conducted by the warden and the Senate, and the Convocation. The Senate, which consists of the Senate, warden, the professors of divinity, Greek, and mathematics, the two proctors, and three other members of Convocation, transact all ordinary business, and has the power to originate regulations and other measures relating to it; but such regulations and measures are not valid till they are confirmed by the convocation. The convocation, which, besides the senators, contains a certain number of doctors tit, and masters of the faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts, from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, appointed on the first establishment of the university, consists of all persons regularly admitted, since the opening of the university, to the degrees of doctor in divinity, the civil law, and medicine, and to the degree of master of arts, confirms or rejects any measures which are submitted to it by the senate, but has not the power to originate or amend.

By the regulations of the university, provision has been made Course of for a regular course of general education similar to that which is study. given at Oxford and Cambridge; and also for a course of theological study. The qualifications of the students are ascertained by examination, before admission, in the rudiments of the Christian religion, in the Greek and Latin languages, and in arithmetic and the elements of mathematics, the warden having, in special cases, a dispensing power of admission in the case of failure; and their proficiency during the continuance of the course is tested by public examinations held annually, particularly at the end of the third year for the degree of bachelor of arts, and at the end of the fourth year for the degree of master. In 1837, an important extension of the benefits of the university was effected by the establishment of a course of instruction for students in mining and civil engineering, suggested by the extensive public works in the neighbourhood. The students in this department must pass an examination, on admission, in the Latin language, or in some modern foreign language approved by the senate, in arithmetic, and the elements of mathematics. The full course of study for mining students extends over three academical years at least, and for engineer students over four academical years at least, of which, in both cases, three terms at least must be kept in the university; and includes the several subjects which relate to the theory and practice of mining and civil engineering. The students during their course are subjected to two examinations; and if these are passed satisfactorily, are admitted, by grace of the university, to the academical rank of mining engineer or civil engineer. With the view of giving additional facilities for students in medicine, regulations were made in 1852, by which it is provided that such students, if they reside three terms at Durham, may pursue the remainder of their studies elsewhere or in some school in connection with the university. In conformity with these resolutions, the Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine was received into connection with the university, and degrees in medicine are now conferred. The regular course of academical and theological instruction is confined to the members of the university, and is conducted by the professors and tutors, who give lectures daily.

There are twenty-four university fellowships, of which eight may be held by laymen. The ten senior fellowships are of the annual value of £150, and the others of £120. They are filled up by the warden, the members of the Senate, and the four senior fellows who are resident, and are vacated by marriage, or by holding preferment, office, or property, real or personal, producing £150 a year or upwards. There are also twenty university scholarships of the annual value of £30 each, besides ten others founded by private benefactors, of nearly the same value; and four medical scholarships of £25 a year. Prizes of various kinds are given for the encouragement of merit. Public lectures on various branches of literature and science are also delivered from time to time, which are open under certain regulations, to persons who are not members of the university.

Degrees are conferred by the warden and convocation, but every grace for a degree must be allowed by the dean and chapter before it is proposed in convocation. The academical year consists of three terms, of not less than eight weeks each, called Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. Michaelmas term commences not earlier than the 16th of October, and Easter term ends not later than the 30th June. No religious test is exacted till a student proceeds to his degree. For the terms and exercises requisite for proceeding to the different degrees, and for the university and college expenses, see Durham University Calendar for 1859.