MILK

MILK, a well-known fluid, prepared by nature in the breasts of women, and the udders of other animals, for the nourishment of their young.—According to Dr Cullen, milk is a connecting and intermediate substance between animals and vegetables. It seems immediately to be secreted from the chyle, both being a white liquor of the same consistence: it is most copiously secreted after meals, and of an acescent nature. In most animals who lives on vegetables, the milk is acescent; and it is uncertain, though at the same time no observation proves the contrary, whether it is not so likewise in carnivorous animals. But, whatever be in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals who live on vegetables is acescent. Milk being derived from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable nature; for in those who live on both promiscuously, more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vegetable than the animal food. Milk, however, is not purely vegetable; though we have a vegetable liquor that resembles its taste, consistence, colour, acescence, and the separability of the oily part, viz. an emulsion of the nuce oleosa and farinaceous substances. But these want the coagulable part of milk, which seems to be of animal-nature, approaching to that of the coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, seems to be of an intermediate nature, between chyle taken up.

up from the intestines and the fully elaborated animal-fluid.

Its contents are of three kinds: first, an oily part, which, whatever may be said concerning the origin of other oils in the body, is certainly immediately derived from the oil of the vegetables taken in, as with these it agrees very exactly in its nature, and would entirely if we could separate it fully from the coagulable part. Another mark of their agreement is the separability, which proves that the mixture has been lately attempted, but not fully performed. 2dly, Besides this oily, there is a proper coagulable part: And, 3dly, Much water accompanies both, in which there is dissolved a saline saccharine substance. These three can be got separate in cheese, butter, and whey; but never perfectly so, a part of each being always blended with every other part.

Nothing is more common, from what has been said of its immediate nature, than to suppose that it requires no assimilation; and hence has been deduced the reason of its exhibition in the most weakly state of the human body. But wherever we can examine milk, we always find that it coagulates, suffers a decomposition, and becomes acetic. Again, infants, who feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eructations, which every body observes are not of the same quality with the food taken; and therefore it appears, that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acetic in the stomach, and only enters the chyle and blood in consequence of a new recomposition. It approaches then to the nature of vegetable aliment, but is not capable of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has an advantage over it; neither from this quality, like animal-food, is it heating in the stomach, and productive of fever; though at the same time, from its quantity of coagulable matter, it is more nourishing than vegetables.

Milk is the food most universally suited to all ages and states of the body; but it seems chiefly designed by nature as the food of infants. When animals are in the foetus-state, their solids are a perfect jelly, incapable of an assimilatory power. In such state nature has perfectly assimilated food, as the albumen ovi in the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly somewhat of the same kind, as it was necessary the vessels should be filled with such a fluid as would make way for an after-assimilation. When the infant has attained a considerable degree of firmness, as when it is separated from the mother, yet such a degree of weakness still remains as makes somewhat of the same indication necessary, it behoves the infant to have an alkaline food ready prepared, and at the same time its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is given, which is alkaline, and, at the same time, has a sufficient quantity of acidity to correct that alkaline tendency. As the body advances in growth, and the alkaline tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more suited to its strength of assimilation.

Dr Cullen observes, that milk is almost suited to all temperaments; and it is even so to stomachs disposed to acidity, more than those substances which have undergone the vinous fermentation; nay, it even cures the heart-burn, checks vinous fermentation, and precipitates the leys, when, by renewal of fermentation,

the wine happens to be fouled. It therefore very properly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment; although sometimes its aceticity is troublesome, either from a large proportion taken in, or from the degree of it; for, according to certain unaccountable circumstances, different acids are formed in the stomach in different states of the body; in a healthy body, e. g. a mild one; in the hypochondriac disease, one sometimes as corrosive as the fulvic acid. When the acidity of milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove remarkably refrigerant, and occasion cold erudities, and the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the common notion of its passing unchanged into the blood, it can suffer no solution. But if we admit its coagulum in the stomach, then it may be reckoned among soluble or insoluble foods, according as that coagulum is more or less tenacious. Formerly rennet, which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an acid; but, from late observations, it appears, that, if it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and that its coagulum is stronger than that produced by acids. It has been imagined, that a rennet is to be found in the stomachs of all animals, which causes coagulation of milk; but, to Dr Cullen, the coagulation of milk seems to be owing to a weak acid in the stomach, the relics of our vegetable food, inducing, in healthy persons, a weak and soluble coagulum; but in different stomachs this may be very different, in these becoming heavy and less soluble food, and sometimes even evacuated in a coagulated undissolved state both by stomach and stool.

As milk is acetic, it may be rendered sometimes purgative by mixing with the bile; and some examples of this have been remarked. More commonly, however, it is reckoned among those foods which occasion colic and convulsions.

Hoffman, in his experiments on milk, found that all kinds of it contained much water; and when this was dissipated, found the residuum very different in their solubility. But we must not thence conclude, that the same insolubility takes place in the stomach; for extracts made from vegetables with water are often very insoluble substances, and hardly diffusible through water itself: therefore, in Hoffman's extracts, if we may so call them, of milk, somewhat of the same kind might have appeared; and these substances, which in their natural state were not so, might appear very insoluble. However, we may allow that milk is always somehow insoluble in the intestines, as it is of a drying nature, and, as cheese, &c. is very colicky. And this effect shows that milk is always coagulated in the stomach; for if it remained fluid, no feces would be produced, whereas sometimes very hard ones are observed. In the blood-vessels, from its animal-nature, it may be considered as nutritious; but when we consider its vegetable contents, and aceticity in the prime via, we find, that, like animal-food, it does not excite that degree of fever in the time of digestion, and that from its aceticity it will resist putrefaction. Hence its use in hectic fevers, which, whatever be their cause, appear only to be exacerbations of natural feverish paroxysms, which occur twice every day, commonly after meals, and at night. To obviate these, therefore, we give such an aliment as produces the least exacerbation of these fevers; and of this nature is milk,

Milk. on account of its acescent vegetable nature.

There appears also somewhat peculiar to milk, which requires only a small exertion of the animal-powers in order to its assimilation; and besides, in hectic complaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approaching to the animal-nature: so that on all these accounts, milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in general, to most convalescents, and to those of inflammatory temperaments.—So far of milk in general.—We shall now speak of the particular kinds which are in common use.

The milk of women, mares, and asses, agree very much in their qualities, being very dilute, having little solid contents, and, when evaporated to dryness, having these very soluble, containing much saccharine matter, of a very ready acescence, and, when coagulated, their coagulum being tender and easily broke down. From this view they have less oil, and seem to have less coagulable matter, than the rest.

The milk of cows, sheep, and goats, agree, in opposite qualities to the three just mentioned; but here there is somewhat more of gradation. Cows milk comes nearest to the former milk: goats milk is less fluid, less sweet, less flatulent, has the largest proportion of insoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the largest proportion of coagulable part; its oily and coagulable parts are not spontaneously separable, never throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be readily extracted from it. Hence the virtues of these milks are obvious, being more nourishing, though, at the same time, less easily soluble in weak stomachs, than the three first, less acescent than these, and so more rarely laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of convalescents without fever. The three first, again, are less nourishing, more soluble, more laxative, as more acescent, and adapted to the convalescents with fever.

These qualities, in particular milks, are considerably diversified by different circumstances. First, Different animals, living on the same diet, give a considerably different milk; for there seems to be something in the constitution, abstracting from the aliment, which constitutes a considerable diversity of milk, not only in the same species of animals, but also in the same animal, at different ages, and at different distances after delivery: this applies to the choice of nurses. Secondly, Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any other juice in the human body, being more or less fluid and dilute, more or less solid and nourishing, in proportion as these qualities are more or less in the aliment. The nature of the aliment differs according to its time of growth, e.g. old grass being always found more nourishing than young. Aliment, too, is always varied according to the season, as that is warm or dry, moist or cloudy.

The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter for particular purposes, when fed on proper food. Thus the cow delights in the succulent herbage of the vale: if the sheep be fed there he certainly rots, but on the higher and more dry side of the mountain he feeds pleasantly and healthy; while the goat never stops near the bottom, but ascends to the craggy summit: and certainly the milks of these animals are always best on their proper soil, and that of goats is best

on a mountainous country. From a dissertation of Linnæus, we have many observations concerning the diversity of plants on which each animal chooses to feed. All the Swedish plants which could be collected together, were presented alternately to domestic animals, and then it appeared that the goat lived on the greatest variety, and even on many which were poisonous to the rest; that the cow chose the first succulent shoots of the plant, and neglected the fructification; which last was preferred by the goat. Hence may be deduced rules concerning the pasturage of different animals; e.g. Farmers find, that, in a pasture which was only fit to feed a certain number of sheep, an equal number of goats may be introduced, while the sheep are no less nourished than before.

It is not easy to assign the difference between milk fresh-drawn and that detained in the open air for some time; but certainly there is some material one, otherwise nature universally would not have directed infants to suckling; and indeed it seems, better than the other, fitted for digestion and nourishment. Physicians have supposed that this depended on the evaporation of some sp. rector, but our author cannot conceive any such, except common water here; and besides, these volatile parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plausible account seems deducible from mixture: milk, new drawn, has been but lately mixed, and is exposed to spontaneous separation, a circumstance hurtful to digestion; none of the parts being, by themselves, so easily assimilated as when they are all taken together. Hence, then, milk new-drawn is more intimately blended, and therefore then is most proper to the weakly and infants.

Another difference in the use of milk exposed for some time to the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled. Physicians have generally recommended the former; but the reason is not easily assigned. Perhaps it is this: Milk kept for some time, exposed to the air has gone so far to a spontaneous separation; whereas the heat thoroughly blends the whole, and hence its resolution is not so easy in the stomach; and thus boiled milk is more costive than raw, and gives more faeces. Again, when milk is boiled, a considerable quantity of air is detached, as appears from the froth on the surface; and air is the chief instrument of fermentation in bodies; so that, after this process, it is not liable to acescence; for these reasons it is proper for the robust and vigorous.

Another difference of milk is, according as it is fluid or coagulated. The coagulated is of two kinds, as induced by rennet, or the natural acescence of the milk. The former preparation makes the firmer and less easily soluble coagulum; though, when taken with the whey unseparated, it is less difficult of solution, tho' more so than any other coagulum in the same case. Many nations use the latter form, which is easier soluble, but very much acescent, and therefore, in point of solution, should be confined to the vigorous, in point of acescence, to those who live on alkalescent food; and in the last case the Laplanders use it as their chief acescent condiment. From the same considerations it is more cooling, and in its other effects like all other acescent vegetables.

Milk by evaporation yields a sweet saline matter, of which Dr Lewis gives the following proportions:

The saline substance extracted from asses milk was white, and sweet as sugar; those of the others brown, or yellow, and considerably less sweet; that from cows milk had the least sweetness of any.

On distilling 12 quarts of milk in balneo maris, at least nine quarts of pure phlegm were obtained: the liquor which afterwards arose was acidulous, and by degrees grew sensibly more and more acid as the distillation was continued. After this came over a little spirit, and at last an empyreumatic oil. The remaining solid matter adhered to the bottom of the retort, in the form of elegant shining black flowers, which being calcined and elixated yielded a portion of fixed alkaline salt.

Milk, set in a warm place, throws up to the surface an unctuous cream, from which, by agitation, the butter is easily separated. The addition of alkaline salts prevents this separation, not (as some have supposed) by absorbing an acid from the milk, but by virtue of their property of intimately uniting oily bodies with watery liquors. Sugar, another grand intermedium betwixt oils and water, has this effect in a greater degree, though that concrete is by no means alkaline, or an absorbent of acids.

The sweet saccharine part of the milk remains dissolved in the whey after the separation of the curd or cheesy matter, and may be collected from it in a white crystalline form, by boiling the whey till all remains of the curdled substance have fallen to the bottom; then filtering, evaporating it to a due consistence, setting it to shoot, and purifying the crystals by solution in water and a second crystallization. Much has been said of the medicinal virtues of this sugar of milk, but it does not seem to have any considerable ones: It is from cows milk that it has been generally prepared; and the crystals obtained from this kind of milk have but little sweetness.

When milk is suffered to coagulate spontaneously, the whey proves acid, and on standing grows more and more so till the putrefactive state commences. Sour whey is used as an acid, preferably to the directly vegetable or the mineral acids, in some of the chemical arts; as for dissolving iron in order to the staining of linen and leather. This acid was commonly made use of in the bleaching of linen, for dissolving and extracting the earthy particles left in the cloth by the alkaline salts and lime employed for cleansing and whitening it. Butter-milk is preferred to plain four-milk or four-whey: This last is supposed to give the cloth a yellow colour. Dr Home, in his ingenious treatise on this subject, recommends water acidulated with spirit of vitriol, (in the proportion of about half an ounce, or at most three quarters of an ounce, to a gallon), as preferable in many respects to the acid of

milk, or of the more directly vegetable substances. He observes, that the latter are often difficultly procurable, abound with oleaginous particles, and hasten to corruption; whilst the vitriolic acid is cheap, and pure, and indisposed to putrefy: That milk takes five days to perform its office, whilst the vitriolic acid does it in as many hours, perhaps in as many minutes: That this acid contributes also to whiten the cloth, and does not make it weaker though the cloth be kept in it for months. He finds, that acids as well as alkalies, extract an oily matter from the cloth, and lose their acidity and alkalinity. Since this treatise appeared, the use of four-milk is very generally superseded by oil of vitriol.

It is observable, that asses milk is greatly disposed, on standing for a little time, to become thick and ropy. In the Breslau collection for the year 1720, there is a remarkable account of milk (which probably was that of the ass) grown so thick and tenacious as to be drawn out into long strings, which, when dried, were quite brittle.

New cow milk, suffered to stand for some days on the leaves of butterwort or sun-dew, becomes uniformly thick, slippery, and coherent, and of an agreeable sweet taste, without any separation of its parts. Fresh milk, added to this, is thickened in the same manner, and this successively. In some parts of Sweden, as we are informed in the Swedish Memoirs, milk is thus prepared for food.

New milk has a degree of glutinous quality, so as be used for joining broken bone-ware. There is a far greater tenacity in cheese properly prepared.

Milk, when examined by a microscope, appears composed of numerous globules swimming in a transparent fluid. It boils in nearly the same degree of heat with common water; some sorts rather sooner, and some a little later: after boiling, it is less disposed to grow sour than in its natural state. It is coagulated by acids both mineral and vegetable, and by alkalies both fixed and volatile. The coagulum made by acids falls to the bottom of the serum; that made by alkalies swims on the surface, commonly forming (especially with volatile alkalies) a thick coriaceous skin. The serum, with alkalies, proves green or fannous; with acids, it differs little in appearance from the whey that separates spontaneously. The coagulum formed by acids is dissolved by alkalies, and that formed by alkalies is re-dissolved by acids; but the milk does not in either case resume its original properties. It is coagulated by most of the middle salts, whose basis is an earth or a metallic body; as solution of alum, fixed sal ammoniac, sugar of lead, green and blue vitriol: but not by the chalybeate or purging mineral waters, nor by the bitter salt extracted from the purging waters. Among the neutral salts that have been tried, there is not one that produces any coagulation. They all dilute the milk, and make it less disposed to coagulate with acids or alkalies: Nitre seems to have this effect in a greater degree than the other neutral salts. It is instantly coagulated by highly-rectified spirit of wine, but scarcely by a phlegmatic spirit. It does not mingle with expressed oils. All the coagula are dissolved by gall.

Milk of Lime. Milk of Sulphur. The name of milk is given to substances very different from milk properly

so called, and which resemble milk only in colour. Such is water in which quicklime has been slaked, which acquires a whiteness from the small particles of the lime being suspended in it, and has hence been called the milk of lime. Such also is the solution of liver of sulphur, when an acid is mixed with it, by which white particles of sulphur are made to float in the liquor.

Milk of Vegetables. For the same reason that milk of animals may be considered as a true animal-emulsion, the emulsive liquors of vegetables may be called vegetable milks. Accordingly emulsions made with almonds are commonly called milk of almonds. But besides this vegetable milk, which is in some measure artificial, many plants and trees contain naturally a large quantity of emulsive or milky juices. Such are lettuce, spurge, fig-tree, and the tree which furnishes the elastic American resin. The milky juices obtained from all these vegetables derive their whiteness from an oily matter, mixed and undissolved in a watery or mucilaginous liquor. Most resinous gums were originally such milky juices, which afterwards become solid by the evaporation of their most fluid and volatile parts.

These natural milky juices have not been examined by any chemist. Such an examination would, however, procure much essential knowledge concerning vegetable economy. We should probably find examples of all kinds of oils reduced into milky juices; and this knowledge cannot fail of throwing much light on the nature of resins and gum-resins.

Milk-Fever. See MIDWIFE, Chap. XX.

MILL, a machine for grinding corn, &c. of which there are various kinds, according to the different methods of applying the moving power; as water-mills, wind-mills, mills worked by horses, &c. See MECHANICS.

The first obvious method of reducing corn into flour for bread would be, by the simple expedient of pounding. And that was for ages the only one which was practised by the various descendants of Adam, and actually continued in use among the Romans below the reign of Vespasian. But the process was very early improved by the application of a grinding power, and the introduction of mill-stones. This, like most of the common refinements in domestic life, was probably the invention of the antediluvian world, and certainly practised in some of the earliest ages after it. And, like most of them, it was equally known in the east and west. Hence the Gauls and Britons appear familiarly acquainted with the use of hand-mills before the time of their submission to the Romans; the Britons particularly distinguishing them, as the Highlanders and we distinguish them at present, by the simple appellation of querns, carnes, or stones. And to these the Romans added the very useful invention of water-mills. For this discovery the world is pretty certainly indebted to the genius of Italy; and the machine was not uncommon in the country at the conquest of Lancashire. This, therefore, the Romans would necessarily introduce with their many other refinements among us. And that they actually did, the British appellation of a water-mill fully suggests of itself; the melin of the Welsh and Cornish, the muil, meil, and melin of the Armoricans, and the Irish muilean and muilind, being all evidently de-

derived from the Roman mola and molendinum. The subject Britons universally adopted the Roman name, but applied it, as we their successors do, only to the Roman mill; and one of these was probably erected at every stationary city in the kingdom. One plainly was at Manchester, serving equally the purposes of the town, and the accommodation of the garrison. And one alone would be sufficient, as the use of hand-mills remained very common in both, many having been found about the site of the station particularly; and the general practice having descended among us nearly to the present period. Such it would be peculiarly necessary to have in the camp, that the garrison might be provided against a siege. And the water-mill at Manchester was fixed immediately below the Cattle-field and the town, and on the channel of the Medlock. There, a little above the ancient ford, the sluice of it was accidentally discovered about 30 years ago. On the margin of Dyer's-croft, and opposite to some new constructions, the current of the river, accidentally swelled with the rains, and obstructed by a dam, broke down the northern bank, swept away a large oak upon the edge of it, and disclosed a long tunnel in the rock below. This has been since laid open in part with a spade. It appeared entirely uncovered at the top, was about a yard in width, and another in depth, but gradually narrowed to the bottom. The sides showed every-where the marks of the tool on the rock, and the course of it was parallel with the channel. It was bared by the flood about 25 yards only in length, but was evidently continued for several further; having originally begun, as the nature of the ground evinces, just above the large curve in the channel of the Medlock.

For the first five or six centuries of the Roman state, there were no public bread-bakers in the city of Rome. They were first introduced into it from the east, at the conclusion of the war with Perseus, and about the year 167 before Christ. And, towards the close of the first century, the Roman families were supplied by them every morning with fresh loaves for breakfast. But the same custom, which prevailed originally among the Romans and many other nations, has continued nearly to the present time among the Mancunians. The providing of bread for every family was left entirely to the attention of the women in it. And it was baked upon stones, which the Welsh denominate greidiols and we greidles. It appears, however, from the kiln-burnt pottery which has been discovered in the British sepulchres, and from the British appellation of an odyn or oven remaining among us at present, that furnaces for baking were generally known among the original Britons. An odyn would, therefore, be erected at the mansion of each British baron, for the use of himself and his retainers. And, when he and they removed into the vicinity of a Roman station, the oven would be rebuilt with the mansion, and the public bakehouses of our towns commence at the first foundation of them. One bakehouse would be constructed, as we have previously shewn one mill to have been set up, for the public service of all the Mancunian families. One oven and one mill appear to have been equally established in the town. And the inhabitants of it appear immemorially accustomed to bake at the one and grind at the other. Both, therefore, were in all pro-

bility constructed at the first introduction of water-mills and ovens into the country. The great similarity of the appointments refers the consideration directly to one and the same origin for them. And the general nature of all such institutions points immediately to the first and actual introduction of both. And, as the same establishments prevailed equally in other parts of the north, and pretty certainly obtained over all the extent of Roman Britain, the same erections were as certainly made at every stationary town in the kingdom.

MILL (John), a very learned divine, was born at Shap in Westmoreland, about the year 1645; and became a fervitor of Queen's college Oxford. On his entering into orders he became an eminent preacher, and was made prebendary of Exeter. In 1681, he was created doctor of divinity; about the same time he was made chaplain in ordinary to king Charles II. and in 1685 he was elected principal of St Edmund's hall in Oxford. His edition of the Greek Testament, which will ever render his name memorable, was published about a fortnight before his death, which happened in June 1707. Dr Mill was employed 30 years in preparing this edition.