POPE

POPE, a name which comes from the Greek word Πάπας, and signifies Father. In the east this appellation is given to all Christian priests; and in the west, bishops were called by it in ancient times: but now for many centuries it has been appropriated to the bishop of Rome, whom the Roman Catholics look upon as the common father of all Christians.

Much has been said, much written, and many warm disputes have been carried on concerning the pope, and the power belonging to him, within these two or three last centuries. We shall here, without entering into controversy, lay down distinctly, from the best authority, what the Roman Catholics really believe concerning the pope, after having described the manner of his election; and we shall give some other particulars relating to this subject that seem to deserve notice, and are in this country not generally known.

All in communion with the see of Rome unanimously hold, that our Saviour Jesus Christ constituted St Peter the apostle chief pastor under himself, to watch over his whole flock here on earth, and to preserve the unity of it; giving him the power requisite for these ends. They also believe, that our Saviour ordained, that St Peter should have successors with the like charge and power, to the end of time. Now, as St Peter resided at Rome for many years, and suffered martyrdom there, they consider the bishops of Rome as his successors in the dignity and office of the universal pastor of the whole Catholic church. There have been some varieties in the manner of choosing the bishop of Rome in different ages, as alterations may be made in discipline; but still the clergy of Rome have justly had the chief part in that election: and that clergy is now represented by, or in some manner consists of, the cardinals, who have for several centuries been the sole electors of the pope.

These cardinals or principal persons of the church of Rome are 70 in number, when the sacred college, as it is called, is complete. Of these six are cardinal bishops, the bishops of Ostia, of Porto, Albano, Sabino, Tusculum or Frascati, and Prænesto or Palestrina; which are the six suburbanian churches; 50 are cardinal priests, who have all titles from parish churches in Rome; and fourteen are cardinal deacons, who have their titles from churches in Rome of less note, called Diaconias or Deaconries. These cardinals are created by the pope when there happen to be vacancies; and sometimes he names one or two only at a time; but commonly he defers the promotion until there be ten or twelve vacancies or more; and then at every second such promotion the emperor, the kings of Spain and France, and of Britain, when Catholic, are allowed to present one each, to be made cardinal, whom the pope always admits if

there be not some very great and evident objection. These cardinals are commonly promoted from among such clergymen as have borne offices in the Roman court; some are assumed from religious orders; eminent ecclesiastics of other countries are likewise often honoured with this dignity, as the archbishops of Toledo and Vienna are at present cardinal priests of Rome. Sons of sovereign princes have frequently been members of the sacred college; and there ends the direct line of the royal family of Stuart. Their distinctive dress is scarlet, to signify that they ought to be ready to shed their blood for the faith and church, when the defence and honour of either require it. They wear a scarlet cap and hat: the cap is given to them by the pope if they are at Rome, and is sent to them if they are absent; but the hat is never given but by the pope's own hand. These cardinals form the pope's standing council or consistory for the management of the public affairs of church and state. They are divided into different congregations for the more easy dispatch of business; and some of them have the principal offices in the pontifical court, as that of cardinal-vicar—penitentiary—chancellor—camerlingo or chamberlain—prefect of the signature of justice—prefect of memorials—and secretary of state. They have the title given them of eminence and most eminent. But here we consider them principally as the persons entrusted with the choice of the pope. See CARDINAL.

On the demise of a pope his pontifical seal is immediately broken by the chamberlain, and all public business is interrupted that can be delayed: messengers are dispatched to all the Catholic sovereigns to acquaint them of the event, that they make take what measures they think proper; and that the cardinals in their dominions, if any there be, may hasten to the future election if they choose to attend; whilst the whole attention of the sacred college is turned to the preservation of tranquillity in the city and state, and to the necessary preparations for the future election. The cardinal chamberlain has, during the vacancy of the holy see, great authority; he coins money with his own arms on it, lodges in the pope's apartments, and is attended by body-guards. He, and the first cardinal bishop, the first cardinal priest, and the first cardinal deacon, have during that time, the government almost entirely in their hands. The body of the deceased pope is carried to St Peter's, where funeral service is performed for him with great pomp for nine days, and the cardinals attend there every morning. In the mean time, all necessary preparations for the election are made; and the place where they assemble for that purpose, which is called the conclave, is fitted up in that part of the Vatican palace which is nearest St Peter's church, as this has long been thought the most convenient situation. Here is formed by partitions of wood a number of cells or chambers equal to the number of cardinals, with a small distance between every two, and a broad gallery before them. A number is put on every cell, and small papers with corresponding numbers are put into a box: every cardinal, or some one for him, draws out one of these papers, which determines in what cell he is to lodge. The cells are lined with cloth; and there is a part of each one separated for the conclavists or attendants, of whom two are allowed to each cardinal, and three to cardinal princes. They are persons of some

some rank, and generally of great confidence; but they must carry in their master's meals, serve him at table, and perform all the offices of a menial servant. Two physicians, two surgeons, an apothecary, and some other necessary officers, are chosen for the conclave by the cardinals.

On the 10th day after the pope's death, the cardinals, who are then at Rome, and in a competent state of health, meet in the chapel of St Peter's, which is called the Gregorian Chapel, where a sermon on the choice of a pope is preached to them, and mass is said for invoking the grace of the holy Ghost. Then the cardinals proceed to the conclave in procession two by two, and take up their abode. When all is properly settled, the conclave is shut up, having boxed wheels or places of communication in convenient quarters: there are also strong guards placed all around. When any foreign cardinal arrives after the inclosure, the conclave is opened for his admission. In the beginning every cardinal signs a paper, containing an obligation, that if he shall be raised to the papal chair he will not alienate any part of the pontifical dominion; that he will not be prodigal to his relations; and such other stipulations as may have been settled in former times or framed for that occasion.

We come now to the election itself; and that this may be effectual, two-thirds of the cardinals present must vote for the same person. As this is often not easily obtained, they sometimes remain whole months in the conclave. They meet in the chapel twice every day for giving their votes; and the election may be effectuated by scrutiny, accession or acclamation. Scrutiny is the ordinary method; and consists in this: every cardinal writes his own name on the inner part of a piece of paper, and this is folded up and sealed; on a second fold of the same paper a conclaveist writes the name of the person for whom his master votes. This, according to agreements observed for some centuries, must be one of the sacred college. On the outer side of the paper is written a sentence at random, which the voter must well remember. Every cardinal, on entering into the chapel, goes to the altar and puts his paper into a large chalice.

When all are convened, two cardinals number the votes; and if they are more or less than the number of cardinals present, the voting must be repeated. When that is not the case, the cardinal appointed for the purpose reads the outer sentence, and the name of the cardinal under it, so that each voter hearing his own sentence and the name joined with it, knows that there is no mistake. The names of all the cardinals that are voted for are taken down in writing, with the number of votes for each; and when it appears that any one has two-thirds of the number present in his favour the election is over: but when this does not happen, the voting papers are all immediately burnt without opening up the inner part. When several trials of coming to a conclusion by this method of scrutiny have been made in vain, recourse is sometimes had to what is called accession. By it, when a cardinal perceives that one or very few votes are wanting to any one for whom he had not voted at that time, he may say that he accedes to the one who has near the number of votes requisite; and if his one vote suffices to make up the two-thirds, or if he is followed by a sufficient number of acceders or

new voters for the said cardinal, the election is accomplished. Lastly, a pope is sometimes elected by acclamation; and that is, when a cardinal, being pretty sure that he will be joined by a number sufficient, cries out in the open chapel, that such a one shall be pope. If he is supported properly, the election becomes unanimous; those who would perhaps oppose it foreseeing that their opposition would be fruitless, and rather hurtful to themselves. It is to be observed, that the emperor of Germany and the kings of France and Spain claimed a right of excluding one cardinal from being pope at every election. Hence, when the ambassador at Rome of any of these sovereigns perceived that any cardinal, disagreeable to his master, according to the instructions he had received, was likely to be made pope, he demanded an audience of the conclave, was admitted, and there declared his master's will, which was always attended to for the common good. But each of those sovereigns was allowed thus to exclude only one at one time; and they unwillingly and seldom put this right in execution.

When a pope is chosen in any of the three above-mentioned ways, the election is immediately announced from the balcony in the front of St Peter's, homage is paid to the new pontiff, and couriers are sent off with the news to all parts of Christendom. The pope appoints a day for his coronation at St Peter's, and for his taking possession of the patriarchal church of St John Lateran; all which is performed with great solemnity. He is addressed by the expression of Holiness, and most holy Father.

Let us now proceed to see what authority Roman Catholics attribute to the pope thus chosen. They believe then, that the bishop of Rome is, under Christ, supreme pastor of the whole church; and as such is not only the first bishop in order and dignity, but has also a power and jurisdiction over all Christians, in order to preserve unity and purity of faith and moral doctrine, and to maintain order and regularity in all churches. Wherefore they hold, that when the pope understands that any error has been broached against faith or manners, or that any considerable difference on such subjects has arisen in any part of Christendom, it belongs to him, after due deliberation and consultation, to issue out his pastoral decree, condemning the error, clearing up the doubt, and declaring what has been delivered down, and what is to be believed. Some Catholic divines are of opinion that the pope cannot err, when he thus addresses himself to all the faithful on matters of doctrine. They well know, that as a private doctor he may fall into mistakes as well as any other man; but they think, that when he teaches the whole church Providence must preserve him from error; and they apprehend, that this may be deduced from the promises of Christ to St Peter, and from the writings of the ancient fathers. However, this infallibility of the pope, even when he pronounces in the most solemn manner, is only an opinion, and not an article of Roman Catholic faith. Wherefore, when he sends for the doctrinal decrees, the other bishops, who are also guardians of the faith in an inferior degree, may, with due respect, examine these decrees; and if they see them agree with what has been always taught, they either formally signify their acceptance, or they tacitly acquiesce, which, considering their duty, is equivalent to a formal approbation. When the acceptance of the generality of the bishops has been obtained,

Pope. obtained, either immediately or after some mutual correspondence and explanation, the decrees of the pope thus accepted come to be the sentence of the whole church, and are believed to be beyond the possibility of error!

Sometimes it may happen that the disputes and differences may be so great and intricate, that to the end it may be seen more clearly what has really been delivered down, and to give all possible satisfaction, it may appear proper to convene all the bishops who can conveniently attend to one place, to learn from them more distinctly what has been taught and held in their respective churches. Roman Catholics believe that it belongs to the pope to call such general councils, and to preside in them in person or by his legates. They likewise hold, that when the pope has approved the decrees of such councils concerning faith or manners, such decrees are then final, and must be received as such by all Catholics. In all this they believe, that the particular assistance of the Holy Ghost is with the pastors of the church, that so the gates of hell may never prevail against her.

The see of Rome, according to Roman Catholics, is the centre of Catholic unity. All their bishops communicate with the pope, and by his means with one another, and so form one body. However distant their particular churches may be, they all meet at Rome either in person or by their delegates, or at least by their letters. And, according to the discipline of the latter ages, though they are presented to the pope for their office from their respective countries, yet from him they must receive their bulls of consecration before they can take possession of their sees.

In matters of church discipline, the pope, as chief pastor, not only ought to take care that the canons actually in force be observed in all churches, but he may also make new canons and regulations when he sees it necessary or expedient for the spiritual benefit of the faithful, according to times and circumstances. But in doing this he must not infringe the established rights or customs with injury to any person; which if, through mistake or wrong information, he should ever do, the persons who think themselves aggrieved may remonstrate with respect and sue for redress. He may establish new episcopal sees, where there have been none before; and he may alter the limits of former dioceses; but in such alterations he always of course consults the temporal sovereign, if in communion with him. He sends pastors to preach the gospel to all countries where the Catholic religion is not by law established; and to him appeals may be made from all parts of Christendom in ecclesiastical causes of great importance.

The pope may dispense with the observation of ecclesiastical canons when there are just reasons for it, as may frequently happen; he may also dispense with vows when they are made with that express or tacit condition (A) that he really may dispense with them; he may also on some occasions declare that obligations have really ceased when that is truly the case, from a great alteration of circumstances: But he can never grant any dispensation, to the injury of any third person, and can

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never allow any one to do what is unjust, or to say what he knows to be false, whatever advantage might be expected from it.

The pope is also a temporal prince, and possesses considerable dominions in the middle part of Italy, besides Avignon, which the French have lately taken from him, and the duchy of Benevento included within the kingdom of Naples. It is also supposed that the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, and the duchies of Parma and Placentia, are still held of him in fief as they were before. His predecessors have acquired these possessions at different times and on different occasions, by various donations, concessions, treaties, and agreements, in like manner as has happened with regard to the establishment of other sovereignties; and his title to them is like to that of other potentates to their respective possessions. The revenue arising from this estate, and what he receives for various reasons from Catholic countries, which is now much reduced, is employed for the support of government, in salaries to the officers of his court, for the education of clergymen, and for the maintaining of missionaries in infidel countries. Great sums are particularly expended for the propagation of the Christian faith in different parts of Asia, especially in Armenia, Syria, and China. Nor is it much to be wondered at, if the families, of which the sovereign pontiffs happen to have been born, acquire greater riches and splendour from that connection. The princely families of Barberini, Borghese, Chigi, Corsini, Albani, are examples of this kind: but regulations have been made in later times to prevent excessive nepotism. Beyond the limits of his own temporal dominions the pope has no temporal power or jurisdiction, excepting what any nation may be pleased to allow him: when any thing of that kind has been granted or brought in by custom, it is evident that it ought not to be taken away rashly nor without just reason. But, as chief pastor of the church, he has no right to any temporal jurisdiction over his flock. As such, his power is entirely spiritual, and has no means of coercion originally or necessarily connected with it, but only ecclesiastical censures. It must be owned, that the popes, in some ages, sometimes imagining that they could do much good, sometimes by the consent, or even at the desire, of the sovereigns, and sometimes no doubt out of ambitious views, have interfered a great deal in the temporal affairs of the different kingdoms of Europe, which has frequently given scandal and done harm to religion. But it is known to those most versant in history, that their faults of this kind have been exaggerated, and their conduct often misunderstood or misrepresented. However, in this a Roman Catholic is not obliged to approve what they have done; nay, without acting contrary to his religion, he may judge of them freely, and blame them if he think they deserve it; only he will do it with respect and regret. Thus a Roman Catholic may either apologise, if he think he can do it, for the conduct of Innocent III. in deposing King John of England; or, without being guilty of any offence against his religion, he may blame the pontiff for what he did on that occasion; because the power of the pope to depose princes, or to absolve subjects from their allegiance, was never proposed as an article of faith, or made

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made a term of communion with the church of Rome. Some Catholic divines, indeed, especially among the Jesuits, are universally known to have held this extravagant and dangerous opinion; but by far the greater part of them condemn and abhor it as absurd and impious: and surely it is but fair and just to allow them to know best what they themselves believe. And here, to conclude, we shall add, that it is very desirable that Christians of all denominations endeavour to understand one another better than they have often done; and instead of supposing imaginary differences, strive to remove real ones, for the general good of mankind, for the glory of God, and honour of religion; and that all vie with one another to excel in just and charitable sentiments, language, and behaviour.

The reader, who wishes to know what can be urged for and against the supremacy of the pope, and who is fitted by his knowledge of ecclesiastical history to understand the nature of the question at issue, may consult, on the one hand, the works of Bellarmine, together with a small tract lately published in English, under the title of The Divine Economy of Christ in his Kingdom or Church; and on the other, Barrow's treatise on the Pope's Supremacy, together with Chillingworth's Religion of Protestants, &c.

Pope, Dominions of, or Ecclesiastical States, a country of Italy, bounded on the north by the gulf of Venice and the Venetian dominions, on the south by the Mediterranean, on the east by the kingdom of Naples and the Adriatic, and on the west by Tuscany and Modena. It is 200 miles long on the coast of the Adriatic from Naples to the Venetian territory. Its breadth from sea to sea is about 130 miles, and the area of the whole 15,500 square English miles. The population in 1815 was estimated at 2,424,000.

The soil, in general, of the pope's dominions is very fertile, but ill cultivated; and there are many fens and marshy grounds which are very prejudicial to the air. That the lands are badly cultivated and inhabited, the air bad, and the inhabitants poor, idle, lazy, and grossly superstitious, is owing to a variety of causes. With respect to the accommodations of life, this country is but in a very indifferent condition; for, notwithstanding the fertility of its soil, its advantageous situation for traffic, the large sums spent in it by travellers, or remitted to it from foreign countries, and its having, for its ruler, the successor of St Peter, the prince of the apostles, and the vicar of Jesus Christ; yet it is poor and thin of inhabitants, ill cultivated, and without trade and manufactures. This is partly owing to the great number of holidays, of sturdy beggars called pilgrims, and of hospitals and convents, with the amazing but perhaps useless wealth of churches and convents, and the inquisition: but the chief cause is the severity of the government, and the grievous exactions and hardships to which the subjects are exposed. The legates, though mostly clergymen, whose thoughts should be chiefly employed about laying up treasures in heaven, and who ought to set an example to the laity of disinterestedness and a contempt of this world, too often, it is said, scruple no kind of rapaciousness: even the holy father himself, and the cardinals, frequently make the enriching of their nephews and other relations, and the aggrandizing their families, too much the business of their lives. The extensive claims and great pretensions of the pope are well known, and, by a large part of

Christendom, are now treated with contempt and mockery. The Reformation gave a great blow to his spiritual power; and the French revolution has lessened it still more. His temporal dominions, however, still continue much the same; though how long this may be the case, considering how much he hath lost, and is daily losing, of his ghostly empire, and the veneration in which he was formerly held, it is difficult to say. See POPE.—The Campania of Rome is under the pope's immediate government; but the other provinces are governed by legates and vice-legates, and there is a commander in chief of the pope's forces in every province. The pope is chosen by the cardinals in the conclave: See this particularly described above. The pope holds a consistory of cardinals on ecclesiastical affairs; but the cardinals do not meddle with his civil government. The pope's chief minister is the cardinal-patron, usually his nephew, who amasses an immense estate, if the reign be of any long duration. The cardinal that is chosen pope must generally be an Italian, and at least 55 years of age. The spiritual power of the pope, though far short of what it was before the Reformation, is still considerable. It was formerly computed that the monks and regular clergy, who were absolutely at his devotion, amounted to 2,000,000 of people, dispersed through all the Roman Catholic countries, to promote the interest of the church. The revenues of these monks were supposed not to fall short of 20,000,000l. sterling, besides the casual profits arising from offerings, and the people's bounty to the church, who are taught that their salvation depends on this kind of benevolence. The number of monks is now much reduced.

The pope's revenues, including contributions from Catholic countries, were estimated at 800,000l. in 1815. The vast sums which formerly flowed into the papal treasury from all the Roman Catholic countries, for dispensations, indulgences, canonizations, annates, the pallia, and investitures of archbishops and bishops, are now much diminished.

The pope has a considerable body of regular forces, well clothed and paid; but his fleet consists only of a few galleys. His life guards are 40 Switzers, 75 cuirassiers, and as many light horse. Since the beginning of the French revolutionary war he had at one time a guard of English horse.

In 1797 the northern part of the states of the church was annexed to the Cisalpine republic, and in 1808 the remainder of the states east of the Apennines. In 1810 the shadow of independence which the western part of the pope's territories had enjoyed disappeared, and it was formally annexed to the French empire, forming two departments, Rome and Thrasimene. The successes of the allies in 1814 and 1815 restored the pope to the full possession of his dominions.