AUSTRALASIA

Supplement

TO THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA.

AUSTRALASIA,

IN Modern Geography, the fifth great division of the Earth's surface. A systematic classification in geography is as necessary to enable us to form clear and comprehensive views of its objects, as it is in botany, mineralogy, geology, or any other department of physical science, though incapable of being brought to the same degree of perfection. The rapid progress made, during the last fifty years of the past century, in the discovery of those almost innumerable Islands that are scattered over the three great oceans, the Indian, the Southern, and the Pacific, peopled by various races of human beings, differing in their features, manners, dispositions, and language, forcibly demanded some such systematic arrangement; otherwise, as the President De Brosses has observed, "The sight would be dazzled and confounded, if care were not exerted to relieve it, and fix its attention by divisions marked from distance to distance."

It was this learned and very intelligent writer who first suggested, that all the Lands and Islands in the Austral world should be divided into three portions, corresponding with the three great Oceans, the Indian or Ethiopic, the Atlantic, and the Pacific; those in the Indian Ocean, and to the south of Asia, to be named Australasia; those in the two Pacifies, from the multitude of Islands, Polynesia (a name first used, we believe, by De Barros), and those in the Atlantic, to the south of Cape Horn, and the Cape of Good Hope, Magellanica. The last, however, became unnecessary, as soon as it was ascertained, that the Terra Australis incognita had no existence. Some idea may be formed of the rapid progress made in

maritime geography, even within the last fifty years, and of its imperfection previous to that period, when it is stated, that, in the year 1770, the enlightened and industrious hydrographer, the late Alexander Dalrymple, asserted that the great southern continent was not then a matter of discovery, for that it had been seen on the west by Tasman in 1642, and on the east by Juan Fernandez, above half a century before; adding, without any doubt or hesitation, that "the countries intermediate, equal in extent to all the civilized part of Asia, from Turkey to China inclusive, still remain unexplored." Nay, more, "that it extended from 30° south to the pole, and that the number of its inhabitants was probably more than fifty millions." All these facts he discovers in the Spanish and Portuguese voyages in the South Pacific Ocean. (Historical Collections.)

The two divisions of Australasia and Polynesia will be found to comprehend, with sufficient convenience, all those Islands, that cannot with propriety be referred to any of the four continents of the Globe. Nor is there any difficulty in drawing the line of separation between those two divisions; though it is not quite so easy to mark the distinct boundary between the Australasian and the Asiatic Islands, where they melt into each other, about the Equator, at the north-west extremity of Papua or New Guinea. In a geographical view, the small Islands of Waygiou, Salwatty, Batanta, Mysol, and Timorlaut, ought strictly to belong to Australasia; but peopled, as they are, by Asiatics of the Malay tribe, and under the influence of the Dutch Islands, it may, perhaps, be more proper, in a moral and political point of view,

Australasia to consider them as belonging to the Asiatic Islands; more particularly, as we shall then have all the Australasian population, with very few exceptions, marked with the African or Negro character. But, in fact, all geographical divisions are and must be to a certain degree arbitrary.

Boundaries. If, then, we take the equator as the northern boundary from the 132° to the 175° of east longitude; continue a line on the latter meridian to the 55th parallel (bending a little to take in New Zealand) for the eastern; another line along the same parallel to the 65° of east longitude for the southern; and a slanting line to the point on the equator from which we set out, so as to include Kerguelen's land, and pass on the eastern sides of Timorlaut, Ceram, Mysol, and Salwatty, for the western boundary;—those lines will circumscribe the whole of the Australasian Islands. We have included the uninhabited Islands of Kerguelen, and St Paul and Amsterdam, because they cannot properly be considered as African Islands; though arranged, we believe, under that division by Pinkerton: they are of less importance to geography than to geology.

Australasia, then, may be subdivided into the following Groups and Islands:

1. 1. Notasia, or New Holland.
2. 2. Van Dieman's land.
3. 3. Papua, or New Guinea.
4. 4. New Britain, New Ireland, and neighbouring Islands.
5. 5. Solomon's Islands.
6. 6. New Hebrides.
7. 7. New Caledonia.
8. 8. New Zealand, and Isles to the southward.
9. 9. Kerguelen's Islands, or Islands of Desolation.
10. 10. St Paul and Amsterdam.
11. 11. Numerous reefs and Islets of Coral scattered over the Australasian Sea.

I. The first attempt to explore this Island, which, from its size, may be considered as the fifth continent of the earth, is unquestionably due to the Dutch; for, although some part of the northern coast may have been seen by the early navigators of Spain and Portugal, there is no direct testimony in favour of such discovery. There are two charts in the British Museum which belonged to the Harleian Collection, one French, without date, which was probably the original, and the other English, apparently a copy; the latter is dedicated to the King of England, and bears date 1542; in both of these charts is marked down an extensive tract of country to the southward of

Progress of the Moluccas, under the name of Great Java, agreeing more nearly with the position and extent of New Holland than any other land. The form given to the north-west part of the coast approaches nearest to the truth, a part, indeed, which may have been seen by these early navigators in their return from the Moluccas, long before the date of the English chart. It is a singular coincidence in geographical nomenclature, that on the east coast of the French chart, something like a Botany Bay should be designated under the name of Côte des Herbaiges. The Abbé Prévost, in the Histoire Générale des Voyages, and the President De Brosses, in his Histoire des Navi-

gations aux Terres Australes, are not very happy in Australasia, advancing a claim in favour of Paulovier de Gonneville, a French Captain, to the discovery of this Terra Australis in 1504. It was the coast of Madagascar upon which Gonneville, as is evident by their own accounts, was driven.

The best and most authentic abstract of the Dutch discoveries, on the coasts of New Holland, is contained in the instructions given by the Governor-General of Batavia to Commodore Abel Janzen Tasman, and published by Mr Dalrymple in his Collection concerning Papua. From this document, it appears, that the Dutch government of Bantam, in 1605, dispatched the Duyfhen yacht to explore the Islands of New Guinea. Returning to the southward, along the Islands on the northern side of Torres Strait, she came to that part of the Great South Land, which is now called Cape York; but all these lands were then thought to be connected, and to form the southern coast of New Guinea. "Thus," says Captain Flinders, "without being conscious of it, the commander of the Duyfhen made the first authenticated discovery of any part of the Great South Land, about the month of March 1606." About the same place, and in the same year, Torres, a Spanish navigator, being second in command to Fernandez de Quiros, saw the Terra Australis, but had as little knowledge of the nature of his discovery as the commander of the Duyfhen. He passed the strait, however, which divides this Terra Australis from New Guinea, whose existence was not generally known till 1770, when it was again discovered and passed by our great circumnavigator Captain Cook. Of this, and his other discoveries, Torres addressed an account to the King of Spain; and, as it afterwards appeared, had taken the precaution to lodge a copy of it in the archives of Manila; for, when that city was surrendered to the British forces in 1762, Mr Dalrymple snatched from oblivion this interesting document of early discovery; and as a just tribute to the enterprising Spanish navigator, he gave to this passage the name of Torres Strait, by which it is now universally known.

In 1617 the Dutch sent a second expedition, but "with little success;" the journals of which were lost. In 1623, the yachts Pera and Arnheim were dispatched from Amboyna, under the command of Jan Carstens, who, with eight of the Arnheim's crew, was treacherously murdered by the natives of New Guinea; but the vessels prosecuted the voyage, and discovered the great Islands Arnheim and the Spult. The Arnheim returned to Amboyna; the Pera persisted, and ran along the west coast of New Guinea, as they thought, but it was New Holland, to Cape Keer-veer, or Turn-again, and from thence explored the coast farther southward, as far as 17°, to Staten River. "In this discovery were found everywhere shallow water and barren coasts, Islands altogether thinly peopled by divers cruel, poor, and brutal nations; and of very little use to the (Dutch East India) Company."

The next expedition sent by the Dutch was from Banda in the year 1636, when Gerrit Tomaz Pool proceeded with the yachts Klein Amsterdam, and Wesel, and nearly at the same place, on the coast of

Australasia. New Guinea, met the same fate which had befallen Carstens; but the supercargo, Pierson, continued the voyage, and discovered the coast of Arnheim, or Van Dieman's land, in 11° south, and sailed along the shore 120 miles, without seeing any inhabitants.

Abel Jansen Tasman sailed on a second voyage of discovery from Batavia in 1644, but no account of this voyage was ever made public, nor is it known to exist. No chart bearing his name is now known, but there is little doubt that the north-west coast of New Holland was first explored by him; and it is singular enough, that Dampier should say he had Tasman's chart of it. Tasman is also supposed to have sailed round the Gulf of Carpentaria, an opinion which Captain Flinders considers to be strengthened, from the names of Tasman, of the governor-general, and of two of the council, who signed his instructions, being applied to places at the head of the gulf, as well as that of Maria, the governor's daughter, to whom Tasman is said to have been attached. Tasman had sailed, on a former voyage, from Batavia in 1642, for the Mauritius; from hence steering south and eastward upon discovery, he fell in with land, to which he gave the name of Anthony Van Dieman's Land, in honour of the governor-general, "our master," he adds, "who sent us out to make discoveries."

The last voyage undertaken by the Dutch, for the discovery of Terra Australis, was in 1705, when three Dutch vessels were sent from Timor, "with orders to explore the north coast of New Holland better than it had been done before." The account, however, given by the President De Brosses is so vague and imperfect, that very little satisfactory information is to be obtained from it. It is on the west coast that the Dutch appear to have been most successful. In Tasman's instructions it is stated, that "in the years 1616, 1618, 1619, and 1622, the west coast of this great unknown southland, from 35° to 22° south latitude, was discovered by outward bound ships, and among them, by the ship Endragt." Dirk Hartog commanded this ship, and seems to have made the coast in latitude about 26½° south, and to have sailed northward, along it, to about 23°; giving the name of Landt van Endragt to the coast so discovered; and that of Dirk Hartog's road (called afterwards Shark's Bay by Dampier) to an Inlet on the coast, a little to the southward of 25°. A plate of tin was found in 1697, and again seen by Baudin in 1801, on one of the Islands which forms the roadstead, bearing an inscription that the ship Endragt of Amsterdam arrived there on the 25th October 1616. After this several outward bound ships fell in, by accident, with different parts of this coast.

The Dutch made little progress in any other part of the extensive coasts of New Holland. The instructions to Tasman say, "In the year 1627, the south coast of the Great South Land was accidentally discovered by the ship the Guldee Zeepard, outward bound from Fatherland, for the space of 1000 miles." From the circumstance of this ship having on board Pieter Nuyts, who was sent from Batavia as ambassador to Japan, and afterwards appointed governor of Formosa, the name of Nuyts' Land was given to this long range of coast.

The first English navigator who appears to have seen any part of New Holland, is the celebrated William Dampier, who, in his buccaneering voyage round the world, in January 1668, touched at the north-west coast, for the purposes of careening his vessel and procuring refreshments. He made the land in latitude 16° 15', and ran along the shore to the north-east, till he came to a bay or opening fit for the purpose. In 1699, Dampier, a second time, visited the north-western coast of this Terra Australis, being now legitimately employed in making discovery, in his Majesty's ship the Roebuck. Of this part of the coast little more is yet known than what has been described by Dampier.

It was left for our celebrated navigator, Captain Cook, to complete the grand outline of the fifth continent of the world. The reign of George III. will ever be distinguished for the liberal principles on which voyages of discovery were undertaken, and their results communicated to the world. The Endeavour was fitted out to observe, at Taheité, the transit of Venus over the sun's disk; on her return, in 1770, Captain, then Lieutenant Cook, explored the whole east coast of the Terra Australis incognita, from Cape Howe to Cape York, not minutely entering into the details of every part, which would have been impossible, but laying down a correct general outline. "He reaped," says Captain Flinders, "the harvest of discovery, but the gleanings of the field remained to be gathered." In his passage through Endeavour's Strait, between Cape York and the Prince of Wales' Islands, he not only cleared up the doubt which till then existed, of the actual separation of Terra Australis from New Guinea, but, by his accurate observations, enabled geographers to assign something like a true place to the former discoveries of the Dutch in these parts.

In 1777 Captain Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery, visited Van Dieman's Land; but as Captain Furneaux, in his Majesty's ship Adventure, had preceded him four years, and Tasman and Marion had examined the coast, little was here supposed to remain for discovery, except in detail. It was long subsequent to Furneaux's visit, that Van Dieman's Land was ascertained to be an Island; a discovery which may have been retarded by that officer having given an opinion, "that there is no strait between New Holland and Van Dieman's Land, but a very deep bay." The existence of such a strait was however still suspected, but the various attempts to ascertain it, without success, by different navigators from both sides of the coast, seemed to have decided the question in the negative, when Mr Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, having observed, as he ran down the east coast in an open whale boat, that a heavy swell rolled in from the westward, was satisfied in his own mind that such a swell could proceed only from the great Southern Ocean. To ascertain whether this was the fact, was a point of great importance to the new colony on the eastern coast; and for this purpose Mr Flinders, together with Mr Bass, were sent on this service in a small decked boat;—at the end of three months, they returned to Port Jackson, with an interesting account of the survey of the coasts of Van Dieman's Land, which they had completely cir-

Australasia. cumnavigated, and thus confirmed the conjecture of Mr Bass, whose name the strait deservedly bears.

The French are entitled to the honour of some partial discoveries on Terra Australis. Captain Marion was dispatched in the year 1772 from the Isle of France with two ships, the Mascarin and Marquis de Castries, on a voyage of discovery, one of the objects of which was that of the supposed southern continent. He touched at Van Dieman's Land, quarrelled with the natives, and finding no fresh water, and the weather being stormy, he set sail for New Zealand, having added very little to the prior discoveries of Tasman.

In the year 1792, Rear-Admiral D'Entrecasteaux, having been sent out with two ships, La Recherche and L'Esperance, in search of the unfortunate La Perouse, made the south coast of New Holland, which he explored as far as the Termination Island of Vancouver, the deficiencies of whose chart he was able to supply, by the state of the weather permitting him to keep the coast closer on board than the English navigator had been able to do. Termination Island was found to be the first of a large group laid down by Nuyts, whose accuracy is praised by the Admiral, he having found "the latitude of Point Leuwen and of the coast of Nuyts' Land laid down with an exactness surprising for the remote period in which they had been discovered." This liberal acknowledgment did not, however, prevent him from giving to the group of Islands, which he only saw, but did not survey, the name of Archipel de la Recherche. But the most important discovery of D'Entrecasteaux was an inlet on the south coast of Van Dieman's Land, which was found to be the entrance into a fine navigable channel, running more than thirty miles to the northward, and there communicating with Storm Bay; containing a series of excellent harbours, or rather one continued harbour the whole way, from beginning to end. "The charts," says Captain Flinders, "of the bays, ports, and arms of the sea, at the south-east end of Van Dieman's Land, constructed, in this expedition, by Messieurs Beautemps, Beaupré, and assistants, appear to combine scientific accuracy and minuteness of detail, with an uncommon degree of neatness in the execution. They contain some of the finest specimens of marine surveying, perhaps, ever made in a new country."

In 1800, Captain Baudin was sent out with two armed vessels, Le Géographe and Le Naturaliste, on a voyage of discovery nominally round the world, but actually, as appears from his instructions, to examine every part of the coasts of New Holland and Van Dieman's Land. The first volume of the account of this voyage was published by M. Peron, one of the naturalists, in 1807; the second never appeared. All the old names of the capes, bays, inlets, and islands, were unblushingly changed to those of Napoleon, his family, his marshals, and members of the Institute; and to 900 leagues of the southern coast, comprehending all the discoveries of Nuyts, Vancouver, D'Entrecasteaux, Flinders, Bass, and Grant, was given the general name of Terre Napoleon, while not 50 leagues of real discovery were effected, which had not been anticipat-

ed by Captain Flinders; who, after losing his ship, Australasia, and proceeding homewards, was scandalously detained as a prisoner in the Isle of France, "to give time for the previous publication of the voyage of M. Baudin, to prepossess the world, that it was to the French nation only the complete discovery and examination of the south coast of Australia was due."

Captain Flinders, however, ultimately triumphed. After an unjust and cruel captivity of seven years, he arrived in England in 1810, and in 1814 published his discoveries in two volumes, accompanied with an atlas of charts, which may be held forth as models in maritime surveying. At this time, not a single chart of coast, bay, or island, of Captain Baudin's discoveries had appeared, though shortly afterwards, an atlas was published by Freycinet, the first lieutenant, differing in their form and structure very little from those of Captain Flinders, but bearing the names recorded in M. Peron's first volume. The frontispiece to this atlas affords an instance of that almost impious adulation which Buonaparte was in the habit of receiving from his slaves. An eye, having an N within it, darts its rays through a dark cloud overshadowing a Globe with the southern pole uppermost, on which is drawn the outline of New Holland, with this inscription, "Fulget et ipso."

It is to Captain Flinders that we owe the completion in detail of the survey of the coasts of New Holland, with the exception of the west and north-west coasts, which he was prevented from accomplishing by the loss of his ship. Dampier had said, in anchoring near the south end of De Witt's Land, behind Rosemary Island, which was one of an extensive cluster, "by the tides I met with a while afterwards, I had a strong suspicion that there might be a kind of archipelago of Islands, and a passage possibly to the south of New Holland and New Guinea, into the Great South Sea eastward;" but whether it might be a channel or strait, or the mouth of a large river, he seems not to have made up his mind. Vlaming saw an opening 12 miles wide near the same place, and could find no anchorage. It has now been ascertained, that there is no outlet into the great Ocean eastward, nor into the gulf of Carpentaria, nor into Bass Strait; but the geographical problem yet remains to be solved, whether the opening in the coast behind Rosemary Island be not the mouth of a large river. Le Géographe and Le Naturaliste, under Baudin, stood along this coast, examined in a very slovenly manner some particular points, but assisted geography less than they perplexed it, by unwarrantably changing every old name for that of some of the upstarts created by the French revolution. Never, indeed, were two naval officers so ill selected for the purpose of discovery as Captains Baudin and Hamelin; not so those in the scientific department, who, under every unfavourable and discouraging circumstance, effected more for physical science than could be expected. The whole of this coast then may still be considered as terra incognita; and it is somewhat remarkable, that the local government of New South Wales, which, we believe, has under its command several colonial vessels, should not before this have taken occasion to ascertain this

Australasia. point, on which so many curious and unexplained phenomena in the geography and geology of the fifth continent depend. It is no less remarkable, that in a period not far short of thirty years since the settlement of Port Jackson was first made, all beyond as many leagues was a complete terra incognita to the settlers, till about two years ago, when Mr Evans, the land-surveyor, penetrated behind the hitherto impassable barrier, the Blue Mountains, to the distance of about 300 miles in two separate journeys.

Journeys in the Interior. Of these journeys we are enabled to give a brief abstract. On the 19th November 1813, Mr Evans left Emu Island in the Nepean, and returned on the 8th January 1814, having performed a journey of 154 miles nearly west. At the end of 48 miles, he had cleared the ranges of mountains, which he says are granite, with loose flints and quartz pebbles strewn on the surface; and here, for the first time, he fell in with a small stream running to the westward. The farther he advanced the more beautiful the country became; both hill and dale were clothed with fine grass, the whole appearing at a little distance as if laid out into fields divided by hedges; through every valley meandered trickling streams of fine water, all falling down towards the Fish River, so called by him from the vast abundance of fine fish resembling trout, which his party caught with ease whenever they had occasion for them. Many of the hills were capped with forest trees, chiefly of the Eucalyptus, and clumps of these mixed with Mimosas and the Casuarina, were interspersed along the feet of the hills and in the valleys, so as to wear the appearance of a succession of gentlemen's parks. The river, which at first consisted of a chain of pools, connected by small streamlets, had assumed in the neighbourhood of Macquarie's Plains, the character of a considerable stream, and had become unfordable, which made it necessary to construct a bridge of large trees to transport the people, the horses, and baggage. Evans says, the country was now more beautiful than he had ever seen. A fine river, running in a deep channel over a gravelly bottom, and its banks skirted with trees, excepting at the sloping points of hills round which it winded, and which were covered with a fine green sod down to the margin, intermixed with the white daisy;—all this, added to the temperate climate, put him in mind of England. Farther on, and before they reached Bathurst's Plains, the river was increased considerably in size by the junction of another stream, which he called Campbell's River; and to the united streams, he gave the name of Macquarie's River, the general direction of which appeared to be to the northward of west. Fish continued to abound of the same kind as those first caught, but of a size from 11 to 15 pounds each. Governor Macquarie says, these fish resemble perch, are not unlike that usually called rock-cod, and have been caught from 17 to 25 pounds weight each. Large herds of emus were seen crossing the plains, and kangaroos in great abundance; but not a native human being appeared until on his return, when, near Bathurst's Plains, two women and four children were come upon by surprise, and were so terrified, that they fell down with fright. It was observed, that both the women had

lost the right eye. Evans makes Bathurst's Plains near 150 miles from Emu Island; but Governor Macquarie, who subsequently visited this place, states the measured distance from Sydney town to be only 140 miles. It is represented as an eligible situation for establishing a settlement, as the land is excellent; plenty of stone and timber for building, but no limestone; abundance of water, though the river, at the time of the Governor's visit, just at the close of an unusually dry season, was reduced to a chain of pools, the intermediate channels being dried up.

From hence Mr Evans was a second time dispatched, in May 1815, to follow the course of Macquarie's River. He proceeded about 115 miles, from whence he could see across an extensive plain, 40 or 50 miles, at the extremity of which was a range of blue mountains, separated by an opening in the north-west, through which, he had no doubt, the river flowed; and he appears to have as little doubt, that it crosses the continent, and falls into the sea, somewhere in De Witt's Land, probably through Dampier's Opening, behind Rosemary Island.

From these journeys, it appears clear that the country is but thinly peopled. The natives that were seen resembled, in their persons and features, those of Sydney, but spoke a different language; and they were better clothed, being well covered with kangaroo skins, sewed neatly together with the sinews of emus. They wore the fur side next the skin, and the outer or flesh side was very ingeniously marked with regular ornamental devices, among which the cross appeared to predominate. They were exceedingly terrified at the sight of Mr Evans on his horse, as they took the rider and horse to be one animal, and did not recover from their fright or surprise on seeing him dismount. When a little tranquillized, and more familiar, they were found to be a good-humoured laughing people, exhibiting none of that savage and furious spirit of the natives of Sydney. They were attended with dogs not unlike the jackal, with which they catch kangaroos. The spears they carried were heavy, and clumsily made, and they could only throw them to a short distance, something like the New Zealanders.

The country beyond Bathurst was even superior to that first explored. The vast herds of emus and kangaroos were truly astonishing. These animals, and the fish of the river, appeared to be the principal articles of subsistence for the natives. In one large plain, covered with kangaroos and emus, Evans discovered an immense quantity of a white substance, resembling comfits or sugar-plums, which he took to be manna, but which appears to be a pure saccharine substance,—an exudation probably from some particular plant. He passed whole mountains of fine blue limestone, and picked up topazes, crystals, and other pebbles, such as are met with on the coast of Bass's Strait. He also mentions forests of pines, the trees 40 feet high without a branch. Governor Macquarie, however, observed, that as the soil and grass-lands improved, the timber trees decreased in size. (See the different works of Dalrymple, Burney, Cook, D'Entrecasteaux, and Flinders.)

If, however, but little is yet known of the interior

of New Holland, and the detail of the western coast still requires to be filled up, the grand outline of this large Island, or, more properly, Continent, has been completed, and its limits correctly ascertained. It extends in latitude from Cape York in $10^\{\backslash circ\}\; 45\text{'}$ south to Wilson's promontory in $39^\{\backslash circ\}\; 9\text{'}$ south, and in longitude from Dirk Hartog's Island in Shark's Bay in $113^\{\backslash circ\}$ east, to point Look-out in Glasshouse Bay in $153^\{\backslash circ\}\; 37\text{'}$ east; the mean breadth, from north to south, being about 1200, and length, from east to west, 2100 geographical miles, making an area equal to about three-fourths of the Continent of Europe. A remarkable sameness in all the productions of the three kingdoms of nature prevails in every part of its extensive coasts, and as remarkable a difference in two of them (the animal and vegetable) from those of the rest of the world.

The natives, wherever they have been met with, are of the very lowest description of human beings. In the journal of the Duyfhen, the north coast is described as thinly "inhabited by wild, cruel, black savages, by whom some of the crew were murdered;" and the ship Vianen, touching on the western coast about $21^\{\backslash circ\}$ south, observed "a foul and barren shore, green fields, and very wild, black, barbarous inhabitants." In $24^\{\backslash circ\}$ south, Polsert, who commanded the Batavia, saw four natives, whom he describes as "wild, black, and altogether naked, not covering even those parts which almost all savages conceal." Tasman "found in Hollandia Nova, in lat. $17^\{\backslash circ\}\; 12\text{'}$ south, a naked black people, with curly hair, malicious, and cruel, using for arms bows and arrows, hazagacys and kalawacys." Dampier describes them as being "a naked black people, with curly hair, having a piece of the rind of a tree tied like a girdle about their waists, and a handful of long grass, or three or four green boughs full of leaves thrust under their girdle to cover their nakedness;" that "the two fore-teeth of the upper jaw are wanting in all of them, men and women, old and young; neither have they any beards." And he remarks, "they have no boats, canoes, or bark-logs." The south coast is so barren, and the naked hillocks of sand so continuous, that there appears to be nothing for human inhabitants to subsist upon. "It is not surprising," says D'Entrecasteaux, "that Nuyts has given no details of this barren coast: for its aspect is so uniform, that the most fruitful imagination could find nothing to say of it." Even where the country begins to improve towards the eastward, in the neighbourhood of Kangaroo Island, Captain Flinders found not the least vestige of inhabitants; and, from the stupidity of the kangaroos on that Island, "which," he observes, "not unfrequently appeared to consider us as seals," he concludes there either are no natives, or that they are ignorant of every kind of embarkation. Towards the northern part of the eastern coast, the same navigator thinks they are somewhat superior to those near Sydney, having belts round the waist, and fillets about the head and upper part of the arm, associating in greater numbers, and dwelling in huts of a superior construction. They also catch fish with nets, which he thinks is alone a feature of distinction from those who only spear the fish, as a net requires

more than one person to manage, consumes much time in making, cannot easily be dragged about, and, in short, must occasion a sense of the advantage to be derived from mutual assistance, and suggest the necessity of a permanent residence. The native of the colony of Sydney we know pretty well to be a gloomy, solitary, unsettled being; seldom appearing, even in the town, without his spear, his throwing-stick, or his club. "His spear," says Colonel Collins, "is his defence against enemies. It is the weapon he uses to punish aggression, and revenge insult. It is even the instrument with which he corrects his wife in the last extreme; for, in their passion, or perhaps oftener in a fit of jealousy, they scruple not to inflict death. It is the plaything of children, and in the hands of persons of all ages." Turnbull says, the natives of this part of New Holland are, beyond comparison, the most barbarous on the surface of the Globe, and that the influence of European settlers has had no effect in rendering them more sensible of the benefits of civilization; that every day men and women are to be seen in the streets of Sydney and Paramatta naked as in the moment of their birth; yet he contends that they are far from being stupid; that they are the greatest mimics alive; and that the oddities, dress, walk, gait, and looks of all the Europeans of any rank, from the time of Governor Phillip downwards, are so exactly imitated, as to form among them a kind of historic register of their several actions and characters; and they are great proficient in the slang language of the convicts. But this seems to be the sum total of all their acquisitions from European intercourse. In all other respects they remain the same untutored, unprotected, improvident, and comfortless savages we first found them. By all who have seen them they are described as hideously ugly, with flat noses, wide nostrils, eyes sunk in the head, overshadowed with thick black eyebrows; the mouth extravagantly wide, lips thick and prominent, hair black and clotted, but not woolly, the colour of the skin varying from dark bronze to jet black. Their stature is below the middle size. They are remarkably thin and ill made, their limbs small, and almost without any appearance of muscle. They live chiefly on fish, which they sometimes spear and sometimes net, the women on parts of the coast aiding to catch them with the hook and line. If a dead whale happens to be cast on shore, numbers flock to it from every part of the coast, just as the vultures smell out a dead carcass, and they feast sumptuously while any part of it remains. Those in the interior are stated to live on grubs, ants and their eggs, kangaroos, when they can catch them, fern roots, various kinds of berries, and honey. These sylvan satyrs are described as having long and lean legs and arms, owing, as is supposed, to their climbing of trees, which they ascend by notches cut into them by stone hatchets, in which the great toe is placed, and by these means they ascend trees that are 70 or 80 feet high.

To add to their natural deformity, they thrust a bone through the cartilage of the nose, and stick with gum to their hair, matted with moss, the teeth of men, sharks, or kangaroos, the tails of dogs, jaw-bones of fish, &c. and daub their faces and bodies

Australasia. with red and white clay, and scarify the skin in every part with sharp shells. The women and female children are generally found to want the first two joints of the little finger of the left hand; and the reason they assign is, that they would otherwise be in the way of winding the fishing-lines over the hand.

They have no fixed habitations, the climate generally allowing of their sleeping in the open air, in the crevices of rocks, or under the shelter of the bushes. Their temporary hovels consist of the bark of a tree, each hovel just large enough to receive a single person; to the northward, on the east coast, some were discovered a little larger, so that a family might, on an emergency, squeeze under one of them; but they are without furniture or conveniences of any description. They seem to have no idea of the benefits arising from social life; their largest clans extend not beyond the family circle, of each of which the eldest is called by a name synonymous with that of father. They are totally without religion, neither paying the least respect or adoration to any object or being, real or imaginary. Hence they have nothing to prompt them to a good action, nothing to deter them from a bad one; hence murder is not considered as any heinous crime, and women think nothing of destroying, by compression, the infant in the womb, to avoid the trouble, if brought alive into the world, of carrying it about and finding it subsistence. Should a woman die with an infant at the breast, the living child is inhumanly thrown into the same hole with the mother, and covered with stones, of which the brutal father throws the first. They are savage even in love, the very first act of courtship, on the part of the husband, being that of knocking down his intended bride with a club, and dragging her away from her friends, bleeding and senseless, to the woods; the consequence is, that scarcely a female of the age of maturity is to be seen without her head full of scars, the unequivocal marks of her husband's affection. The nearest relations are also perpetually destroying each other, either by stratagem or open combat; for, savage as they are, they have a singular custom of expiating an offence, even murder, by the criminal exposing himself to as many of the injured family as may choose to stand forth and hurl their spears at him. From the moment that he is so dreadfully mangled that he can stand no longer, or has the good fortune to parry all their shafts, a reconciliation takes place, and friendship is restored; if the criminal refuses to stand this trial, he and all his family are considered as fair game to attack and murder wherever they are met with. The English used to attend these unequal combats, and thus gave countenance to a savage practice, which not unfrequently ended in the death of the person who was put on his defence. (See Collins, Flinders, Turnbull, &c.)

Animals. If no very essential difference be perceptible in the moral and physical qualities of the man of New Holland, and the rest of the species, except that which arises from the different circumstances under which they are placed;—if the rocks and mountains, and the earths, resemble nearly the inorganic substances that are met with in other parts of the world,

there is at least a very extraordinary, and a distinct Australasia. characteristic difference in both the animal and vegetable part of the creation, which makes a considerable class of subjects in both these kingdoms peculiar to New Holland. The quadrupeds hitherto discovered, with very few exceptions, are of the kangaroo or opossum tribe; having their hinder legs long out of all proportion, when compared with the length of the fore legs, and a sack under the belly of the female for the reception of the young, of which family, though divided into different genera, there are at least fifty distinct species. They have rats, and dogs of the jackall kind, all exactly alike, and a little animal of the bear tribe named womat, and these pretty nearly complete the catalogue of four-footed animals yet known on this fifth Continent. There appears, indeed, such an apparent affinity of the natural objects in New South Wales, that Dr White observes, all the quadrupeds are like opossums, all the fish like sharks, and that every part of the land, all the trees, and all the grasses, resemble one another. There is, however, an animal which resembles nothing in the creation but itself,—which, being rejected by naturalists from the classes mammalia, aves, and pisces, must, we suppose, be considered as belonging to the amphibia,—we mean the Ornithorynchus paradoxus, "a quadruped with the beak of a bird, which is contrary to known facts and received opinions." When the head of one of these beasts was brought to the late Dr Shaw, of the British Museum, he suspected it as an idle attempt to impose on his judgment, and did not hastily believe that nature had set the bill of a duck on the head of a quadruped; but so it has since proved to be the case.

The birds are no less singular than the beasts, there being black swans and white eagles; the former everywhere in such multitudes as to spoil a proverb that had held good for two thousand years; and their song, if we may credit Mr Bass, "exactly resembles the creaking of a rusty sign on a windy day." The Mænura superba, with its scalloped tail feathers, is perhaps the most singular and beautiful of that very elegant race of birds known by the name of birds of paradise; cockatoos, parrots, and parroquets, are innumerable, and of great variety. The mountain eagle is a magnificent creature, but the emu is perhaps the tallest and loftiest bird that exists, many of them standing full seven feet high.

The plants are no less singular than the animals. Plants. Of these Mr Brown has given a very curious and instructive account in his Geographical and Systematical Remarks, in the Appendix to Flinders's Voyage. He collected nearly 3900 species of Australasian plants, which, with those brought to England by Sir Joseph Banks and others, supplied him with the materials for a Flora Terræ Australis, consisting of 4200 species, referable to 120 natural orders: but he remarks, that more than half the number of species belong to eleven only of those orders. Of the Eucalyptus, or gum-tree, the largest yet discovered, there are not fewer than 100 different species. "The Eucalyptus globulus of Labillardiere," says Mr Brown, "and another species, peculiar to the south of Van Dieman's Land, not unfrequently attain the

Australasia. height of 150 feet, with a girth near the base of from 25 to 40 feet." Of this magnificent genus there are 50 different species within the limits of the colony of Port Jackson. Of the beautiful and elegant Melaleuca Mr Brown collected upwards of 30 species; all of which, with the exception of the two species the Leucodendron and Cajaputi, appear to be confined to Terra Australis. The tribe of Stackhouseæ is entirely peculiar to that country. Of the natural order of proteaceæ, consisting of about 400 known species, more than 200 are natives of New Holland, of which they form one of its characteristic botanical features; the Banksia, in particular, being one of the most striking peculiarities of the vegetable kingdom. The Casuarina, of which 13 species have been discovered, is another characteristic feature of the woods and thickets of New Holland. The most extensive genus, however, is the leafless Acacia, of which there are more than 100 species; and this, with the Eucalyptus, "if taken together," says Mr Brown, "and considered with respect to the mass of vegetable matter they contain, calculated from the size as well as from the number of individuals, are perhaps nearly equal to all the other plants of that country." The Casuarina and the Eucalyptus are represented as furnishing excellent timber for ship-building, and for all the purposes of domestic furniture, and agricultural implements; and the gum of the Eucalyptus is medicinal; of one species it might be employed as pitch. Freycinet says, they procured a resinous substance from the Xanthorrhœa, which served them to caulk their vessels. The bark of a tree on the Hawkesbury is said to be as efficacious in tanning leather as the oak-bark; and a creeping plant (smilax) is used as a substitute for tea. Nutmegs were found by Flinders on the northern coast, but they were small, and had so little of an aromatic flavour, that Mr Brown gave the plant the specific name of insipida. Among the curious productions of the vegetable world is the Cephalotus follicularis, or pitcher plant, of which a very correct and detailed drawing is given in the Atlas to Flinders's Voyage. (For an account of the history of the British Colony in New Holland, see NEW HOLLAND in the Encyclopædia; and BOTANY BAY, in this Supplement, for an account of its present state.)

II. Having marked the progressive discovery of this fair and fertile Island, until it was ascertained to be such, by Tasman, Marion, Furneaux, Cook, D'Entrecasteaux, Bass, and Flinders; we shall not think it necessary to notice the minor discoveries of Bligh, Hunter, Cox, &c. but proceed to give a general outline of its dimensions, surface, and natural productions. It is situated between the parallels of 41° and 43° 32' south latitude, and 144° 32' and 148° 25' east longitude; its medial length, from north to south, being about 160, and breadth, from east to west, 145 geographical miles. Its surface possesses every variety of mountain, hill, and dale; of forests and open meadows; of inland lakes, rivers, and inlets of the sea, forming safe and commodious harbours, that can render a country valuable or agreeable; and it enjoys a temperate climate, which is, perhaps, not very different from that of England, though

less subject to violent changes. In May, corresponding to our November, Labillardiere observed the mountains in the interior covered with snow. The western and southern coasts are bold, steep, and rocky, the latter terminating so abruptly, as to appear as if it had been broken off; and the group of Islands, named De Witt's Isles, to the southward, twelve in number, formed out of the fragments. Cook found the cliffs on the eastern side composed of sandstone; but the vast buttresses that look towards the southern seas of ice, are stated by Flinders to be composed of basaltic columns, appearing like so many stacks of chimneys. Labillardiere found, near this southern extremity, a stratum of coal 3½ feet thick, and 200 fathoms long, resting on sandstone.

The soil in general is represented as more productive than that of the east side of New Holland; and the Island has the advantage of being intersected by two fine rivers, rising near the centre: the one named the Tamar, falling into Bass's Strait on the north, and forming Port Dalrymple; the other, the Derwent, which discharges itself into the sea on the south-east extremity; spreading its waters, in the first instance, over the Great Storm Bay, which communicates with North Bay, Norfolk Bay, and Double Bay, on the east; and with D'Entrecasteaux's Channel on the west. The Tamar, in its course, receives three streams,—the North Esk, the South Esk, and the Lake river; and the tide flows about 30 miles up the river, to the point where it is joined by the two Esks. At the head of the western arm of Port Dalrymple, is situated York town, on the skirt of a beautiful, rich, and well wooded country. There is also a town, named Hobart town, on the right bank of the Derwent, about five miles inland. The country between these two towns was traversed by Mr Grimes in 1807, who describes it to be everywhere rich and beautiful, abounding in grassy plains, marshes, and lakes, bounded on each side by hills, well clothed with wood, rising into high and rocky mountains.

The description given by D'Entrecasteaux of the channel that bears his name, and the surrounding shores, is grand and imposing, and corresponds generally with the following animated account of it from M. Peron, ten years afterwards. "Crowded on the surface of the soil are seen on every side those beautiful Mimosas, those superb Metrosideros, those Correas, unknown till of late to our country, but now become the pride of our shrubberies. From the shores of the ocean to the summits of the highest mountains, may be observed the mighty Eucalyptus, those giant trees of Australasian forests, many of which measure from 162 to 180 feet in height, and from 25 to 30, and even 36 feet in circumference. Banksia, of different species, the Protea, the Embothria, the Leptosperma, form an enchanting belt round the skirts of the forests. Here the Casuarina exhibits its beautiful form: there the elegant Exocarpus throws into a hundred different places its negligent branches. Everywhere spring up the most delightful thickets of Melaleuca, Thesium, Conchylian, Evodia, all equally interesting, either from their graceful shape, the lovely verdure of their foliage, the singularity of their corollas, or the form of their seed-vessels." (Voy. aux Terres Aust.)

Australasia. All the navigators who have visited the southern part of Van Dieman's Land, describe the natives as a mild, affable, good-humoured, and inoffensive people, with the exception of Marion, the effect of whose fire-arms, Labillardiere thinks, had made them afraid of Europeans. Flinders and Bass conceived, that the natives of this Island were sunk still lower in the scale of human existence than those in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, though they saw but one man, and he is described as having "a countenance more expressive of benignity and intelligence than of that ferocity or stupidity which generally characterized the other natives." They are obviously the same people as those of New Holland, and go entirely naked, both men and women; but their language is altogether different; they have the art, too, of striking fire with two flints, which is not known to the other Australasian islanders; and it is also singular, that they set no value on iron. The women refused from Cook's people all presents, and rejected all their addresses, not so much from a sense of virtue, it was supposed, as from the fear of the men, of whom they stood in great awe. In some places were found miserable huts of twigs, and rude baskets, made of a juncus, or rush; but these were all the signs that appeared of civilization. Cook, D'Entrecasteaux, and Baudin, all observed many of the largest trees, with trunks hollowed out, apparently by means of fire; and, as the hollow side invariably faced the east and south-east, the lee-side to the prevailing winds, it was concluded they were intended as habitations. In D'Entrecasteaux's Channel only were indications of huts made of the bark of the Eucalyptus, consisting of three rolls stitched together. (D'Entrecasteaux, Labillardiere, Flinders, &c.)

Papua or New Guinea. III. This great Island is, after New Holland, not only the first in point of magnitude, but claims a priority in discovery over that and every other Island in the Australasian Sea. In the year 1526, when the Portuguese and the Spaniards were disputing their respective claims to the Spice Islands, Don Jorge de Meneses, of the former nation, had, in his passage from Malacca to the Moluccas, by extraordinary and accidental circumstances, discovered the north coast of Papua, so called, according to some, because the word signifies black, which was the colour of the natives, or curled hair, according to others. Meneses remained at a port called Versija, till the change of the monsoon, and then returned to the Moluccas. The next navigator who touched at Papua was Alvarez de Saavedra, on his homeward voyage from the Moluccas, in 1528, for New Spain; and from an idea that the country abounded in gold, he gave to it the name of Isla del Oro. From the resemblance of the natives to African Negroes, being black, with short curly hair, the name was afterwards changed by the Spaniards to New Guinea, and not, as some have supposed, because it was thought that Guinea and Papua were situated under the same parallel of latitude; which, however, they certainly are, though one happens to be north and the other south latitude. He staid a month, and obtained provisions, but some Portuguese deserted with the only boat the ship had, and were left behind. They found their way, how-

ever, to Gilolo, and reported that Saavedra had been wrecked; but on his subsequent arrival they were tried, condemned, and executed. He is supposed to have added about 50 leagues of discovery to that of Meneses. In 1529, Saavedra sailed a second time for New Spain, and, according to Galvaom (or Galvano), followed the coast of Papua eastwards above 500 leagues.

In 1537, Gonzalva and Alvarado were dispatched on discovery by the Viceroy of Peru; but the former being killed in a mutiny, the crew chose another commander; and the first land they made was Papua. The ship was in so crazy a state, that she was abandoned; the crew, only seven in number (the rest having died of hunger and fatigue), were made captives, and carried to an Island called Crespos (curly haired men), from whence they were sent to the Moluccas and ransomed.

In 1545, Ynigo Ortiz de Retz, in his voyage from Tidore to New Spain, came to an Archipelago of Islands near the land of Papua; sailed 230 leagues along the north coast; and not knowing it had been before visited by Europeans, he called it Nueva Guinea, from the resemblance of the natives to those of the coast of Guinea.

In 1606, Torres made the east coast of New Guinea, in his way to the Moluccas, sailed westward 300 leagues, doubled the south-east point, sailed along the southern coast, saw the northern coast of New Holland, and passed the Strait which now bears his name. He describes the coast of New Guinea to be inhabited by a dark people, naked, except a covering round the middle of painted cloth made of the bark of a tree. They had arms of clubs and darts ornamented with feathers. He fell in with many large islands, large ports, and large rivers. Towards the northern extremity he met with Mahomedans, who had swords and fire-arms.

In 1616, Schouten came in sight of a burning mountain on the coast of New Guinea, which he named Vulcan, and immediately after of the coast itself. The Island was well inhabited, and abounded with cocoa nuts, but no anchoring ground could be found; the natives black, with short hair, but others appeared of a more tawny colour, with canoes of a different shape. Among the Islands in sight to the northward, four small ones continually smoked. On approaching the mainland, the natives, whom he calls real Papoos, came off, "a wild, strange, and ridiculous people, active as monkeys, having black curled hair, rings in their ears and noses, and necklaces of hog's tusks." They had all some personal defect; one was blind, another had a great leg, a third a swelled arm, which made Schouten conclude that this part of the country was unhealthy, in which he was more confirmed by observing their houses built upon stakes eight or nine feet from the ground. At the two little Islands of Moa and Insou, on the north-east coast, the friendly natives supplied them with abundance of cocoa nuts. At 28 leagues from Moa, Schouten fell in with a group of fourteen small Islands covered with wood, but apparently uninhabited; but sailing to the northward, they were followed by six large canoes, the people in them armed with javelins. Those in some canoes from

Australasia another Island were of a tawny complexion, had long curly hair, and appeared, by their persons and language, to be a different race from the natives of Papua; they had rings of coloured glass, yellow beads, and vessels of porcelain, which were regarded as "evidences of their having communication with the East Indies." Schouten's Island is the largest of this group. Tasman visited all these islands, and the coast of New Guinea, in 1643, and obtained vast numbers of cocoa nuts and bananas from the friendly natives of Moa and Insou. Tasman made no discoveries in this part of his voyage.

Our countryman Dampier saw the coast in 1699, but did not land; the natives came off to his ship, and he speaks in admiration of their large and picturesque proas. He discovered, however, a Strait unknown before, which divides New Guinea from New Britain, and is now called after his name. Bougainville was less fortunate, when, in 1768, he touched on the coast of what he considered to be a separate Island, and to which he gave the name of Louisiade; there is, however, some reason to believe that it is a continuation of New Guinea. D'Entrecasteaux, in 1792, passed along the northern coast of Louisiade, and through Dampier's Strait, but left the point of its identity with, or separation from, New Guinea undecided.

Sonnerat published "A Voyage to New Guinea," though he evidently never was there, but describes the natives and productions from what he saw, and what he could collect at the island of Gibby, to the eastward of Gillolo.

Forrest, in 1775, anchored in the Bay of Dory, on the northern extremity of New Guinea, and collected some information respecting the inhabitants from a Mahomedan Hadji, who accompanied him. Captain Cook, also, in his first voyage in 1770, made the coast in about $6\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}^\{\backslash circ\}$ south latitude, a little to the northward of Cape Valscher, but did not bring his ship to anchor, on account of the hostility of the natives. A party landed near a grove of cocoa-nut trees, and not far from it found plantain, and the bread-fruit tree. The breeze from the trees and shrubs is said to have been charged with a fragrance not unlike that of gum benjamin. Three Indians rushed out of the wood with a hideous shout, ran towards the party, the foremost throwing something out of his hand which burnt like gunpowder, the other two hurling their lances at the same time. Before they reached the pinnacle, from sixty to a hundred had collected, all stark naked; their appearance as to stature, colour, and crisped hair, resembling that of the New Hollanders. They let off fires by four or five at a time, but for what purpose could not be imagined. These fires appeared to be discharged from a piece of stick, probably a hollow cane; and the fire and smoke exactly resembled those of a musket, but without any report. Those who were on board ship, at a distance, concluded they had fire-arms, and even those in the boat might have supposed them firing volleys, had they not been so near as to ascertain that there was no report. Torres had observed something of the same kind, in about $4^\{\backslash circ\}$ south latitude on the same coast, where, he says, the inhabitants were black, but better cloth-

ed than those southward; that among the weapons Australasia used by them were hollow bamboo sticks, which they filled with lime, and by throwing it out, endeavoured to blind their enemies: this explanation, however, does not account for the fire. Forrest says, that the Chinese, from Tidore, trade with Papua, under Dutch colours; perhaps, therefore, gunpowder may be one of the articles carried by them in exchange for the slaves, ambergrease, sea-slugs (biche de mer), tortoise-shell, loories, birds of paradise, &c. which they carry back to China.

If we suppose the Louisiade of Bougainville to be General connected with New Guinea, this Island extends in View of a south-east by east direction from the Cape, absurdly called Good Hope, nearly under the equator, to Cape Deliberance, in $11\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}^\{\backslash circ\}$ south, being in length about 1400, and medial breadth about 150 geographical miles. The accounts of all the navigators who have touched on the different parts of its coast, describe it as a rich and magnificent country, containing, in all human probability, from its situation and appearance, all the valuable vegetable products of the Moluccas and the several Asiatic Islands. Forrest found the nutmeg-tree on Manaswary Island in the Bay of Dory; and he learned that a people in the interior, called Haraforas, cultivate the ground, and bring their produce down to the sea-coast; that they are very poor, and some of them have long hair, and that they live in trees, which they ascend by cutting notches in them. The people of New Guinea, in many parts of the coast, Natives live in huts, or cabins placed on stages that are erected on poles, commonly in the water; probably as a protection against snakes and other venomous creatures; though Forrest seems to think against the Haraforas. On these stages they haul up their proas or canoes. These people are invariably described as being hideously ugly; their large eyes, flat noses, thick lips, woolly hair, and black shining skin, denote almost to a certainty their African origin, and their affinity with the natives of New Holland; but the difference of language, and the want of all the useful productions on the latter, which abound on New Guinea, induced Captain Cook to conclude, that there is no intercourse between the two people. The Papuans increase their natural deformity by passing bones or pieces of stick through the cartilage of the nose, and frizzing out their curly locks like a mop, sometimes to the enormous circumference of three feet. They appear, however, to be one degree farther removed from savage life than the New Hollanders, having permanent houses, and both men and women wearing wrappers round the waist, which are among the articles brought to them by the Chinese and Malays.

The only quadrupeds that are known to exist on this large Island are dogs, rats, and wild hogs; but the feathered race are of great beauty and infinite variety. New Guinea is the native country of those singular and matchless beauties, the birds of paradise, which were once thought to have no legs, but always on the wing, and known by the name of passaros da sol, birds of the sun. They are said to migrate in large flocks, in the dry Monsoon, to the Islands of Arroo, and other Islands to the west and north-west of New Guinea. The great crown pigeon, parrots, loories, and minas, are natives of Papua.

Australasia. The whole of this great country is indented with deep bays on every side, some of which nearly intersect the island; and the coast is surrounded on every side with a multitude of small Islands, all peopled with the same description of Blacks, excepting those already mentioned on the north-west, near the equator, most of which are under the government of Mahometan Malays, with whom both the Dutch and Chinese have long kept up a considerable intercourse.

IV. There can be little doubt that this extensive range of Islands was partially seen by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616, who, after discovering the Groene Island and the Marquen Islands, steered along the northern coast of New Ireland, as did Tasman also in 1642. Dampier, however, first ascertained New Britain to be an Island distinct from New Guinea, by passing the strait which since has borne his name. He visited Port Montague on this Island, and speaks of the black natives resembling the Papuans, their dexterity in managing their canoes, their woody hills, fertile vales, and delightful rivulets. He also anchored in Slinger's Bay on New Ireland, which he conceived to be the same land with New Britain; but Carteret, in 1727, discovered and passed through a strait which separates them, and to which he gave the name of St George's Channel. The Admiralty Islands of Carteret, to the north-westward of New Britain, had previously been discovered by Schouten, and named the Twenty-free Islands. New Britain was seen by Roggewein in 1722, and by Bougainville in 1768.

D'Entrecasteaux, we believe, was the last navigator who passed along the north coast of New Britain, and through St George's Channel, which divides it from New Ireland, and from thence to the Admiralty Islands; and from his voyage, published by Rossel, together with Labillardiere and Carteret's, we shall extract a few gleanings.

The extent of New Britain and Ireland is not exactly known, nor have they been sufficiently explored to enable geographers to lay them down with accuracy, or even to state what number of Islands the group consists of: one of considerable extent lies off the north-west end of New Ireland, which has been named New Hanover, and is itself surrounded by low woody Islands. The whole group occupies a space between 21° and 6° of south latitude, and 149° and 153° of east longitude, and may probably contain an area not less than 10,000 geographical miles.

Carteret saw but few natives on the south coast of New Ireland, in passing through the strait, who showed marked signs of hostility, and were armed with lances headed with flint; they had also slings, and good fishing-tackle. They were black, and had woolly hair, but their lips, he says, were not thick, nor their noses flat; their cheeks were streaked with white, and their hair and beards were covered with a white powder; their canoes were long and narrow, and had generally outriggers; one of them measured 90 feet in length, and was formed out of a single tree. The two large Islands, and the whole group, in fact, were nearly covered with wood, and

thick cocoa-nut groves skirted all the low parts of Australasia the coast. Labillardiere says that New Ireland produces nutmegs, and he also mentions a new species of the Areca palm, 108 feet high, the stem consisting of hard solid timber.

The natives of the Admiralty Islands, lying to the north-west, were found by Carteret to be less black than those of New Britain and Ireland, with agreeable countenances, not unlike Europeans; their hair was curly, smeared with oil and red ochre, and their bodies and faces painted with the same material; the glans penis was covered with the shell called the Bulla ovum, serving the same purpose as the wooden sheath of the Caffres in South Africa, whom, indeed, they seem to resemble as closely as the natives of New Guinea do those of the western coast of Africa. The women wear a bandage round the waist. The central Island is tolerably large, and of a beautiful appearance, clothed with the most luxuriant verdure, and cultivated to the very summit. Among the groves of cocoa-nut trees are numerous habitations, and the natives have evidently attained to a higher degree of civilization than their southern neighbours; they use earthen vessels, and chew the betel leaf with chunam or lime. This central Island is surrounded by nearly thirty small flat Islets of coral, and reefs in the various stages of their progress towards Islets.

Proceeding to the westward, and to the north-west, we meet with other little clusters of Islands,—as the Hermites, the Portland, the Echequier (chess-board), vulgarly called Exchequer Islands, all of which consist, like the Admiralty Archipelago, of a larger central Island surrounded by a chain of Islets and reefs, most of them covered with beautiful verdure. The natives of these groups, as they approach the equator, gradually assume a lighter colour and longer hair, till they lose entirely the negro character, and melt into that of Malays, and other Asiatic Islanders. (See Schouten, Dampier, Carteret, Labillardiere, &c.)

V. This archipelago of Islands was one of the first Solomon's discoveries of the Spaniards in Australasia, though the credit of it is given to Alonso de Mendana, who was sent on an expedition of discovery in 1567 from Callao by the Viceroy of Peru. He anchored in a Discovery. port on the Island of Santa Ysabel, to which he gave the name of Porta de la Estrella, and he also built a brigantine to make further discoveries, in which she was particularly successful, having fallen in with thirty-three Islands in number, "of very fine prospect." Many of them were of considerable size, to which they gave particular names, as Galera, Buonavista, Florida, San German, Guadalcanar, San Christoval, Santa Catarina, and Santa Ana. Guadalcanar, however, was the most attractive, having a port which they named De la Cruz, and a river which they called Galego. Of this Island Mendana took possession for the King of Spain. When the voyage was published, the name of Solomon's Islands was given to the group, "to the end that the Spaniards, supposing them to be those Isles from whence Solomon fetched gold to adorn the temple at Jerusalem, might be the more desirous to go and inhabit

Australasia. the same ; but it has been said that Mendana's advice was, that they should not be colonized, "that the English, or others, who pass the Strait of Magellan, or others, who pass the Strait of Magellan, might have no success there, but such as they get from the Indians." The truth, however, is, that Mendana, on a second voyage for the discovery of the Solomon Islands, returned without being able to find them, which gave occasion to the remark, that, "what Mendana discovered in his first voyage, he lost in his second." He discovered, however, in this second voyage, the great Island of Santa Cruz, which is situated at the south-east extremity of Solomon's Islands, and may very fairly be considered as one of the group. This Island, which has an excellent harbour, La Graciosa, was first revisited by Carteret, in 1767, after Mendana's discovery, who changed its name to that of Egmont, and made it the principal Island of a group which he called Queen Charlotte's Islands. Here Mendana died, and Quiros succeeded to the command; but the search for Solomon's Islands was abandoned when they were not more than 40 leagues from Christoval. It is a singular fact, that Solomon's Islands, whose name was sufficient to tempt adventurers, were lost to Europeans for two centuries after their discovery, and that we know at present little, if any, more than Mendana gave to the world after his first voyage. They were revisited by Bougainville in 1768; by M. Surville in 1769, on a voyage from Pondicherry of mercantile speculation, and who, from a ridiculous mistake, called them the Archipelago of the Arzacides, to mark the natives as assassins; and by Lieutenant Shortland, of the British navy, in 1788, who chose to call them New Georgia; and frequently since that time by various British and French navigators;—still the little we know of them is from Mendana.

Santa Ysabel, he says, was inhabited by people who had the complexion of mulattos, with curly hair, with little covering to their bodies, who worshipped serpents, toads, and such like creatures; their food cocoa-nuts and roots; and it was believed that they eat human flesh, "for the chief sent to the general a present of a quarter of a boy with the hand and arm." Buonavista is twelve leagues in extent, very fertile, well peopled, the natives living in regular villages or towns. On Florida, twenty-five leagues in circuit, the natives dyed their hair red, collected together at the sound of conch-shells, and eat human flesh. Sesarga was well inhabited, produced plenty of yams and bread-fruit, and here the Spaniards saw hogs. In the midst of the Island was a volcano, continually emitting smoke. They saw bats which measured five feet between the tips of the wings. At Guadalcantar they received in barter two hens and a cock, the first fowls that had been seen. At San Christoval, the natives were very numerous, and drew up to give battle to the Spaniards, their arms being darts, clubs, bows and arrows; but they were dispersed by the fire of the muskets, which killed one Indian, and wounded others. In the neighbouring village was found a quantity of cocoa-nuts and almonds, sufficient to have loaded a ship. Santa Ana was well peopled

and fertile. It has a good port on the east side, Australasia, where the Spaniards were attacked by the natives, who wounded three of the invaders, and one dart pierced through the target and arm of the Spanish commanding officer; the blacks had boughs on their heads, and bands round their waists. The Spaniards observed here hogs and fowls.

VI. To the south-east of Solomon's Islands, and between the parallels of $14\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}^\{\backslash circ\}$ and $20^\{\backslash circ\}$ south latitude, are found a number of Islands, some of very considerable magnitude, called the New Hebrides, or Hebudes. They were first discovered in 1606, by Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, who, with Luis Vaez de Torres, was sent by the King of Spain from Lima, with two ships and a zebra (launch) to establish a settlement at the Island Santa Cruz, and from thence to go in quest of the Tierra Austral, or southern continent. This voyage has been considered, and justly so, among the most celebrated undertaken by the Spaniards since the time of Magellan. In April 1606, they discovered an Island, to which they gave the name of Santa Maria, from whence they saw another Island to the southward, "so large," says Torres, "that we sailed for it." On the 2d May, they anchored in a bay, large enough to hold a thousand ships, to which they gave the appropriate name of San Felipe y Santiago. Quiros at once determined that he had now discovered the long-sought-for southern continent, and in this conviction named it the Australia del Espíritu Santo. Two rivers fell into the bay, one the Jordan, the other the Salvador. The surrounding country was beautiful, and is thus described by the historian of the voyage: "The banks of the rivers were covered with odoriferous flowers and plants, particularly orange flowers and sweet basil, the perfumes of which were wafted to the ships by the morning and evening breezes; and, at the early dawn was heard, from the neighbouring woods, the mixed melody of many different kinds of birds, some in appearance like nightingales, blackbirds, larks, and goldfinches. All the parts of the country in front of the sea were beautifully varied with fertile valleys, plains, winding rivers, and groves, which extend to the sides of green mountains." (Torquemada, as quoted in Burney's Account of Discoveries in the South Sea.)

Of this terrestrial paradise, which the Spaniards regarded as their own, it was intended to take immediate possession; they landed in great numbers; the Islanders were also numerous, became alarmed, made them presents, and signified a wish for them to return to their ships. They, however, landed from their boats, on which the chief drew a line on the ground with the end of his bow, and made signs that the Spaniards must not pass that boundary. It is said that Torres, to show his contempt of the idea of being restrained by barbarians, immediately passed the line. A battle ensued, in which the chief was killed, and all the rest fled into the woods. This rash act, however, was fatal to the views of the Spaniards, who never afterwards could prevail on the Islanders to have any friendly communication with them; and they left this country, after some ridicu-

Australasia. lous formalities of taking possession in the name of Philip III. and founding a city, dignified with the name of the New Jerusalem.

So anxious was Quiros of "adding the Australia del Espíritu Santo to the other possessions of the Spanish monarchy," that, after his return to Spain, he is said to have presented no less than fifty memorials to the King. One of these, which was printed at Seville, begins thus: "I, Captain Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, say, that, with this I have presented to your Majesty eight memorials relative to the settlement which ought to be made in Australia Incognita." In these memorials, he enumerates the many valuable productions of this supposed southern continent: cocoa-nuts, plantains, sugar-canes, yams, batatas, oranges, limes, papas, pumpkins, almonds, nutmegs, mace, ginger, and pepper, in great quantities; woods for "building any number of ships." The animals are hogs, goats, and dogs; fowls, and a variety of useful and beautiful birds; various good fish; and pearl oysters. The climate is described as so fine, and such a freshness in the air, that neither by labour, exposure to the sun, or rain, or dews, nor by intemperance, did any of the Spaniards fall sick; and among the natives many aged people were seen. They wear a covering round the middle: Torres says they are all black and naked. They are described by Quiros as corpulent and strong, cleanly, cheerful, sensible, and grateful; their houses stood on the ground, and not on poles, built of wood, and thatched. They weave nets, and make earthen vessels, have plantations inclosed with palisades, construct vessels which navigate to distant countries, and have places appropriated for burying the dead; and, he adds, as the last and decisive test of their progress in civilization, "they cut their hogs and make capons."

Descrip- tion. This archipelago of Islands, like that of Solomon, was lost to the world for a century and a half, when Bougainville revisited them in 1768; but, except landing on the Isle of Lepers, did nothing more than discover that the land was not connected, but composed of Islands, which he called the Great Cyclades; which, on being more accurately and extensively explored by Cook, in 1774, underwent another change to that of New Hebrides, which they now bear in all our charts. According to the survey of our great navigator, they consist of Tierra del Espíritu Santo, the largest of the whole, St Bartholomew, Mallicola, the Isle of Lepers, Aurora, Whitsuntide, Ambrym, Apec, Paoom, Three-hills, Sandwich, Montagu, Hinchinbrook, Shepherd's Isles, Erronango, Tanna, and Immer, Annatom, and Erronan. The two which are more particularly described, are Mallicola and Tanna, the natives of which differ remarkably in their persons and language; those of the latter having curly but long hair, dark but not black, and without anything of the negro character in their features, which are regular and agreeable; their persons slender, active, and nimble. They found them hospitable, civil, and good-natured; but displayed a jealousy of their visitors seeing the interior of the Island, which could only be equalled in Japan or China. All the plantations were fenced, and laid out in a line: they consisted of sugar-canes, yams, plan-

tains, bread-fruit, &c. The yams remarkably fine, Australasia. one of which weighed fifty-six pounds, every ounce of which was good; and they had pigs and poultry. The juice of the cocoa-nut, and water, appeared to be their only beverage. Their arms were clubs, darts, lances, and bows and arrows. Their canoes, clumsily sewed together, had outriggers, and were worked by paddles and by sails. The men wore a wrapper round the loins, and the women a sort of petticoat reaching to the knee.

The natives of Mallicola are called by Captain Cook "an ape-like nation;" the most ugly, ill-proportioned people he ever met with, and different from all others; diminutive in their persons, dark-coloured, with black hair, short and curly, but not so woolly as a negro's: they had long heads, flat faces, and monkey countenances, and a belt round the waist, pulled tight across the belly, made them look not unlike overgrown pismires. The women were equally ugly: the dress of both, in other respects, the same as that of Tanna, as were also the productions of the Island. Their houses were low, and covered with palm thatch. (See Dalrymple, Burney, Cook, &c.)

Descrip- tion. VII. This large Island, surrounded with coral islets New Caledonia, was wholly unknown till Captain Cook, in 1774, fell in with the north-western extremity in steering south-west from Mallicola, from which it is distant not more than about 80 leagues. He anchored within a small Island called Balabaa, and opposite to the district Belade. The great Island extends between latitude 20° 5' and 22° 30' in the direction of north-west and south-east; about 250 miles long by 60 broad. The land bears a great resemblance to that of New South Wales, and many of its natural productions appeared to be the same, but the natives were different. They are represented as a strong, robust, active, well-made people, courteous and friendly, and not in the least addicted to pilfering, in which respect they differ from every other tribe of Australasia. They are nearly of the same colour as the natives of Tanna, and appeared to be a mixed race between that people and those of the Friendly Isles, or of Tanna and New Zealand; their language being a mixture of them all. Of the same disposition as the natives of the Friendly Islands, they were found to excel them in affability and honesty; and the women, like those of Tanna, were more chaste than the females of the more eastern Islands, not one of the ship's company having been able to obtain the least favour from any one of them. They wear a petticoat of the filaments of the plantain tree, "at least six or eight inches thick, but not one inch longer than necessary for the use designed." They paint and puncture their bodies, and wear earrings, and necklaces, and bracelets, of tortoise and other shells. Both men and women have good features and agreeable countenances, and some of the men measured in height six feet four inches. Their hair is frizzled out like a mop, is very black, coarse, and strong, different from that of a negro. The ruff mop-heads make use of "scratchers," composed of a number of sticks of hard wood, about the thickness of knitting-needles, fastened together at one

Australasia end like a sort of comb; the women have their hair cropped short. The men wear a wrapper round the loins, made of the bark of a tree. Their houses resemble bee-hives, with peaked roofs, entered by a hole just big enough to admit a man bent double. The sides are of spars and reeds, and both these and the roof well thatched with dry grass. They boil their roots and fish in earthen jars. They have nets made of plantain fibres, and the sails of their canoes are of the same material. These vessels consist of two trees fixed together by a platform. They have plantations of sugar-canes, plantains, bread-fruit, and cocoa-nut, but none of them very productive. The whole appearance of the country, indeed, is described as unable to support many inhabitants. The greater part of the visible surface consists of barren rocky mountains; and though the plains and valleys appeared to be fertile, Captain Cook was of opinion that "nature has been less bountiful to it than to any other tropical island we know in this sea."

D'Entrecasteaux passed the opposite extremity of New Caledonia in 1792, when on his search after the unfortunate La Pérouse, but was prevented by a barrier reef of coral from approaching the coast; and, in the following year, he visited Balade on the northwest. The account of the inhabitants, as given by Rossel and Labillardiere, differs altogether from that of Cook. Instead of finding them friendly, honest, and inoffensive, they are described as the worst of cannibals; not only eating the flesh of their enemies, but feeding on little children; ferocious in their dispositions, the most audacious thieves, and the women the most shameless prostitutes. But their own account of their transactions there, the confidence with which they straggled over the country, and the readiness of the savages to serve them, by no means warrant the bad character they have thought fit to give them; and they had no more proof of their being cannibals, than they had for accusing the people of Van Dieman's Land of the same practices, because the Surgeon Major mistook the bone of a kangaroo for that of a young girl. They appear to have endeavoured, by signs, to extort a confession to this effect from the poor savages, who, on their part, were also persuaded that the French were the real cannibals. The charge brought against the women is grounded solely on two young girls having been prevailed on by some of the crew to expose what decency requires to be concealed, in return for some pieces of cloth or iron. Labillardiere thinks the inhabitants, as well as the vegetable productions, resemble those of Van Dieman's Land. There was no want of different kinds of esculent plants, though a great scarcity prevailed from drought, or other cause, when they arrived. The young shoots of the Hybiscus tiliaceus, the fruit of the Cordia sebestina, the Dolichos tuberosus, Helianthus tuberosus, Arum esculentum, and Macrorrhizon, Hypoxis, Aleurites, figs, oranges, plantains, sugar-canes, cocoa-nuts, and the bread-fruit,—all afforded them articles of food. Yet Labillardiere says they eat steatite, and that he saw one man devour a piece of this stone as large as his two fists. They also eat a species of spider. They had lost the hogs which Cook left them, but some half

dozen of cocks and hens were seen by the French. Australasia. (See Cook, Labillardiere, &c.)

VIII. Though these Islands geographically belong to New Zealand, the natives are, in their physical character and language, Polynesians. They were first discovered on the 13th December 1642, by Abel Jansen Tasman, on his voyage of discovery from the Mauritius; and, on the 18th, the Heemskirk yacht, and the fly-boat Zeehaan, came to anchor in a bay to which they afterwards gave the name of Moordenaar's or Murderer's Bay, and to the Island that of Staaten Land, in honour of the States General, and in the possibility that it might join the Staaten Land to the east of the Tierra del Fuego. "It is a fine country," says Tasman "and we hope it is part of the unknown South Continent." The expedition of Hendrik Brower to Chili the following year, cut off the latter Staaten Land from any continental connection, and the name of the former was then changed to that of New Zealand.

On the 19th, a boat with 13 natives came within a stone's throw of the Heemskirk. The language in which they hailed was unlike that of the Solomon's Islands, of which Tasman had a vocabulary. Their vessel consisted of two narrow canoes, joined together by boards, on which the people sat; their paddles, about a fathom long, pointed at the end; their clothing appeared of mats or cotton, but their breasts were naked. They invited them to come on board, but in vain. The ships, however, were moved nearer in shore, upon which seven double vessels came off. A boat, being dispatched from one ship to the other, was previously attacked. Three men belonging to the Zeehaan were killed, and one mortally wounded; one of the killed was dragged into the canoes. After this, despairing of getting water or provisions, they weighed and set sail, twenty-two of the native boats following them, eleven of which were full of people. The ships fired, and the canoes returned to the shore.

The next visitor, at the distant period of 127 years, was Captain Surville, who, in 1769, put into a bay on the north-eastern extremity, and gave it the name of Lauriston Bay. In the same year, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Cook, of the Endeavour, made the land on the 6th October 1769, the enormous height of which became the subject of much conversation; and the general opinion was, that they had now discovered the Terra Australis incognita. This voyage, however, and the circumnavigation of the Islands of New Zealand, entirely subverted the theory of a great southern continent. In 1772, Captains Marion du Fresne and Crozet put into the Bay of Isles, where the former, and some of the crew, were murdered by the natives. In March 1773, Captain Cook in the Resolution, with Captain Furneaux in the Adventure, revisited New Zealand, where the latter had a whole boat's crew, with a midshipman, murdered by the inhabitants. In 1776 and 1777, a third visit was made to these Islands by Captain Cook. In these several visits, accompanied as he was with men well versed in every branch of natural knowledge, there will be found in the Voyages of Cook and Forster every species of information that

Australasia. the ferocious disposition of the inhabitants made it practicable to collect.

Descrip-
tion. The two great Islands of New Zealand extend between latitude 34° and 48° south, longitude 181° and 194° east; that to the northward called Eaheimomawe, is about 400 G. miles long by 90 medial breadth; the name of the southern Island is Tavaipoenamoo, is about 450 G. miles long by 95 broad; the former has a rich and fertile soil, well clothed with trees, some of them more than 20 feet in girth, and 90 feet high, without a branch. Some of them resembled spruce, and were "large enough for the mainmast of a 50 gun ship." The highest hills were covered with forests, the valleys with grass and shrubbery, and the plains were well irrigated with rills of clear water. The southern Island is very mountainous; one peak, resembling that of Teneriffe, was estimated by Forster, but without sufficient data, at 14,000 feet of height; it was covered with snow in the middle of January. Both as to appearance and temperature, they may be considered as the British Isles of Australasia. Fahrenheit's thermometer in February was never higher than 66°, and was not lower in June than 48°.

Natives. A great part of the western side of those Islands had, however, a desolate and inhospitable appearance; exhibiting ranges of yellow sandstone, or white sand hills, with scarcely a blade of verdure. It is worthy of remark, that this extraordinary difference prevails between the two coasts of South Africa, the two coasts of New Holland, and the two coasts of Van Dieman's Land.

The natives are stout, well limbed, and muscular, vigorous and active, excelling in manual dexterity; their countenances intelligent and expressive, of an olive complexion, but not darker than a Spaniard. In the appearance of the women, there is not much feminine delicacy; but on Cook's first visit, they found them more modest and decent in their behaviour, than in any of the islanders they had met with; they were covered from the shoulders to the ankles with a sort of netted cloth, made of the split leaves of the flax plant (Phormium tenax), the ends hanging down like fringe. A party once came upon some women by surprise, as they were fishing, naked, for lobsters, and "the chaste Diana, with her nymphs, could not have discovered more confusion and distress at the sight of Actæon, than these women expressed upon our approach." On the third visit, however, they had got rid of all their modesty, and a rusty nail was sufficient to purchase the last favour.

The black hair of the men is bound in a knot on the top of the head; that of the women is cropped; both sexes anoint their hair with rancid oil, and smear their bodies with grease and red ochre. The faces of the old men are covered with large furrowed black marks, generally spiral lines, and have a horrible appearance. The women wear in their ears pieces of cloth, feathers, sticks, bones, &c. and bracelets and anklets of bone, teeth, shells, &c. Captain Cook did not observe any appearance of disease, or bodily complaint, or eruption on the skin, or marks of any; and the most severe wounds healed most rapidly. Very old men, without hair or teeth,

showed no signs of decrepitude, and were full of cheerfulness and vivacity. They are mild, gentle, and affectionate towards each other, but ferocious and implacable towards their enemies; and it unfortunately happens, that the little societies into which they appear to be divided, are in an almost perpetual state of hostility, which makes it necessary for them to dwell in hapaahs or villages, fortified with embankments, ditches, and palisadoes. They give no quarter, and feast with apparent relish on the bodies of their enemies, which they cut up and broil in holes dug in the earth; they suck out the brains, and preserve the skulls as trophies. They made no hesitation in devouring human flesh in presence of the English officers, and their provision baskets had generally the head or a limb of a human subject.

The only quadrupeds on the Islands are dogs, small and ugly, and rats, the former of which they eat, and with their skins, cut into strips, they adorn their clothing; but their principal food consists of fish, and the bruised roots of fern. They cultivate, however, and with great neatness, sweet potatoes, eddas, and gourds, all planted in regular rows; and Cook observed, near the villages, both privies and dunghills. Their houses have a ridge-pole to the roof, which, with the sides, are built of sticks and grass, and lined with bark; they sleep on the floors covered with straw; and the furniture consists of a chest to hold their tools, clothes, arms, and feathers, provision baskets, and gourds to hold water, which is their only beverage; the New Zealanders being among the very few people, civilized or savage, who are ignorant of the means of intoxication.

Their double canoes, or whale boats, are admirably constructed with planks from 60 to 70 feet in length, and their prows and sterns are tastefully and curiously carved and ornamented, all of which is performed by adzes and axes of a hard black stone, or green talc or jade, and with chisels of human bone or jasper. Of these materials also are their offensive weapons made: these are lances fourteen feet long, sharp at both ends, of hard wood, neatly carved; and a battle axe of jade or bone about a foot long. Their war canoes carry from 60 to 70 men each; they keep exact time with their paddles, singing, with great vociferation and distorted features, their savage war song, when bound on any hostile expedition. Their war dances are conducted in the same furious and extravagant style; the only musical instrument, if it can be called one, is a triton shell, which sounds like a cow's horn.

They have, however, a taste for music, and the women are said to sing in a soft, slow, and mournful cadence, making use of semitones. When their husbands are slain in battle, they cut their legs, arms, and faces, with bone or sharp shells, and few of them that do not wear scars on their bodies as testimonials of their affection and sorrow for their deceased friends.

The natives of New Zealand exhibit a strange mixture of civilized and savage life. It was hoped from the state of their cultivated grounds, of which several hundred acres were seen, that presents of hogs, kids, and poultry, would have been most acceptable, and considerable numbers were left with them

Australasia on the first and second visits of Captain Cook; but, excepting the cocks and hens, which had bred plentifully, and flew about wild in the woods, the others had been wantonly destroyed. In 1791, Vancouver touched at Dusky Bay, and remained there for some time, examining the bays and creeks in the neighbourhood; but they did not see one human being. And, in 1793, D'Entrecasteaux passed between the Three King's Island, and Cape Maria Van Dieman, but had no other communication with the natives but in their canoes. Unlike in every respect to the Otaheites, they have evidently a common origin; their language not differing more than the language of the two New Zealand Islands from each other. The few notions they have of superior beings also accord with those of Otaheite. (See Cook's Voyages.)

A missionary of the name of Marsden, from merely seeing some New Zealanders in New South Wales, had the hardihood to accuse Captain Cook of having drawn "a false picture of the New Zealanders." He undoubtedly thought so, and went to the Islands with a view of converting the natives to Christianity. He soon, however, abandoned this "noble race of men," as he calls them, being unable, by his own account, "to lay the first stone;" consoling himself for his disappointment by the reflection that "the pious Israelites could not build the walls of Jerusalem without holding the sword in one hand and the trowel in the other." Captain Cook's accuracy is too well established to be shaken by such authority. The following horrible transaction proves how well he described the character of these cannibals. In December 1809, the ship Boyd, from Port Jackson, was at Wang-arrooa, in the Bay of Islands, and admitted, without due caution, too large a number of natives on board, when the crew were suddenly attacked, overpowered, and slaughtered. Captain Alexander Berry of the ship Edinburgh Castle, being on the coast, was soon after apprised of this horrible event; and, proceeding to the bay, found the remains of the Boyd, which had been burned by the savages. On landing, he discovered that the massacre had been directed by Tippahoe, the old chief, who had been so much caressed at Sydney. The bones of the unfortunate men lay scattered on the ground, where their bodies had been devoured by the savages. Sixteen were murdered and cut up on the deck of the vessel; five others, who had fled for safety upon the yards, were told by the old cannibal, that if they would come down their lives should be spared, which, after some hesitation, they consented to do. They were sent on shore; and in five minutes after, their dead bodies lay on the beach. The only survivors which Captain Berry contrived to save, were a woman, two children, and a boy. Well might Captain Berry conclude the narrative of his horrid murder by an admonition, "Let no man trust a New Zealander."

To the eastward of New Zealand is an Island of considerable extent and well peopled, discovered by Mr Broughton in 1791, when, on a voyage round the world with Vancouver. He called it Chatham Island; the people and its productions the same as those of New Zealand. (See Vancouver's Voy.)

It may be proper here to notice a recent discovery

of a group of Islands directly south of the south Australasia. Cape of Tavaia Poenamoo, one of the New Zealands, named Lord Auckland's Group, by the discoverer, Lord Auckland's group of Islands. Mr Bristow, master of a South Sea Whaler, in gratitude to the nobleman whose name they bear, for having, when a boy, procured him admission into the school of Greenwich Hospital. This group, seven in number, were first seen on the 10th August 1806; and, on the 20th October 1807, Captain Bristow came to anchor with his ship, the Sarah, in a fine harbour on the largest Island, which he called Enderby, and to the harbour he gave the quaint one of Sarah's Bosom. They are situated in lat. 50° 40' south, and long. 166° 35' east. Wood and water being plentiful, and easily procured, they are represented as holding out, in this desolate and remote region, considerable advantages to the southern whale fishery. The climate, however, is unusually severe, and the weather tempestuous. In the middle of summer (December), every day was attended with snow, sleet, or rain. Yet this severity of climate appeared to make no unfavourable impression on the vegetable productions, as the woods were covered with verdure so early in the spring as October. He observed four kinds of timber trees, the principal of which was mangrove (query?) growing to the height of 30 or 40 feet; but the trunks were so twisted and turned by the violent winds, that it was difficult to find a straight piece of ten feet in length. There was no want of shrubby and herbaceous plants; there were neither men nor quadrupeds of any kind, but seals, sea-elephants, and sea-fowl, in great plenty. The woods abounded with a great variety of singing birds, with sweet melodious notes, and among them was a species of lark; wild-ducks, seals, and snipes were plentiful, and he caught a kind of rock-cod with the hook and line.

To the southward of the group, another small Island was discovered in 1811, to which was given the name of Campbell's Island; and to the south-west of them, Macquarrie's Islands, in latitude 55° south, and longitude 160° east. Several other Islands are scattered about those of New Zealand; Chatham Island to the eastward of it, and a group of small ones near it, seen by the Cornwallis in 1807; Bounty Island to the south-east; and to the southward of the latter, a little Island, which, from its position with regard to England, has been named Antipodes Island. (Bristow's MS. Letter.)

IX. Between the parallels of 48½° and 50° south, and longitude 69° east, lies the barren and uninhabited Land of Kerguelen; so named from the French officer who first discovered it in 1772, and who, on a second visit in 1773, discovered some small Islands near it, but on neither occasion was able once to bring his ships to an anchor upon any part of the coast. Captain Cook was more fortunate. He had heard of Kerguelen's discovery at the Cape of Good Hope, and wondered he should not have seen this land when he passed it so closely in 1770. In 1776, however, he fell in with these Islands; and, as no account of Kerguelen's voyage had been made public, he gave new names to each Island. Speaking of the main Island—"I should," says Cook, "from its sterility, with

Australasia great propriety call it 'the Island of Desolation,' but that I would not rob M. de Kerguelen of the honour of its bearing his name." He changed, however, the "Baie de L'Oiseau" of the French, where they had landed in a boat, and lodged a piece of parchment in a bottle, into Christmas Harbour; and called a round high rock "Bligh's Cap," which had been named by M. de Kerguelen the "Isle of Rendezvous;"—although, says Cook, "I know nothing that can rendezvous about it but fowls of the air; for it is certainly inaccessible to any other animal." Kerguelen thought he had discovered the Terra Australis Incognita, but Cook soon determined that it was of no great extent.

The hills were but of a moderate height, and yet, in the middle of summer, were covered with snow; not a shrub was found on this Island, and not more than 17 or 18 different plants, one half of which were either mosses or grasses; the chief verdure was occasioned by one plant not unlike a saxifrage, spreading in tufts, and forming a surface of a pretty extensive texture, over a kind of bog or rotten turf; the highest plant resembled a small cabbage, when shot into seed, and was about two feet high. No land animals were met with, but great plenty of the ursine seal (Phoca ursina). Penguins were very abundant, as were also shags, cormorants, albatrosses, gulls, ducks, petterels, and sea swallows. A few fish of the size of a haddock were taken with the line, and the only shell-fish were a few limpets and mussels.

The steep cliffs towards the sea are rent from the top downwards, but whether by rains, frost, or earthquakes, could not be determined; the productions of the hills were composed chiefly of a dark blue and pretty hard stone, intermixed with small particles of glimmer or quartz; lumps of coloured sandstone, and of semitransparent quartz, are also common; nothing appeared like an ore, or metal of any kind. (Cook's Third Voyage, Vol. I.)

X. These small uninhabited Islands are interesting only in a geological point of view. Situated in the midst of the great Indian Ocean, at the distance of 2000 miles from the nearest land, and removed but 18 or 20 miles from each other, they have no common point of resemblance: the one being the product of a volcanic eruption, scarcely yet cooled, with a few mosses and grasses on its surface; the other composed of horizontal and parallel strata of rock, covered with frutescent plants; an appearance which led the scientific gentlemen in D'Entrecasteaux's expedition to conclude, that an organization so regular could not proceed from a volcanic origin. A French seal-catcher, from the neighbouring island, had set fire to the shrubbery, which continued to burn when the navigators passed the Island; and imagining that they saw pits of smoke issuing from the crevices between the strata, some of them were disposed to consider this circumstance as infallible indications of subterranean fire. Perron, the seal-catcher above mentioned, with the gentlemen of Lord Macartney's embassy, who explored the southernmost Island, Amsterdam, says that the shores of St Paul's abounded with pumice stone, but the presence of this light

material is by no means an infallible criterion of a proximate eruption. Australia.

Of the recent creation of Amsterdam there can be little doubt; indeed, it is scarcely yet cooled, and is altered considerably since its first discovery by Vlaming in 1696. From every part of the sloping sides of the crater, which is nearly 1000 yards in diameter, and into which the sea has forced its way, either smoke, or hot water, or hot mud, are seen to issue; and everywhere is felt a tremulous motion, and a noise heard like that of boiling water. In many parts of the crater, in the centre of which the water is 174 feet deep, the sea-water is tepid from the hot springs below; and numbers of these springs are found on the margin, below the high water mark, of various temperatures, from 100° to the boiling point. One very copious spring, slightly chalybeate, issues, in a copious stream, into the crater, nearly on a level with the lowest state of the tide. These springs cannot possibly descend from the summit of the Island, the highest parts of which are the edges of the crater, about 600 feet, and the whole area of the Island is not more than eight square miles; a surface totally inadequate to collect and condense the clouds, so as to produce these permanent springs. Why some modern geologists, and among them M. de Humboldt, should doubt of sea-water being converted into steam, and undergoing the process of distillation by subterranean fire, we are at a loss to know, or in what other manner they would account for such large and permanent streams of fresh water, so situated as those are of Amsterdam Island.

Another singularity which this Island presents, is in its mosses and grasses, which are all European; to these may be added the Sonchus oleracea, or sow thistle; and the Apium petrosilenum, or parsley; and the common Lycopodium, or club-moss, which grows luxuriantly on the bleak heaths of North Britain, seems to thrive equally well on the boggy soil of Amsterdam, heated, at the depth of a foot below the surface, to the temperature of 186° of Fahrenheit's scale.

The crater abounds with an excellent perch, of a reddish colour, which is easily caught with the hook, and may be dropped at once into one of the hot springs on the margin, and boiled alive; and so caught and dressed, we are told, it affords an excellent repast. The bar across the mouth of the crater is represented as one mass of cray-fish; and in the sea, outside the bar, are vast multitudes of whales, grampusses, porpoises, seals, and sea lions, so as to be dangerous for boats to pass. It was the same in Vlaming's time, who "found the sea so full of seals and sea lions, that they were obliged to kill them to get a passage through; when they steered from the shore, there was also an astonishing number of fish."

XI. From the volcanic Island of Amsterdam, we must now take a glance of those innumerable low Islands and reefs of rocks which are scattered over the greater part of the Australasian Sea, to the eastward and northward of New Holland, and which are produced by a different operation of nature to that which lifted up Amsterdam—less violent, indeed, and

Australasia with less eclat than the latter, but equally, if not more firmly, established on the solid foundations of the deep abyss. A volcanic Island not unfrequently breaks down its supporters, and sinks back into the cavity out of which it was hurled, as was recently the case with the Sabrina Island, near St Michael's; but the Island of coral, created by slow and imperceptible degrees, hardens with time, and becomes one solid mass from the summit to the base.

We know very little, as yet, of the nature of the marine polypi that construct these wonderful fabrics, but we cannot be blind to the effects of their operations. Throughout the whole range of the Polynesian and Australasian Islands, there is scarcely a league of sea unoccupied by a coral reef or a coral Island; the former springing up to the surface of the water perpendicularly from the fathomless bottom, "deeper than did ever plummet sound," and the latter in various stages, from the low and naked rock, with the water rippling over it, to an uninterrupted forest of tall trees. "I have seen," says Dalrymple, in his Inquiry into the Formation of Islands, "the coral banks in all their stages; some in deep water; others with a few rocks appearing above the surface; some just formed into Islands, without the least appearance of vegetation; others with a few weeds on the highest part; and lastly, such as are covered with large timber, with a bottomless sea, at a pistol-shot distance." In fact, as soon as the edge of the reef is high enough to lay hold of the floating sea-wreck, or for a bird to perch upon, the Island may be said to commence. The dung of birds, feathers, wreck of all kinds, cocoa-nuts floating with the young plant out of the shell, are the first rudiments of the new Island. With Islands thus formed, and others in the several stages of their progressive creation, Torres' Strait is nearly choked up; and Captain Flinders mentions one Island in it covered with the Casuarina, and a variety of other trees and shrubs which give food to parrots, pigeons, and other birds, to whose ancestors, it is probable, the Island was originally indebted for this vegetation. The time will come,—it may be ten thousand or ten millions of years, but come it must,—when New Holland, and New Guinea, and all the little groups of islets and reefs to the north and northwest of them, will either be united into one great continent, or be separated only with deep channels, in which the strength and velocity of the tide may obstruct the silent and unobserved agency of these insignificant but most efficacious labourers.

A barrier reef of coral runs along the whole of the eastern coast of New Holland, "among which," says Captain Flinders, "we sought fourteen days, and

sailed more than 500 miles, before a passage could be found through them out to sea." Captain Flinders paid some attention to the structure of these reefs, on one of which he suffered shipwreck. Having landed on one of these new creations, he says, "We had wheat sheaves, mushrooms, stag's horns, cabbage leaves, and a variety of other forms, glowing under water, with vivid tints of every shade betwixt green, purple, brown, and white." "It seems to me," he adds, "that when the animalcules, which form the coral at the bottom of the ocean, cease to live, their structures adhere to each other, by virtue either of the glutinous remains within, or of some property in salt-water; and the interstices being gradually filled up with sand and broken pieces of coral washed by the sea, which also adhere, a mass of rock is at length formed. Future races of these animalcules erect their habitations upon the rising bank, and die in their turn, to increase, but principally to elevate this monument of their wonderful labours." He says, that they not only work perpendicularly, but that this barrier wall is the highest part, and generally exposed to the open sea, and that the infant colonies find shelter within it. A bank is thus gradually formed, which is not long in being visited by sea-birds; salt-plants take root upon it, and a soil begins to be formed; a cocoa-nut, or the drupe of a pandanus, is thrown on shore; land-birds visit it, and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees; every high tide and gale of wind add something to the bank; the form of an Island is gradually assumed; and last of all comes man to take possession.

If we should imagine one of these immense coral reefs to be lifted up by a submarine volcano, and converted into an insular or continental ridge of hills, such a ridge would exhibit most of the phenomena that are met with in hills of limestone.

It is worthy of remark, that, in this great division of the globe, fully equal in extent to that of Europe, there is no quadruped larger than the kangaroo; that there is none of a ferocious character, and, in many of the Islands, none of any description. Man only in Australasia is an animal of prey; and more ferocious than the lynx, the leopard, or the hyena, he devours his own species, in countries too where nature has done every thing for his comfort and subsistence; the consequence is, that population is so much checked and thwarted, that the number of all the natives that have been seen on the coasts of all the Islands, from the first discovery to the present time, would not in the aggregate amount to 20,000 souls. The only hope of improvement must depend on the future colonization of these healthful and fertile regions of the globe by some European power. (K.)

AUSTRIA.

In strict geographical language, Austria is the name of only a large province in the south-east of Germany, but it is commonly used to denote the great empire, composed of the province in question, the

kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, along with the provinces of Moravia, Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol, Transylvania, Galicia, Lombardy, Venice, and Dalmatia. This state has, of late years, undergone fre-

Austria. quent changes in point of territory and population. At the beginning of the French Revolution, the Austrian dominions were computed to contain a population of nearly 25,000,000. This number would have been materially increased in 1796, by the acquisition of Galicia and other parts of Poland, had not the cession of the Netherlands and Lombardy made a deduction, which kept it at nearly its original amount. The diminution, in fact, would have been considerable, had not the French tempted Austria to a separate peace in 1797, by seizing and transferring to her the territory of one of the oldest states in Europe,—the Republic of Venice. In the next war, the splendid successes of the campaign of 1799 at first promised to give back to Austria a portion of her lost territory; but the withdrawing of Russia from the coalition, and the fatal days of Marengo and Hohenlinden, led, in 1801, to a treaty which occasioned a further reduction of the imperial frontier. The third war, that of 1805, was equally short and disastrous, leading, after the overthrows at Ulm and Austerlitz, to the purchase of peace by the surrender of the Venetian territory, Tyrol, and other provinces, containing in all a population of nearly 3,000,000.

In 1809, the resistance of Spain prompted Austria once more to try her fortune in the field. Her army was numerous, and a large proportion of the French force was in the Peninsula; but Prussia remained neutral, and Russia took part, to a certain extent, against Austria. These circumstances enabled Bonaparte, at the head of a mixed force of French and Germans (of the Confederation of the Rhine), to acquire a superiority in the field, and to enter Vienna a second time as a conqueror. This success was chequered, indeed, by a sanguinary defeat at Aspern; but the victory of Wagram reinstated him in his superiority, and the advance of a Russian force left the Emperor Francis no other alternative than peace. A treaty was concluded on terms less humiliating than was anticipated, the cause of which was unknown at the time, but was soon found to be a consequence of Francis consenting to give his daughter in marriage to his conqueror.

By the peace of 1809, the Austrian empire was reduced to a population of 20,000,000. The diminution of her power was still greater from the cession of her frontier line; and France might, for a considerable time, have overawed and controlled her, had not the extravagant march to Moscow deprived Bonaparte, in a few weeks, of that mighty army which appeared to ensure the subjection of the Continent. The subsequent successes of the allies led, as is well known, to the restoration of Austria in more than her former splendour.

We shall now proceed to give some account of the present state of this empire under the following heads: Population—Climate and physical aspect—Education, Arts and Sciences—National Character—Religion—Government and Laws—Army—Finances—Agriculture—Mines and Manufactures.

Population. 1. The treaty, or act of Congress at Vienna, in 1815, and the subsequent treaty of Paris in the same year,

have confirmed Austria in the possession of the following territories:

Yet this empire, so populous and fertile, wants, in a high degree, that consonance of national manners, and that congeniality of national feeling, which are so essential to ease in governing, and have so long formed the strength of France and Britain. Hungary and Bohemia, which form so large a portion of the imperial dominions, have little connection or conformity with each other, and still less with the remote provinces of Galicia or Lombardy. Add to this, that the Austrian cabinet, while inferior to none in diplomatic finesse, has frequently acted with a blind adherence to old prejudices, which we should little expect in a European state in the eighteenth or nineteenth century. Frederick II. who had such bitter contests with the Austrians, both in the field and cabinet, declares that, in the former, they were unconscious of the value of good generals, while in negotiation they were perfectly untractable, so long as the aspect of affairs justified, in any degree, their exorbitant demands. What better opinion were we at liberty to form in the present age, when we saw their army entrusted to a Mack, and preparations of defence delayed until the French were marching on Vienna? The grand source of future aggrandizement to Austria is to be sought, not in the acquisition of additional territory, but in the improvement and consolidation of her present dominions. This doctrine, applicable to all countries to an extent seldom apprehended by their rulers, is of the most urgent importance to a state, whose deficient instruction, languid intercourse, difference of language, and blind attachment to hereditary usages, all concur to keep so many fellow-subjects in a state of alienation from each other.

It has become customary, particularly of late, to consider Russia as superior in resources to Austria;

Austria. an opinion sanctioned, among other authorities, by an expression of Lord Grey, in one of the debates which regarded the conduct of our ministry of 1806-7, in respect to foreign affairs. On considering, however, the rigour of the Russian climate, the barrenness of a great proportion of the soil, the inconvenience of vast distances, and the general barbarism of the people, we are disposed to withhold our assent from this opinion, and to look with more confidence to the probable augmentation of the population and power of Austria. The following table will convey an idea of the relative density of the population of her different provinces:

It is remarkable, that Lower Austria, though highly fertile, is not so well peopled as the manufacturing countries of Bohemia and Silesia. It is still more remarkable, that the mountainous tracts of the latter are found to contain a denser population than the rich plains of Hungary. The average of the whole empire is 579 inhabitants to the square league, a proportion hardly more than the half of that of France and England. Can there be a more striking proof of the improvable powers of the empire, when we consider that, of the countries just mentioned, the latter is, in point of soil and climate, inferior, and the former by no means superior to Austria?

No country, with the exception of Russia, comprises such a diversity of distinct tribes or races as the Austrian empire. The German part of the population does not extend in considerable numbers beyond the provinces of Upper and Lower Austria, a portion of Moravia, and particular parts of Styria and Carinthia. Bohemia, although surrounded by a German population, contains many districts inhabited only by its aboriginal tribes; while, in Hungary and Austrian Poland, individuals of German extraction are very thinly scattered. The most numerous of the varied races of this empire is the Sclavonian, a generic name now in a great measure lost in the subdivisions of Croats, Rascians, Carniolians, Bosniacs, &c. The Rascians, or Illyrians, are descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the vast tract known to the ancients by the name of Scythia. The fate of war has placed them alternately under the Turkish and Austrian dominion; their language is a dialect of Sclavonian mixed with the Illyrian. Some of their

tribes lead a pastoral life, and follow the habits of plunder natural to wanderers; while others are stationary, and have made some progress in the ruder kinds of manufactures. Jews are scattered in various directions throughout the Austrian dominions, particularly in Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia. Without being numerous, they find means, especially in Galicia, to transact most of the mercantile affairs of the country.

Hungary, the most extensive and most fertile of the great divisions of the Austrian Empire, is perhaps the most backward in point of civilization and knowledge. Many a rich tract, capable of supporting a crowded population, is here allowed to remain in pasture, in consequence, partly of the ignorance of the cultivators, and partly of that most absurd law which deprives the peasant of the right of holding landed property. The extent of the evil is most sensibly felt throughout Lower Hungary, the inhabitants of the northern part of the kingdom being accustomed to greater exertion, and being even known to possess occasionally little properties of their own. Another cause of the ignorance and backward state of Hungary, is the difference in point of language, manners, and religion, of various portions of its population. These have settled in it at different times, and from different causes, without becoming blended with each other in the manner that takes place in an industrious and populous community. The majority of the Hungarian tribes are of Sclavonian descent, but they are mixed with a variety of other nations, such as Armenians, Jews, Macedonians, and followers of the Greek church. The few Germans settled in Hungary are originally from the south of the empire, particularly Suabia and Bavaria.

Bohemia reckons above three millions of inhabitants, the chief part differing, both in language and in national feeling, from their German neighbours. They have even a decided aversion to the latter, and confine their national predilection to the Hungarians, who are said, in return, to esteem them more highly than their other fellow-subjects. The power of the Sovereign is much greater in Bohemia than in Hungary, for it comprises the legislative as well as the executive department. Notwithstanding this strange anomaly, Bohemia is the least backward of the Austrian provinces, whether we look to education or the labours of productive industry. The efficacy of regular habits, and of a compact population, in bringing aid to the executive power, is strikingly exemplified in the number of soldiers raised in Bohemia, a number almost equal to that which is supplied by the far more extensive territory of Hungary.

2. The difference of elevation of soil causes as great a difference of temperature in the Austrian empire as in any country in Europe. At Vienna, situate less than 400 feet above the level of the sea, the medium of annual heat is about 51° of Fahrenheit; at Gratz, a degree farther to the south, the medium is only 49°, the elevation being nearly 700 feet. Again, on the eastern frontier, Salzburg, situate in the vicinity of an Alpine range, has an average temperature of only 47°, while at Prague, two degrees farther north, it is 48°.

Austria. Vienna, situate in a plain, intersected in a variety of directions by the Danube, the waters of which are here slow in their course, would be by no means healthy, were it not for the frequent breezes, which clear the air of unwholesome exhalations.

The Austrian dominions may be divided, in point of climate, into three regions, of which the southern comprises the provinces adjoining to Italy, with a part of Croatia, and extends from N. lat. $42^\{\backslash circ\}$ to $46^\{\backslash circ\}$. We here find the olive, the myrtle, the vine, the fig-tree, and even the pomegranate. The depth of winter may be compared to the month of March in a northern climate. The middle range extends from the $46^\{\backslash text\{th\}\}$ to the $49^\{\backslash text\{th\}\}$ of north latitude, comprising Austria, properly so called, a great part of Hungary, and a portion of Moravia and Bohemia. The olive is no longer found to grow in this latitude, but vines and maize thrive in favourable situations. Winter lasts between three and four months; the spring is mild, though rainy; the summer warm but variable; the air is in general healthy, except in the neighbourhood of the marshes of Hungary, which are proverbially fatal to German settlers. The northern region comprises Galicia, a part of Hungary, a great proportion of Bohemia and Moravia, with the whole of Austrian Silesia. Winter is here severe, and lasts fully five months; vines and maize are no longer to be met with, and even wheat requires a choice of situation; but the summer heats, particularly in the valleys, are greater than we are accustomed to in Britain.

If we cast our eyes on a map of the imperial dominions, as, with the exception of the Polish part, they stood before the late annexations, we see them surrounded by a chain of mountains in almost every direction. Hungary is covered by the Carpathian range, which extends all the way to Silesia, and is even connected with the great circular barrier of Bohemia. To the eastward lies an elevated territory, in the direction of Bavaria, while, in the south, the line of discrimination from Italy and Illyrium is drawn with still more marked features. The highest mountains belong to the southern range; those of the north seldom exceeding two or three thousand feet, while those of the south frequently approach to four thousand. In the interior of the empire, and particularly in Hungary, there are levels of great extent, and the average height of many of the hills may be put down at only six or eighthundred feet. Strictly speaking, the whole of the mountains along the southern part of the Austrian dominions, and even those on the north, belong to one great range, extending, under a variety of modifications and names, all the way from the Alps to Russia. The latitude being temperate, or rather warm, these varieties of elevation present a striking difference in vegetable produce; the lower part being covered with vines, or rich crops of corn, while the adjacent elevation exhibits a picture of Norwegian sterility. Some provinces abound with picturesque views, and remind the traveller of the magnificent scenery of Switzerland. Styria, in particular, has its glaciers and perpetual snows, its rumbling cascades, its tremendous avalanches, and its green pasturages, in the region of mist.

Austria. Lakes are frequent in certain parts of the Austrian dominions. In Upper Styria, they owe, as in the Highlands of Scotland, their formation to the natural collection of water in valleys pent up in all directions; a description, however, which does not apply to the lakes in the level part of Hungary. Those are more properly marshes, and form, as in modern Greece, a striking indication of neglected agriculture. Large tracts are in this manner lost to every useful purpose along the banks of the Danube, the Drave, the Save, and other rivers of less magnitude.

Hungary may be called a vast plain of sandy soil, marked in certain districts by the highest fertility, in others by absolute barrenness. Galicia is less level than Hungary, but may likewise be called, in general language, a sandy plain of great extent. Moravia is marked by more prominent features; and while its soil presents, on the southern slope of its hills, the fertility of Lower Austria,—the northern side is found too cold for the cultivation of the grape. The inhabitants are active, and at a farther distance from primitive simplicity than the majority of their fellow-subjects. But the garden of Austria, and indeed of Germany, is the great valley, extending on either side of the Danube, to a considerable way above Vienna. Unfortunately, the riches of nature have not as yet been adequately improved in this region; the peasantry, though possessed of the greatest honesty and sincerity, being devoid of intelligence or activity. These good and bad qualities are not confined to the country; they form the groundwork of the character of the inhabitants of the capital, although necessarily modified by the habits produced by permanent assemblages in one spot.

The Austrian territory is traversed by a number of rivers, of which by far the most interesting is the Danube. It receives about 40 rivers from north and south, before entering the imperial dominions, and about 100 more flow into it before it falls into the Euxine, after a course of nearly 1500 miles. Its bed becomes perceptibly widened by the influx of the Ens, at some distance above Vienna; and its subsequent breadth, though very various, may be said, in a general way, to be of one, two, or three miles. It is bordered throughout almost its whole course in the Austrian territory by ridges of mountains, the distance of which from the water is generally greater on the right than on the left bank. It is of sufficient depth to bear shipping throughout the whole Austrian dominions, and to admit, in Hungary, of vessels of considerable size. But, unfortunately, this noble stream is not fitted for easy navigation; its banks are often steep and rocky, its current rapid, and its bed encumbered with shoals. The height of the banks and the frequent windings prevent the use of sails to the extent practised on the Rhine and the Vistula. It is necessary, therefore, to tow almost all the way, and the boats, as well as the track along the banks, are as yet in a very rude state. A similar negligence prevails in regard to Canals, in which the Austrians have hitherto made very little progress.

The Austrian rivers, and in particular the Danube, teem with myriads of fish. The same is true of the various lakes scattered in different parts of the coun-

try. Some kinds of salmon in the Danube are of so rich a flavour as to enter regularly into the list of presents made by the princes residing in the neighbourhood of its banks to their respective superiors. An attempt was lately made to convey some of this choice breed to the Rhine, by putting them into boats of such a construction as to admit the ingress of the water. The plan was to tow these boats up the Danube, as far as Ulm, and afterwards to reach the Neckar by means of some of the lesser rivers. It failed, however, and the undertakers had the mortification to see most of the fish perish by the way, in consequence, perhaps, of the smallness or improper construction of the boats.

3. There exists, in point of education, a remarkable difference between the North and South of Germany. This difference is owing to the operation of political and moral causes—such as the difference of the form of government; the greater number of free towns in the north, and of public establishments; and, above all, to the predominance of Protestantism. It has long been a point of fashion and competition among the petty princes in the central and northern parts of Germany, to patronize literature. Un homme de lettres is there, as in France, a personage of considerable importance. Attempts have indeed been made, during the last and present age, by Joseph II. and the late Sovereign of Bavaria, to improve the universities, and to found academies, in their respective territories. The Academy of Munich, in consequence of the patronage of the latter, now occupies a prominent rank among literary bodies; and in Vienna, considerable progress has been made in the method of teaching Medicine, Surgery, and Botany. But in other respects, whether we look to schools or universities, the state of instruction in Austria is very imperfect. The innovations of Joseph were too abrupt to last; they have all disappeared except his primary schools. The hereditary states alone possess the means of tolerable education, the great provinces of Galicia and Hungary being in a manner deprived of them. Still there exists throughout this empire a patient and pains-taking industry, which will eventually prove highly favourable to the dissemination of useful knowledge. A stranger, on entering a German school, is struck with the arrangement, the gravity and the silence that prevail throughout. Several towns in Austria have Gymnasias or Academies somewhat similar to the Lycées in France,—calculated for teaching, not so much the classics as the introductory part of Mathematics, Medicine, or Law.

In the Academy of Medicine and Surgery at Vienna, the buildings are spacious, the professors numerous, and well qualified. The access to great Hospitals, to collections of Natural History, and to an extensive Botanical Garden, are all important facilities appended to this seminary. In fact, Vienna has held a distinguished rank in medicine since the days of Van Swieten, the opportunity of practical observation afforded by a large city, and the liberality of the public establishments, rendering this capital the resort of medical students from distant provinces; exactly as Göttingen is the point of attraction for moral and natural philosophy. Chemistry, however, has

hitherto been little cultivated at Vienna; natural history more.

Vienna has likewise an Oriental Society, a Veterinary School, and some institutions for teaching the Fine Arts. These, however, are all, except the medical, inferior to correspondent establishments in the north of Germany. Another subject of regret is, that a youth, after making a certain progress at school or college, finds little means of farther advancement from instructive society at Vienna. A thirst for information is little felt among a people occupied only with the tranquil enjoyment of the good things of this life; a people unambitious, uninquisitive, and disposed to go over the same tract as their fathers and forefathers. It is in scenes of agitation that the faculties are called forth; they become dormant in a state of general and continued acquiescence. The only feeling likely to stimulate minds of this heavy texture is the desire of acquiring property; and, in fact, trade of one kind or other forms the chief sphere of individual activity throughout the south of Germany. Such is the true cause of that literary apathy ascribed by some foreigners to the restraints imposed by government on the press;—restraints of no great severity, and certainly not intended to check the progress of useful inquiry.

Still Austria is not wholly devoid of names of eminence in literature. Frederick Schlegel is well known by his publications on the language and philosophy of India, and his brother William, by his translation of Shakespeare, and by his admirable works on dramatic criticism. To these are to be added the names of a few poets, and of a greater number of geographical and statistical writers. Hammer, the founder of the Oriental Society at Vienna, has published a translation of a Persian poem of some extent, and, like Wieland, has laboured to transpose into the German language the ornaments of the figurative style of the East. Etymology is a study suited to the laborious habits of the Germans, and on this, as on many other subjects, they have given us, if not finished works, the materials at least of valuable compositions. With the application of a better method, and with rigid compression, a variety of useful treatises might be extracted from the labours of the German literati.

Prague has a university of high antiquity, but of little reputation at the present day. The Catholic clergy are generally educated in humbler seminaries than universities. Without much pretension to literature, they bear the character of conscientious attention to their pastoral charge, in particular the country curates. Oratory forms no part of their studies; a German congregation meets, not for the purpose of being gratified by a pathetic address, but of fulfilling, soberly and tranquilly, a religious duty. Sermons in this country consist, accordingly, of little else than plain moral lessons, deduced from the Sacred Writings; and the reputation of a pastor rests chiefly on his attention to the sick, and the performance of private and unostentatious duties.

Several establishments have been formed of late years in Austria for the education of officers. The principal is the Military Academy of Wienerisch,

Austria. Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna, where the teachers are generally Engineer officers, disabled by wounds or otherwise from service. The pupils consist of young officers, or of youths of gentle families, preparing for the service. There are two other military seminaries in the capital, and some smaller establishments in the provincial towns.

As to travelling for the purpose of information, the Austrians have in general much less inclination than the English, or their German brethren in the north. Some examples, however, there are of men of science repairing to distant regions, such as M. Jacquin and Mohs who went to America in quest of plants unknown in Europe. Schultes, Gebhast, Mebzer, and Bremer, have also found means to render their travels instrumental to the diffusion of knowledge.

In mechanical inventions the Austrians have made that progress which may naturally be expected from a people, who, with a deal of patience and perseverance, are not in possession of the advantages of improved machinery. The result of their discoveries is, therefore, rather the gratification of a fancy, than that practical application to a productive purpose, which tends so greatly to cheapen labour in Britain. One German artist frames a machine to perform the functions of a chess player; another makes a head capable of an imitation of the human voice, while a third combines in a pachharmonicon the most varied sounds of music. That instrument may, in fact, be called a concert in itself, a number of instruments being made to play simultaneously with the greatest precision.

The fine arts, with the exception of music, have hitherto made little progress in Austria. To find an eminent painter or sculptor there would be a matter of no small difficulty. But when we come to think of music, who can forget that Haydn and Mozart were formed at Vienna? If they are inferior in grace and melody to Italian composers, they are not to be surpassed in the grander powers of music. A foreigner cannot receive a higher gratification at Vienna, than by being present at the Oratorio in commemoration of Haydn. Architecture is still in its infancy in Austria. An Architectural Society has been lately instituted at Vienna, but most of the public buildings have been planned by foreign artists. Engraving, demanding rather patience than exertion, has been cultivated there with considerable success.

4. The Austrian national character is marked by the same features as that of the German nation at large. Sincerity, fidelity, industry, and a love of order, are all conspicuous in them, and would long since have entitled them to fill a distinguished rank in the scale of European civilization, had not their beneficial operation been counteracted by a prejudiced government, a deficient system of education, and an illiterate priesthood. The consequence of these unfortunate drawbacks is the transmission of similar habits from father to son, a blind adherence to old usages, and an extravagant deference to hereditary rank, in the promotion of civil and military officers, which proved one of the great causes of the continued defeats in the late wars with the French.

In Austria, as in Britain, females enjoy a great-

er degree of freedom before marriage, than it is thought expedient to allow them in France. In domestic life, they act a modest and attentive part; fixing the predilection of their husbands, not, indeed, by the attractions of conversation, but by a mild and steady fulfilment of the duties of a wife and mother. They are thus probably more happy than the fair sex in France, although possessed of much less influence, and occupying a less conspicuous part in society. The lower orders are distinguished by similar virtues. In some districts we may visit village after village, without hearing of a single instance of domestic disquietude. The care of children, the habit of labour, and attendance on Divine worship, occupy all their thoughts. In Vienna, females form the chief attraction of society to a foreigner. Most of them speak French with fluency, and prefer it to the Austrian dialect of German, which is particularly unpleasant, having a slowness of accent and a hissing tone, extremely ungracious, particularly in the mouths of the common people.

The habitual assiduity of the Austrians leads them to cultivate, by preference, those occupations in which straight forward industry affords the means of success. Hence their progress in mechanics, and the flourishing state of many of their manufactures. Another feature in the German character, and one at first somewhat difficult of explanation, is their predilection for music; a passion found to exist in the humblest ranks, and under the least favourable circumstances. We meet here, in villages, with wandering musicians performing on trumpets made of the cherry-tree wood, or on the most grotesque violins. If in vocal music they yield to the Italians, they fully maintain the competition in point of instrumental performances—a taste which prevails as well in the fertile parts of the empire, as in the secluded spots of Tyrol and Carniola; forming a curious example of the results attendant on the continued prosecution of an elegant study by a slow and apparently inanimate people.

No country presents fewer examples of criminal offences than Austria. Year passes after year, without any necessity for the infliction of a capital punishment. Averse as the inhabitants are to Frenchmen, particularly in the shape of military invaders, we know of no example, during any of the late invasions, of those secret assassinations which occurred so frequently in Spain.

Of the manners of the inhabitants of the mountainous provinces of the empire, we may form an idea by fixing our attention on the Styrians and Carinthians. The middle range of these mountains presents a scanty pasturage; their upper parts are covered with tracts of snow, while the yew and fir are the only trees which are seen to raise their heads amidst the tempest. The inhabitants of these elevated districts are simple, hospitable, and religious; content with the produce of their land and cattle; cheerful and frank as simplicity and moderate desires can make them, they have no wishes beyond the limits of their own territory. The only feeling which prevails among them with any keenness, is religious zeal. They are ardent Catholics, and open to all the idle suggestions of an illiterate priesthood.

They are in the habit of undertaking distant pilgrimages, which they are taught to consider as the best means of obtaining the forgiveness of trespasses. Along their roads are scattered mystic chapels, crosses, and other indications of the exercises of devotion. The traveller is often fortunate enough to find beside these religious erections a spring whose waters afford him a delightful refreshment, when pursuing his way along a confined valley. He finds himself here among a primitive race, who are unacquainted with the arts of men in a more civilized state, and are easily guided by an appeal to the heart. Their language is sonorous, and the echo which repeats the call from the mountain side, often proves a useful warning to the stranger when wandering from the path, or when approaching to the brink of a precipice. Often, in the course of his journey, does he meet with inscriptions, in which the hand of a friend or a brother has recorded the name of one who has fallen a victim to the storm or the torrent.

5. Austria has long contained a considerable diversity of religious sects, without having suffered from their contests in any part of her dominions except Bohemia, the country of the well known John Huss, and Jerome of Prague. In the other provinces such excesses have been avoided, partly from the moderate character of the inhabitants, and partly from the tolerant spirit of the Imperial Family. There can be no doubt, however, that, had the Reformation happily made progress in the Austrian dominions, the result, as in the north of Germany, would have been a very material advancement in all departments of productive industry. Trade, manufactures, literature, are all cultivated with superiority in the north; and if the agricultural produce of the south be larger, the cause is to be sought merely in superiority of soil and climate. Toleration, however, existed virtually for a considerable time back in Austria, and it received a formal sanction from a law of Joseph II., which extended indulgence even to Jews and Mahometans. The Archbishop of Vienna is the head of the Catholic clergy in a civil capacity; but the Bishop of St. Pölten appoints the regimental chaplains, and is accounted the superior of all clergymen doing duty with the army. Church patronage rests with the Sovereign, to the exclusion of the influence of the Pope. Convents, formerly numerous in Austria, have been considerably reduced during the last thirty years; but the church property is still very considerable.

In computing the relative number of different sects, it is common to estimate the Catholics at two-thirds of the whole. Protestants are not numerous; the Austrian people at large being too little enlightened to exchange a worship which dazzles the imagination by its pomp and ceremonies, for one whose chief appeal is to the understanding. The Greek church has no inconsiderable number of votaries scattered throughout Galicia, Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania. These are superintended by a number of Bishops, some of whom recognise for their head the Archbishop of Leopold, while others, who differ in point of creed, are under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Gran in Hungary. The latter are

particularly numerous in Transylvania. The followers of the Greek church, in one part or other of the Austrian dominions, are said to exceed the number of 2,000,000;—a number in a state of gradual increase from the occasional influx of their brethren from Turkey. These new settlers are generally engaged in trade, and pass for possessing no slight share of the address and artifice attributed to the Greek merchants of the present day. Galicia comprises a body of Armenian Catholics; a sect not wholly unknown in Hungary. The Protestants, including both Calvinists and Lutherans, amount, probably, to nearly 3,000,000 throughout the whole empire, of which Bohemia and Moravia contain a very insignificant proportion. The well known association of Herrnhutters or Moravians, owes its origin to an Austrian province, and takes date from the middle of the fifteenth century. The number of Jews under the Austrian dominion may amount to 300,000. Joseph II. took the lead of Bonaparte in an attempt to incorporate them with the mass of his subjects, by extending to them the enjoyment of similar privileges. He found, however, that their habits, if they yield at all, give way but very slowly, and that ages will be required to identify them with their Christian fellow-subjects. In tolerating Mahometanism, Joseph had in view the promotion of commercial intercourse with Turkey, a number of traders of that country being in the habit of travelling, and even of settling in Austria.

6. There exists a great diversity in the constitution Government of the component parts of this extensive empire. It may be safely assumed, that the disadvantage from want of unity, already noticed, will infallibly continue to a considerable extent, until there be established a greater similarity in point of legislation. At present, each of the great divisions constitutes an unconnected body, and the whole resembles rather a federative association than one compact consolidated state. In the Austrian provinces, the constitution is understood to be founded on a great charter, passed so long ago as 1156. In Bohemia, the principal laws are of more recent date, and hardly go back two centuries. In Austrian Silesia, there exists a great complexity of public regulations, while Galicia, differing still more essentially from the other provinces, traces back the basis of its constitutional dependence on Austria no farther than 1773.

Hungary is wholly distinct from the other divisions of the monarchy, and claims to be governed by laws altogether different. The first of these is traced back so far as the end of the ninth century; others date from the thirteenth, and confirmations of the privileges of the nobility, with limitations of the imperial power, were successively passed during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Here the emperor exercises the supreme power, only through the medium of the States or Parliament. He may dispose of the great offices of the kingdom, but under the restriction of giving them not only to natives of Hungary, but to men of a certain rank. In this land of aristocracy, no plebeian, of whatever talents, is entitled to rise in a public office above the humble station of a clerk. The Emperor is accounted the constitutional President of the Diet, but he

Austria. may delegate a representation to one of his great officers. A general levy, or "insurrection," as it is termed, must, like other measures, proceed from the legislative assembly.

The States, or parliamentary meetings, differ in different provinces of the empire, but are generally divided into four classes; the prelates, the higher nobility, the knights, or gentry, and the deputies of the boroughs. It is a general meeting of these classes that constitutes the Hungarian Diet. The prelates have the right of voting first. The nobility possess not only an exclusive title to public appointments, but the daughters of the less affluent families among them are admitted to an establishment in convents, on proving their rank, or, as it is called, the number of their quarters, in the manner pointed out by law. The Diet of Hungary is generally convened once in three years, and meets at Presburg or Buda. The Prince Palatine, or, in his absence, the noble of highest rank, presides at the Tabula procerum, having on his right the primate, along with the archbishops, bishops, and other dignitaries of the church. The second board, or Tabula inelytorum, has for its president the imperial representative, while the third division of the Diet comprises the deputies of towns, the secretaries, and other inferior officers. The deliberations proceed either on the propositions of the sovereign, or on the bill of grievances of the subjects. The Diet is generally divided into chambers, who discuss business separately, and communicate with each other by the medium of members. In case of non-agreement, the whole are made to constitute one assembly, in which a decision is made by plurality of votes. An act of the Diet receives the force of law when sanctioned by the Emperor, or King, as he is invariably termed in Hungary, and it seldom happens that any serious division takes place between the Diet and the executive power.

Such was formerly the extravagance of aristocratic notions in Hungary, that no plebeian, or person engaged in trade, could carry on, in his own name, a law-suit against one of the gentry. It was necessary that the town where the plaintiff resided, should come forward and assume the cause of its citizen. This absurd usage was abolished in 1802. Still, however, a peasant or farmer can seldom bring, in his own name, an action against one of the gentry; he must generally do it through the medium of his superior or landlord. The right of possessing land in Hungary being confined to the privileged classes, it follows that a donation of land by the Sovereign is tantamount to conferring a title of nobility. The land cultivated by the vassal is, of course, altogether the property of his superior; but arrangements are made for allowing the former to reap, as far as that is practicable, in so ignorant a country, the fruit of his labour. The corvees and taxes on the tiers état, so much complained of in France before the Revolution, prevail here in all their extent. Hence the importance to the boroughs of acquiring the privileges of free towns, and enabling their inhabitants to possess land without a title to nobility.

The Hungarian landholder is exempt from all imposts. Tithes, toll-dues, a tax called the thirtieth

VOL. II. PART I.

penny, the contributions for soldiers, all pass over his head, unless he become pledged to them, along with his brethren, by a specific act of the Diet. In return for all these exemptions, they are bound to rise en masse, and to serve personally under their Sovereign, whenever a war receives the approbation of a General Diet. It will not escape the observation of our readers, that these fiscal privileges, always the subject of boast among the Hungarian noblesse, and, in former years, not unfrequently a ground of quarrel with their Austrian Sovereign, do not amount, in fact, to anything like an entire exemption. Public burdens, however disguised, fall eventually, with a considerable share of equality, on all classes. In Hungary, the inhabitants of the towns are obliged to seek, in the enhanced price of the commodities, sold to the landholders, an indemnity for their greater share of taxation. The late Emperor Joseph II. was disposed to abrogate many of these pernicious usages, but his character was not well fitted, nor did he reign long enough to accomplish the task.

In the hereditary provinces, or Austria Proper, the power of the Emperor is much greater. In the eye of the law, he is the supreme judge, the fountain of dignity, the centre of legislative as well as of executive power. He has a right to impose taxes, to regulate the affairs of the church, and even to modify religious worship, in whatever is not accounted a fundamental article of faith. He may tolerate any religion, oppose the papal bulls, and prohibit the publication of the pastoral letters of bishops. This power, delicate as it is in a Catholic country, has been sometimes exercised by the emperors, when they had occasion to urge political points of importance with the sovereign pontiff. At such times they have not scrupled to forbid their subjects to remit money to Rome, and have been known to interdict all correspondence between the Austrian and foreign convents. A more important prerogative is that which they possess to impose taxes on church property throughout Austria and Galicia.

The executive government of the Austrian empire at large consists of four great departments, and owed its present organization to the counsels of Maria Theresa. One of these establishments regulates all home affairs; foreign affairs are managed by another. Military matters are subjected to the third great department, while the fourth and last regulates the interior administration of Hungary. The name of Aulic is not confined, as is vulgarly imagined, to the Military Board; it is common to several councils, and is given, among others, to the Board of Finance. Another department, sufficiently indicative of the backward state of the science of government in Austria, is that which superintends the working of mines for public account.

In this country, as in France, the attention of government has been lately given to a more easy exposition of the fundamental rules of jurisprudence. A first attempt was made so long as forty years ago, and a code was published in 1767 in eight folio volumes. This performance had two great defects, its size and its want of classification by general rules. While of little use to lawyers, it was wholly unprofitable to the public at large. Instructions were accordingly

given to an eminent civilian, Von Horten, to recast it in a condensed and improved form. Considerable progress was made in this before the death of Joseph II.; and in 1794, under the auspices of the present sovereign, the first part of the civil code came forth in a new form. A few years after, the whole appeared in an amended shape, and government appointed several local commissions, with instructions to make reports on its applicability to the different provinces. Printed copies of the code were distributed in all directions, and the universities enjoined to take it into mature consideration. The definitive correction and promulgation of the code were retarded by various causes, and particularly by the unfortunate wars with France, so that its actual adoption did not take place until the beginning of 1812. The criminal code had not been so long withheld; it was promulgated in 1803, and introduced into practice in 1804.

7. In a country where the executive power is not subjected to animadversion, or to the exhibition of official statements, it is a matter of no small difficulty to compute the extent of the military force. It was supposed that, in the campaign of 1805, the Austrians had on foot above 250,000 effective troops, of whom nearly a fifth were cavalry. In that of 1809, this force of regulars was backed by a considerable body of reserve, and by above 100 battalions of militia, known by the name of landwehr; but the state of discipline of the latter was not such as to offer any effectual resistance to the progress of the French. The war establishment, in regular troops, can scarcely be estimated, we apprehend, above 250,000 men; and half this number may perhaps be taken as near the amount of her effective peace establishment.

The irregulars in the Austrian service are drawn, in a great measure, from Croatia and other provinces along the Turkish frontier. About sixty years ago, the greater proportion of the Hungarian troops fell under this description; but the wars with Prussia having taught, by dear bought experience, the value of discipline, the Austrian commanders, in particular, Marshal Lasey, gradually accomplished a change, and converted hordes of flying squadrons into compact and regular regiments.

In the Hereditary States, and we believe in all the empire except Hungary, the levies are made, in the first instance, for militia duty, from which it is no difficult matter, in an absolute government, to accomplish a transition to the line. In Hungary, recruits are levied in virtue of an act of the Sovereign and the States, after the promulgation of which, the different Magistrates find means to enlist the requisite number on their estates. The chief disadvantage of the necessity of a legislative sanction in Hungary, is the publicity thus given to the extent of military preparation. The length of service in the Austrian army has undergone alterations during the present age, and it now admits, as in Britain, of limitation by periods. In time of peace, the officers have no difficulty in obtaining a furlough for the greatest part of the year. Veterans and wounded men are entitled to admission at the military hospital of Vienna, or to a small out-pension.

Though, to an English traveller, manufactures

would appear to have made little progress in the Austrian dominions, they stand on a footing equal to that of their continental neighbours, and supply government with most of the materials of war. Clothing, arms, ammunition, harness, are all furnished at different stations in Bohemia, Moravia, and the Hereditary States. The horses for the light cavalry are drawn from Hungary and Galicia; those for the heavy cavalry, chiefly from Bohemia and Moravia. The disposition of the inhabitants of most of the imperial territories, is well adapted to a military life. They are generally accustomed to pass their time out of doors, to indulge in active exercise, to follow the chase, and to occupy themselves with the care of horses. To such men marching and encamping is but a slight variation from established habits. The fire of the nightly watch is not more uncomfortable than that of their smoky cottages; while a loaf of bread, a slice of coarse pork, and a glass of spirits, supply them with all the nourishment they desire. In point of resources, therefore, Austria is one of the greatest of military powers,—her deficiency has hitherto been in their application. Too much attention is given to the minutiae of individual exercise, without considering how seldom these niceties can be made applicable to collective numbers. Hence an endless list of military instructions, and a complexity of evolution, such as to be hardly practicable in a review, still less in a day of battle. At the same time, there exist very material omissions in regard to the method of moving large bodies of men. Will it be believed, that the Austrian regulations contain no explicit directions for a change from line into column, whether for attack or defence! Hence, in a great measure, the loss sustained at Essling and Wagram by long exposure to the French artillery. Official instructions are given for the manoeuvres of battalions and regiments, but nothing is said of those of brigades, or larger divisions. The consequence is, that the Austrians form their line very slowly, and find, when it is once formed, a deal of difficulty in executing any other movements than those to front and rear. They have very little dexterity in separating, reuniting, or supporting each other at short notice.

The military schools at Vienna having been found highly useful, the government has adopted the plan of establishing them elsewhere. The consequence, it is to be hoped, will be a gradual correction of the defects hitherto attendant on deficient education and blind patronage. Few services are more discouraging than the Austrian to an officer who has not the advantage of rank.

8. In Austria, a country possessed of very little foreign trade, the taxes are chiefly levied on the land, and on objects of interior consumption. Joseph II., desirous of new modelling this as well as other departments, proposed the adoption of a land and poll-tax on a uniform plan. As a necessary preliminary, arrangements were made for a general survey of the landed property of the empire, and several years devoted to that important operation. It was, however, too unskillfully conducted to afford anything like a satisfactory ground to estimate the value of the different properties. No adequate allowance was made for the difference of plain and mountain, of fertile or barren

Austria. tracts. The consequence is, that the collection of this department of the revenue is still in a very imperfect state, although the tax on land and houses (impot foncier) forms necessarily the chief part of the Austrian revenue. In Bohemia, Galicia, and the Hereditary States, this important tax falls equally on all classes; in Hungary and Transylvania, it is borne, as we have already observed, by the farmers and inhabitants of towns, to the apparent total exemption of the noblesse.

The imperial demesnes form also a considerable branch of the Austrian revenue, particularly in Galicia. This source of income, which would be very great in a country like Holland or Britain, where landholders and farmers of capital would take the land at a rent, and relieve government of all farther superintendence, is comparatively inconsiderable in a country where the administration either has not the means or the judgment to throw off its hands, a task which must always be unprofitably managed by servants little interested in the produce of their labour. These crown demesnes are to be carefully distinguished from the personal property of the reigning family, the annual rental of which may amount to L. 100,000 Sterling a-year.

Another branch of revenue is derived in Austria, as in France, from the exclusive manufacture and sale of tobacco. This monopoly extends over the German dominions, but Hungary and Transylvania are not subject to it. Austria has likewise a duty on stamps, hair powder, starch, and various objects of luxury, among others, on the rouge used by the fair sex. Wine, beer, brandy, carriages, pleasure horses, are all subjected to taxation. A considerable income is levied from legacy duties, fees on titles of nobility, china, glass, and even from a toleration tax on the Jews. The financial embarrassments of the country, necessitated, in 1802, an increase of a full third on these duties, along with the imposition of two taxes of a different kind—a poll and an income tax. This rapid augmentation of public burdens made it be calculated, that throughout the empire no less than a fourth of the income of individuals found its way into the public treasury. To compute the total of the revenue is a point of no small difficulty in a country where taxes are complicated, and official accounts either withheld or irregularly published; but we are disposed to think, that L. 18,000,000 Sterling may form a probable approximation to the gross revenue of this empire.

The Austrian, like other governments, has had recourse, in its distress, to the circulation of paper money,—a measure attended with all the bad consequences incidental to immoderate issues on the part of an authority not responsible to its subjects. The public debt exceeds 150 millions Sterling; two-thirds of which, however, being created by the issue of paper, are by no means deemed repayable at their nominal amount. In fact, the repayment of a fifth part of that amount, will be accounted a fair retribution of the debt contracted in this paper at an advanced stage of its depreciation. The rule at the treasury was to raise prices as paper fell, and the eventual adjustment of accounts between government and the stockholder will probably take place in a manner si-

milar to that adopted in France after the death of Louis XIV., under the direction of the brothers Paris, when a regular scale of estimates was formed on a retrospect to the value of government paper at the different periods of its issue.

Austria. Agriculture. 9. Agriculture is still in a very backward state throughout the Austrian dominions. The large proportion of church and other public lands, with the general want of education, have hitherto prevented the people from extracting an adequate return from their fertile territory. In casting the eye over these rich provinces, an observer is at a loss on which to fix as most favourable to the exertions of the husbandman. The uneven surface of the Hereditary States rivals, in point of fertility, the extensive plains of Hungary and Transylvania. Again, the portion of Poland, acquired by Austria, was perhaps the richest division of that ill-fated country. The following rough estimate has been made of the appropriation of respective proportions of the empire. Taking 70 as the integral, representing the whole surface, we shall have for

The produce of the land along the Danube, from Vienna to the Bavarian frontier, has been greatly increased within the last half century, by the use of marl. The traveller, in pursuing this tract, sees in all directions a quantity of marl pits, wrought with great activity. Bohemia is naturally fertile, but its agriculture is in a very backward state, from the continued prevalence of feudal usages. Moravia has made greater progress, and furnishes an annual supply of corn for export. Hungary is in many parts so fertile as to produce an abundant crop, with very little exertion from the labourer. Here may still be seen the primitive practice of treading out the corn by horses and oxen. Galicia, under a better system, might be rendered productive in the highest degree. The same holds in regard to the adjacent Polish province of Bukowine. Maize is cultivated in Hungary and Transylvania; millet in Hungary, Sclavonia, and Carinthia; and even rice is found to answer in the marshy districts of Temeswar.

The product of the Vine, though far short of what it might be rendered, is a source of considerable wealth to Austria. The well known tokay is raised on the last chain of the Carpathian range, in the neighbourhood of the country of Zemplin. The district where it is cultivated is of the extent of 60 or 70 square miles; its qualities are various, the richest kind proceeding from the grape, with little or no pressure, while the inferior sorts are said to be made of the dried grape, reduced into a sort of pap, and mixed up with other Hungarian wines. We must not take for granted, that all the wine sold under the

Austria. name of tokay is the product of the district just mentioned. The dealers find this fashionable name a very convenient passport for the produce of the adjacent districts, so that even in Vienna there is not a tenth of real tokay among the wines sold under that designation.

Tobacco is cultivated to a great extent in Hungary and other parts of the empire. Hops are raised in Moravia and Hungary, but more particularly in Bohemia, where in some districts they are said to approach in quality to those of England.

The stock of horned cattle is said to have decreased of late years in the Austrian empire, in consequence of the introduction of large numbers of sheep. It has been computed, on a rough calculation, that the Austrian dominions comprise about two and a half millions head of cattle, above five millions of sheep, and about one million of horses. The Hungarian horses are small, but active, and capable of great fatigue. Many of them are accustomed, in their early years, to wander in a wild state along their vast pastures, and are caught only when of an age to become fit for service in the field. Galicia and Moravia contain a large proportion of the above mentioned number of horses. The remainder are chiefly in Lower Austria; for neither Bohemia, nor the mountainous tracts on the south of the Hereditary States, contain any considerable number. There are four public establishments for the purpose of training horses in Austria, the principal of which is at Mezahegyes in Hungary. In this, unquestionably the greatest institution of the kind in Europe, there are no less than 800 mares, of German, Bessarabian, Moldavian, Spanish, or Hungarian extraction.

10. Hungary and Transylvania possess mines both of gold and silver. They have also what is much more favourable to the increase of their productive industry, excellent mines of copper. The tin of Bohemia is compared to that of Cornwall, as the iron of Styria is to that of Sweden. These metallic treasures are not confined to a single province, but sufficiently scattered to diffuse the means of employment throughout various parts of the empire. Another mineral product of the highest importance is coal, which is found in various spots of Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary. Thirty mines are already ascertained to exist in the latter country, although so backward is the application of capital to useful purposes, that only two of them are as yet wrought. In Bohemia, Styria, and Lower Austria, this important branch of industry has been somewhat more cultivated, in consequence of the vicinity of the coal to iron ore.

Mines of rock salt are found in various parts of the Empire. Those of Bochnia and Wieliecka in Galicia are known to be the greatest in Europe. A number of others are found along each side of the great Carpathian chain; nay, they extend, with greater or less intervals, all the way from Moldavia to Suabia, along a tract which, including a variety of windings, is not short of 2000 miles. This tract comprehends the salt mines of Wallachia, Transylvania, Galicia, Upper Hungary, Moldavia, Upper Austria, Styria, Salzburg, and finally of Tyrol. They are found either at the base or on the ascent of great mountains; the salt extending in horizontal or undulating strata, and alternating with strata of clay,

in which the saline substance is frequently observed to have made its way.

Austria. Manufactures have of late years been considerably on the increase throughout Austria. Few countries are more abundant in the supply of raw materials, and this substantial advantage received a powerful, though ill-judged, co-operation on the part of Joseph II., who thought it expedient to resort to a prohibition of several kinds of foreign manufactures. Linen and hemp may be called the staples of the Hereditary States and of Bohemia. Different qualities are fabricated in different places, Moravia having generally the coarse stuffs, while certain parts of Bohemia carry the fabric to a point of great nicety. The ruder provinces of Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania, have made little progress in these branches of industry, or in the manufacture of cotton cloths, which is considerably diffused through Bohemia and the Austrian states. Spinning machines have been introduced from England, but the price of the raw material is necessarily enhanced by the distance of land carriage. Woollen cloths are made throughout the empire, particularly in Moravia, but the quality in the remote provinces is very inferior.

No country is better adapted to excel in hardware manufactures than Austria. The mines in Bohemia, Styria, Carinthia, and Upper Austria, supply an abundant store of excellent materials. The steel of Carinthia and Styria is known and highly prized in England. Vienna, Prague, and Karlsbad, contain manufactures of this metal, and arms are made in great abundance in more than a dozen of different towns. Glass has long been made in great quantities in Bohemia and the neighbouring provinces; but the long continuance of the late wars was unfavourable to the ornamental species of this manufacture.

The course of recent events has thus unexpectedly restored, and, in fact, more than restored, Austria to her high station among European potentates. The long continued exertions of Britain, the unsparing sacrifices of Russia, and, more than all, the extravagant attempts of Bonaparte, have redeemed the past errors of the cabinet of Vienna, and enabled her to reap the richest harvest of any of the allies from the spoils of the French empire. Her influence over the south of Germany is strengthened, and her ascendancy over Italy, formerly one of her weakest sides, is materially increased. The Low Countries, however rich and fertile, were at too great a distance from her other dominions, and too little connected with her by manners or national feeling, to form a first-rate object of her policy. It is not too much to say, that the loss of them is fully compensated by the consolidation given to her Italian acquisitions by the incorporation of the Venetian States.

In the present state of France, there seems no likelihood of a renewal of a military contest with Austria, for many years. Italy is now doubly fortified against invasion; and the present generation of Frenchmen will listen to no enterprises of ambition beyond the Rhine. Austria may thus enjoy profound peace, if she be not deluded into projects of aggrandizement on the side of Turkey, or alarmed into a struggle with Russia on account of her possessions in Poland.