JAVA. The Encyclopædia contains a short description of this extensive and important island. Since that article was written, a large mass of valuable information has been communicated to the public in the History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, who, in the capacity of Governor of the Island, enjoyed ample means of gratifying his liberal spirit of inquiry; and in the History of the Indian Archipelago, by Mr Crawfurd, late Resident at the Court
of the Sultan of Java;—a work equally distinguished by accurate observation and philosophical reflection.
Of all the islands which compose the great Indian Archipelago, Java, though not the most extensive, is the most fertile, the most populous, and the most improved. Among the two races of people who inhabit the Oriental Islands, distinguished into the brown coloured race, and the Papuas, or Oriental negroes, the natives of Java belong to the former. They are under the middle size, the standard for men being five feet two inches, and for women four feet eleven inches. Their complexion is a yellowish brown, generally without any tincture of red. Of this colour they admire the fair specimens, and their standard beauty is a virgin gold; but they consider the European white as a sickly tint. They have a round face, little black eyes, a small nose, and a large mouth, with thick lips. On the head, beard, and other parts of the body, there is a remarkable deficiency of hair. Compared with the Europeans and Southern Asiatics, they are considered by Mr Crawfurd as an ill-looking race; but the opinion of Sir S. Raffles is, in this respect, more favourable. Their constitution is healthy, and they seem to attain a longevity equal to that of Europeans. Early marriages are as universal as among other Asiatics, a man being scarcely ever known single at twenty-five, while an unmarried female at eighteen is considered an old maid. The lot of the female sex differs considerably from what it usually is among Asiatics. They are by no means immured with the same jealousy; British gentlemen have even been admitted to visit the harems of the sultans and chiefs, where they were received by the ladies with all the dignified propriety of persons accustomed to mix in general society. To women, the commercial and pecuniary affairs of the family are almost wholly entrusted. Of these privileges and advantages, they are said not always to make the very best use. The right of divorce, with which they are indulged equally with the other sex, is carried by them beyond all excusable limits. It is very common for a woman, before the age of thirty, to have divorced three or four husbands; and Mr Crawfurd had one pointed out to him who was living with her twelfth. No difficulty occurs in regard to the disposal of the children, who, in Java, are never viewed in the light of a burden. Besides being easily supported, they are usually few in number, a circumstance ascribed to the hard labour which the mothers undergo, and the consequent frequency of abortion. Besides the management of the household, they weave all the cloths worn in the family, and perform various other offices, which in Europe devolve on the other sex. Polygamy is permitted by law, but it is known only among the great; and, even with them, the first wife alone is of their own rank, and mistress of the family; the others occupy a place decidedly inferior. The natives of Java were drawn by their Dutch masters in very dark colours: but the English residents, after careful observation, have described them much more favourably. They are generous, warm-hearted, and susceptible of strong attachments. Their affections of kindred are peculiarly forcible; so that, even in civil
contests, those fraternal enmities, so conspicuous in other Asiatic states, are scarcely ever observable. The English, who placed confidence in them, found them honest in the intercourse of common life; and they share only in a slight degree those habits of piracy for which the Malay tribes are so notorious. In society they are uncommonly good humoured, courteous, and polite, and scarcely ever seen in a passion, unless on those occasions when they are hurried to the last extreme of violence. These unhappily too often occur, under the impulse of that violent jealousy and revenge which form their ruling passions. The disregard of human life seems to proceed to an excess among them, scarcely known in any other quarter of the globe. It is stated that, in any part of Java, an assassin may be hired for the moderate sum of fifteen or twenty shillings; but, in general, the injured party conceives it more honourable to decline this cheap mode of redress, and to seek vengeance with his own hand. Some, driven to the extreme of desperation, run furiously into the streets, and kill indiscriminately all whom they meet, till they are themselves overpowered and cut down. This dreadful atrocity which, by a corruption of the native term, is called "running a muck," is said, however, to prevail, not among the native Javanese, but among the other Malay tribes, resident in the capital.
In the ancient religion of the Javanese, which was undoubtedly derived from Hindostan, Siwa, with his family, and Buddha, were the chief objects of adoration. Their temples appear, from the late inquiries of our countrymen, to have rivalled the splendour of those erected in the native seats of their religion. In the course of the fifteenth century, the whole island of Java was, by Arab traders and settlers, converted to Mahomedanism. This faith, however, which is generally observed with so much strictness, is professed here in a very loose and imperfect manner. It need only be observed, that wine and spirits are not only used without scruple on ordinary occasions, but are even sometimes produced at religious festivals. An extreme indifference prevails as to all its outward observances. In return, superstitious credulity prevails to a degree almost unparalleled. A belief in sorcery is universal. If a person write the name of another on a skull, bone, or leg, and suspend it from a tree on haunted ground, where two roads meet, the laws doom to death, himself, his friends, his children, and his children's children. Availing themselves of this credulity, various persons usually start up, in troubled times, as saints, prophets, or as the descendants of one of the ancient kings of Java, and attract a multitude of followers. Christianity has not obtained any footing in Java; and Mr Crawford doubts if it ever will, till the conduct of its Indian professors becomes more conformable to its precepts.
The Javanese language is the most copious and improved of any used in the Indian islands. It has Sanscrit for its basis, but with considerable variations. In the beauty of its written characters, it is not surpassed by any of the languages of Asia. It is distinguished by its vast copiousness as to particular, and barrenness as to general terms. Thus there are
five names for a dog, and seven for a horse, but no general word for an animal. The abstract terms, nature, space, and others of that kind, are entirely wanting. All their literature, as usual among rude nations, is metrical, and may be divided into lyrical compositions or songs; romances founded on Hindu legends; romances founded on modern story; histories of modern transactions; legal and ethical tracts, chiefly in prose. Of these compositions, the songs, in which feeling and passion are simply expressed, appear to be the most pleasing. The romances consist chiefly of abridged translations of the Mahabharat and Ramayana, from the Hindoo original into a now dead Javanese language, called the Kawi. These versions, being free from the endless prolixity of the originals, may be read with greater pleasure. Java had no history previous to the Mahomedan invasion; and even now, its annals consist merely of metrical legends, which being written under the eye of the prince whose deeds they relate, cannot be suspected of very strict impartiality. Besides the rudeness of these compositions, there is an absence of that energy, ardour, and sublimity, which have often characterized the poetry of far ruder nations. This seems justly ascribed to the despotic form of the government, which represses all the nobler sentiments natural to independent man, when individual character is permitted to unfold itself.
The government of Java is more absolute than that of any other part of the Archipelago, and differs little in this respect from the great monarchies of Asia. There is no rank but what emanates from the sovereign; and no bounds are set to the marks of respect shown by inferiors to the higher classes. No individual, of whatever rank, can stand in the presence of a superior, not even the heir-apparent in that of the sovereign. Whenever a chief appears in public, all his inferiors must throw themselves into the posture called dodok, which may be rendered by the English term "squatting;" in which they remain till he disappears. Sir S. Raffles describes himself as much annoyed at seeing, in one of his progresses, the whole population of the country quitting their work, and remaining fixed in this uneasy posture so long as he remained in sight. They have a language, or at least a modification of the common language, which must be used by the inferior, in addressing those of higher rank. The revenue of the sovereign, as usual in Asiatic despotisms, arises from the rent of all the cultivated lands in the country, levied in kind, and in the enormous proportion of one-half of the entire produce. This, however, by the allowance of one-sixth for reaping, is reduced to about two-fifths. It is paid, not into the treasury, but by the king assigning to each of his officers and servants a certain number of cultivators, whose rents he is to receive. The Javan farmer is supposed, on the whole, to be more mildly treated than the Hindoo.
Java is the most fertile of the eastern islands. To this, its lofty mountains and its extensive plains equally contribute. The copious streams, descending from the higher regions, not only supply the requisite moisture, but cover the valleys with deposits of
Java. rich soil. Along the foot of the mountains, this is ten, twelve, or even fifty feet deep, and of the most excellent quality. Farther from the mountains its fertility becomes less conspicuous; but almost every where throughout the island, the combined influence of heat and moisture is sufficient to raise good crops.
Teak. The most important natural production of Java is the teak. This valuable timber is produced abundantly only in Malabar, the Birman empire, and Java. It requires a rich soil to come to perfection, and attains to maturity in eighty or a hundred years. On the plains it acquires a larger growth, but is not so hard as when growing on the mountains, where, however, it scarcely thrives more than three or four thousand feet above the level of the sea. The teak of Java ranks in quality below that of Malabar, but above that of the Birman empire. It might become an extensive object of exportation, the forests of Java being sufficient to afford annually 50,000 beams for ship-building, besides an ample supply for minor objects. The Dutch greatly limited this trade by subjecting it to a rigid monopoly. The English adopted a more liberal system, in consequence of which teak soon found its way into the markets of Bengal; but since the recent cession, the old system has been re-established, and the teak of Java has advanced in price 200 per cent.
Rice. Of agricultural products, the most extensive and important is rice, the eastern staff of life. The industry and skill of the Javanese, not elsewhere conspicuous, appear to considerable advantage in this culture. The implements are not quite so rude as those used in Indostan; and though there are here none of the extensive tanks constructed in the latter country, the brooks and rivers are advantageously employed for the purposes of irrigation. The rice of Java is copiously exported to the other Indian islands, to China, and sometimes even to Europe. It is considered inferior to that of Carolina and Bengal. When the former sells for 18s. a cwt., and the latter for 11s. 3d., that of Java sells only for 9s. 9d. This inferior value is not owing to any original defect in the grain, but to the unskilful modes of husking and drying it. Maize grows in great luxuriance, but is considered an inferior grain, though its culture has of late been considerably extended, in consequence of the scarcity of lands fit for rice. A variety of pulses are raised as green crops, in the intervals between those of rice.
Coffee. Though introduced into Java only in 1723, has been found admirably suited to its climate, and is become one of the most important articles of culture. It is produced of good quality only upon the sides of the mountains, three or four thousand feet above the level of the sea. The introduction of this plant has been of the greater value to the island, since the lands upon which it thrives are unfit for any other important product. Coffee is exported to the amount of twenty-six millions of pounds, about two-sevenths of the produce of the West Indies. The trade is susceptible of a much greater extension. The coffee of Java, in the European market, ranks with that of Bourbon, both being considered superior to West India coffee.
Though the cane be a native of the Indian islands, the art of making sugar has been introduced from Europe. The rich soil of Java is perfectly suited to this culture, which is reckoned to be carried on there 125 per cent. cheaper than in the British West Indies. The produce of Java consists of clayed sugar, which equals or surpasses in quality any other except the Havannah. Hence has arisen an extraordinary demand, which, in the course of a few years, has raised the produce to six times its former amount. In 1818, it was so high as 27,400,000 lbs. The molasses, combined in the proportion of 62 parts with 35 of rice, and 3 of palm wine, yield the arrack for which Java is famous, though it is now made chiefly for internal consumption.
Tobacco. another article unknown previous to European connection, has become a general object of consumption and culture in the Indian islands. Java produces the greatest quantity, sending 5,000,000 lbs. to the rest of the Archipelago, and the Malayan peninsula. It produces, also, a considerable quantity of those birds' nests, the gelatinous substance of which forms the fantastic luxury of the Chinese. The annual export to Canton is reckoned at 27,000 lbs., which bring about L.5, 18s. per lb. Cotton is grown in great quantity, though of quality inferior even to that of the neighbouring islands, to which, however, its cheapness occasions a considerable exportation. In Europe, the cotton of Java is not esteemed; and the present glutted state of its markets affords little encouragement to any exertions to fit the cotton of Java for them.
Java does not produce the valuable metals and minerals in any quantity. A considerable quantity of salt is manufactured on its coasts by the simple process of evaporation in the sun. A good deal of saltpetre is also found, though not nearly in the same abundance as in the continent of India.
Manufacturing industry can scarcely be said to Manufactures exist in Java. Weaving is exclusively practised by the women, who make coarse cloths of cotton, and sometimes of silk, for the use of their families. The trade of a blacksmith is held in high esteem, and considered almost as a liberal profession; chiefly, it is probable, on account of the value attached to the manufacture of arms. Their small boats and barks are made of various and very convenient shapes; but they fail whenever they attempt to construct vessels of any magnitude.
In giving the list of the products of Java, we have Commerce given also the articles which it affords for exportation. Its imports are important from the augmentation which they have lately received, and of which they are still susceptible. It appears, by Mr Crawford's statement, that there does not exist here the same inveterate prejudice against European manufactures as in India and China. Since the opening of the free trade, the fine cottons of Britain have, from their cheapness, in a great measure superseded those of Indostan. Chintzes are the favourite article, in which the pattern is of much consequence. The taste of the Javanese is for bright colours, red and green in preference to all others, and next to these yellow and brown; while black is unsaleable. The pattern should be small, filling the ground without crowding
it. White calicoes and cotton cambrics are also purchased by the natives, to be painted by themselves. Although Java lies under the tropics, its mountainous and maritime situation produce a demand for light woollens. These should be cheap Yorkshire cloths, such as cost at Leeds 5s. to 6s. 6d. per yard. Iron, to the extent of 28,000 cwt., and to the value of L. 22,500, is annually imported into Java, which is destitute of that important metal. The Swedish is preferred, though British iron has of late been introduced to a considerable extent. Fire-arms and ammunition are most saleable articles, but their export has hitherto been prohibited by European governments. There has been recently a great extension of demand for our glass and earthenware. The tea and silks of China, and the opium of Bengal, form the chief articles of importation into Java from Asiatic countries.
The population of Java, including the small contiguous Island of Madura, was found, by a census taken in 1815, to amount to 4,600,000. Of these, three millions are in the provinces immediately subject to European authority; the rest is subject to the native princes. The principal European capitals, Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya, contain respectively 60,000, 25,000, and 20,000 inhabitants; the chief native capitals, Surakarta and Yug Yukerta, about 105,000 each. The Chinese, amounting to 94,000, form the most active and industrious part of the population; the manufactures of salt, sugar, and arrack, are solely in their hands. Slavery, in Java, prevails to a much less extent than in the other islands. The slaves do not exceed 30,000; and none of them are native Javans, but obtained by purchase or capture from Celebes or Borneo. The philanthropic measures adopted by Sir Stamford Raffles, with a view to the abolition of the trade, were se-
conded by the chiefs, and productive, to a considerable extent, of the desired effect.
The late changes in the European occupation of Java are of the less importance, as they have ended by all things being replaced in their original state. As Holland, after its annexation to France, became hostile to Britain, the consequence was the reduction, by our naval force, of its most important colonial possessions. On the 4th of August 1811, a British force was landed in Java, and, on the 10th, Batavia was taken by storm. The Dutch general, Janssens, retreated to the eastern extremity of the island, where being pursued and defeated by the British forces, he entered into a capitulation for the general surrender of Java. The British government, in the following year, engaged in a war with the native sovereign, which ended in the cession to us of extensive and important districts. Under the enlightened government of Sir Stamford Raffles, most important improvements were made in the judicial system, the collection of the revenue, and the freedom of trade. A literary society was also instituted, which performed important services in investigating the antiquities and natural history of Java. Meantime, upon the downfall of the French military government, and the restoration of independence to Holland, the faith of former alliances required the restoration of the conquests made from the latter power. This obligation was fulfilled by Britain in its fullest extent. At the close of the year 1816, the Dutch took possession of Java, along with their settlements in Celebes and the Spice Islands. (B.)