RUSSIANEMPIRE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE.

THE Article RUSSIA in the Encyclopædia appears to have been drawn up with attention, and, as far as it was founded on the documents collected by Mr. Tooke, with accuracy; but the changes that have taken place, and the additional information that has been communicated, render it necessary to give some account, in this place, of the present state of the empire. The principal changes in Europe have arisen from the possession of Finland, and the erection of Poland into a kingdom under the control of Russia. In Asia, some additions of territory have been gained from Persia and Tartary. In America, settlements have been established on the north-west coast of that continent, and claims have been made to some extensive tracts of country which are supposed to conflict with the rights of Great Britain, of the United States of America, or of Spain.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.

The Russian dominions, including Poland, form a connected territory, extending from the frontiers of Germany and Prussia eastward to the sea which divides America from Asia, and beyond that, on the continent of America, to an extent hitherto undefined, and which is likely to become the subject of discussion with the other powers established in that division of the globe. Its most western point is in longitude 18° 6', and its most eastern in 202° 26' east from London. Its northern and southern boundaries have deep indentations; the extreme points of the former are in 78° north latitude, and of the latter 39° 50'. The extent of this empire has been calculated by different writers with considerable variations. Some have included the mountains of Caucasus, others the whole of the Caspian Sea; whilst some, again, have omitted the

one and not the other. The comparative results of the several calculations, and the modes by which they have been conducted, lead to the conclusion, that an extent of 7,350,000 English square miles, or 4,704,000,000 acres, is the nearest approximation to accuracy. The whole of China is not equal to two-thirds of Russia; and the Roman Empire, at the period of its greatest extension, did not comprehend more than one-fourth of the territory now subject to that power.* The extent of the European portion of her dominions is only calculated at about one-fifth part of the whole.

The increase of population in Russia appears to have been equal to that of any other European country. The accounts were very imperfectly kept before the year 1796, as neither the females nor the privileged classes were noticed. By estimates, founded upon the return of taxable males, the inhabitants were calculated to have been, in 1729, 11,736,676; in 1743, 13,653,191; in 1763, 17,386,139; and in 1788, 25,482,214.

The Memoirs of the Academy of Petersburg give the population of the following years till 1805, thus:

In these accounts, the inhabitants of Moscow and Petersburg, the military and their families, and the wandering tribes, amounting to 2,900,000 persons, were not included. With the addition of those classes, the result of the calculation gave, as the whole number of inhabitants, 41,253,483.

The following Table is formed from the reports published by the Synod (which, however, includes only the members of the Orthodox Greek church), and shows the rate of the progressive increase of the population, as far as relates to that most numerous proportion of the people.

Taking the account of the population, as stated before, to have been in the year 1806 - 41,253,483 And inferring an annual increase by excess of births over deaths at 500,000 from 1806 to 1822, being 16 years, or - - - - - 8,000,000

We estimate the inhabitants of this empire - - - - - 54,476,931

This vast population consists of several distinct races, which have been classed and calculated by several different writers under the following heads: ||

1st, Slavonians. These, comprehending the inhabitants of Russia, Poland, Lithuania, and Cour-land, are estimated at 44,930,000. Different Races.

2d, Fins. These consist of the chief residents of Finland, Livonia, Lapland, and some other tribes, which together amount to about 2,360,000.

3d, Tartars. They comprehend several tribes, and a great number of subdivisions of tribes. The Tartars proper are divided into fourteen different branches; the Noggiers into six; besides which are the Kirgusiens, the Arians, the Chewensens, the Bucharens, the Bashirs, the Teleutes, and the Jakutes, who are taken together at 1,800,000.

4th, The Caucasians, which comprehend the Ischerkessens, the Awcheses, the Lesghies, the Ossetts, and Kistenses, estimated at 1,300,000.

5th, Monguls. Under this head are comprehended the Monguls proper, the Calmucks, the Buritens, and the Kuriles, supposed to amount to 350,000 only.

6th, The Mandshurs, in two branches, viz. Tungusens and Lamutes, whose numbers do not exceed 80,000.

7th, Polar People, comprehending Samoiedes, Korjacks, Ostjacks, Kamschats, and some smaller tribes, whose whole numbers are not more than 300,000.

8th, The Colonists. These include the various foreigners established in the empire with peculiar rights. The Jews amount to about 500,000; the Germans to 250,000; and the other Europeans and Asiatics to about 750,000; making together, under this head, 1,500,000.

The comparative religious classes in the Russian dominions have been recently stated as follow:

* See Kraft, Sur la Surface Geometrique de la Russie. Novis Act. Petersb. T. I. p. 389-400.

† It appears that the marriages in 1820 were fewer by 22,470 than in the year 1819.

‡ The births of 1820 exceeded those of 1819 by 48,265.

§ The deaths of 1820 were fewer than those of 1819 by 1429.

|| J. B. Georgi Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs. Hempel's and Geisler's Abbildung und Beschreibung der Völker unter Alexander. Le Peuples de la Russie, par le Comte Ch. de Rechberg.

The people of Great and Little Russia, the Cosacks, the Greeks, Arnauts, Walachians, Moldavians, and Bulgarians, adhere to the Greek church. The Catholics are chiefly in Poland and Lithuania, and among the colonists. The Lutherans are to be found mostly in Finland, Courland, and Estonia, and among the German colonists. The Armenians are mostly in the southern part of the Asiatic division of Russia, in the vicinity of Astrachan. The Calvinists, Hernhuters, Mennonites, are all colonists, except a few in Poland. Tartary contains chiefly Mahomedans. Schamanism or idolatry is practised by the Samoiedes and other Polar tribes.

All religious sects, whether Christians or others, enjoy equal civil rights; and the same protection in the exercise of their various modes of devotion. The predominant party, the Greek church, possess about 70,000 places of worship, which are served by about 160,000 secular clergy. There are 480 monasteries, and 156 nunneries, under the direction of the regular clergy. The whole are governed by a Consistory, of which the Emperor is perpetual president, and which is divided into three departments; and these again into thirty-six sections or dioceses. The learning of the inferior clergy is very inconsiderable; many of them can merely repeat by rote a few established prayers, can scarcely read, and much less write. They are allowed to marry once, but not after becoming widowers. Their sons must all be devoted to the ecclesiastical profession. They are generally paid small stipends by the government; but some few of them enjoy landed property attached to their benefices. A few men of learning are to be found among the higher ranks of the clergy; but their number and acquirements have never been very distinguished.

The Catholic church, governed by a Consistory, comprehends one archbishopric, six bishoprics, and about forty religious establishments belonging to the several orders of Benedictines, Franciscans, Carmelites, Bernardines, and Trinitarians.

The Lutherans, established in Finland, in Courland, and Livonia, are under the superintendence of their respective Consistories, each of which has a bishop as their president.

The other religious Christian denominations are rather voluntary associations, recognized by the state, than, properly speaking, established ecclesiastical communities.

Few of the Mahomedans are very rigid in their

adherence to the regulations of their prophet. They have colleges for education; several mullahs, and two mustis. The musti of Ufa enjoys a stipend of 1500 roubles from the crown, and has two mullahs in Casan. The musti of Taurus has joined with him a cadi, an effendi, and five ulemas, who regulate religious affairs, and administer the laws in that province.

The worshippers of the Grand Lama have their principal religious establishment at Darsan, in the province of Udinsk. Their priests are numerous, and, in the province of Irkurzk alone, are said to be near 300, where they are very successful in making converts among the wandering tribes.

The inhabitants of Russia are divided into the Different following classes or ranks; for though all offices are equally open to every description of subjects, yet exclusive privileges are enjoyed by some numerous bodies.

The Nobles in Russia, though distinguished by Noblesse, the several titles of prince, count, or baron, are all upon an equal footing, and enjoy equal privileges. Their persons and lands are freed from taxation; they are exempted from the recruiting ballot; and are not subject to bodily penalties. These exemptions are, however, more apparent than real; for though their lands and persons are not taxable, yet a capitation tax, at the will of the government, may be imposed on their slaves, who form the most valuable part of their possessions. Though not in person compelled to serve in the army, yet they are bound to furnish from their slaves a number of recruits in proportion to the demands of the service. In some of the more recently acquired provinces, such as Livonia, Estonia, and in Poland, the nobles have, or rather exercise other privileges, extending even to the power of life and death, over their vassals; but these powers arise from custom and general acquiescence much more than from the existing law.

The Clergy are exempt from taxation, and from Clergy. corporal punishment; which privileges are extended to each eldest son, who must, however, though his father is excused, take the risk of being called upon for military service.

The Citizens are divided into three guilds or Citizens. classes, according to the amount of capital they possess; and have some most whimsical privileges proportioned to their rank. Those of the first rank, with a capital of from 10,000 to 50,000 roubles, may carry on home or foreign trade; may be owners of ships; may drive a carriage with two horses; and are exempt from corporal punishment. The members of the second guild, possessing a capital of from 5000 to 10,000 roubles, can only carry on home trade, but enjoy all the other rights of the first guild. The members of the third guild must enjoy a capital between 1000 and 5000 roubles; they may carry on retail trades, be proprietors of barges and boats, keep taverns, and drive one horse, though not in a coach; but are not exempt from corporal punishments. Besides these there are the foreign and designated citizens. In this class is comprehended each person who has twice served any civic office; learned men and artists who can produce

academic testimonials; bankers who possess capitals from 100,000 to 200,000 roubles; wholesale dealers, that keep no shops, and shipowners, that use the sea. These may harness two or four horses to a coach; may possess country houses and gardens; may own ships; and are exempt from bodily penalties. None of the trading classes are exempt from the military conscription; but they are allowed to procure substitutes.

The next class is that of the Peasants or free inhabitants of the country. In this rank are included, 1st, The ancient race of proprietors who cultivate their own lands, but do not enjoy the right of possessing slaves. The males of this description amount to about 1,150,000. 2d, The Tartars, the Bashirs, and several other races, less numerous, to the south of Siberia, who are all proprietors of the lands they cultivate. 3d, The peasants of Finland. Since the acquisition of New Finland, the privileges enjoyed by the peasants of that country, under the Swedish government, have been continued and confirmed to them; and the same rights granted to those of Old Finland, where all are now either proprietors or renters. 4th, The colonists, consisting of foreign families of agriculturists, who are proprietors of the lands they cultivate, and whose number is about 65,000. 5th, The military colonists. These are soldiers who, after having served a prescribed period, have had land given to them, and a capital sufficient to cultivate it, in the southern provinces. And lastly, The free cultivators, a new class, founded by the present Emperor in 1803. They comprehend several villages, which have been liberated as an experiment. The number of individuals in 1810 was 13,757, since which period they have rapidly increased, and are said now to be near 20,000.

The class next below these is that of the Serfs. They are chiefly peasants on the Crown lands, or of the province of Livonia. The first of these, the Crown peasants, amount to near 12,000,000, some of whom labour in the fields, the others in the mines and manufactories. The lot of this class seems to be placed on the confines betwixt liberty and slavery. They may rise to the rank of citizens, they may acquire property, they enjoy the protec-

tion of the laws; and, under some restrictions, may quit their residences to obtain employment for a limited time; but they are liable to be hired to the service of the mines, or to be sold. Although the Empress Catherine rarely gave these peasants away as presents to favourites, and the present Emperor has never done so, yet there is no legal security against the practice; and consequently their condition is scarcely less precarious than it was formerly. The peasants of Livonia, amounting to about 560,000, were slaves until the year 1804, when they first obtained the rights of serfs. They are now subject to some peculiar claims, but those claims are fixed, and they cannot be removed from the soil without their own consent.

The last and most numerous class is that of the Slaves. Slaves. These amounted, in 1782, to 6,678,000 males, and at present are estimated to include 23,000,000 persons. They are in law considered as things, not as persons; may be bought, sold, or exchanged, with no more restrictions than are enacted in dealing for cattle; and have no other protection against their masters than what is created by a regard to their pecuniary interest. They belong to the nobles, or to such civil or military officers as have acquired the right of possessing them. They are divided into agricultural, mining, manufacturing, or domestic slaves, and have their condition only improved when drawn for military service.

The accounts of the agricultural and manufacturing productions of Russia are fully detailed in the Encyclopædia already mentioned. They &c. have undergone very few alterations in their nature since that article was written; and, consequently, only that their amount has increased with the increase of population and the extension of territory, no other notice seems here to be required beyond the value of the imports and exports at different periods.

The following Table exhibits a view of the Imports into, and Exports from, the whole of the Russian dominions, by sea and by land, in bank assignation roubles, estimated at four francs each, at several periods:

The chief exports are corn, hemp, tallow, flax, flax-seed, iron, furs, linen goods, live cattle, timber, and potash. The principal imports are cotton and woollen goods, wines, dyers' drugs, raw silk, cotton wool, tea, sugar, coffee, salt, silk goods, fruit, and foreign silver coin.

The Government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy, in which the Emperor is the sole framer of the laws; but, as in other absolute

monarchies, the exercise of power is tempered and somewhat moderated by the rights and privileges to which many bodies in different provinces have, by long established usage, such claims as would be dangerous to the monarch to infringe. In the administration of the government, there is an uniformity preserved throughout all the several provinces, and in the different branches into which the executive power is divided. The Emperor, through

the directing senate, issues his ukases or laws to the Governors of the several provinces; which laws are executed by a Board, divided into sections, of which they are presidents. Besides the civil, there is a military governor in each department, to whom alone the affairs of the army are intrusted. There are deviations from this regularity of system among some tribes of Cossacks, who are ruled by their hereditary chiefs, and among the ruder classes. The ministers are appointed to different branches, denominated Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, Interior, Instruction, Finance, Justice, Police, Agriculture, and Ecclesiastical.

The Civil and Criminal codes of Russia are very imperfect, notwithstanding the efforts directed towards its improvement by the Empress Catherine, and the more practical, but unfinished attempt of the present Emperor. In the cities, two burghers and four counsellors; and in the country, one justice, with two noble and two plebeian proprietors, form tribunals of the first instance. From these, appeals may be made to higher courts in the several provinces; and from them again to the supreme tribunals at St Petersburg or Moscow. Among the less civilized people, great deviations from this system are still indulged; and their chiefs exercise an hereditary power in civil as well as in criminal matters, over their several tribes. A kind of Court of Conscience exists in most places, which hears verbal complaints; acts as arbiters in differences about smaller matters; and exercises power in behalf of minors and imbeciles.

The Finances of the Russian empire are not submitted to general inspection with the same freedom, nor with the same accuracy, as is now practised by most other governments. The great depreciation experienced in the paper currency creates some difficulty in ascertaining the amount of the income, expenditure, and national debt. Besides the payments in money, so many personal services and other benefits are derived to the crown, that the bare produce of the taxes falls considerably short of the effective revenue which is extracted by the government. The chief taxes are the capitulation-tax of two roubles from each peasant, and five from each burgher; the property-tax of $1\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ per cent. on the capital of the traders; and the duties on the importation of foreign goods. The other material sources of revenue are, the monopoly of distilled corn spirits; the profits of the coinage, of postage, and of stamped paper; and the sale of wood from the annual cuttings of the royal forests. These several branches have been estimated to have afforded, in the year 1820, about thirteen or fourteen millions Sterling, including the kingdom of Poland. The expences of the state, for many years, exceeded the income; and thus the public debt has been constantly increasing; but, it is said, the revenue now equals, or rather exceeds the expenditure. The national debt is supposed to amount to 1,000,000,000 roubles, or about L. 160,000,000 Sterling. One-half of this is believed to consist in the government paper roubles, which have been issued at a gradually increasing depreciation. The other half, or funded debt, is principally owing to foreigners, and the

interest is paid to them in silver money. This state of debt, for so extensive and so numerously peopled a country, may not appear very heavy; but in Russia, there is only paper money in circulation, and the constant drain to pay the interest of the debt in the precious metals, makes the difficulty of returning to a metallic currency almost insurmountable. The project of a sinking fund was adopted in 1817, but it has hitherto made but a slight progress in redeeming the debt, or in diminishing the quantity of circulating paper; which is not at the present period worth one-fourth of its nominal value.

The increase of the Russian army has far exceeded what has been experienced in either the territory, the population, or the revenue of the empire.

At the last of these periods the land force was composed of the following descriptions of troops:

Besides this prodigious force, a national guard, or militia, is organised in all parts of the empire, except in Siberia and the two northern European provinces. The expence of this vast force is very small; the articles for their equipment, provisioning, and arming, being of the cheapest and coarsest kind; and as the recruits are procured by ballot, and the pay of officers and men is low, the whole expence of the establishment is only 20,000,000 roubles, or about L. 3,000,000 Sterling. The institutions for military education are fully commensurate to the extent of the force. In the Cadets-house at Petersburg are 1000 youths; and the whole number in the empire, under appropriate instruction for the military profession, amount to nearly 3000.

The navy of Russia has been neglected; and although the present force is equal to what existed in 1813, yet its character is much inferior, as many of the ships are become old. Very little timber of the best quality is to be found in the Russian territory; but every other article, required for a navy, is abundantly and cheaply supplied from domestic sources.

The fleet consists of 32 ships of the line, 18 frigates, 6 cutters, 7 brigs, 25 floating batteries, 121 gun-boats, and numerous armed small craft. This force is divided between the Baltic, the Caspian, and the Black Seas. The whole number of officers,

seamen, and marines, with which the fleet is manned, is about 32,000, who are obtained by ballot from the seafaring people of the maritime provinces. The naval ports are at Cronstadt, Revel, Sweaborg, and Rotschensalm, on the Baltic; at Archangel, on the White Sea; at Nikolajew, Sewastopol, Taganrog, and Cherson, on the Black Sea; and at Astrachan, on the Caspian.

Having thus given a view of the general condition and circumstances of the Russian empire, in those respects in which alterations have taken place since the article in the Encyclopædia was written; we may now proceed to a more particular description of its members and divisions.

EUROPEAN RUSSIA, INCLUDING THE DEPENDENT KINGDOM OF POLAND.

The grand division of European Russia is into six provinces, viz.

It thus appears, that in the whole of European Russia, the density of the population is somewhat less than 2½ persons to each square mile, or nearly one person to 282 English statute acres.

The East Sea province is divided into the following governments, viz.

The inhabitants in this province are nearly one to twenty acres of land. The principal cities in the government of Petersburg are, Petersburg, one of the capitals of the empire, with 300,000 inhabitants; Kronstadt, with 35,000; Narva, with 3800. In Finland are Helsingfors, with 8000 inhabitants; Abo, with 11,300; Uleaborg, with 3350; and Wiborg, with 3200. The chief city of Estonia is Revel, with 15,000 inhabitants. The cities of Livonia are Riga, with 30,000; Dorpat, with 6000; and Pernau, with 2500. The only city of note, in Courland, is Mitau, containing 12,000 inhabitants. No other places than those here noticed, in the East Sea province, contain so many as 2000 inhabitants.

The province of Great Russia is divided into 19 governments, whose names, extent, and population, are as follows:

The inhabitants in this province are nearly one to twenty-four acres of land. The chief cities in the government of Moscow are, first, Moscow, one of the capitals of the empire, nearly the whole of which was destroyed by the fire in 1812, when the French troops were in possession of it. It has been since rebuilt in a great part, as far as regards the dwellings of individuals, but many of the public edifices are yet unfinished. There are now rebuilt upwards of 200 churches, more than 9000 houses, and between 6000 and 7000 booths. The number of inhabitants in the summer of 1820 was about 200,000; and in the following winter, when the nobles, with their numerous establishments of domestics and slaves, took up their residence in the city, they are said to have been increased to about 50,000. The city of Kolomna contains 5809 inhabitants, Serpuchow 5540, Wereja 5941, and Moshais 3944; all the others have less than 3000 inhabitants. In the government of Smolensko, the city of that name contains about 12,000 persons, Weasma 1150. Pleskow contains 10,000, and Toropez 12,000 inhabitants. Novogorod has 10,000, and Storaja Russia 5250 persons. In the government of Olonez the city of Petrosawodsh has 3285, and Kargapol 3032. The only city in the government of Archangel is of that name, and contains 8000 souls. The population of the city of Wologda amounts to 10,529, and of Oustjug to 12,000. Kostroma contains 8000, Galitzkaja 3300, and Galitsch 6000 inhabitants. Nishegorod has 12,000, and Arsamas 8000 persons. No place in the government of Wolodimir contains 2000 persons; the capital of the same name has only 1500. Tula or Toola, the chief city of the government of that name, has 30,000 inhabitants, Bjelou 7000, and Obajew 3200. The city of Kaluga contains 25,000 souls, Borowsk 6000, and Koselsk 3500. In the government of Twer, the city of that name contains about 20,000 people, Stariza 3500, Ostaschkow 6207, Torshok 15,000, Wolotschok 3500, Kalasin 3521, Kashin 3513, and Beshezsk 3120. In Jaroslav, the city of the name has a po-

population of 24,000, Uglitsch 7000, and Rostow 6000. The government of Kursk contains the city of that name, with 20,000 inhabitants, Rylsk with 6000, Sudsha with 7000, Bielgorod with 8000, Korotsha with 4000, and Obojan with 5500. The city of Orel has 20,000 inhabitants, Minsk 6000, Bolchow 14,000, Briansk 5000, Trubtochowsk 3500, Siawsk 5,000 Livny 6000, and Jelez 8000. The city of Riasan, in the government of that name, contains 5000 souls, Soraisk 4500, and Kasimow 10,000. The government of Tombow contains Tombow, with 15,000 souls, Hoslow with 8000, Lebedjan with 3500, Lipesk with 6400, Kirsanow with 4500, Morshansk with 5500, Shazh with 6500, Temnikow with 4500, and Jelatma with 5800. Woronesh has no city of more than 3000 souls, except the capital of the same name, which contains about 15,000.

The province of Little Russia, composed chiefly of the Ukraine, or the country of the Cossacks, the best peopled of the whole empire, is now divided into four governments, viz.

The inhabitants are about one to eight acres of land. The city of Kiew, or Kiow, contains about 40,000 inhabitants; the population of no other place in the government reaches beyond 3000. Charkow contains 15,000, Sumy 15,000, Bielopolje 9000, Lebidjan 8970, Achtyrka 12,788, Bogoduchow 6749, Walkj 9286, Smijew 5000, and Isjum 4248 inhabitants. The smaller towns in Slobodsk Ukraine are numerous. In the government of Tschernigow, the city of that name contains 10,000, Neskin 16,000, Gluchow 9000, Nowgorod 8000, Starodub 4000, and Mglin 5077 inhabitants. Pultowa has 10,000, Mirgorod 7437, Lubni 6000, Pereaslawl 6000, Solotonscha 5500, and Krementschuk 8000 inhabitants; besides which, the smaller towns and villages in the government of Pultowa are well peopled.

The province of South Russia, a great part of which has been added to the empire in the course of the eighteenth, and the first ten years of the nineteenth century, is divided into five governments, viz.

The inhabitants are about one to forty-nine acres of land. The city of Catherinoslaw contains about 5000 inhabitants; none of the other places more than

2000; and only two reach to that number. The towns in the government of Cherson are almost wholly of very recent foundation. The capital of that name contains 5000 inhabitants, Nicolajew (founded in 1789) 9000, and Jelisawetgrad 12,000. The greater part of the inhabitants of Taurida are of the Tartar race, and of the Mahomedan religion. The population of the cities has been very fluctuating since this district first came under the Russian government. Kaffa or Feodosia, formerly the seat of the Genoese trade, with the countries around the Black Sea, and then stated to have had a population of 40,000, when visited by Dr Clarke, had only 50 families; but in 1820 had increased to more than 4000 persons. Simferopol, a frontier garrison city, has 20,000 inhabitants, of various nations and religions. Baktschisarai contains 5777 persons, mostly Tartars, and Koslow 4410 of the same description. Bessarabia was formerly a part of Moldavia. Akerman, a strongly fortified place, has a population of about 10,000. Ismail, celebrated for its siege, and once containing 40,000 people, is still in ruins, and nearly without inhabitants. The only city among the Don Cossacks is Ischerkask, in a very unhealthy situation, but containing a population of 15,000.

West Russia comprehends those provinces of Poland and Lithuania which have been formed into a component part of the Russian empire. They have been divided into eight governments, viz.

The inhabitants are about one to eleven acres of land. The chief cities and their population are, in Wilna, Wilna with 25,000, of whom 12,000 are Jews, and Kieydani, with 5000 inhabitants. In Grodno, the city of that name, with 5000, and Slonem 6000. In Minsh 6000, in Slusk and in Pinsk 4000. In Witebesk, the city of that name, 15,000, Welisk 4700, Dunaburg 4000, and Polozk 3200. The city of Mohileu has 16,000. The cities of Wolhynia are Berdyczeu with 10,000, Zaslow with 4500, Staro Constantino with 4200, Ostrog with 4500, Rowno with 3270, Waldimer with 3126, and Dubno with 5635 inhabitants. In Podolia are the cities of Kamenetz, with 5650 inhabitants, and Mohileu with 7000. The city of Bialystock contains 3350 inhabitants; and no other place of that government 2000.

The ancient kingdom of Poland has, by successive Kingdom of divisions, been reduced to a small territory, when compared with its former extent. A description of the Duchy of Posen, a part of it, is to be found in this work, under the head of PRUSSIA. Galicia is united to Austria; part is included in the present province of West Russia; and a very small portion, con-

European Russia. taining the city of Cracow, and the surrounding district, is formed into an independent republic. The part now called the kingdom of Poland is, properly speaking, a Russian viceroyalty. It has, indeed, been permitted to retain some of its ancient forms and institutions; but it is effectively, at present, a mere province of the Russian empire, and in that view we must now consider it.

The grand divisions are into eight Waywodeships, and these are again subdivided into Obwodeships.

The inhabitants are one to about nine acres of land.

Soil, Climate, and Productions. Poland is generally a level country, but towards the south is more undulating, and some of the hills rise to the height of 2000 feet above the level of the sea. It is well supplied with running streams. To the north of the Vistula and the Bug, the soil is for the most part sandy, but generally fertile. In the south, the soil is a rich vegetable mould, intermixed with marshes and morasses. The climate is colder in the winter than in the same latitude in Germany and France. The productions are, corn of all kinds, hemp, flax, hops, tobacco, wood, fruit, cattle, abundance of game, river fish, honey, and wax. The minerals are copper, lead, iron, and calamine. There is much marble, alabaster, and limestone; and in some parts salt, sulphur, saltpetre, and coal. The manufacturing labour is chiefly destined to provide clothing, and the most homely articles for domestic use. The Jews are the chief traders, manufacturers, and innkeepers; and their dwellings, in the towns and villages, are far better than those of the clergy, or even the lower nobility.

Different classes of inhabitants. The inhabitants have increased at an extraordinary rate since the return of tranquillity. The difference between the year 1815 and 1819 appears to be 708,400 individuals, many of whom are German colonists. The number of Jews in 1819 was 212,944. All religious professions enjoy equal rights. The Roman Catholic is the predominant sect; their hierarchy consists of an archbishop and five bishops. There is a Unitarian bishop of the Greek ritual, who presides over 200 churches. The Lutherans are about 150,000, who have a consistory and superintendent. The Calvinists are about 6000. Besides these are several smaller Christian sects, and more than 100 families of Mahomedans. The nobility are very numerous, comprehending more than 60,000 families. They are distinguished by different titles, but have none of the privileges of rank, unless they possess property. Many of them are

very poor, but about 100 enjoy very extensive estates. Some restrictions in the use of titles have been recently introduced, which prevent those from assuming them who do not possess a graduated specific amount of income according to the title. Professors of the universities of ten years standing, civil and military officers of the same length of service, and such burghers as make useful discoveries, may be now admitted into the ranks of nobility. The burghers have some civil rights granted in addition to those formerly enjoyed. The peasants have, however, been most benefited by the divisions that have been made of Poland. Under the ancient system, this numerous class of persons had neither property nor rights; and their common proverb, "We have nothing but what we drink," is sufficiently descriptive of their low condition, and their habitual intemperance. They have now acquired personal freedom, and the right of holding landed property. To this extension of freedom may, in some measure, be attributed the recent increase of inhabitants; as many of the German emigrants would not have availed themselves of the greater fertility of the Polish soil, whilst the old slavish degradation of the peasants was continued.

The present constitution of Poland is a limited monarchy. The Emperor nominates the King, who has the sole executive power. The legislature is divided into two chambers. The upper, or senate, consists of thirty members, nominated for life by the king; of whom ten are bishops, or clergy (approved by the Pope), ten are Waywodes, and the other ten Castellans, or Magnates. The lower house consists of sixty members, who must have attained 40 years. They are chosen for nine years, but every third year the retirement of one-third of them is determined by lot. They are elected by the provincial assemblies of the nobles, where there are at least 600 qualified electors. A commissioner is appointed for civil affairs, another for criminal matters, and a third for finances. These three persons, with the ministers who sit in the assembly, not by election, but of right, are the only members permitted to speak, and all the others give their votes in silence. The assemblies are convened every other year, and sit only fourteen days to dispatch such business as is laid before them. They have no power to initiate a law, nor the right to exercise any inquisitorial functions. The assent of the upper chamber is not indispensable for promulgating a new law, if it be approved by the lower chamber, on the recommendation of the king.

The Poles had formerly few or no written laws; but in the year 1257, Boleslau the Fifth introduced the use of the law-book of Magdeburg, which has been continued ever since as the compendium of civil and criminal law. The local courts consist of the landowners; the next higher court extends over each Waywodeship, and from them there is a court of general appeal. A new code of laws has been drawn up, but is not yet in practice.

The income of Poland is about L. 850,000 Sterling, derived from a hearth and capitation-tax; from stamps, customs, lotteries, and posting. The civil list is about L. 170,000; one-half of which arises from the

Law.

national domains, the other is taken from the public treasury. The debts of the state, including old and new, amount to 200,000 Polish gulden. The expenses are not accurately known, as no budget has yet been made public since the introduction of the new constitution, and the accession of the Russian Imperial family.

The army consists of 30,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry, of whom the royal guards form a body of 12,000; but the military organization is not yet completed. Every Pole, without exception of rank or religion, is, by the law, a soldier from the age of twenty to thirty; but, in practice, numerous exceptions to the general rule are allowed. The muskets are supplied from a manufactory at Kouskie, but the cannon, as well as cloths for uniforms, must be drawn from other countries. There is a scarcity of gunpowder, although saltpetre is abundant.*

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The dominion of Russia comprehends the whole of Northern Asia, and extends from longitude 37° 14' to 190° 22' east from London; and from latitude 38° 58' to 78° 2' north. This vast dominion is calculated to be spread over $\backslash frac\{2\}\{3\}$ths of the land of the globe, and to be rather more than one-third of the surface of the whole of the continental portions of it.

The eastern division of the Asiatic Russian territory, from the river Jenisy, or Yenesii, has, on its southern and eastern parts, vast mountain ranges; and on its interior there are several chains that run to the Arctic Ocean in vast masses. It is covered with woods, large lakes, or extensive elevated plains, and terminates, towards the shores of the Frozen Ocean, in vast fields of eternal ice. The division to the westward has, indeed, some ranges of mountains, especially the Altaian chain on the south, the Ural range on the west, and the ridge of Caucasus on the south-west, with their various projecting branches; but taken as a whole, it may be described as a vast level plain, partially watered, but by its climate and soil, ill adapted for the increase or the comfort of human beings. The soil to the westward of the Ural mountains is generally very fertile, and produces abundant returns of corn, but to the eastward it is barren, cold, and scarcely exhibits any symptoms of vegetation.

Although Russia in Asia is in part surrounded by, and in some parts covered with mountains, yet there are several barren plains of great extent, usually denominated Steppes. The most remarkable of these are, the Kirgissch Steppe, between the Irtish and the Orenburg boundary line. It is a very dry and barren district, with some lakes, whose water is saline. The few rivers have copious streams in the spring from the melted snows, but in summer become dried up. The Wolgau Kalmuck Steppe, between the Ural and the Wolga, extending from the Caspian Sea to Samara, is of the same description. The Kuman Steppe, extending from the Caspian

Sea to the Don and the Wolga, resembles a lake recently dried up; being formed of a mixture of sand and clay with an undulating surface, intermixed with salt lakes, and utterly destitute of vegetation. The other steppes, with slight varieties of character, are that of Terek, between the rivers Terek and Kuma, touching on the Caspian Sea; of Kuban, extending from Kuban to the Manitsch and the lake of Bolschei; of Jettish to the eastward of the Ural; of Ischim on both sides the river of that name, between Tobol and the Irtish; and the Baraba, between the Irtish and the Ob. To these may be added the Arctic plain, between the 67th degree of latitude and the Frozen Ocean, whose whole surface is little more than morasses, mixed with rocks, and bound up by frost betwixt ten and eleven months in the year. These extensive plains are sometimes passed by the wandering tribes, who find subsistence on the less sterile spots which are to be met with on the banks of the rivers that bound them.

The rivers of Asiatic Russia that empty themselves into the Arctic Sea, are among the most considerable of the ancient world. The most remarkable of these are, 1st, The Ob, whose course is 2800 miles in length, during which it receives the great rivers, the Tom, the Kek, the Irtish (which, before the junction, runs 2500 miles, and takes into its stream the waters of the Ischim, the Tobal, and many other rivers), the Tyda, and all their tributary streams. 2d, The Yenesii, or Jenisy, which has a course of 2000 miles, with fewer sinuities than are usually observed in other great rivers. It receives the waters of fourteen large streams and all their tributary collections. 3d, The Piasana, whose course is 300 miles. 4th, The Taimurskoe, a short stream issuing from a lake of the same name, in latitude 70°. 5th, The Khatanga, which empties itself into the bay of Khatangaskoi, on the Frozen Ocean. 6th, The Anabara, an Arctic stream. 7th, The Olenk, whose waters only become considerable after entering the Arctic circle. 8th, The Lena, one of the largest of the Asiatic Russian rivers. It rises in the Backal mountains to the north of China, in latitude 52° 30', and empties itself into the ocean in latitude 70° 40', and longitude 164° 26', after receiving the waters of fourteen large rivers and their numerous tributary streams. 9th, The Omoloi. 10th, The Jana. 11th, The Indigirka. 12th, The Alazeja. 13th, Kolyma. 14th, The Tchauna; and, 15th, The Amgonia. The streams whose courses have been traced to fall into the sea of Kamtschatka, between Asia and America, are the Anadyr, the Katirka, the Kamtschatka, the Penshena, the Tilcha, the Ischiga, the Tauna, the Okhota, the Uda, the Argun, and the Shilka. The Black Sea receives from Russian Asia the great rivers Kooban and Rioni, with their tributary waters, and several smaller streams which arise on the western sides of the mountains of Caucasus. The rivers which discharge themselves into the Caspian Sea are, 1st, The Wolga, which comes

* The best recent works on Poland are, Guide du Voyageur en Pologne, Varsovie, 1820; Polen Staatsveränderungen und Letztere Verwaltung, von F. Jäkel, Wien, 1819.

out of the centre of European Russia, and forms the principal means of internal water communication between the European and Asiatic portions of the empire. Its course is upwards of 2500 miles in length, during the progress of which it receives the streams of fourteen large, and of a vast number of smaller rivers. 2d, The Kuma, rising in the northern Caucasus. 3d, The Teret, a mountain torrent, nearly dry in summer. 4th, The Akhracan. 5th, The Sulach, both rivers only abundant in the spring, and nearly dry in summer. 6th, The Kur, a stream formed by a union of several others in Armenia and Georgia, and navigable from Teflis. 7th, The Ural, rising in the Uralian range of mountains, and forming a course of nearly 1400 miles, during which it receives the waters of six large, and numerous smaller rivers. 8th, The Jemba, a river coming from the north, and running about 450 miles.

The lakes in Russian Asia are very numerous, and some of them very extensive. One of the largest is the Baikal in Siberia, between latitude 52° and 55°, and longitude 104° 26', and 109° 56', extending over 11,180 square miles. Its water is clear and bright, the depth varies from 18 to 480 feet. It is covered with ice from the middle of December till April. The river Angara, which runs to the Jenisy, issues from it. It receives the waters of several streams which come either from the Chinese territory or its vicinity. The lakes next in extent are the Tchani and the Piasenskoe, both in the government of Tomsk. Almost every province has one or more lakes, several of which are of salt water, on whose banks a natural crystallization prepares culinary salt for the use of the inhabitants.

The agriculture necessarily varies both in its practices and its productions in countries so extensive as those we are sketching. By an harvest table before us, it appears that the winter corn (wheat and rye) does not yield, on an average, more than three and a half for one grain that is sowed; and the summer corn (barley and oats) not much more than two and a half for one. The increase of production seems to be about as progressive as the increase of population. By a return of the whole produce of the harvest of 1808, it appears that the whole quantity raised was 43,424,966 tschetverts on 29,854,622 quarters; from which, if two-sevenths be allowed for seed, there will remain for subsistence 21,324,760 quarters. Taking the whole population at 10,164,000, and allowing for 1,164,000 who eat no bread, there will have been about 18 bushels of corn for each individual. In many parts the goats and sheep, and in some the oxen, furnish food for the inhabitants; whilst aid for the subsistence of others is afforded from the fish of the seas, lakes, and rivers.

The mines of Russian Asia are by far more productive than those of any other portion of the em-

pire; as from them is extracted the whole of the gold, silver, and lead, nine-tenths of the copper, and eleven-twelfths of the iron which is brought into use. By the latest returns the whole produce was as follows:

According to the work from which these statements are taken, † the culinary salt, annually prepared in Asiatic Russia, is 830,000 quintals.

The fishery is a considerable branch of industry, Fisheries, and furnishes articles for exportation. The crown &c. lets to farm its fishing on the Caspian Sea to some companies in Astrachan. The produce consists chiefly of the flesh and the roe of the sturgeon, and of the skins of seals. In 1815 there were employed 1847 boats, and 6688 men in this fishing. The Wolga and some other rivers yield prodigious quantities of excellent fish. The whole value of this object is estimated at 8,000,000 silver roubles, or more than L. 1,500,000 Sterling. The chase is a business of much importance, both on account of the food which it supplies for subsistence, of the peltry which furnishes for winter garments, as well as articles for an export trade. The productions of the forests not only supply the article of fuel which the severe climate requires, but furnish large quantities both for building and firing to other nations. Most of the forests belong to the crown: those of Asia, exclusive of Siberia, are calculated to cover 43,500,000 desjatinets, or nearly 100,000,000 English statute acres.

The manufactures are very few, and very homely. Manufactures and Commerce. The best article produced is the leather. Some linen is made of a coarse kind. In Casan and Astrachan there are establishments for making cotton, woollen, and silk goods, and for various kinds of hardware and glass. The breweries, but especially the distilleries, are more numerous than any other manufacturing objects. Making corn spirits is a royal monopoly, but in some of the Asiatic cities it is let to farm by the government. The chief commerce is internal between the several provinces whose productions are most different from each other. There is an increasing transit trade between China, India, and Europe, and custom-houses are established on the frontiers, at which the tolls are collected. We have no statements of the extent of this trade that are sufficiently accurate to create much confidence. The value of the goods, which in 1809 were manifested in the governments of Irtusk and Kiachta, on the Chinese

* It appears from a recent intelligent work (Tooke On High and Low Prices, Part II.), that the exportation of copper from Russia, which before 1818 was trifling, in that year amounted to 155 tons; in 1819 1419; in 1820 4466; in 1821 5023; and in 1822 3545 tons.

† Die Wichtigkeit des Russischen Bergbaus, von Herman.

frontier, was 5,049,138 silver roubles, or about L. 840,000 Sterling, including both exports and imports.

The names and divisions, both military and political, of Russian Asia, are at present the following:

Kingdom of Casan.

The city of Casan, about five miles from the Wolga, in north latitude 55° 47' 51", and east longitude 49° 26' 41", is an increasing place, with 25,000 inhabitants. In it the governor and Archbishop have palaces, and there are some few other good stone buildings. A very wide-spreading conflagration destroyed many hundred houses in 1815, and the new buildings since erected on their site have much improved the appearance of the city, which is now half European and half Asiatic. The city of Wiatka, in latitude 58° 24', and longitude 50° 48', contains 12,000 inhabitants, employed in the trades of corn, tallow, and hemp, and in the manufacture of leather, soap, and some hardware. Most of its productions are conveyed by the Dwina to Archangel. Stobosk, in latitude 58° 30', and longitude 50° 20', has 6000 inhabitants, occupied as those of Wiatka. Perm, in latitude 58° 1' 13", erected into a city in 1780, is built almost wholly of wood, and contains 6000 inhabitants, employed chiefly in trade arising from the copper mines. Soltikumsk, in latitude 59° 39', and longitude 56° 50', supports about 6000 people, chiefly by copper, tin, and gold manufactures. Irbit, in latitude 57° 35', and longitude 63° 26', contains 3600 inhabitants, who depend mainly on the great fairs which are held there, in which the productions of Europe and Asia are exchanged for each other. The sales in the fair have amounted to 5,287,000 roubles; of which 800,000 consisted of cloth, 1,400,000 of Chinese goods, 850,000 of peltry, 9000 of spices, 350,000 of sugar, and 350,000 of linen. Jekaterinburg, in latitude 56° 50' 15", and longitude 60° 56', contains 6000 inhabitants, who subsist on trades dependant on the mines, and arising also from its being on the high road to Siberia. Simbirsk, in latitude 54° 24', and longitude 49° 55', contains 15,000 persons, who find subsistence from several manufactures, from the fishery, and carrying trades on the Wolga, and from the corn, tallow, and hemp of the surrounding districts. Samara, in latitude 55° 53', and longitude 49° 57', contains 3500 inhabitants, who are employed in the fishery on the Wolga, and export by it large quantities of fresh and salted fish, and of caviare, or the roes of the sturgeon. The city of Pensa, in latitude 53° 30', and longitude 45° 44', contains 1697 private dwellings, of which only three are built of stone, and 10,000 inhabitants. There is a cathedral, five stone, and eight wooden churches, and several other public buildings. Its principal

trade consists in leather, linen, soap, and corn; part of which is conveyed to the different markets by land carriage, and part is sent by the small river Sura to the Wolga. Saransk, in latitude 54° 23', and longitude 44° 41', contains 6200 inhabitants.

Kingdom of Astrachan.

The city of Saratow, in latitude 51° 31' 28", and longitude 46° 6', contains 6500 inhabitants, whose chief dependence is on the produce of the fisheries on the Wolga, and the transit commerce between Eastern and Western Russia, carried on by means of that river. Molsk, in latitude 52° 4', and longitude 47° 37', on the right bank of the Wolga, has 5000 inhabitants; and trades on the river. Kusnezk, in latitude 53° 7', and longitude 46° 42', has about 5000 inhabitants. Astrachan, in latitude 46° 21' 12", and longitude 48° 8' 17", is situated at the spot where the Wolga begins to form that delta by which, in various branches, it enters the Caspian Sea. It contains several public edifices for government, and for the various religious forms of worship which its Christian, Mahomedan, and Hindoo inhabitants follow. There is a naval arsenal, a seminary for Greek priests, several inferior seminaries for the different classes of the people, and an imperial botanic garden. The inhabitants are about 30,000, who manufacture silks, cottons, leather, soap, linen, and some other articles. The fisheries are considerable, and in 1815 employed 1847 vessels, with 6688 men. The gardens and vineyards are important objects, and produce much fruit, and tolerable wine and vinegar; which are conveyed by the Wolga to the interior of European Russia. Georgiewsk, or St George's, a fortified city, in latitude 44° 4', and longitude 42° 47', contains about 3000 inhabitants, some few of whom are citizens or merchants, but the greater part are Cossacks. Mosdok on the Terek, in latitude 43° 43' 46", and longitude 27° 52' 51", contains 4000 people, who trade by that river with the Caspian Sea. Kisan Cower, on the same river, in latitude 43° 51' 15", and longitude 46° 20', is a rapidly rising place, chiefly from the industry of the Armenians, with 10,000 inhabitants. The city of Orenburg is situated on the river Ural, in latitude 51° 46' 5", and longitude 55° 10' 17", and is the head quarters of the military power, and the seat of the provincial government; it is fortified, the streets paved, and has a good market-place in its centre. It contained in 1820 about 2900 houses, and rather more than 20,000 inhabitants. There are manufactures of cloth, linen, soap, and leather. The chief support of the population is derived from commerce. About half a mile from the city stands the exchange, a large mass of square building, containing 392 shops, in which the productions of Europe and Asia

are exchanged. The building has two gates, by one of which the Europeans enter, and by the other the Asiatics. The sales effected in this place amount to upwards of 1,000,000 roubles annually. The country round it is a complete waste. Ufa, in latitude $54^\{\backslash circ\}\; 42\text{'}\; 45\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $55^\{\backslash circ\}\; 59\text{'}\; 17\text{'}\text{'}$, has a population of 6000 inhabitants, of whom one-half are Tartars, who carry on considerable trade, and are employed in agriculture and breeding cattle. Troizk, in latitude $54^\{\backslash circ\}\; 10\text{'}$, and longitude $55^\{\backslash circ\}\; 10\text{'}\; 17\text{'}\text{'}$, is, next to Orenburg, the most considerable trading place, and has like it an exchange, in which are 300 shops.

Kingdom of Siberia.

In this statement of the population, the numbers of the wandering tribes, who are very numerous, and some very small, is necessarily an estimate, and not the result of that census which has been taken of the settled inhabitants. The extent of land is thus near 1900 acres to each individual of the population. Each of the governments is divided into circles, in which the capital is denominated a city, though the number of its inhabitants, in many cases, scarcely equal those of the villages in more civilized countries.

The city of Tobolsk, in latitude $58^\{\backslash circ\}\; 12\text{'}\; 30\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $68^\{\backslash circ\}\; 31\text{'}$, was founded, in 1587, at the junction of the rivers Tobolsk and Irkish; and contained, in 1820, 25,000 inhabitants, who are employed in the trade for domestic consumption, as well as in the transit trade between China and Europe. Since a great fire in 1784, which destroyed most of the houses, then built of wood, the buildings have been constructed of stone, and on much better plans than formerly. Tomsk, in latitude $56^\{\backslash circ\}\; 29\text{'}\; 39\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $83^\{\backslash circ\}\; 36\text{'}\; 23\text{'}\text{'}$, is situated on the navigable river of the same name, at its junction with the Uschaika, on the great road to China. It has few manufactures, but depends principally on transit trade, and on some great fairs, where much business is transacted. Kainaks, in latitude $55^\{\backslash circ\}\; 33\text{'}$, and longitude $78^\{\backslash circ\}\; 40\text{'}$, has 3500 inhabitants, and is the place of a great annual fair. Barnaul, in latitude $53^\{\backslash circ\}\; 20\text{'}$, and longitude $83^\{\backslash circ\}\; 32\text{'}\; 32\text{'}\text{'}$, has 6000 inhabitants, who chiefly derive their subsistence from the mines in the surrounding district. Korjakow, on the Irkish, has 3500 inhabitants, chiefly employed in mining. Kusnezsk contains 3400, and Krasnoijarsk 3500 inhabitants, employed in mining, and in the transit trade with China. Irkuwzk is the seat of the governor of the province, in latitude $52^\{\backslash circ\}\; 16\text{'}\; 41\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $104^\{\backslash circ\}\; 39\text{'}\; 17\text{'}\text{'}$. It contains 30,000 inhabitants, many of whom are Tartars or Chinese, and others, in their dress and manners, approach nearly to those people. It is the chief seat of the trade with China, and for that of furs, which are brought from the north-east coasts of Asia,

and the north-west shores of America. Okhozsk, in latitude $59^\{\backslash circ\}\; 20\text{'}\; 10\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $143^\{\backslash circ\}\; 18\text{'}\; 17\text{'}\text{'}$, is the easternmost city of the Russian dominion. It is the chief seat of the American Company, and there are many vessels built here for their trade. The inhabitants are between 2000 and 3000, mostly military men, agents of the company, or ship carpenters. The fishery is productive; but the attempts to grow corn have been hitherto unsuccessful. The other places, though many of them are denominated cities, are of small population. In the circle of Kamtschatka, one of the divisions of the government of Irkurzk, there are two places denominated cities, Mishnii and Werchnoi; the former only with 300, and the latter with 200 inhabitants.

Islands in the Polar and Eastern Oceans.

In the Polar Ocean are the groups of New Siberia and of the Bear's Island. The first consists of four large and many smaller islands. They are covered with snow the greater part of the year; their surface is generally rocky, and on some of them are marks of volcanoes. They are chiefly remarkable for the bones and teeth of the mammoth, rhinoceros, buffalo, and other animals, which are found upon and beneath the surface of the ground. The search for this ivory first induced the Russians to visit these islands; and an expedition for exploring them was equipped in 1820, which had not returned when the last dispatches to the government were forwarded. These islands do not appear to be inhabited, though marks of human beings have been discovered by the Russians engaged in the fisheries. The Bear's Island group consists of six small islands, with several kinds of plants and shrubs on them, but no trees; although their shores are found to be covered with large drift wood. The southernmost point of these islands is in latitude $69^\{\backslash circ\}\; 5\text{'}$, and they extend to latitude $76^\{\backslash circ\}\; 20\text{'}$. Their longitude is between $154^\{\backslash circ\}$ and $183^\{\backslash circ\}\; 50\text{'}$ east.

In the Eastern Ocean the islands are thus classed:
1st, The islands of Gevosbewy and Nelken, in Behring's Straits, in latitude $65^\{\backslash circ\}\; 4\text{'}$, with about 400 people.

2d, St Lawrence, latitude $63^\{\backslash circ\}\; 40\text{'}$, and longitude $190^\{\backslash circ\}\; 26\text{'}$, and three smaller islands on the south-east of it.

3d, St Mathew's, in latitude $60^\{\backslash circ\}$, in the sea of Kamtschatka, consisting of three islands, one of which was named by some early British navigators Pinacle Island.

4th, The Prebelow Islands, in latitude $57^\{\backslash circ\}$. Two of them have been named St Paul and St George. The former is about 28 miles long, and 20 broad, and both are well stocked with animals whose furs are valuable.

5th, The Aleutian Islands. This is a chain of islands extending from the peninsula of Kamtschatka to the American peninsula of Alaschka, between $51^\{\backslash circ\}$ and $55^\{\backslash circ\}\; 10\text{'}$ north latitude, and $167^\{\backslash circ\}$ and $197^\{\backslash circ\}$ east longitude. (See ALEUTIAN ISLANDS in this Supplement.)

6th, The Kurile Islands. This chain extends from north latitude $43^\{\backslash circ\}\; 48\text{'}$ to $50^\{\backslash circ\}\; 56\text{'}$, and from longitude $143^\{\backslash circ\}\; 5\text{'}$ to $156^\{\backslash circ\}\; 30\text{'}$ east. They are evidently of vol-

canic origin. In some of them good water is found, but others are utterly destitute of it. The few inhabitants are of Japanese origin. Many of these islands have hitherto obtained no European names; but nineteen of the most considerable have been named by the Russians.

Provinces of Caucasus.

Thus it appears there is one human being to 645 acres of land.

Grusia is recently so denominated by the Russians from the river of that name, but is better known by the Asiatic name Curdistan, or the European name Georgia. It is subdivided into the provinces of Imeretus, Mingrelia, and Guria, and further divided into circles, or districts. The greater part of these provinces were wrested from Persia in the war which terminated in 1813; or the authority over the native princes was acquired at different periods. From having been long the seat of bloody and wasting hostilities, the country has become almost depopulated; but, under a settled government, such as it has now acquired, as much of the land is fertile, it has rapidly increased in population and cultivation, and many of the wandering tribes are gradually becoming stationary. The city of Teflis, in latitude $41^\{\backslash circ\}\; 28\text{'}\; 30\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $44^\{\backslash circ\}\; 23\text{'}$, is the capital, containing 18,000 inhabitants, besides the Russian garrison. It is a place of considerable commerce with Turkey, and with Persia, and by the navigable river Kur, is connected with the Caspian Sea. Anakaria, though called a city by the Russians, is rather a military post than a civil or trading place. Waldikawkas is also a military station, considered as the key to the Caucasian provinces, and rapidly increasing. Derbent, in latitude $42^\{\backslash circ\}\; 5\text{'}\; 45\text{'}\text{'}$, and longitude $47^\{\backslash circ\}\; 45\text{'}$, on the Caspian Sea, contains a population of 4000 persons, mostly Mahomedans, who are employed in manufactures of cotton, silk, carpets, and leather. The vineyards around the city produce excellent wine. Taxki, the capital of one of the ancient princes, or khans, in latitude $42^\{\backslash circ\}\; 59\text{'}$, and longitude $46^\{\backslash circ\}\; 58\text{'}$, contains 10,000 inhabitants, employed in making silk goods, and in agriculture. Baku is a Russian fortress of the first class. In it is the palace built by Shah Abbas. The harbour is the best on the Caspian Sea, from which wheat, maize, wine, silk, opium, salt, saltpetre, and naphtha, are exported.

AMERICAN RUSSIA.

The claim of Russia to that dominion on the west coast of North America, which is now to be discussed by different powers, is founded on the right of prior discovery. In 1648, as the Russians assert, a

person named Deschneew sailed from the river Kalyma, and passed round Cape Shelatskoi to Kamtschatka. His account of this voyage was generally discredited in Europe, and scarcely engaged any attention in Russia itself; where no measures were taken to verify the narration till the year 1725, when Behrings was equipped for northern discovery, and, in 1728, succeeded in passing through the straits separating Asia from America, which have since borne his name. In that and the following year, with Tschirikoff and Spangberg, he reached the latitude $67^\{\backslash circ\}\; 18\text{'}$, and next year explored the Kurile Islands. In 1730 and 1731, Gwosdew and Krupischew made the land of America, in latitude $66^\{\backslash circ\}$, and Behrings himself that part which lies in latitude $58^\{\backslash circ\}\; 28\text{'}$. Captain Cook, in 1778, explored the whole of this coast, as high as latitude $70^\{\backslash circ\}\; 44\text{'}$; and has since been followed by the other English navigators Clarke, Vancouver, Dixon, Portlock, and Meares; by the Frenchman Peyrouse, and by the Russian Billings. These several officers have given names to the different capes, inlets, and rivers. The Russian government was desirous to appropriate to itself the beneficial trade in furs which this extensive district furnished. With this view the American Company was formed in 1799. It soon established its chief factory on the island Kodiak, and founded several smaller dependant branches along the American shore from latitude $55^\{\backslash circ\}$, and even to Badoga, in latitude $38^\{\backslash circ\}\; 50\text{'}$, in the vicinity of the Spanish settlements. It does not appear, by any accounts that have reached us, how far the government of Russia laid claim to the exclusive right of trading with those countries till the year 1822; when an Ukase was issued, asserting a right, not only to the whole coast from latitude $51^\{\backslash circ\}$ northwards, but to the seas which border them, to the extent of 100 leagues from the shores. Notice to this effect has been formally given to the British and United States' ships; and the trade hitherto carried on by them has been prohibited. The British claim the whole coast from latitude $51^\{\backslash circ\}$ to $56^\{\backslash circ\}\; 30\text{'}$; whilst the Americans have some pretensions to portions of it.

Without entering farther into the different views which may be entertained by the several claimants to the dominion of the countries, designated by us as New Albion, New Hanover, New Cornwall, and New Norfolk, we shall consider the territory of Russia as extending from $56^\{\backslash circ\}\; 30\text{'}$ to $71^\{\backslash circ\}$ north; and from the point of Alaska to Mackenzie's River from west to east; thus extending over $14^\{\backslash circ\}\; 30\text{'}$ of latitude, and $27^\{\backslash circ\}\; 40\text{'}$ of longitude. Unless we knew the trending of the land between Mackenzie's River and Behring's Straits, which will be ascertained if Captain Parry should succeed in the object of his present voyage, any estimate of its extent can only be an approximation to the truth. The medium calculation would make it extend over 512,000 square miles. The several Russian factories on this coast contain from 800 to 1000 people on the whole, who traffic with the Aborigines for peltry, and direct such of them as have been reduced to obedience, and a kind of civilization, as to the spots which they shall select for hunting. The furs collected here are nearly of the same description as are furnished from Hudson's