4.193
Y 706 c.
nens in canalem integrum rectum five subascendentem.
27. TROCHUS. Animal limax. Testa univalvis spiralis, subconica. Apertura subtetragono-angulata seu rotundata, superius transverse coarctata; columella obliqua.
28. TURBO. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, solida. Apertura coarctata, orbiculata, integra.
29. HELIX. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, subdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coarctata, intus lunata seu subrotunda; segmento circuli dempto.
30. NERITA. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, gibba, subtus planiuscula. Apertura semiorbicularis, vel femilunaris; labio columellae transverso, truncato, planiusculo.
31. HALIOTIS. Animal limax. Testa auriformis, patens: spira oculata laterali disco, longitudinaliter poris pertusa.
32. PATELLA. Animal limax. Testa univalvis subconica, abique spira.
33. DENTALIUM. Animal terebella. Testa tubulosa, recta, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia.
34. SERPULA. Animal terebella. Testa univalvis, tubulosa, adherens (sepe isthmis integris passim intercepta).
35. TEREDO. Animal terebella. Valvis duabus calcariis hemisphericis, anterioris excisis, et duabus lanceolatis. Testa teres, flexiosa, lignum penetrans.
36. SARELLA. Animal nereis. Ore ringente tentaculis duobus, crassioribus pone caput. Testa tubulosa: contexta ex arenulis confertim membrane vaginali inserta.
terminating in an entire straight, or slightly ascending canal.
27. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, somewhat conic. Aperture somewhat angular, or rounded: the upper side transverse and contracted; pillar placed obliquely.
28. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, solid. Aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.
29. H. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, subdiaphanous, brittle. Aperture contracted, femilunar or roundish.
30. N. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, gibbous, flattish at bottom. Aperture semiorbicular or femilunar, pillar lip transversely truncated and flattened.
31. H. Animal a limax. Shell ear-shaped dilated, with a longitudinal row of orifices along the surface; the spire lateral and nearly concealed.
32. P. Animal a limax. Shell subconic, without spire.
33. D. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, straight, or slightly curved, with one cavity open at both ends.
34. S. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, generally adhering to other substances (often separated internally by entire divisions.)
35. T. Animal a terebella. With two calcareous, hemispherical valves, anteriorly cut off, and two lanceolate ones. Shell round, flexuous, penetrating wood.
36. S. Animal a nereis. With a ringent mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head. Shell tubular, consisting of particles of sand united to a membrane by a glutinous cement.
I. MULTIVALVES.
Gen. 1. CMITON.
Gen. Char. The animal inhabiting this shell is a doris. The shell consists of several segments or valves, arranged along the back.
Species.
bispidus. 1. C. shell with six plates or valves striated. America.
thalassinus. 2. C. shell six-valved, glabrous, oval, a little convex, sea-green. America.
tuberculatus. 3. C. shell seven-valved, body tuberculated. America.
crinitus. * 4. C. shell seven-valved, thick set with short hairs, inch long. Sandwich, Aberdeen.
aculeatus. 5. C. shell eight-valved, striated, body prickly. Asia.
fasciculatus. * 6. C. shell eight-valved, apparently smooth, but when examined with a glass, is found to be rough like flagreen. Coast of Barbary, Salcomb bay, Devonshire, Sandwich.
squamosus. 7. C. eight valves, semistriated, margin covered with minute scales. America.
punctatus. 8. C. with eight valves, smooth body with excavated dots, Europe, America.
VOL. VI. PART II.
9. C. eight valves, substriated; fringe covered, body ruber. red. North seas.
* 10. C. eight valves, smooth, with transverse lines albus. at the margin of the valves: body white, oval; first valve notched on the hinder edge. Northern seas; on oyster shells from Poole.
11. C. eight valves, smooth, carinated, oval, com-cinereus. Northern seas, Salcomb bay.
12. C. seven carinated valves strongly beaked; septemoval-beaks frequently rufous, inch long. Salcomb bay, vis. but rare. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 3.
13. C. eight-valved, thick ridged; the outside sea-bicolor. green, inside snowy, edged with black.
14. C. eight-valved, cherry colour, smooth, with cerasinus. snowy marginal teeth.
15. C. eight-valved, thick, black brown. Straits magellani. of Magellan. cur.
16. C. eight-valved, brown, smooth; inside teeth of fuscus. the margin snowy. India.
17. C. eight-valved, smooth, within sea-green, mar-maculatus. gin covered with gray white scales.
18. C. eight-valved, smooth, varied with white and marmoratus. black. Var. seven-valved. America.
19. C. flat above, with numerous raised dots in granulatus rows; border broad, spinous. America.
20. C. eight-valved, smooth above, piceous and varied piceus. with white and black. America; Red sea.
3 E
21. C.
indus. 21. C. eight-valved, whitish ash colour, with a scaly border; middle valves finely punctured. America.
minimus. 22. C. eight-valved, smooth, black, very small. Norway seas.
eimer. 23. C. eight-valved, carinated, diaphanous, banded: extreme valves finely punctured; small. Norway.
osellus. 24. C. eight-valved, deep black, convex above, with a yellowish spot on each valve. North seas.
rigas. 25. C. eight-valved, thick, convex, white; first valve notched, last toothed, middle ones emarginate; four inches long. Cape of Good Hope.
istandicus. 26. C. eight-valved, subcylindrical, finely punctured; very minute and narrow at each end.
marginatus. * 27. C. eight-valved, carinated along the back; the valves projecting over each other in a point. Salcomb bay, Sandwich.
levis. * 28. C. eight-valved, smooth, with an elevated band down the back; the length inch. Loch Broom, Ross shire, Salcomb bay.
amiculatus. 29. C. eight-valved, kidney-shaped, fragile; valves imbricated. Kurile islands.
25
Lepas. Gen 2. LEPAS, Acorn-shell.
Gen. Cbar. Animal a triton; shell affixed at the base, and composed of many unequal erect valves.
Species.
balanus. * 1. L. conic, grooved, lid sharp pointed. European seas, Britain.
balanoides. * 2. L. conic, truncated, smooth; lip obtuse. American and Indian seas; abundant on the coasts of Britain.
intertexto. * 3. L. somewhat depressed; valves imbricated and obliquely striated. Weymouth.
cornubien- * 4. L. base dilated, aperture rather narrow; valves
sis. grooved near the lower edges. Cornwall.
tintinabul- 5. L. conic, obtuse, bell-shaped, rugged and fixed.
lum. Indian and American seas.
diadema. * 6. L. roundish, six-lobed; valves grooved longitudinally. European and Indian seas, Scotland.
balanaris. 7. L. subconic, with six elevated, wrinkled, 4-parted lobes; lid membranaceous, and two toothed; found adhering to the pectoral wrinkles of the balæna boops.
costata. * 8. L. somewhat conic, with equidistant ribs, divergent from the aperture; lid pointed. On rocks on the Pembrokeshire coast.
conoides. * 9. L. conic, smooth, valves pointed, aperture very small; shell small, reddish; valves finely tessellated. Weymouth.
testudinaria. 10. L. plano-convex, with six excavated striated rays; lid composed of four triangular pieces inserted on a membrane.
galeata. 11. L. helmet-form, with a lateral aperture; shell boat-shaped, smooth. Adheres to the gorgonia verrucosa, and ventilabrum.
palmipes. 12. L. erect, conic; valves palmated at the base; shell white.
tulipa. 13. L. subcubic, smooth; lid acute, transversely striated. Northern ocean.
mitella. 14. L. compressed, erect, irregularly striated. Indian ocean.
* 15. L. compressed, 13-valved, smooth, seated on a scalpellum. scaly peduncle, which is large, and composed of rings, covered with short hairs. North seas, Plymouth.
* 16. L. compressed, five-valved, striated, peduncula-anserifera. ted. American and Atlantic seas, coast of Devonshire; is sometimes found in a fossil state.
* 17. L. compressed, 5-valved, pedunculated; ad-anatifera. heres to the bottom of ships, when it is well known by the name of bernacle.—It was from this species of shell that the bernacle goose was supposed to have had its origin. Gerard's account of this transformation, as it affords a remarkable instance of the credulity of the times, is too curious to be omitted. "There are found in the north parts of Scotland, and the islands adjacent called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certain shells tending to rust, wherein are contained little living creatures: which shells in time of maturity do open, and out of them grow those little living things, which falling into the water do become fowls, which we call barnacles; in the north of England brant geese; and in Lancashire, tree geese; but the other that do fall upon the land perish, and come to nothing. Thus much from the writings of others, and also from the mouths of people of those parts, which may very well accord with truth."
"But what our eyes have seen, and hands have touched, we shall declare. There is a small island in Lancashire, called the pile of Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised ships, some whereof have been cast thither by shipwreck, and also the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and rotten trees, cast up there likewise: wherein is found a certain spongy or froth that in time breedeth into certain shells, in shape like those of the muskle, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour: wherein is contained a thing in forme like a lace of silk, finely woven, as it were, together, of a whitish colour, one end whereof is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oysters and mussels are: the other end is made fast unto the belly of a rude mass or lump, which in time commeth to the shape and forme of a bird: when it is perfectly formed the shell gareth open, and the first thing that appeareth is the foresaid lace or string; next come the legs of the bird hanging out, and as it groweth greater it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth only by the bill: in short space after it cometh to full maturity, and falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a mallard, and lesser than a goose, having black legs, bill or beak, and feathers black and white, spotted in such manner as is our magpie, called in some places a pie-anet, which the people of Lancashire call by no other name than a tree-goose: which place aforesaid, and those parts adjoining do so much abound therewith, that one of the bell is bought for three-pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, let them repair unto me, and I shall satisfie them by the testimonie of good witnesses. Herball, p. 1588.
18. L. membranaceous, ventricose, seated on a tube aurita. and eared, 8-valved. North seas.
19. L. hooked behind, 6-valved, wrinkled, not an osfitacus. inch long. Chili.
minor. 20. L. reddish, 6-valved, unequal; lid pointed. India.
verrucosa. 21. L. hemispherical, serrated, 6-valved; 4 outer valves and lid plaisted. North seas.
angustata. 22. L. elongated, smooth, 6-valved; aperture narrow, lid minute.
porosa. 23. L. granulated and striated, conic, tubular; lid obtuse. India.
elongata. * 24. L. cylindrical, snowy, pellucid, 6-valved; lid obtuse, grooved and transversely striated. Three inches long. Iceland, Weymouth. Balanus Clavatus, Montagu, p. 10.
potellaris. 25. L. 6-valved; outwardly violet mixed with white, and marked with fine longitudinal striæ: valves denticulate at the margin. Coromandel, very rare.
spinesa. 26. L. conic with 12 triangular valves, 6 more depressed, whitish and transversely striated, and 6 purple and longitudinally striated; all armed with tubular recurved spines. India.
violacea. 27. L. 6-valved, thick, glabrous, white with violet rays. India.
pollicipes. 28. L. many-valved, compressed, erect, smooth: seated on a short hard, scaly peduncle. Mediterranean.
cylindrica. 29. L. slightly curved, with a large oblique orifice; lip horned. Africa.
crispata. 30. L. oval-truncated, conic, with 6 blueish valves shaded with white, and 6 reddish, elevated, spinous, and perpendicularly striated; an inch high; is frequently perforated by the teredo.
curiosa. 31. L. solid, white, depressed with carinous grooves, unequally smooth internally. Kurile islands.
stramia. 32. L. conico-convex, 4 valves ferrate-striated; lid 2-valved. North seas.
fascicularis. * 33. L. 5-valved, smooth, dorsal valve dilated at the base. St George's Channel.
Pholas. 26
Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate, with several lesser differently accessory ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a cartilage. Beneath the hinge internally is an incurved tooth.
dollylus. * 1. P. oblong, with reticulated, subspinous striæ, on the upper part. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonshire. Five inches long; is found in hard clay, marl, and wood; has a phosphorescent property.
costata. 2. P. ovate; striated with elevated ribs; 6 inches long. American seas.
striata. 3. P. ovate, multifariously striated. Europe, India.—This species seems to be nearly equally destructive with the teredo navalis. The pholas perforates the wood across the grain or fibre; the teredo insinuates itself along the fibres, or in the same direction.
candida. * 4. P. oblong, muricated on all sides, with decussated striæ. Europe, America, Salcomb bay.
pusilla. 5. P. oblong, rounded, striæ arched. America, India. This animal penetrates the bottom of ships.
crispata. * 6. P. oval; part next the hinge more obtuse, waved, striated; tooth of the hinge curved, large and strong. Two inches long. Europe. West of England.
orientalis. 7. P. oblong, with a strait margin: one half quite
smooth, the other reticulated with striæ. Siam and Tranquebar.
8. P. narrow, white, finely striated. Bay of Cam-peachy. Campeachiana.
9. P. short, turgid, furrowed, with fine elevated cordata. cordata.
transverse striæ; aperture heart-shaped.
10. P. oblong, depressed, with distant longitudinal ebilenfis.
striæ; five inches long. Chili.
11. P. oblong, white, with a longitudinal brown teredula.
granular future; penetrates timber. Belgic shores.
12. P. bivalve, white, with transverse arched striæ; bians.
convex in the middle; aperture large, oval; perforates calcareous rocks. American islands.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia. The shell is bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge has broad, thick, strong teeth, seldom more than one, and not inserted into the opposite valve.
* 1. M. ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind; truncata.
tooth projecting, obtuse; 2½ inches long. Europe.
* 2. M. brittle, semitransparent, sloping downwards declivis,
near the open end. Hebrides.—A fish much esteemed
as food by the inhabitants.
* 3. M. ovate, rounded behind; 2½ inches long. arenaria.
European seas, Portsmouth.
* 4. M. ovate; a single, longitudinal, notched tooth, piliformis.
in one hinge, and two in the other; near 2 inches
long, and 3½ broad. Europe, Barbary, River Ken-
net, Berkshire.—This shell is employed by painters for
holding water colours.
* 5. M. ovate, a little contracted in the middle of the margari-
thinner margin; primary tooth of the hinge conic; tifra.
length 2½ inches, breadth 5 inches; inhabits most parts
of the arctic circle, and is most frequently found in
mountainous rivers, and about catarafts.—This shell
yields mother-of-pearl and pearl. The River Conway
in Wales, was formerly famous for producing pearl of
great size and value. They have also been found in
the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Hawkins ob-
tained a patent for fishing them in that river.
6. M. oblong, dilated; the narrower base com-perna.
prefled. Straits of Magellan, Barbary.
7. M. tongue-shaped; hinge terminal, semiorbicular; vulsellia.
4 inches long, and 1½ broad. Indies.
8. M. striated, valves with two subspinous ridges; arctica.
hinge without teeth. North seas.
9. M. oval, equivalve, widely gaping, and striated; edentula.
1 inch long. Shores of the Caspian sea.
10. M. equivalve, pellucid, finely striated. Rivers radiata.
of Malabar.
11. M. ovate, oblong; 3 inches broad, 1½ long. oblonga.
12. M. globular, snowy, pellucid. Guinea. anatina.
13. M. equivalve, snowy, ovate, oblong; striæ de-nicebarica.
cuffed. Nicobar Islands.
14. M. ovate, compressed, closed. New Zealand. australis.
15. M. rounded, flattish, transversely striated. gaditana.
diz.
16. M. rhombic, green, protuberant parts wrinkled. corrugata.
Rivers of Coromandel.
rugosa. 17. M. oval, wrinkled, outwardly greenish, within pearly. Rivers of Coromandel.
nodosa. 18. M. oval, greenish; protuberant parts knotty.
norwegica. 19. M. oval, longitudinally and thickly striated; one end rounded, the other truncated.
spuria. 20. M. rhombic; protuberant part glabrous. Rivers of Tranquebar.
glycemeris. 21. M. gaping at both ends, thick, lamellous, oblong, oval; 5 inches long, 10 broad. Mediterranean sea.
symatopbora. 22. M. ovate, depressed; margin of the hinge with a subulate projection near the primary tooth; that of the other valve dilated. Rivers of Guinea.
nitida. 23. M. oval, smooth; an obtuse tooth in each hinge. Norway.
membranacea. 24. M. ovate, membranaceous, with a protracted, reflected margin at the proboscis.
hyssifera. 25. M. coarse, thick, oblong, striated, convex; hinge without a tooth. Greenland coast.
dubia. * 26. M. with an oval and large hiatus opposite to the hinge; length of a horse bean. Weymouth.
inæqualis. * 27. M. subtriangular, opaque, white; under valve deep; upper valve not half the size of the other. Cornwall, Devonshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 38.
suborbicularis. * 28. M. subpellucid, faintly striated transversely; sides nearly equal, rounded; hinge central, of an inch; found in hard limestone at Plymouth. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 39.
pratensis. * 29. M. oval, thin, brittle, flat; striæ fine, concentric. Falmouth harbour.
dissecta. * 30. M. subpellucid, thin, fragile, distorted into various shapes. Falmouth. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 42.
bidentata. * 31. M. suboval, compressed; hinge with two broad, erect, laminated teeth in one valve; none in the other. Salcomb bay.
28
Solen. Gen. 5. SOLEN, Razor-sheath.
Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this shell is an ascidia: shell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends; hinge with a subulate, reflected tooth, often double, and not inserted in the opposite valve.
SPECIES.
vagina. * 1. S. linear, straight, roundish; one end margined; hinge with a single opposite tooth in each valve. European and Indian seas, Caermarthenshire, Weymouth.
filiqua. * 2. S. linear, straight, one hinge 2-toothed. European, and Indian seas. Length 1 inch, breadth 8 inches. Common on the shores of Britain, where it is employed as food.—This species lurks in the sand, near low-water mark, in a perpendicular direction, and when in want of food, they raise one end above the surface, and protrude the body a considerable way out of the shell. At the approach of danger they dart deep into the sand, as far even as to the depth of two feet; and the place is known by a small hollow on the surface. They are sometimes taken by digging them out of the sand, or by striking a barbed dart into their bodies.
enfis. * 3. S. linear, in form of a scymeter; one hinge 2-toothed; of an inch long, 5 inches broad. European seas; not uncommon on the British shores.
pellucidus. * 4. S. subarched, suboval, pellucid; one hinge 2-toothed; length inch, breadth above one inch. Anglesea, Cornwall.
* 5. S. linear, oval, straight; hinge in the middle 2-legumen-toothed, one of them bifid; inches broad. European and Atlantic seas, Anglesea, Hampshire.
* 6. S. kidney-shaped, a single tooth in one valve, two cultellus. in the other. Europe and India, Cornwall.
7. S. oval, straight, smooth, with a transverse, de-radiatus. pressed rib on one side. India.
8. S. oval, obliquely striated. Atlantic and Indian seas.
9. S. ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcated anatinus. rib at the hinge. Indian ocean.
10. S. oval, oblong, truncated before. Pacific o-macha. cean.—This species produces pearl.
11. S. roundish, inflated, substriated. Indian and American seas.
* 12. S. oval; angles of the valves serrated; size of minutus. a cucumber seed. Coral rocks in Norway and Greenland; in hard limestone at Plymouth.
13. S. ovate, oblong, with tumid bosses. Java. virens.
14. S. oval, straight, smooth, with prominent mem-dipos. branes; inches long, 5 broad. Indian ocean.
15. S. linear, oval, straight. Tranquebar. minutus.
16. S. linear, oval, straight, with arched striæ. Ni-maximus. cobar. A very rare species.
17. S. transversely wrinkled, contracted in the mid-coar-clatus. die, rounded at both ends; of an inch long, broad. Nicobar islands.
18. S. equivalve, rosey, tooth of the hinge subbifid. roseus. Red sea.
19. S. oval, quite smooth; hinge callous, two tooth-sanguino-lentus. ed. Jamaica.
20. S. equivalve, transversely striated; hinge with a striatus. single tooth. Nicobar islands.
21. S. transversely striated, hinges two-toothed, with occidens. a hollow in the middle; 4 inches broad, and 2 long.
* 22. S. partly smooth, partly rough, with undulated, crispus. crimped lines. River Tees in England.
23. S. protuberances or beaks of the shell 2-parted spengleri, an inch long, broad; rounded at the ends.
* 24. S. pellucid, fragile, depressed; suboval, concen-pinna. trically wrinkled; a blunt tooth in each valve; of an inch long, and broad. Torcross. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 566.
Gen. 6. TELLINA.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys: the shell is bivalve, generally sloping on one side; in the fore part of one valve there is a convex, and in that of the other, a concave fold; the hinge has usually three teeth, the lateral ones flat, or nearly obsolete, in one valve.
SPECIES.
A. ovate and thickish.
1. T. roundish, compressed, wrinkled on the fore-gargodia. part. Indian ocean, very rare.
2. T. subovate, rough, with lunated scales, disposed lingua fe- in a quincunx. Indian ocean. lit.
3. T. angular, with transverse, recurved striæ; 2 virgata. inches long, and broad. Indian and Atlantic o- ceans.
4. T. subovate, angular before, with transverse, re-angulata. curved striæ; no lateral teeth; inch long and 2 broad. Indian ocean.
5. T.
gari. 5. T. striæ recurved, transverse; lateral teeth obsolete. Indian ocean.
fragilis. * 6. T. ovate, white, gibbous, with transverse, recurved striæ; beak yellowish. European seas, Britain.
depressa. * 7. T. very thick, depressed, oblong, with transverse, concentric striæ. Europe, Britain.
crassa. * 8. T. very thick, broad, depressed; concentric striæ numerous, inch broad, and long. Europe, Britain.
rugosa. 9. T. wrinkles transversely undulated, hinged with two lateral teeth. Indian and American seas.
inflata. 10. T. rounded, thick, gibbous; striæ longitudinal, fine.
multangulata. 11. T. ovate, ventricose, inequivalve, with decussated striæ. Tranquebar.
papyracea. 12. T. thin, ovate, ventricose, and transversely striated; wrinkles on the fore-part, plaited: 3 lines long and inch broad. Guinea.
gipposa. 13. T. triangular, ventricose, and finely striated transversely.
inequilateral. 14. T. equivalve, roundish, white, with a few transverse striæ towards the margin.
knorr. 15. T. rich red colour, with a violet margin; inches broad, and long.
bornii. 16. T. transversely striated; one side bent and reddish, with red rays; inch long, and 2 inches broad.
pupilla. 17. T. ovate, ventricose, thin, transversely striated, very minute. Rivers of Europe.
maculata. * 18. T. subovate, thickish, with decussated striæ, and irregular spots; figure of the spots different in different shells, but exactly similar in both valves of the same shell. Denbigh in England.
rivalis. * 19. T. obliquely subovate, transversely grooved; size of a pea. River Avon near Salisbury.
B. ovate, compressed.
albida. 20. T. oval, smooth, with prominent membranes; size of an egg. European ocean.
foliacea. 21. T. oval, with rough pabes, flattened sides, serrated; inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean.
planata. * 22. T. ovate, compressed, transversely substriated, smooth, with acute margins. European and Mediterranean seas, common on the shores of Britain.
variabilis. * 23. T. ovate, oblong, with pale purple rays. European and Atlantic seas, Britain.
levigata. 24. T. ovate, smooth, lateral teeth, margined. European and Indian seas.
radiata. * 25. T. oblong; striæ faint, longitudinal. European and American seas, Britain.
refrata. 26. T. oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular beak. Indian ocean.
inequivalvis. 27. T. oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve flat, lower convex; length inch, breadth 1 inch. European and North seas.
trifasciata. * 28. T. ovate, smoothish, triradiate, with red and slightly striated transversely. European seas, Britain.
incarnata. * 29. T. ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, flatish; 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean seas, Britain.
donacina. * 30. T. ovate, flatish, very obtuse on the fore-part. Mediterranean, Sandwich, Weymouth.
truncata. 31. T. oval, compressed, substriated; fore-part truncated. Java.
32. T. flat, fore-part truncated, yellow; inch trilatera, long, and 2 broad.
33. T. oblong, brittle, yellowish; rounded on one oblonga side. Europe.
34. T. white, transversely striated, and bifariously spengleri, hooked on each side. Nicobar islands.
* 35. T. with rugged, concentric striæ; the size of a rugosa. Weymouth.
* 36. T. oval, oblong, deeply striated, parallel to the cornubimargin. Cornwall.
* 37. T. oblong, ovate, compressed, with fine, transverse striæ; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North seas, Weymouth, Yorkshire.
38. T. purple, with white bands, and decussated operculata-striæ; one valve convex, the other flat; inches broad and long.
39. T. oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine hyalina-decussated striæ; inch long, 3 broad. Guinea.
40. T. yellowish, very thin, perpendicularly stri-vitrea-ated. North and Baltic seas.
41. T. oval, very thin, transversely striated; 10 lanceolata lines long, inch broad. India.
42. T. oval, pellucid, with a rib in each valve, apelina-reaching from the hinge to the outer margin; very thin. Nicobar.
43. T. oval, pellucid, scarlet, transversely striated; coccinea-very thin. Sea round Iceland.
44. T. striæ fine, transverse, lengthened forwards virginica-into a beak, very small and rounded. Rivers of Virginia.
45. T. nearly triangular, margin dilated, 2 inches alata-broad, and long.
46. T. rounded, flat, thin, with longitudinal striæ. peclinata.
47. T. flatish, red, with white rays; one end point. angustata-ed, the other rounded.
48. T. oval, rounded at each end; variegated, with variegata, a whitish ray at the crown.
49. T. oval, a little pointed at one end; inches madagasc-long, and broad. Madagascar.
50. T. purplish at each end; inch long and some-purpuref-thing broader.
51. T. pointed at one end, yellowish within, radi-aspera-ted and rough with transverse striæ without; inch long and 3 inches broad.
52. T. slightly wedged, whitish, and transversely triangula-striated; inch broad, and 1 long.
53. T. white, with unequal sides, pointed at one end; lata- inch long, and 2 broad. Norway seas.
* 54. T. thick, beak purplish without. Jamaica. jamaicensis.
* 55. T. outwardly white and rough, with transverse rhomb-striæ; within bluish; 2 inches broad, 1 long. River boidea-Tees, England.
* 56. T. purplish, tawny, with white rays, 1 inch vinacea-long, and broad. British and Baltic seas.
57. T. rosy, with a white band. Shores of Tussonata-cany.
58. T. whitish, with a paler band; within yellow. albicans.
59. T. reddish, with pale yellow spots, and decussa-rufescens-ted striæ; inch long, broad.
60. T. unequal sided, depressed, minutely striated. plana.
61. T. unequal sided, round at both ends, rosy white, striata-pellucid; 2 inches broad long.
62. T. rosy, with thin ribs running from the hinge rosca-to the margin; 1 inch long, broad.
63. T.
penicea. 63. T. oval, flat, equal sided, transversely striated; 1 inch long, 2 broad.
complanata. 64. T. obovate, flattened; obsoletely striated, reddish, with a dilated margin; 2 inches long, 3 broad.
fabula. * 65. T. ovate, compressed, inflated, lengthened before; one valve smooth, the other with oblique, reflected striae. Mediterranean, American and North seas, Wales.
adanfoni. 66. T. whitish, with a violet hinge. Africa.
cancellata. 67. T. thin, with numerous longitudinal grooves crossing the transverse wrinkles. Atlantic.
strigosa. 68. T. with whitish bands, glabrous and wrinkled at the margin. African shores.
C. suborbicular.
balansina. 69. T. dilated, orbicular, lateral teeth in one valve. Mediterranean.
remies. 70. T. compressed and transversely wrinkled; 3 inches long, 3½ broad. Indian and American oceans.
reticulata. 71. T. lentiform, compressed, reticulate. India.
scobitina. 72. T. lentiform, rough, with lunated scales disposed in a quincunx; 2½ inches long, 2¼ broad. Indian ocean.
laetlea. 73. T. lentiform, gibbous, white, pellucid, smooth. Mediterranean.
carnaria. * 74. T. white, with a rosy tinge within and without; fine striae, disposed obliquely. Europe and American islands, Britain.
bimaculata. * 75. T. triangularly rounded, smooth, whitish, with two oblong red spots on the inside; scarcely an inch broad. Europe and American seas, Britain.
baltica. 76. T. roundish, smooth, outside bloom colour; size of a horse bean. Baltic.
pisiformis. 77. T. subglobular, smooth, obliquely substriated, size of a pea; mouths of rivers in Europe.
divaricata. 78. T. subglobular, white, with oblique bifarious striae. American seas.
digitaria. 79. T. subglobular, pale, surrounded with oblique uniform striae; size of a pea, nearly an inch long. American and Indian seas.
cornea. * 80. T. globular, glabrous, horn-colour, with a transverse groove, size of a pea. Ponds and fresh waters of Europe, Britain.
lacustris. 81. T. rhombic, flattish, glabrous, with an acute protuberance. Pools and marshes of Europe.
amnea. 82. T. heart-shaped, transversely grooved. Pools and ditches of Europe.
fluminalis. 83. T. triangular, gibbous, transversely striated. River Euphrates.
fluminea. 84. T. triangular, gibbous, transversely ribbed. China.
fluviatilis. 85. T. triangular, transversely wrinkled. Canton.
iberica. 86. T. globular, smooth, polished. Shores of Iberia.
adriatica. 87. T. subglobular, margined, denticulated, white without, peaty within. Shores of the Adriatic.
sinuosa. 88. T. subglobular, equivalve and equal sided, with a few transverse striae.
purpurata. 89. T. equal sided, smooth, lucid purple colour; one inch long, 1½ broad.
candida. 90. T. white, with fine transverse striae.
gallia. 91. T. triangular, pectinated. France.
senegalen- 92. T. triangular, globose, with transverse grooves. Africa.
angulosa. 93. T. oval, flattish, transversely striated, fore-part angularly inflected. America.
94. T. transversely striated, orbicular, angular on polygona, the fore-part. India.
Gen. Cbar.—The animal is a tethys: the shell is bi-valve, nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally convex, longitudinally ribbed, striated or grooved, with a toothed margin. Hinge of the two teeth near the beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each side; each locking into the opposite.
1. C. gibbous, equivalve, with elevated, carinat-costatum. ed, concave, membranaceous ribs; three inches long, three and a half broad, three high. African ocean.
2. C. heart-shaped, valves compressed and carinat-cardissa. ed with teeth; two and a half inches long, above two broad. Indian ocean.
3. C. heart-shaped; fore-part furrowed with lines, roseum. hind part with broader striae, forming by their union the figure of a heart. Nicobar islands.
4. C. heart-shaped; valves striated, notched; behind retusum. the beaks a lunated, heart-shaped gape; two inches long, and nearly the same breadth. India, Arabia, and Egypt.
5. C. heart-shaped, subquadrilateral; valves carina-hemicar- dicated, beaks distant. Indian ocean. dium.
6. C. heart-shaped, subtrilateral; valves transversely lithocar- grooved, and the fore-part longitudinally striated; has dium. only been found in the fossil state.
7. C. heart-shaped, carinated; fore-part obliquely lineatum. truncated, thin, quite smooth, snowy, with gilt striae above an inch long.
* 8. C. something heart-shaped, subangular, valves medium. angular, grooved, smooth. European and American seas, coast of Durham.
* 9. C. somewhat heart-shaped, ribs high, and groov-aculeatum. ed down the middle, and beset with large hollowed spines near the circumference. European and Mediterranean seas, Devonshire.
* 10. C. slightly heart-shaped; ribs spinous, carinat-echinatum. ed. European seas, Britain.
* 11. C. slightly heart-shaped, triangular ribs, beset ciliare. along the ridges with thin spines; size of a hazel-nut. European seas, Cornwall.
12. C. slightly heart-shaped, with elevated, subtri-ciliatum. angular ciliated grooves. North seas.
13. C. somewhat heart-shaped, with obtuse, knotty, tubercu- transversely striated grooves. Mediterranean. latum.
14. C. heart-shaped, with arched imbricated scales ifocardia. along the grooves. Mediterranean.
15. C. somewhat heart-shaped, subangular. India. fragum.
16. C. subcordate, with lunated, coloured grooves. unedo. India.
17. C. subcordate, grooved, and muricated at the muricatum fides. America.
18. C. oblong, with angular grooves, serrated at the magnum. fide. America and India.
19. C. subovate, grooved; anterior margin rough, flavum. posterior one-toothed. India.
* 20. C. obovate, with obsolete, longitudinal striae, lavigatum. and a few transverse ones concealed by a glossy, yellowish brown epidermis. European and American seas, Britain.
ferratum. 21. C. obovate, smooth, with obsolete suture; interior margin ferrated. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
edule. * 22. C. antiquated, with 28 depressed ribs, with obsolete, recurved scales. Abounds frequently on all sandy coasts, and is lodged a little beneath the sand. This is employed as a wholesome and nourishing food. It is the common cockle of this country.
icelandicum. 23. C. grooved with about 36 triangular, smooth ribs. Iceland and Greenland seas.
greenlandicum. 24. C. antiquated, glabrous, thin, with angular ferruginous lines; two and three-fourths inches long, three and a half broad. Greenland and Iceland.
roficum. 25. C. antiquated with 20 remote grooves, the intermediate spaces rugged. Mediterranean seas.
glaucum. 26. C. subantiquated, hind-part with 20 grooves imbricated upwards. Barbary.
pectinatum. 27. C. slightly heart-shaped and pectinated. Mediterranean.
virginicum. 28. C. triangular, rounded, equilateral, with transverse, membranaceous-recurved wrinkles; hinges blue. Mediterranean.
trilaterum. 29. C. triangular, gibbous, striated. Caspian sea.
auricula. 30. C. heart-shaped, subrhombic, 24 ribs on each side; the grooves finely notched; two and one-fourth inches long, and one three-fourths broad. Arabia and Egypt.
trigla. 31. C. oval, smooth; margin striated on each side the beak.
monstrosum. 32. C. gibbous; one side impressed and ochraceous, the other convex, heart-shaped, and whitish, spotted with yellow. Nicobar islands. A very rare species.
lima. 33. C. gibbous, with prickly ribs; anterior ones with recurved, membranaceous tubercles, crenated at the sides. Nicobar islands.
ringens. 34. C. rounded, ventricose, white, with deep teeth on the margin; anterior ones rosy. Africa and America.
papyraceum. 35. C. pellucid, cinereous, with thin longitudinal suture. India.
aeolicum. 36. C. thick, with longitudinal anterior suture, and transverse posterior ones. Guinea, Antilles islands.
oblongum. 37. C. yellowish, oblong, turgid, ribbed; anterior parts glabrous; margin notched; three inches long, two and a half broad, ribs about 30. Mediterranean.
crassum. 38. C. brownish, rather oblong, thick, antiquated, with deeper teeth on the margin; ribs about 23. Mediterranean and North seas.
latum. 39. C. broad, unequal sided, within white; ribs flat and spinulous; two inches long, two and a half broad. Tranquebar and Nicobar islands.
pigmeum. * 40. C. somewhat heart-shaped, subangular; grooves imbricated, or belet with recurved scales. Falmouth, Sandwich.
maculatum. 41. C. with crowded, undulated wrinkles; ribs broad, grooves narrow; three inches long, three and one-fourth broad. Bay of Campeachy.
flexuosum. 42. C. rounded, brown; ribs flexuous, grooves wrinkled; 1½ inch long, and about the same breadth.
furvatile. * 43. C. flatish, thick, white, with flat ribs. Mouth of the Tees, England. Rare.
gaditanum. 44. C. sounded, yellowish-white, varied with red, green, and brown, and marked with decussated suture. Cadiz.
brasiliense. 45. C. rounded; ribs flat, broad, finely notched. Brazil.
46. C. rather oblong, white, with blackish spots; ambon-ribs about 12, very convex; 1½ inches long. ambonense.
47. C. heart-shaped, equilateral, tawny white and squamopurplish within; ribs with imbricated scales. squamosum.
48. C. reddish, thin, rounded, with decussated cancellate suture. cancellatum.
49. C. reddish, unequal sided; ribs convex, transversely striated. transversum.
50. C. unequal-sided, ribbed, whitish, within purplish. purpureum.
51. C. inequilateral, oblong, with fine ribs doubled viridescens. above.
52. C. rounded, whitish, with a brown band; ribs fasciata. fasciatum. acute.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the shell is bivalve, unequal sided and equivalve; the middle tooth of the hinge is complicated, with a small hollow on each side; the lateral ones are remote, and inserted into each other.
1. M. smooth, with a flat, anterior margin, on which spengleri. is a lunated gape, 3½ inches broad. Cape of Good Hope.
2. M. with transverse, wrinkled plaits, diaphanous; plicatoria. anterior margin flatish, shell thin like paper; from 1 to 2 inches long, 2½ broad. Indian ocean.
3. M. thin, pellucid, white, convex; fore-part a papyracea. little gaping, finely striated and ribbed. Nicobar islands. Very rare.
4. M. smooth, diaphanous; back substriated, with a striatula. smooth marginal impression before them, surrounded with a rim; 2½ inches long, 3 broad. Mediterranean and Coromandel coasts.
5. M. triangular, thick, with strong, thick crowd-striata. ed, arched suture.
6. M. obtusely triangular, whitish, with milk-white rotundata. bands on the beaks; margins on each side the beaks violet; 1½ inch long, and nearly 2 broad. Mediterranean.
7. M. smooth, diaphanous, striated; beak smooth, glabrata. margins on each side of them striated; 1½ inch long and 2 broad. African and Indian oceans.
8. M. snowy, glossy, thick, diaphanous, smooth; nitida. depressions on each side the beaks striated.
9. M. smooth, subdiaphanous, white, with paler corallina. bands; 2 inches broad, 1½ long. Mediterranean and Guinea.
10. M. thin, turgid, pellucid white; fore-part fine-laetia. ly striated, with paler bands. Indian ocean.
* 11. M. semitransparent, smooth, glossy, obsolete stultorum. radiated, white without, purplish within; sides nearly equal; length 1½ inch, breadth 1½. European and American seas, England, and shores of Scotland.
12. M. semitransparent, smooth, fawn colour with grandis. pale rays; beak and hinge placed beyond the middle; 2½ inches long, 3½ broad.
* 13. M. strong, subtriangular, of a yellowish-white folida. colour, with a few concentric ridges; equal-sided; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad. Common on European shores, and also in Britain.
* 14. M. oval, oblong, smooth, with irregular con-lutaris. centric suture; inside glossy white, gaping a little at both ends.
ends. Europe, near the mouths of rivers. Found very large on the coast of Caernarvon, and some parts of Cornwall.—The animal which inhabits this shell, according to Montagu, is an ascidia; and he observes that it frequently protrudes not less than 7 or 8 inches from the smaller end in search of food. Test. Brit. p. 100.
cyrnus. 15. M. three-sided, finely striated transversely; fore-part flattish and slightly wrinkled; 1 inch long and rather broader. Tranquebar.
macula. 16. M. obtusely triangular, smooth, thin, with pellucid chefnut spots; within white, and finely striated; a heart-shaped impression behind the beak; 1½ inch long, and rather broader.
turgida. 17. M. inflated, faintly striated, ochraceous and white within; hinge with a supernumerary, triangular, double tooth; 2½ inches long, 3¼ broad. Tranquebar.
violacea. 18. M. thin, obfoletely radiated, finely striated transversely; margins on each side the beaks whitish; 2 inches long and 3 broad. Tranquebar.
cuneata. 19. M. wedge-shaped, blue, with fine transverse striæ; margin notched within; 1 inch long and scarcely 1½ so broad.
glaucia. 20. M. ovate, dirty white with glaucous rays, and fine transverse striæ; 2½ inches long, 3¼ broad. Mediterranean.
pellucida. 21. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, white, with unequal transverse striæ; 1½ inch long, and 2 broad. Guinea.
fragilis. 22. M. ovate, thin, smooth, pellucid, flattish; anterior gape transversely striated, and wrinkled. Nicobar islands.
rugosa. 23. M. ovate, dirty white, with elevated longitudinal striæ; crossing the transverse ones, which are a little more raised; 2½ inches long, 2¼ broad; thick, and white within.
nicobarica. 24. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, smooth on the fore-part; the hind-part with cancellated striæ. Nicobar islands.
complanata. 25. M. ovate, thin, with arched plates; the plates transversely striated; no lateral teeth; 1 inch long, 2¼ broad. India.
listeri. 26. M. very thin, nearly round, whitish; hinge with a triangular tooth, and large cavity; 1½ inch long, and 2 broad. Common on the shores of Britain. Mastra compressa, Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 96.
piperita. 27. M. ovate, compressed, transversely striated; hinge teeth very minute, with a large oblique hollow. Mediterranean.
Gen. 9. DONAX, or Wedge-shell.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys. The shell is bivalve, with generally a crenulate margin; the anterior margin very obtuse; hinge with two teeth, and a single marginal one placed a little behind; rarely double, or triple.
SPECIES.
scortum. 1. D. triangular, heart-shaped, with a flat frontal margin. Indian ocean.
pubescens. 2. D. ciliated with spines on the anterior margin. Indian ocean.
3. D. wrinkled and gibbous before, with notched rugosa. margins. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
* 4. D. oblong, smooth, glossy, finely striated longi-trunculus. tudinally; margin crenated; an inch broad. European coasts, Wales.
5. D. obtuse before, striated, the margin denticula-striata. ted. Southern Europe.
* 6. D. obtuse in front, lips transversely wrinkled; denticula. finely striated longitudinally; margin denticulated. ta. European and American seas; shores of Britain, but rare.
7. D. wedge-shaped, margins very entire; 1 inch cuneata. long, 1¼ broad. Tranquebar.
8. D. gibbous, finely striated transversely, spotted saba. with yellow.
9. D. ovate, compressed, smooth, marked with pur-scripta. ple wavy lines; margins crenulate. Malabar coasts.
10. D. ovate, striæ muricata; margin denticulat-muricata. ed. Indian ocean.
* 11. D. oval, with transverse, wavy, erect, striated, irus. membranaceous wrinkles; size of a small kidney bean. Mediterranean, shores of Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is found in the hardest limestone.
12. D. obtuse before, obfoletely striated at the sides; levigata. margin very entire; hinge without marginal teeth; 1½ inch long, 2 inches broad. Tranquebar.
13. D. hind-part smooth and perpendicularly striated, spinosa. ed; fore-part truncated, and finely cancellated; angles spinous. Tranquebar. Very rare.
14. D. flesh-coloured, anterior part truncated, wrink- incarnata. led, and marked with reticulated striæ; hind-part wedge-shaped, and furrowed with fine perpendicular striæ. Tranquebar.
15. D. oval, smooth, olive-green, within silvery; argentea. margin with more elevated acute teeth, near the hinge.
16. D. ovate, with elevated striæ crossing a few bicolor. transverse ones; rufous with a white ray on one side.
17. D. brown, with hyaline spots; outside with radiata. crowded, arched, transverse striæ; inside with perpendicular ones; 1 inch broad, 1¼ long. Tranquebar.
18. D. with thin perpendicular striæ, crossing the framinea. transverse ribs on the fore-part; straw colour, with darker transverse bands; margin tawney and entire behind; 1 inch long, ¼ broad.
19. D. entirely white, with a few thin, arched, condida. transverse striæ, which are oblique towards the rim; hinge with three oblique middle teeth; margin entire; 1 inch long, and something broader.
* 20. D. oblong, smooth, glossy, light yellow, with complanata. small spots or streaks of white, and one broad ray of nata. the same from the back to the opposite margin; ¾ inch long, ¼ broad. Devonshire, but rare. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 106.
* 21. D. oblong, suboval, smooth, glossy, commonly plebeia. marked with two brown stripes longitudinally from the beak; margin smooth; scarcely ¼ inch long, ¼ broad. Weymouth, Dorsetshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. 107.
Gen. 10. VENUS.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; shell bivalve, frontal margin flattened, with incumbent lips; hinge with three teeth, all of them approximate; the lateral ones divergent at the tip.
Species.
'A. Shell somewhat heart-shaped.
dione. 1. V. transversely grooved, with a double row of spines on the flattened side. American ocean. This shell is very rare.
popbia. * 2. V. somewhat heart-shaped, with thickened wrinkles; flattened side with attenuated wrinkles; lips complicated; 2 inches long, 1½ broad. American islands, Cornwall.
marica. 3. V. heart-shaped, with decussated striae, flattened margin, lamellated. American ocean. Very rare.
disera. 4. V. somewhat heart-shaped, with transverse, remote, reflected grooves; margin crenulated. American ocean. Very rare.
hajana. 5. V. brittle, glabrous, with a few transverse striae. Brazil.
excavata. 6. V. lentiform, transversely striated, with a deep, heart-shaped depression behind the beaks; flat side, broad.
terrucosa. * 7. V. with membranaceous, transverse, striated grooves, forming tubercles towards the outer margin; margin crenulated; 2 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, Antilles islands, Cornwall.
lopicida. 8. V. longitudinally striated forwards, and transversely backwards. American islands.
divergens. 9. V. white, with fine, crowded, divergent striae. American islands.
tassina. 10. V. with transverse, recurved, acute grooves; posterior margin crenated, and grooved behind the beaks. European seas. It is often found in a fossil state.
cancellata. 11. V. with transverse, membranaceous, remote striae, and a heart-shaped depression behind the beaks; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Indian ocean.
gallina. * 12. V. radiate, with transverse, obtuse striae; hind tooth of the hinge minute; margin crenulated, 1 inch long, 1½ broad. American and European seas, Cornwall.
guineensis. 13. V. with transverse, acute striae; lips finely striated and rosy; margin very entire. Africa.
petulea. 14. V. slightly grooved, margin crenated; size of a hazel-nut. South of Europe.
flexuosa. 15. V. grooves obtuse, transverse; lips of the anterior margin with an elevated angle; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. American and Indian oceans.
erycina. 16. V. grooves transverse, parallel, obtuse; anterior margin glabrous; depression behind the beaks ovate; 2½ inches long, 3 broad. India.
mercenaria. 17. V. strong and thick, with slight transverse striae, and covered with a brown cuticle; within, pale violet; margin crenated; 3 inches long, and nearly 3 broad. Europe, North America. Shells of this species are found fossil in the mountains of Sweden. In North America they are called clams, and the Indians make wampum or money of them.
icelandica. * 18. V. thick and strong, with slight transverse striae, and covered with a brown cuticle; within pure white, and smooth; margin entire; 3½ inches long, 4 broad. Europe, Africa, Caspian sea, Caermarthenshire, and shores of Scotland. The fish is employed as food by the Icelanders.
ebione. * 19. V. smooth, with fine transverse wrinkles; margin entire; hind tooth of the hinge lanceolate; 3
inches long, 3½ broad. Asiatic seas; Cornwall, where this species is called queen.
20. V. smooth, with a few faint spots; 1½ inch long, maculata. 2½ broad. American ocean.
21. V. glabrous, with a brown gibbous slope before, meretrix, and gaping membranes; margin entire. Near the mouths of rivers, Indian ocean.
22. V. smooth, radiated with white; lips of the anterior slope violet; 1¼ inch long, 1½ broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
23. V. triangular, rounded, gibbous, smooth, and castrensis, marked with angular characters; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Indian ocean, Red sea.
24. V. smooth, transversely striated before and be-poryne hind; posterior slope obcordate, with violet veins. Southern ocean.
25. V. ovate, compressed, transversely striated, with merce, a gaping suture behind; 1¼ inch long, 2½ broad. American and Indian ocean.
26. V. subovate, transversely striated, and subpel-minuta, lucid; membranes closed; from 1 to 2 inches broad, 1½ long. Iceland.
* 27. V. oval, longitudinally wrinkled, femipellucid, deforata, faintly radiated with purple and white; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad. European and American seas, Falmouth.
28. V. oval, gibbous, longitudinally striated, and fimbriata, transversely grooved; margin crenated; 2 inches long, 3 broad. East Indies.
29. V. striae elevated, decussated; heart-shaped de-reticulata, depression behind; margin entire; 2 inches long, 2½ broad. India.
30. V. striae reticulated, and scaly on the back part. squamosa. India.
31. V. roundish, with decussated, membranaceous puerpera, striae; lips flexuous. India.
32. V. triangular, smooth, retuse behind and be-tripla, fore; 1 inch long, and rather broader. Mediterranean.
33. V. with arched, membranaceous, transverse plicata, striae; posterior slope reddish, heart-shaped; lips oblique. Indian seas. Very rare.
34. V. gibbous, with transverse, membranaceous, rugosa, arched striae; posterior slope heart-shaped; margin crenated; 2 inches long, 2 broad. India.
35. V. with transverse, acute striae, anteriorly mem-caliste, branaceous; anterior slope short, posterior indistinct. Red sea.
36. V. rounded, with decussated striae; fore-part granulata, and crenated margin violet. American ocean.
37. V. with perpendicular, imbricated ribs, trans-imbricata, versely striated; margin crenated. It has been found in a fossil state in France.
38. V. with fine transverse striae, crossing some di-divarica-verging longitudinal ones towards the margin; post-ta, rior impression ovate; margin crenated. E. Indies.
39. V. oblong, flattish, transverse striae running contraria, contrary behind; margin crenated. Guinea.
40. V. oblong, ovate, radiated, with thick, crowd-gallus, ed, transverse striae; anterior slope broad, ovate; posterior impression heart-shaped; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Malabar.
41. V. transversely striated, the back glabrous; an-flammea, terior slope broad, with brown lines; posterior impressions heart-shaped, with brown lines. Red sea.
corbicula. 42. V. triangular, smooth, truncated on each side, with yellowish rays; slopes heart-shaped; margin very entire. Atlantic and American seas. Rare.
finuosa. * 43. V. thin, convex, somewhat triangular, with a deep obtuse sinus in the middle of the front. Britain.
hermaphrodita. 44. V. triangular, very smooth, olive coloured, obscurely banded; anterior slope heart-shaped; posterior ovate. Rivers of Guinea. Rare.
coaxans. 45. V. green, within white, with transverse, unequal, membranaceous striae; margin acute; inches long, broad. Rivers of Ceylon.
caesia. 46. V. gibbous, snowy; anterior part convex; within pale violet; anterior slope roundish, posterior heart-shaped; margin very entire. India.
affinis. 47. V. thin, glabrous, convex; white variegated with brown; posterior slope elongated, with oblique tumid lips; four teeth in the hinge. Mauritius.
opima. 48. V. thick, convex; anterior slope ovate, posterior heart-shaped; hinge with three teeth. India.
triradiata. 49. V. convex, gray, with three blackish blue rays; posterior slope elongated; lips tumid. Tranquebar.
nebulosa. 50. V. ochraceous, with cinereous and bluish spots; anterior slope oval; posterior slope ovate, bluish. Tranquebar.
contempta. 51. V. thick, triangular, equilateral, smooth; beaks convergent; primary tooth of the hinge crenulated: minute. Malabar.
japonica. 52. V. oblong, ovate, inequilateral; lid transverse; striae crowded at the sides; posterior slope oblong, ovate. Japan.
firiata. 53. V. ventricose, anteriorly angular, with transverse, thick, smooth and slightly arched striae: posterior slope heart-shaped. India. Rare.
textilis. 54. V. oval, quite smooth, inequilateral; slopes oblong; margin very entire; inch long, broad. Malabar, Red sea.
corrugata. 55. V. ovate, whitish; striae transverse, anteriorly thick and strong, posteriorly thin and undulating. Mediterranean.
monstrosa. 56. V. ovate, whitish; striae decussated; hinge with only two teeth in the left valve. Nicobar islands.
ponderosa. 57. V. solid, weighty, inequilateral, wrinkled on both sides; margin crenulated; hinge with two teeth. Southern ocean.
subviridis. 58. V. greenish, glabrous, thick: margin entire, beaks prominent.
rostrata. 59. V. ovate; striae perpendicular, scaly, crossing the transverse ones.
fusca. 60. V. brown, with fine, perpendicular striae; inch long, broad.
lustranica. 61. V. oblong, with fine transverse striae; margin crenated. Seas round Portugal.
panculata. 62. V. ovate, white, with bay lines, and yellowish dots. Corsica.
fasciata. 63. V. round, smooth, with bay and yellowish rays, partly blue, and partly livid.
carnea. 64. V. oval, inequilateral, slightly wrinkled, flesh-coloured, with three rays; inch long, broad.
virgata. 65. V. externally steel blue, with yellow rays; internally violet. Indian ocean.
versicolor. 66. V. oval, obliquely striated, whitish; rays white, tawny, bluish and red.
67. V. ovate, inequilateral, finely striated and dot-variegated with blue: rays brownish and black.
68. V. ovate, violet; striae perpendicular; inch amethystina.
69. V. posteriorly ovate, transversely and unequal-callipyga, ly striated, and marked with angular lines. Shores of Lisbon.
70. V. ovate, with fine decussated striae; white or senegalensis, flesh-coloured, varied with brown; inch broad, not one inch long. Senegal.
71. V. triangular, white or yellow, with about matadoa. 40 transverse parallel grooves; inch long. Senegal.
72. V. heart-shaped, with transverse, remote, excavated-succinea. grooves; margin crenulated.
73. V. heart-shaped, much compressed, transversely compressa. grooved.
74. V. heart-shaped, polished, white, marked with australis. brownish characters; margin entire. Southern ocean.
75. V. ovate, livid, with numerous, interrupted, gigantea. bluish rays; posterior slope ovate. Shores of Ceylon and Florida.
* 76. V. lentiform, with crenated, decussated striae; tigerina. posterior slope impressed, ovate. American and Indian ocean, shores of Weymouth.
77. V. orbicular, transversely striated, with rough, prostrata. membranaceous lips; two inches long, not so broad. Coromandel.
78. V. lentiform, with glabrous wrinkles, white with pensylvana. a longitudinal groove anteriorly on each side; 2 inches nica. long. America.
79. V. white, somewhat glabrous, with a longitudinal spuria. groove anteriorly, and hinge without lateral teeth. Shores of Iceland and Ferro islands.
80. V. lentiform, glabrous, smooth, with excavated incrustata. dots. India.
81. V. lentiform, longitudinally grooved, dotted punctata. within; 2 inches long, broad. India, but rare.
* 82. V. lentiform, transversely striated, pale, with ob-exoleta. solete rays; posterior slope heart-shaped: 2 inches long, and 2 broad. Norway, and coasts of Britain, Cornwall.
* 83. V. thin, convex, orbicular, whitish, tinged with undata. yellow, with thin, transverse striae; margins waved. British seas, Falmouth.
84. V. gibbous with transverse, remote, rather ob-tumidula. solete grooves; margin entire.
85. V. longitudinally striated, with transverse, white sinensis. and violet arches; margin interiorly crenated. Chinese shores.
86. V. lentiform, transversely striated, with an ob-finuata. long gaping vent on the anterior slope; hinge with 4 teeth. Nicobar islands.
* 87. V. lentiform, with remote, transverse, membra-borealis. naceous striae; inch long, 2 broad. European seas, Britain.
88. V. sublentiform, with wrinkled, longitudinal peclinata. grooves, branched near the anterior margin; inch long, 2 broad. Indian and American oceans.
89. V. lentiform, compressed, striated, angular; the scripta. hinder angle straight. Indian ocean, and Red sea. Very rare.
edentata. 90. V. subglobular, lenticular, wrinkled, without teeth; posterior slope ovate. American ocean.
cincta. 91. V. very convex, and surrounded with rings; intermediate grooves crenated; posterior slope heart-shaped; margin crenulated. A minute shell.
concentrica. 92. V. white, sub-orbicular, compressed, with concentric striae; margin very entire; posterior slope heart-shaped. Atlantic and American seas. A large shell.
juvenilis. 93. V. lentiform, with transverse, crowded striae; anteriorly circular, and terminating in wrinkles behind; posterior slope heart-shaped; margin very entire. India.
bifaria. 94. V. lentiform, with transverse, acute, arched striae; margin entire; posterior slope heart-shaped. India. Rare.
globosa. 95. V. globular, with fine transverse striae; margin very entire; hinge with two teeth; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Red sea. Very rare.
pectuncularis. 96. V. orbicular, equilateral, transversely wrinkled, and variegated with rufous. Japan.
albida. 97. V. orbicular, sub-compressed, equilateral, white, with fine transverse striae. Jamaica.
campeachiensis. 98. V. orbicular, inequilateral, with crowded, acute, transverse striae; 2¼ inches long. Bay of Campeachy.
crassa. 99. V. orbicular, solid, compressed, with fine transverse striae, and red rays.
purpurascens. 100. V. orbicular, with fine transverse striae, and purplish rays.
rubra. 101. V. orbicular, inequilateral, chestnut with darker rays, and crowded, thick, transverse striae. Jamaica.
violacea. 102. V. with perpendicular scaly striae; margin denticulated, violet within.
spadicosa. 103. V. striae perpendicular, and scaly towards the margin; colour chestnut; 2 inches long, 2½ broad.
cancellata. 104. V. sub rufous, cancellated; a minute shell.
bengalensis. 105. V. orbicular, nearly equilateral, with thick, perpendicular striae; beaks turned back. Bengal.
aurca. 106. V. sub-orbicular, inequilateral, transversely striated, and marked with faint longitudinal striae; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Dorsetshire.
obscura. 107. V. brown, with thin perpendicular striae; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad.
purpurata. 108. V. orbicular, sub-equilateral, perpendicularly wrinkled, and with purple rays; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad.
nux. 109. V. lentiform, testaceous, wrinkled; posterior slope heart-shaped. Ionian shores.
rugata. 110. V. orbicular, testaceous, sub-equilateral, with distant transverse wrinkles.
gibbula. 111. V. lentiform, transversely striated, anteriorly truncated.
stellata. 112. V. orbicular, smooth, golden, with a white star at the beak. Lisbon.
italica. 113. V. orbicular, pale yellow, with elevated, transverse, distant striae. Mediterranean.
brasiliana. 114. V. lentiform, yellowish brown, with thin, transverse, distant striae; posterior slope heart-shaped, bluish; anterior slope broad, bluish. Brazil.
pellucida. 115. V. orbicular, pellucid, smooth; anterior slope pale golden, with chestnut spots; posterior slope heart-shaped, with red and green veins. Brazil.
holseriaca. 116. V. orbicular, solid, white, with undulated, gol-
den striae, and a broad yellow band towards the margin, variegated with transverse, brown lines.
117. V. orbicular, ventricose, thick, brownish, ra-macassa-diated with white; striae annular. Macassar. rica.
118. V. sub-orbicular, of an orange colour; 2 inches aurantia. long, 2½ broad.
119. V. lentiform, fulvous, with fine circular striae. fulva.
120. V. orbicular, white, with reticulated striae. candida.
121. V. orbicular, transversely striated, whitish, with albicans. brown spots, lines, and angular characters.
122. V. sub-orbicular, transversely striated, white undulata. with reddish undulated lines and dots.
123. V. orbicular, equilateral, white, with fine trans-lineata. verse striae, thicker towards the margin.
124. V. smooth, nearly equilateral, whitish. lavis.
125. V. orbicular, smooth, inequilateral, livid horn- cornea. colour, with a white, transverse line.
126. V. orbicular, fulvid, dotted with white at the guttata. margin.
127. V. inequilateral, reddish, smooth, with a few rustifera. transverse lines.
128. V. lentiform, striae cancellated and radiated; viridis. margin crenulated; greenish, with darker spots.
129. V. white, with radiated spots and arched striae; maculosa. in the middle a large gray spot, tapering upwards.
130. V. entirely of a flesh colour, with longitudinal costata. ribs crossing the remote transverse wrinkles; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad.
131. V. thin, convex, with fine transverse striae; with- tovaria. in snowy, without marked with the letter H, and many scattered dots: beaks inflated.
132. V. tumid, solid, smooth; with a few trans- tumens. verse wrinkles towards the margin; hinge with 4 teeth in each valve; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Africa.
133. V. thin, orbicular, pellucid, smooth, snowy; disphana. hinge with two teeth in each valve; 1¼ inch diameter. Western shores of Africa.
134. V. sub-orbicular, compressed, hard, transversely dura. grooved, reddish, with brown rays; 6 inches broad, 4½ long.
135. V. orbicular, compressed, snowy, with longitu- eburnea. dinal rounded grooves, crossed with transverse striae; 9 lines in diameter. Africa.
136. V. transparent, pale, fulvous within and without, lucida. with fine longitudinal grooves; 16 lines long. Africa.
137. V. orbicular, a little convex, with longitudinal discoza. striae perpendicular in the middle, obliquely divergent towards the outside, and crossed by transverse ones; intermediate grooves and inner margin crenated.
138. V. orbicular, sub-equilateral, with elevated, aculeata. acute, tuberculated ribs; margin denticulated, and crenated.
C. Oval, a little angular near the beaks.
139. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with undulated literata. transverse striae; 2 inches long, 2½ broad. Europe and India, coast of Britain.
140. V. inequilateral, thin, with fine decussated geographica. striae; white, reticulated with brown. Mediterranean. ca.
141. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with transverse rotundata. striae; intermediate tooth of the hinge bifid; 1½ inch long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Rare.
142. V. ovate, with decussated striae anteriorly angu- decussata. lar; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, British coasts.
virginica. 142. V. subovate, anteriorly subangular, with unequal, transverse striæ; anterior slope tumid. Adriatic.
virginica. 143. V. ovate, transversely wrinkled; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Virginia.
rhomboidea. * 144. V. depressed or rhomboid, with concentric striæ; pale brown, variegated; ¾ inch long, 1½ broad. British coasts.
cruentata. 145. V. ovate, inequilateral, transversely striated and spotted with red.
lutescens. 146. V. ovate, transversely striated; outwardly radiated and marked towards the margin with characters, lines and spots; within yellowish.
fanguino-lenta. 147. V. oval, smooth, yellowish, with red spots and dots; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad. Shores of Naples.
argentea. 148. V. oblongish, smooth, silvery, with black lines united into bands. Shores of Cadiz.
donacina. 149. V. oblongish, flattened, anteriorly transversely grooved; internal margin crenulated; slopes linear, excavated: 1¼ inch long, 1¼ broad.
afra. 150. V. grooved, umbo pointed; posterior slope wrinkled and heart-shaped; grooves fine, about 130; 1 inch broad. Africa.
dealbata. 151. V. oblong, thin, flattened, bluish when the fish is alive, and snowy when it is dead; 1¼ inch broad, ¼ long. Africa.
libophaga. 152. V. ovate, reticulated, gaping on each side: hinge with 2 teeth, alternately bifid. Shores of Croatia, among rocks and stones.
34
Spondylus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; shell hard, solid, with unequal valves, one of them convex, the other rather flat; hinge with two recurved teeth, separated by a small hollow.
gadari-pus. 1. S. slightly eared and spinous. Mediterranean, Indian, and other seas.—This species varies greatly in size, thickness and colours. Sometimes it is entirely purple, orange, white or bloom colour, and sometimes it is marked with various streaks, spots, dots, or bands.
regius. 2. S. without ears, and spinous. In this species the shell is sub-globular, white within, without purplish, scarlet, flame colour, orange or white: spines generally two inches long, sometimes cylindrical, with a crenated margin. India, Malta. Very rare.
plicatus. 3. S. without ears or spines, plaited. India, America, and the Mediterranean. The shell is white, with yellowish, reddish, brownish, or violet lines and veins.
circus. 4. S. oblong, plaited, spinous. In this species the shell is imbricated, of a citron colour, or red, with the inner margin orange. It is 2 inches long, 1¼ broad. The whole shell is thin and nearly transparent.
35
Chama.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; the shell bivalve, rather coarse; hinge with a callous gibbosity, obliquely inserted in an oblique hollow; anterior slope closed.
cor. 1. C. roundish, smooth; beaks recurved; anterior
sloped with a gaping fent. Adriatic and Caspian seas, Hebrides. Sometimes it is found of a large size.
2. C. plaited, with arched scales; posterior slope gigas, gaping, with crenulated margins. Indian ocean.—This species sometimes measures only about an inch in length, but sometimes it is found to be the largest of shells, and equal to 532 lb. weight. The fish which it contains is said to furnish a meal to 120 men; and its muscular strength is so great as to cut asunder a cable, or lop off the hand of a man.
3. C. plaited, muricated, posterior slope retuse, bippopus, closed, toothed: 5 inches long, 7 broad. Indian ocean.
4. C. somewhat heart-shaped, with longitudinal antiquata, grooves, and transverse striæ; ribs from 19 to 22. Atlantic and Indian seas.
5. C. trapeziform, gibbous, with longitudinal, crenu-trapeziate grooves; about the size of a pea. Norway seas.
6. C. sub-orbicular, compressed, coarse, with decus. semiorbiculata, striæ.
7. C. oblong with imbricated grooves; anterior canaliculata, part retuse; ¼ inch long, 1¼ broad. American and Indian seas.
8. C. heart-shaped, transversely striated; one side cordata, elongated, compressed. Indian and Red seas.
9. C. roundish, with toothed grooves, mixed with satiata, dots; posterior slope retuse; heart-shaped.
10. C. oblong, fore part angular, with anterior a-oblonga, cute teeth. Shores of Guinea.
11. C. imbricated, with jagged lamellæ; beak a lit. lazarus, the spiral obliquely. India.
12. C. orbicular, muricated; one valve flatter, the gryphoides, other with a sub-spiral, produced beak. Mediterranean, American, and Indian seas.
13. C. with conic valves, and horn-shaped, oblique, bicornis, tubular beaks, longer than the valve. Indian and American seas.
14. C. grooved, muricated, with excavated dots: arenella, hinge with a fessile callus; 2 inches broad and 2 long. American ocean.
15. C. obtusely triangular, equilateral, plaited; an- moltikiana, terior slope elevated, with oblique plates and striæ: size of a hazel nut.
16. C. transversely wrinkled, and longitudinally concavestrata. In the middle of each valve within is an additional chamber. American ocean. Small, whitish, very rare.
17. C. rounded, with lamellæ disposed in rows; in- macro- ternal margin crenulated. American ocean. phylla.
18. C. white, with foliaceous, ferrated, transverse foliacea, striæ, the interstices crenated, beaks recurved. Mediterranean and American seas. This species is found fossil in Campania: it is sometimes round, and sometimes oblong.
19. C. rounded, white, and undulated with brown, arata, with triangular, wrinkled, perpendicular ribs: margin unequal. Shores of Syracuse.
20. C. wrinkled, oblong, narrow, brown; lower susca, valve with a projecting, rounded, subincurved beak.
21. C. roundish, ventricose, inequivalve, muricated, citrea, with scattered, unequal, scaly spines. America. This shell is of a citron colour.
22. C. roundish, longitudinally striated; posterior thaca, slope retuse. Shores of Chili, where it buries itself in the sands. The shell is white, violet and yellow, and
and within an elegant purple. It is about 4 inches in diameter. The fish affords a rich and agreeable food.
rugosa. 23. C. suborbicular, with very deep grooves; wrinkles slightly imbricated; margin doubly folded. The grooves are about 30 in number.
gryphica. 24. C. oblique, with a lateral oblique pit, wrinkled; callus of the hinge toothed. Barbary.
corallio-pbaga. 25. C. cylindrical, white, diaphanous, with decussated striae; the transverse striae arched and imbricated.
36
Arca. Gen. 13. Arca or Ark-shell.
Gen. Cbar. The animal a tethys? The shell bivalve, equivalve; the hinge with a number of teeth, sharp, alternate, and inserted all along the rim.
SPECIES.
A. Margin very entire, beaks recurved.
tortuosa. 1. A. parallelopiped, deeply striated longitudinally; lesser valve obliquely carinated. Indian ocean, very rare.
B. Margin entire, beak inflected.
nov. * 2. A. Noab's ark; oblong, striated, and emarginated at the tip; beaks very remote, bent in; margin gaping. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas, Cornwall.
barbata. 3. A. oblong, striated, bearded with byssus; beaks approximate; margin closed. Europe and Indian seas.
mediolus. 4. A. oblong, striated, anteriorly angular. Mediterranean.
pella. 5. A. ovate, pellucid, substriated; anterior slope distinct, prominent; hinge ciliar. Mediterranean.
ovata. 6. A. ovate, with decussated striae, snowy, and covered with a ruff brown epidermis; margin gaping. Red sea.
pellucida. 7. A. pellucid, brittle, round at each end, obsoletely striated; teeth of the hinge very sharp. Nicobar islands.
rostrata. 8. A. convex, with transverse striae; hind-part rounded, fore-part extended into an acute beak; inch long, broad. Baltic and Norway seas.
striata. 9. A. lentiform, with numerous decussated striae; lateritious and reddish within; posterior excavation triangular; hinge arched; an inch broad, and something longer. Red sea.
pulebella. 10. A. roundish, biradiated, with transverse striae.
asra. 11. A. whitish, covered with a whiter skin, with decussated striae; grooved, and obliquely truncated; from 4 to 5 lines long, and 3 broad. Africa.
fossilis. 12. A. thick, roundish, longitudinally striated, and transversely ribbed; ribs, with undulated striae; 3 inches long, broad. Found in a fossil state in the duchy of Limbourg.
cancellata. 13. A. with cancellated striae, and bearded; margin gaping in the middle. American ocean.
minuta. * 14. A. a little compressed, transversely striated, tapering at the remoter end, and rounded at the opposite ones; lines long, and 4 broad. Greenland seas, Sandwich.
C. Margin crenated; beaks recurved.
laetitia. * 15. A. with a rhomboidal, yellowish white, shell, and obsolete, decussated striae; size of a horse bean. European seas, Devonshire.
16. A. oblong, with striated tubercles; beaks in nodulosa. curved, remote; margin entire, closed. Denmark.
17. A. obliquely heart-shaped, with numerous un-antiquata. armed grooves. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
18. A. obliquely heart-shaped, smooth, with grooves; senilis. margin plaited; 3 inches long, 4 broad. America, Africa.
19. A. slightly heart-shaped, with muricated granosa. grooves; inch long, broad. American and Indian oceans.
20. A. ovate compressed; with perpendicular knotty corbicula. striae; beaks obtuse, approximate. Nicobar islands.
21. A. lenticular, with longitudinal striae, crossed by decussata. faint, transverse ones; anterior slope closed. American ocean.
22. A. lenticular, nearly equilateral, perpendicularly aequilate. striated without and within; white, with chestnut spots. ra. American ocean.
23. A. lenticular, a little oblique, with decussated pollent. striae; anterior slope, with a very narrow vent. Indian and American oceans.
24. A. ventricose; striae decussated; anterior slope eucullus. heart-shaped; 2 inches long, and 3 broad. Nicobar islands.
25. A. rounded on each side; chestnut, and marked magellani. with decussated striae; external margin inflected, and ca. repand in the middle; beaks approximate. Straits of Magellan.
26. A. rhomboidal, white, with decussated striae; reticulata. beaks approximate; anterior slope heart-shaped.
27. A. pellucid, rhomboid, with decussated striae; candida. fore-part produced; hind-part truncated. American ocean and African shores.
28. A. inequivalve, ovate, with flat, longitudinal indica. striae and deep grooves; anterior slope heart-shaped; inch long, broad. Indian ocean.
29. A. rounded before and truncated behind, with jamaicensis. crenated or nodulous perpendicular ribs. Jamaica.
30. A. ovate, with broad, crenated, or scaly, per-campeachii. pendicular striae; hinge arched. Campeachy bay and ensis. Barbadoes.
31. A. broad, cancellated, truncated before; flatten-lata. ed side heart-shaped.
32. A. ovate, longitudinally grooved, with slight senegalensis. transverse wrinkles; white; 8 lines long, 10 broad. stri. Africa.
D. Margin crenated, beak inflected.
33. A. lenticular, without ears, smooth, with aundata. plaited margin; 2 inches long, 2 broad. American ocean.
34. A. lenticular, slightly eared, with slightly im-pedunculus. bricated grooves; margin plaited; inch long, and something broader. American ocean and Red sea.
35. A. lenticular, without ears, with smooth, longi-pectinata. tudinal striae. American ocean.
* 36. A. suborbicular, gibbous, and faintly striated glycymeris. transversely. European and Indian seas, Cornwall. Arca Pilosa, Montagu.
37. A. suborbicular, equilateral, hairy; inches pilosa. long, broad. Asiatic and American seas.
38. A. roundish, smooth, slightly eared, and trans-nummaria. versely striated. Mediterranean.
* 39. A.
nucleus. * 39. A. obliquely ovate, smoothish, with a triangular hinge; size of a hazel nut. European seas. It is sometimes found fossil. Shores of Britain.
rhomboida. 40. A. entirely white, rhomboid, heart-shaped, and ribbed; anterior and dorsal ribs knotty; beaks remote. Indian and American oceans.
marmorata. 41. A. equilateral, thin, flattish, with fine decussated striae; beaks approximate; hinge arched. American ocean.
angulosa. 42. A. ventricose, with longitudinal striae and lines; and angular on one side; beaks approximate; hinge arched; brown with a few spots. Shores of Africa and American ocean.
scapha. 43. A. oblong, much depressed, striated; beak slightly prominent. Ceylon.
37
Ostrea. Gen. 14. OSTREA, Oyster.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the shell bivalve; generally with unequal valves, and slightly eared; hinge without teeth, but furnished with an ovate hollow, and mostly lateral, transverse grooves.
SPECIES.
A. Valves furnished with ears, and radiated. The SCALLOP.
a. Equilateral; ears of the valves equal.
maxima. * 1. O. with 14 or 15 rounded ribs, longitudinally grooved, with fine transverse striae; 5 inches long, 5 broad: ears large, with decussated striae; lower valve convex, white, often varied with red bands or spots; upper valve flat, reddish. Found in large beds in most European seas, where they are dredged up, pickled, and barreled for sale. It is said, that the greatest quantity is taken after a fall of snow. This is the shell worn formerly by pilgrims on the hat or coat, as a mark that they had crossed the sea for the purpose of paying their devotion to the Holy land; in commemoration of this it is still preserved in the arms of many families.
jacobea. * 2. O. with about 14 angular and longitudinally striated ribs; upper valves flat, with rounded ribs which are finely striated transversely; lower valve with angular ribs, which are striated longitudinally. Ears concave and smooth on the upper side. European seas. Dorsetshire, but rare.
vicaria. 3. O. with 18 flattened ribs; ears finely wrinkled; lower valve convex; ribs finely striated transversely; upper valve flat, with about twice as many angular lines as there are ribs. American ocean.
striatula. 4. O. with 16 faint ribs with transverse membranaceous striae: margin very entire; valves nearly equally flat. Indian ocean.
minuta. 5. O. with 20 convex ribs; lower valve white and very convex; upper valve white, clouded with brown, flatter and plainer. Indian ocean.
pleuronecetes. 6. O. equivalve, with 12 doubled ribs, and smooth on the outside; 4 inches long, gaping at each end. Indian ocean.
laurentii. 7. O. upper valve sub-convex, with very fine perpendicular lines, crossing very fine, concentric, transverse striae; lower valve with 48 ribs, and 48 striae within; 2 inches long, about the same breadth. S. America. Rare.
intemica. 8. O. equivalve, a little convex, margined with yellow; upper valve with faint lines crossing transverse con-
centric bands, and 48 elevated striae within; 5 inches long, about the same breadth. Guinea and Japan.
9. O. equivalve, glabrous, with oblong crowded striae; magellani- upper valve more convex, lower flatter than in most o. ca. thers. Straits of Magellan.
10. O. with 9 or 10 rays; the interspaces longitudinally striated: margin repand within. Norway seas.
11. O. nearly equivalve; with 12 convex rays radula. crenated by crenated striae; 3 inches long, 2 broad. Indian ocean.
12. O. equivalve, flattish, with 9 unequal rays, im. imbricata. bricated with scales. Red sea.
13. O. roundish with 8 convex chestnut rays; ears subrotunda roundish, white with a yellowish border; 1 inches long, 2 broad.
14. O. nearly equivalve, with 16 convex smoothish plica. rays, and striated across; 1 inches long, 1 inch broad. India.
15. O. roundish with convex ribs, outer ones finely crenata. striated longitudinally; margin deeply crenated; ears transversely striated.
16. O. ovate with numerous fine striae; margin cre. sinuosa. nated within.
17. O. oblong with scaly ribs; the interspaces broad-squamosa. er, and marked with perpendicular striae; ears wrinkled perpendicularly.
18. O. roundish with 18 ribs imbricated with scales; dubia. ears striated transversely; inch long.
* 19. O. with 20 smooth ribs, the interspaces trans. subrufa. versely striated; margin crenated; 2 inches long, and the same breadth. Shores of Britain.
20. O. flattened, with 18 smooth ribs, the interspaces versicolor. cancellated.
21. O. roundish with 5 ribs; middle-sized. rosea.
22. O. brown with flat ribs which disappear to-fusca. wards the hinge; lower valve convex, upper flat. Indian ocean.
23. O. thin, flat, purple, with very minute perpendicu- tenuis. lar striae crossing circular transverse ones; the striae are elevated within.
24. O. thin, pale yellow, with thick ribs. lutea.
25. O. roundish, white, with a mixture of saffron; muricata. the ribs convex and finely and sharply muricated; 2 inches long.
26. O. roundish, tawny, dotted with white and black; conspersa. the ribs thick.
27. O. roundish, brown, with black transverse lines nodulosa. and dots; ribs convex and knotty.
28. O. thin, whitish, rosy, with white stripes; rays radiata. convex.
29. O. oblong, pale yellow, spotted with white; punctata. beaks varied with white and brown; ribs crenated; 2 inches long.
30. O. roundish, thin, varied with rosy and whitish; aculeata. ribs thick with aculeate scales.
31. O. thin, flat, white, with a saffron edge; rays plana. round and broad.
32. O. oblong, red, minutely striated. pusilla.
33. O. convex on each side, yellowish within; ribs foveolosa. convex.
34. O. roundish, deep red, with a white hinge and fabellum. few spots; ribs smooth.
35. O. glabrous, resembling a spondylus; but the spondylodes. ears are equal.
violacea. 36. O. flattish on each side; outside brown, inside violet. Mediterranean.
aurantia. 37. O. roundish, plaited, and finely striated longitudinally; a white semicircular band towards the hinge.
vittata. 38. O. within purple, without, alternate brown and red bands; rays convex.
miniata. 39. O. white with con fluent red spots; rays rough; convex valve, with transverse, crisp lamellæ; inch long, broad.
inflata. 40. O. convex on each side; closed, oblong, pellucid; 32 rays; twice as long as it is broad. A rare shell.
b. Ears unequal; one of them generally ciliated, with spines within.
pallium. 41. O. Dural mantle. Equivalve, with 12 convex rays, striated, rough, and imbricated with scales; red, varied with brown and white; ears striated, crenated or scaly. India.
sanguinolenta. 42. O. equivalve, with 9 thick obtuse rays; interstices longitudinally striated, tuberculated and prickly. Red sea.
maulofa. 43. O. equivalve, pale yellow, with tawny spots; rays 12, thick and flattish; ears white, with transverse scaly ribs.
nodosa. 44. O. with 9 rays, covered with apparently vesicular tubercles. American and African oceans.
pet. felis. 45. O. with 9 striated rough rays; one of the ears very small.
pellucens. 46. O. nearly equivalve, with 9 rays; smooth, with spoon-like hemispherical scales on the lower valve; minute, pellucid; upper valve spotted with red. African seas.
obliterata. 47. O. smooth on the outside, with 24 doubled rays. Indian ocean.
sanguinea. 48. O. equivalve, with 22 rays; ears small; 2 inches long, broad. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
varia. * 49. O. equivalve; rays about 30; compressed, and beset with transverse, prickly scales; one ear very small; inches long, 2 broad. European seas, coasts of Britain.
paspa. * 50. O. equivalve, rays about 40, filiform; surface often irregular or distorted; 2 inches long, broad. European and American seas, Cornwall.
obsoleta. * 51. O. equivalve, semi-transparent, smooth; dark purple; with 8 nearly obsolete rays; inch long. British coasts.
levis. 52. O. smooth; ears red; inch long. Anglesea, Falmouth.
glabra. 53. O. ears nearly equal, equivalve, smooth, with from 10 to 15 smooth flattish rays; inside with elevated double striae; 2 inches long, 2 broad. European and American seas.
epercularis. * 54. O. rays 20; roundish and rough, with decussated striae; upper valve a little more convex; inches diameter. North seas, Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is called frill or queen.
gibba. 55. O. equivalve, gibbous, with 20 glabrous rays. American seas.
fulcata. 56. O. white, with flesh-coloured spots; rays glabrous, 32 on the lower valve, 35 on the upper; inch long. Malabar.
histrionica. 57. O. thin, flattened, pellucid, with fine transverse wrinkles, and 11 rays which are waved.
58. O. orbicular, with purple circles, and about 100 iclandica. rays; inches long, broad. Mediterranean. The fish of this species is employed as food.
59. O. equivalve, glabrous, immaculate, with minute triradiata. striae; upper valve with 3 rays. Norway seas.
60. O. nearly equivalve, striated, spotted rough to fusc. wards the margin. Found on the fucus saccharinus in the North sea.
61. O. nearly equivalve, striated, glabrous, red, with tigerina. whitish spots. On fusc in the North seas.
62. O. nearly equivalve, striated, glabrous; rays 7 septemra. convex. North seas. diata.
63. O. nearly equivalve; within and without grooved arata. and red; one part rough, the other glabrous. North seas.
64. O. convex on each side, with 22 rounded, trans- fenatoria. verse, wrinkled rays; interstices with longitudinal, granulated striae; inches long. Indian ocean.
65. O. orange, with 22 rounded rays, and plaited citrina. margin; lower valve flatter. India.
66. O. equally convex, both sides with 20 glabrous turgida. rays; interstices with transverse, crowded wrinkles; margin with plaited teeth. Indian and American seas.
67. O. flattened, thin, pellucid, striated with nu-sulphurea. merous imbricated rays; margin with crenated plates; 2 inches long. Red sea.
68. O. convex, purple, within, white or red, with porphyria. 25 thick, rounded scaly rays; inches long. Red sea.
69. O. hyaline, with an acute margin, very sten-vitrea. der rays, and concentric scaly curves. North seas.
70. O. with 20 rounded rays; interstices finely tranqueba. wrinkled; margin repand; upper valve more convex. rio. Tranquebar.
71. O. white, with purple spots, and numerous un-fauciata. equal rays; margin crenated. Red sea.
72. O. oblong, with undulated rays and striae; and crenulata. transverse, interrupted bands; a small shell; margin crenulated.
73. O. roundish, spotted; with deep grooves finely inominata. striated transversely; margin crenulated. Small. ta.
74. O. roundish, pale, rufous, with 24 rays; ears rufescens. with decussated striae; middle fixed.
75. O. roundish; rays thick, with distant parallel squamata. scales, and prickly at the sides.
76. O. rather oblong, with narrow scaly rays; in- anonyma. terstices broader, and striated perpendicularly; ears perpendicularly wrinkled.
77. O. flattened, with 10 smooth, flat, unequal rays; decemra. ears transversely striated. diata.
78. O. thin, with depressed, scaly rays; ears short. tenuis. India, and North seas.
79. O. with 20 rays, and transverse, semilunar bands. valentii. India.
80. O. oblong, with crowded rays, middle fixed, media. reddish.
81. O. saffron-coloured, with maticated scaly rays crocea. alternately less; small.
82. O. roundish, white, with rosy spots, radiated; florida. small.
83. O. oblong, ochraceous, with rays smooth on one ochroleuca. part, and granulated on the other; minute.
84. O. pale, tawny, with yellow spots and bands, mustelina. and smooth rays; ears transversely striated; inches long.
85. O.
flumera. 85. O. salmon-coloured, oblong, with fine perpendicular striae; very minute.
incarnata. 86. O. oblong, flesh-coloured, with interrupted red bands, and flattened rays; small.
guttata. 87. O. yellowish, rounded, dotted with red; rays unequally converging at the hinge.
depressa. 88. O. ochraceous, with flat bifid rays; 1 inch long.
regia. 89. O. roundish, deep-red, with rounded rays.
palliata. 90. O. equivalve, with numerous smooth rays: is less rough, and has fewer rays than ostrea pallium.
seminuda. 91. O. orange, oblong, muricated, with scales as far as the middle; rays 22; inch long, broad.
modesta. 92. O. roundish, hoary, with brownish, reddish, and bluish spots; interstices of the rays broad; 2 filiform bands at the hinge.
principalis. 93. O. purple, with a brown margin; rays fealy from the middle, and smooth at the hinge.
versicolor. 94. O. variegated, with pectinated smooth rays.
c. Valves more gibbous on one side.
flavicans. 95. O. nearly equivalve, with 8 striated rays; margin rounded on one side. South sea.
fasciata. 96. O. equivalve, with 20 rough rays; interstices striated; ears equal, small. Atlantic seas.
fragilis. 97. O. equivalve, with 25 rays; margin very entire; ears acute; inch long. Nicobar islands.
lima. 98. O. equivalve, with 22 imbricated scaly rays, rounded at one margin; ears obliterated; 3 inches long, broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
glacialis. 99. O. with 50 imbricated, interrupted rays; ears equal; one of them unequally plaited. American ocean.
bians. 100. O. whitish, thin, gaping on each side, and oblique, with obsolete, undulated rays, and transverse, rounded, semilunar striae; inch long, broad. Norway.
excavata. 101. O. dirty white, with longitudinal, undulated striae, and a few transverse rings; one ear obsolete; margin entire; 5 inches long broad. Norway.
B. Rough, and generally plaited on the outside. OYSTERS.
malleus. 102. O. equivalve, 3 lobed, 2 of them placed transversely like the head of a hammer; 6 inches long, and broad. Deep parts of the Indian and Southern oceans. Very rare.
vulsellia. 103. O. sub-pellucid, narrow, elongated, lamellated; one end rounded; inches long, 1 broad. Red sea.
anatina. 104. O. pellucid, lamellated, and laterally incurved; 1 inch broad, and including the curvature, 3 inches long. Nicobar islands.
diluviana. 105. O. plaited on the outside; margin with crest, acute, angular teeth; size of a common oyster; found in a fossil state in the calcareous mountains of Sweden.
folium. 106. O. ovate, obtusely plaited at the sides; parasitical; found adhering to gorgonia in the Indian ocean.
orbicularis. 107. O. orbicular, flat, with an entire crenated margin; size of the end joint of the thumb.
edulis. 108. O. eatable or common oyster; orbicular and rugged, with undulated, imbricated scales; one valve flat, and very entire. European and Indian seas.—It is found, either in large beds, or adhering to rocks. The shell is of various sizes, forms, and colours; with-
in white, and often glossy, and of a pearly appearance. The old shells have often an anomia fixed to them, and they are frequently covered with the serpula and lepas, and the ferularia and other zoophytes.
The common oyster has been long known as a nutritious food, and indeed in most countries is greatly esteemed as a delicate luxury of the table. The oyster is supposed by naturalists to be a hermaphrodite animal. The spawn which they cast in May, adheres to the rocks and other substances at the bottom of the sea; and the shell, it is supposed, is formed in the space of 24 hours, and which, according to some, never leaves the spot till removed by violence. But from the observations of M. Diequeme, who has particularly studied the economy of the oyster, it appears that it possesses the power of moving from place to place, and that it varies its habits according to circumstances. Oysters which are recently taken up from places which are left dry by the sea open their shell, lose their water, and die in a few days. But the same oysters kept in reservoirs, where they are left occasionally by the sea, exposed to the rays of the sun, to severe cold, or are disturbed in their beds, acquire the habit of keeping the shell close when they are uncovered with water, and exist without injury from this treatment for a long time. The oyster should be fresh, tender and moist. Those which are most esteemed are caught at the mouths of rivers, and in clear water. The want of fresh water, it is said, renders oysters hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and sea weeds are extremely injurious to the propagation and increase of the oyster. Other shell fish, and crustaceous animals, as mussels, scallops, star-fish and crabs, are their most destructive enemies.
Oysters are of different colours in different places: in Spain they are found of a red and ruffet colour; in Italy brown, with the fish black, and in the Red sea of the colour of the iris. The green oyster, which is eaten in Paris, is brought from Dieppe. This colour is ascribed to the verdure which encompasses the bed on which they are produced. The oysters from Brittany in France too, have been long famous; but those which are brought from Matennes in Saintonge, are in highest estimation. The oysters which are edged with a small brown fringe or beard, are generally preferred. These are accounted by the epicures fecundated oysters.
In tropical regions, the common oyster is found attached to trees. This assertion of the growth of oysters on trees has been often ranked among the exaggerated or groundless stories of the marvellous traveller; but this circumstance when properly explained, will not appear different from the usual economy of this testaceous animal. In warm climates where vegetation is so much more luxuriant than in northern latitudes, a great variety of plants, among which are seen large trees, grow on the shores to the very edge of the sea; and particularly on those places which are sheltered from the agitation of the waves. In such places, at the heads of bays and harbours, great abundance of mangrove trees grow up from the bottom, where it is several feet deep, covered with water. It is generally on the mangrove tree that the oyster is found in the West Indies. Without the trouble of picking them from the trees, the branches growing under water to which they are attached, are cut off, carried home in baskets,
baskets, and in this state brought to table, where they are either eaten raw, or roasted, as the European oyster. We have eaten oysters which were produced in this way, in the Lagoons at the head of Port Morant harbour in Jamaica, a few minutes after they were taken from the water. They were of a small size, but extremely delicate and high flavoured.
Britain has been noted for oysters from the time of Juvenal, who, satirizing Montanus an epicure, says,
Circeis nata forent, an
Lucrinum ad saxum, Rutupinove edita fundo,
Ostrea, callebat primo deprehendere morsu.
He, whether Circe's rock his oysters bore,
Or Lucrine lake, or distant Richborough's shore,
Knew at first taste.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this fish, and had their layers or stews for oysters as we have at present. Sergius Orata was the first inventor, as early as the time of L. Crassus the orator. He did not make them for the sake of indulging his appetite, but through avarice, and made great profits from them. Orata got great credit for his Lucrine oysters; for, says Pliny, the British were not then known.
The ancients ate them raw, having them carried up unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning of the entertainment, but sometimes roasted. They also stewed them with mallows and ducks, or with fish.
Britain still retains its superiority in oysters over other countries. Most of our coasts produce them naturally; and in such places they are taken by dredging, and are become an article of commerce, both raw and pickled. The shells calcined are employed in medicine as an absorbent, and in common with other shells, prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oysters are formed in places which nature never allotted as habitations for them. Those near Colchester have been long famous; at present there are others that at least rival the former, near the mouth of the Thames. The oysters, or their spats, are brought to convenient places, where they improve in taste and size. It is an error to suppose, that the fine green observed in oysters taken from artificial beds, is owing to copper; this substance, or the solution of it, is destructive to all fish. The following is the account of the whole treatment of oysters, from Bishop Sprat's History of the Royal Society, from p. 307 to 309.
"In the month of May the oysters cast their spawn, (which the dredgers call their spats): it is like to a drop of candle, and about the bigness of a half-penny. The spat cleaves to stones, old oyster-shells, pieces of wood, and such like things, at the bottom of the sea, which they call cultch. It is probably conjectured, that the spat in 24 hours begins to have a shell. In the month of May, the dredgers (by the law of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all manner of oysters, of what size soever. When they have taken them, with a knife they gently raise the small brood from the clutch, and then they throw the clutch again, to preserve the ground for the future, unless they be so newly spat, that they cannot be safely severed from the cultch; in that case they are permitted to take the stone or shell, &c. that
VOL. VI. PART II.
the spat is upon, one shell having many times 20 spats. After the month of May, it is felony to carry away the cultch, and punishable to take any other oysters, unless it be those of size, (that is to say) about the bigness of an half-crown piece, or when, the two shells being shut, a fair shilling will rattle between them.
"The places where these oysters are chiefly caught, are called the Pent-Burabam, Malden, and Colchester; the latter taking its name from the river of Colne, which passeth by Colchester, gives name to that town, and runs into a creek of the sea, at a place called the Hythe, being the suburbs of the town. This brood and other oysters they carry to the creeks of the sea, at Brickellsea, Merly, Langno, Fingrego, Wivenho, Tolebury, and Saltcoase, and there throw them into the channel, which they call their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten; and in two or three years the smallest brood will be oysters of the size aforesaid. Those oysters which they would have green, they put into pits about three feet deep in the salt marshes, which are overflowed only at spring-tides, to which they have sluices, and let out the salt water until it is about a foot and a half deep. These pits, from some quality in the soil co-operating with the heat of the sun, will become green, and communicate their colour to the oysters that are put into them in four or five days, though they commonly let them continue there six weeks or two months, in which time they will be of a dark green. To prove that the sun operates in the greening, Tolebury pits will green only in summer; but that the earth hath the greater power, Brickellsea pits green both winter and summer: and for a further proof, a pit within a foot of a greening pit will not green; and those that did green very well, will in time lose their quality. The oysters, when the tide comes in, lie with their hollow shell downwards; and when it goes out, they turn on the other side; they remove not far from their place, unless in cold weather, to cover themselves, in the oose. The reason of the scarcity of oysters, and consequently of their dearness, is, because they are of late years bought up by the Dutch.
"There are great penalties by the admiralty court laid upon those that fish out of those grounds which the court appoints, or that destroy the cultch, or that take any oysters that are not of size, or that do not tread under their feet, or throw upon the shore, a fish which they call a free-finger, resembling a spur-rowl, because that fish gets into the oysters when they gape, and sucks them out.
"The reason that such a penalty is set upon any that shall destroy the cultch, is, because they find that if that be taken away, the oose will increase, and the mussels and cockles will breed there, and destroy the oysters, they having not whereon to stick their spat.
"The oysters are sick after they have spat; but in June and July they begin to mend, and in August they are perfectly well; the male oyster is black-sick, having a black substance in the fin; the female white-sick (as they term it), having a milky substance in the fin. They are salt in the pits, salter in the layers, but saltiest at sea."
The oyster affords the curious in microscopic observations
vations a very pleasing entertainment. In the clear liquor many little round living animalcules have been found, whose bodies being conjoined, form spherical figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwise than by sinking to the bottom, as being heavier than the fluid; these have been seen frequently separating, and then coming together again. In other oysters, animalcules of the same kind were found, not conjoined, but swimming by one another, whence they seemed in a more perfect state, and were judged by Mr. Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or semen of the oyster.
A female oyster being opened, incredible multitudes of small embryo oysters were seen, covered with little shells, perfectly transparent, and swimming along slowly in the liquor; and in another female, the young ones were found of a browner colour, and without any appearance of life or motion.
Monsieur Joblot also kept the water running from oysters three days, and it appeared full of young oysters swimming about nimbly in it; these increased in size daily; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vinegar, killed them.
In the month of August oysters are supposed to breed, because young ones are then found in them. Mr. Leeuwenhoek, on the 4th of August, opened an oyster, and took out of it a prodigious number of minute oysters, all alive, and swimming nimbly about in the liquor, by means of certain exceeding small organs, extending a little way beyond their shells; and these he calls their beards. In these little oysters, he could discover the joinings of the shells; and perceived that there were some dead ones, with their shells gaping. These, though so extremely minute, are seen to be as like the large oysters in form as one egg is to another.
As to the size of them, he computes, that 120 of them in a row would extend an inch; and consequently, that a globular body, whose diameter is an inch, would, if they were also round, be equal to 1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are in one oyster, and found many of the embryo oysters among the beards; some fastened thereto by slender filaments, and others lying loose: he likewise found animalcules in the liquor 500 times less than the embryo-oysters.
It is not uncommon to see on oyster-shells, when in a dark place, a shining matter or bluish light, which flicks to the fingers when touched, and continues shining and giving light for a considerable time, though without any sensible heat. This shining matter being examined with a microscope, is said to consist of three sorts of animalcules; but it is more probable that it is the phosphorescent light which separates from animal matters, particularly fish, in the incipient stage of the putrefactive process.
femicaura. 109. O. oval, slightly eared, smooth, with an oblique base; inch long, broad. Mediterranean.
firiata. * 110. O. oval, with longitudinal, irregular, undulated filiform ridges; inside smooth, glossy white, with a pearly hue. European seas, shores of Britain.
fornicata. 111. O. rough, oblong, linear, with divergent hinges; internally vaulted. Red sea.
finensis. 112. O. rough, lamellated, unequal, and glabrous
within; lower valve large; 4 inches long. Chinese shores.
113. O. equivalve, pellucid, flattened, oval, with spandylous-perpendicular, undulated striae on the upper valve: dea. 3 inches long, broad. India.
114. O. plaited, and terminating in a long, incurved, forkabilis, hollow beak; middle ribs with imbricated, spinous wrinkles; 2 inches long, and 1 broad. Red sea.
115. O. with longitudinal, wrinkled plaits; lower plicatula, valve smaller and flatter; varies much in shape and size. American and Mediterranean seas.
116. O. oblong, rugged; upper valve lamellated, rostrata, with a denticulated margin; the lower excavated, and longitudinally grooved. Mediterranean.
117. O. nearly equivalve, thick, rough, lamellous; virginica, one valve with a prominent beak; 9 inches long, and 4 broad. American and Indian oceans.
118. O. upper valve flat, lower one hollow and stri-cornucopiat ated; rough with scales, wrinkles and plaits, and terminating in an elongated beak. Indian and African oceans.
119. O. thin; lower valve convex and thicker; the parasitica, other flat. Atlantic and Indian seas.—This species, like the common oyster, fixes itself to the roots and branches of trees, particularly the mangrove, which grow out of the water. It varies in form and size, and is often as large as the palm of the hand.
120. O. thin; upper valve longer and more convallida, vex. Adriatic.—It is found fixed to other shells.
121. O. rugged, with imbricated lamellae; margin cristata, with obtusely plaited teeth; 1 inch long.
122. O. equivalve, roundish, smooth, flat; 2 inches senegalensis, diameter. Shores of Senegal.
123. O. thin, depressed, rough, unequal; upper stellata, valve ribbed; ribs with a few spines. Guinea.
124. O. oval, thin, terminating in a short, acute, ovalis, lateral channelled beak; striae perpendicular, unequal, obsolete; 1 inch long.
125. O. roundish, snowy, thin, pellucid; upper popyracea, valve terminating in a short, acute beak.
126. O. equivalve, orbicular, white, with concentric annulata, femicircles. North seas.
127. O. equivalve, oblong, white, glabrous, stria-retusa, ted; with an umbo or knob remote from the hinge. North seas.
C. Hinge with a perpendicular grooved line.
128. O. equivalve, obovate, unequal, rounder at perna, one end; inches long; has some resemblance to a gammon of bacon. Indian and American seas.
129. O. equivalve, with a larger lobe, forming a ifogonum, right angle with the hinge; from 5 to 7 inches long, and broad in the middle; shell blackish, violet without, pearly within. Indian ocean and South seas. Is a rare shell.
130. O. equivalve, orbicular, compressed, membra-ephippium, naceous; 5 inches long, broad. Indian ocean and Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.
131. O. equivalve, thin, pellucid, and pointed at pieta, the hinge; the other end dilated; margin acute; 2 inches long, more than an inch broad. Red sea.
132. O. flat, hoary, thin, pellucid, lamellated; in-legumen, terfices of the grooves black; 2 inches long, 4 lines broad. Nicobar islands.
133. O.
alata. 133. O. flat, brittle, pellucid; dilated towards the margin. America.
mytiloides. 134. O. nearly equivalve, ovate, ventricose, straight.
torta. 135. O. equivalve, intorted.—This and the preceding species are found fossil in Africa.
pes-lutrea. 136. O. equivalve, smooth, wedge-shaped with 6 obtuse plates, varied with purplish and white, and marked with fine longitudinal striae; margin slightly scalloped.
43
Agonima. Gen. Char.—The animal is a ligula or strap-shaped body, emarginated and ciliated; the bristles being fixed to the upper valve. There are two linear arms, longer than the body, open, stretched out, alternate on the valve, ciliated on both sides; the hairs are fixed to both valves; the shell is inequivalve; one valve being rather flat, the other more gibbous at the base, with a produced beak, generally curved, over the hinge; one of the valves is often perforated at the base; the hinge is without teeth. A small linear scar appears prominent, with a lateral tooth placed within; but on the very margin of the flat valve. There are two bony rays for the base of the animal.
cranicularis. 1. A. orbicular; the gibbous valve conico-convex, flat valve with three hollows at the base; 1 inch long, broad. Mediterranean seas and Philippine islands. It is sometimes found fossil.
pectinata. 2. A. oblong, with branched grooves; the gibbous valve with two hollows behind. An inch long, broad; flat valve perforated. Mediterranean.
ephippium. * 3. A. roundish, pellucid, with wrinkled plates; flat valve perforated; diameter sometimes inches, most frequently about 2. European and American seas, shores of Britain.—It is often found adhering to the common oyster. Mr Montagu thus accounts for the perforation in these shells. The testaceous plug, he observes, by which the animal fixes itself to other bodies, is firmly attached by strong ligaments to these bodies, and so closely cemented, that they become inseparable. When, therefore, the shell is torn from its native place, the plug is left behind upon the stone or other shell to which it adhered.
capa. * 4. A. obovate, unequal, violet; upper valve convex; lower perforated. European and American seas, shores of Britain.
electrica. 5. A. roundish, yellow, smooth; one valve convex and gibbous; very thin. Coasts of Africa.
squamula. * 6. A. small, orbicular, entire, thin like the scale of a fish. European seas, Britain.
patelliformis. 7. A. ovate, convex, subdiaphanous, striated; posterior beak recurved and smooth. North seas.
scabinata. 8. A. roundish, smooth, and rough within; beak perforated.
aurita. 9. A. subovate, striated, and slightly eared; beak perforated. Norway seas.
retusa. 10. A. obovate, striated, retuse, with a longitudinal cavity; beak perforated. Norway seas, adhering to zoophytes.
grypbus. 11. A. oblong, smooth, with an obsolete lateral plate on one valve, and incurved beak; the other
valve short and flattish. Frequently found in a fossil state.
12. A. femi-orbicular, depressed, with numerous striae; pecten. one valve flat. Found in a fossil state.
13. A. roundish, and a little dilated; gibbous on striatula. each side; striated; valves equal. Has been only found fossil.
14. A. suborbicular, obsoletely striated; hinge truncated. European seas.
15. A. heart-shaped, with decussated striae; shorter reticularis. valve more gibbous. Found fossil.
16. A. dilated, innated, plaited with longitudinally plicatella. striated grooves. Found only in a fossil state.
17. A. dilated, triangular, plaited with wrinkled crispa. grooves; the middle broader. Found fossil in England and Switzerland.
18. A. roundish with numerous grooves; valves locunosa. plaited at the tip; one of them shorter and pitted. Found only in a fossil state.
19. A. obovate, grooved; beak of one valve prominent, pubescens. the other gaping; about the size of a cucumber seed, covered with small, erect, distant hairs. Norway seas.
* 20. A. conic, pointed, grooved; one valve convex cuspidata. with an incurved beak; the other pyramidal with a large triangular foramen. Found in Derbyshire in a fossil state.
21. A. roundish with numerous grooves; the valves farcta. convex, and 8-toothed at the tip. Found fossil in Switzerland and Wesphalia.
22. A. obovate, striated, downy; one valve with aequat-ser- longer perforated beak. Norway seas. It is general. penita. ly found adhering to the madrepora prolifera.
23. A. obovate, smooth, convex; one valve with terebrata. three plates; the other with two; the beak of one la. valve prominent and perforated. Found frequently in a fossil state.
24. A. with compressed plates at the sides of the angulata. base, anteriorly; the middle three-toothed. Found fossil.
25. A. dilated, smooth, convex; striated with about hystrita. 3 lobes; anterior part depressed, with an acute margin. Found fossil in Germany.
26. A. two-lobed, equal, striated. Only found fossil. biloba.
27. A. orbicular, flat, pellucid; hinge with two placenta. linear callosities growing within the shell; 5 inches diameter. Indian ocean.
28. A. nearly quadrangular, convex, and nearly cella. closed; bronzed; margin repand; 7 inches diameter. Indian ocean.
* 29. A. covered with spines as long as the shells. spinosa. England, in a fossil state.
30. A. roundish, prickly; crown smooth and re-aculeata. curved behind; lower valve flat, smooth, and perforated at the crown. Norway seas.
31. A. hyaline, ventricose; crown bent towards the muricata. right; upper valve longitudinally striated; lower valve flat, very thin, and the circumference of the perforation elevated. Guinea.
32. A. oblong, with a rounded margin; one valve squama. flat, thin, smooth, with a large ovate perforation at the tip; the other convex, and longitudinally striated. Seas of Norway.
33. A. orbicular, hyaline, thin, punctured; flat valve punctata. perforated at the tip; small, brittle. Ferro islands.
undulata. 34. A. margin crenated; flat valve thin and smooth, with a large oval perforation; convex valve with transverse arched striae, crossing undulated longitudinal ones. Mediterranean, North seas, Devonshire.
capensis. 35. A. longitudinally striated, a little truncated; with a rounded, notched margin. Cape of Good Hope.
detruncata. 36. A. truncated, orbicular, longitudinally striated; flat valve with three ribs within; other valve longitudinally striated within, and divided by a partition in the middle. Mediterranean.
sanguinolenta. 37. A. horny, smooth, and convex on each side; upper valve emarginated, and radiated at the sides, with an elevated, sanguineous back. India.
virrea. 38. A. ovate, ventricose, hyaline; lower valve with two bony rays at the hinge, besides lateral teeth; upper valve with a prominent, perforated tip; inch long, 1 inch broad. Mediterranean.
cranium. 39. A. smooth, ventricose, finely striated transversely; inch broad, something longer. Norway seas.
dorsata. 40. A. heart-shaped, solid, with arched transverse ring and wrinkles, and longitudinal striae and grooves. Magellanic seas. Is often found fossil.
psittacea. 41. A. horny and finely striated longitudinally; shorter valve gibbous; longer one flat, with an incurved tip, triangularly perforated; rather large, pellucid. Greenland. Very rare.
tridentata. 42. A. yellowish, pellucid, thin, finely striated transversely; tricuspidate with tubular points; valves united. Mediterranean.
spondyliodes. 43. A. ovate, antiquated, with an obtuse channelled beak.
ventricosa. 44. A. subovate, solid, with a channelled beak.
gryphoides. 45. A. oval, smooth, solid, opaque; lesser valve with a straight, obtuse, truncated beak.
flexuosa. 46. A. very thin, lamellated, hollowed in the middle; upper valve flat; lower valve convex towards the crown, with an orbicular perforation beneath it. Norway seas.
rugosa. 47. A. obovate; upper valve convex and finely wrinkled; lower valve thin and smooth, with a kidney-shaped perforation. Norway seas.
cylindrica. 48. A. very thin, cylindrical, and narrowed outwardly; upper valve gibbous, lower hollow. North seas.
nucleus. 49. A. glabrous, oval, longitudinally grooved. North seas.
avenacea. 50. A. pyriform, protracted, and slightly compressed towards the hinges. North seas.
sandaleum. 51. A. turbinated; back flat, with a striated cavity; lid flat and hemispherical. Germany, in a fossil state.
Gen. 16. MYTILUS, The Mussel.
Mytilus. Gen. Char.—The animal is allied to an ascidia; the shell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byssus or beard of silky filaments; hinge mostly without teeth, with generally a subulate, excavated, longitudinal line.
SPECIES.
A. Parasitical, affixed as it were by claws.
erista-galli. 1. M. plated, spinous; both lips rough. Indian ocean and Red sea.
kyotis. 2. M. plated and imbricated, with broad, compressed scales; both lips smooth. Inhabits the ocean, on beds of coral.
3. M. plaited, smoothish; one lip rough. American front ocean.
B. Flat, or compressed into a flattened form, and slightly eared.
4. M. Pearl-bearing mussel. Flattened, nearly or margo-biular, with a transverse base; imbricated with tooth-tiferus. ed tunic. American and Indian seas.—This species is about 8 inches long, and somewhat broader; the inside is finely polished, and produces the true mother-of-pearl; and frequently also it affords the most valuable pearls. When the outer coat of the shell, which is sometimes sea-green, or chestnut with white rays, or whitish with green rays, is removed, it exhibits the same pearly lustre as the inside; the younger shells have ears as long as the shell, and resemble scallops.
5. M. roundish; longitudinally striated, pellucid, unguis, and slightly eared. Mediterranean.
C. Ventricose or convex.
6. M. cylindrical; rounded at both ends. Euro-lithophorean, American, and Indian seas. It is about an inch long, broad, and 3 long.—It perforates and eats away coral rocks, and even the hardest marbles. Those which are found in Europe have a thin brittle shell: the shell of those found in India is soft, and nearly coriaceous.
7. M. rhombic, oval, brittle, rugged, antiquated, rugosus, and rounded at the ends. Seas and lakes, north of Europe.—It is usually found lodged in limestone; each individual in a separate apartment, with apertures too small for the shell to pass through.
8. M. striated, with vaulted knobs, and a white bilocularis-partition. Nicobar islands.
9. M. convex; one of the margins angular; the exustus, anterior extremity crenated; inch long. American ocean and Red sea.
10. M. smoothish; ferruginous on the outside, and barbatus, bearded at the tip; inch long. Mediterranean and Norway seas.
* 11. M. Eatable or common mussel. Smooth, violet; edulis, valves slightly recurved on the obtuse side, and somewhat angular on the acute side; beaks pointed; from 2 to 3 inches long. European and Indian seas.—This species is observed to be larger within the tropics, and to diminish gradually towards the north. It is found in large beds, and generally attaches itself to other bodies by means of its long silky beard. The fish is employed as food in many parts of the world, and is esteemed rich and nutritious.
* 12. M. very crooked on one side near the beaks, incurvatus then generally dilated; within with a violet tinge. Coast of Anglesea.
* 13. M. oval, transparent, and elegantly radiated pellucidus, lengthwise with purple and blue; two inches long. Anglesea, in oyster beds.
* 14. M. contracted into a deep rugged cavity, oppo-umbilicate the hinge, forming a deep hollow when the valves are closed; 5 inches long. Anglesea.
* 15. M. short, ventricose, obtuse at the beaks, and curtus, dirty yellow. Weymouth.
16. M. smooth, slightly curved; hind margin in-ungulatus, flexed; hinge terminal, two-toothed. Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Found at the latter place resembling M. edulis; but is 5 inches long, and broad.
bilens. 17. M. striated, slightly curved; hind margin inflected; hinge terminal, two-toothed; scarcely an inch long. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
modiolus. * 18. M. smooth, blackish, obtuse at the smaller end, and rounded at the other; one side angular, near the beaks; from 6 to 7 inches long, 3 broad. European, American and Indian seas, Devonshire, Weymouth.
eyneus. * 19. M. ovate, very brittle, transversely wrinkled; anterior end compressed, the other rounded; hinge lateral; from 2 to 5 inches broad, and 3 long. Frequent in the lakes and rivers of Europe, Britain.—It is the largest of British fresh-water shells. It arrives at the greatest size in ponds and stagnant waters.
enatinus. 20. M. oval, a little compressed; brittle and semi-transparent, with a membranaceous margin. Fresh waters of Europe.—It resembles the last, but is longer and narrower. Ducks and crows, it is said, are extremely fond of both this and the last species.
viridis. 21. M. smooth, ovate, membranaceous, pellucid, with a terminal hinge. Southern ocean.
ruber. 22. M. wrinkled; valves oblique and anteriorly dilated. Southern ocean.
albus. 23. M. transversely striated; beaks gibbous; hinge lateral; 6 inches long, 3 broad. Shores of Chili.—The fish is white, and affords a grateful food.
ater. 24. M. grooved, and scaly behind. Chili.—The fish is black, and unfit for being eaten.
disfors. * 25. M. oval, horny, subdiaphanous; extremities longitudinally striated; middle transversely. European and southern seas, Cornwall and Devonshire. From the South seas it is 1 inch broad; in Britain rarely exceeds inch.
birundo. 26. M. smooth; valves 2-lobed; lobe at the hinge longer and thinner. American, Mediterranean, and Indian seas.
pholadis. 27. M. oblong; more obtuse on the fore-part; rough, with transverse wrinkles; 1 inch long, 1 broad. North seas.—This species penetrates beds of coral and other rocks, like the pholas.
striatulus. 28. M. finely striated, hinge terminal, 1 tooth; 1 inch long, 1 broad. Northern and Indian seas.
vulgaris. 29. M. flattened on one side and inflected; beaks incurved, convergent; hinge 1-toothed. American ocean.
plicatus. 30. M. rhombic, inequilateral; transversely striated and wrinkled; beaks incurved. Nicobar islands.
niveus. 31. M. ovate, subdiaphanous; finely striated longitudinally; margin acute; hinge 2-toothed; shell snowy and polished within. Nicobar islands. Very rare.
asper. 32. M. nearly triangular, dilated before, and flatish gaping behind; beaks pointed, turned back; margin very acute; 4 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterranean and African shores.
smaragdinus. 33. M. nearly triangular, flatish; hinge 2-toothed in one valve; 1-toothed in the other. Tranquebar, Guinea.
versicolor. 34. M. nearly triangular, flatish; hinge 1-toothed; margin glabrous, acute; 3 inches long, 2 broad. Guinea.
corallio-phagus. 35. M. curvated in the middle, and crenated at the margin, with an obtuse knob; inch long. Indian and American oceans. Perforates rocks like a pholas.
lineatus. 36. M. triangular and dilated outwards, with angular, decussated, and confluent lines; hinge 2-toothed. A minute shell.
37. M. oval, rufous, striated, with a crenulated saba margin. Seas of Greenland.—This species is the food of the anas hiemalis and hisfronica.
38. M. thin, slightly wedged; beaks recurved and fluviatilis. large. Fresh waters of Europe.
39. M. oblong, narrow, finely striated transversely; fuscus. one side emarginated, the other rounded; beaks prominent, curved. A minute brown shell.
40. M. broad, short, and rounded behind; beaks mammari. conic, protuberant. vir.
41. M. broad, and curved with a rough, rugged, perficus. yellow coat; within milky. Persian sea.
42. M. broad, very smooth, flammeous or rose-co-pietur. loured with white bands; beaks obtuse. Portugal.
43. M. pellucid, shining, bluish, with a claret co-fosciatus. lour and pale red bands. Brazil.
44. M. broad and rounded at both ends; claret co-undatus. lour, with waved, bluish, and greenish, striis; margin ferrated. Portuguese sea.
45. M. rounded behind; pale flesh-colour; purple purpureus. within; margin denticulated. Shores of Brazil.
46. M. ear-shaped, with granulated wrinkles on the faxatilis. outer side, dilated and rounded. Amboyna.
47. M. transversely striated, rounded at each end; argenteus. brown, silvery within; beaks rounded.
48. M. narrow, shining bluish colour with violet fulgidus. spots at the sides; beaks rounded, dilated. Seas of Magellan.
49. M. gibbous, azure, with yellowish stripes be-azureus. neath; beaks obtuse; 1 inch broad, long.
50. M. mouse-coloured, with violet spots, and a murinus. broad, rounded, rosy margin; beaks pointed straight. Guinea.
51. M. long, narrow, covered with a testaceous testaceus. skin; shining silvery beneath, varied with blue, red, yellow, and brown.
52. M. dilated outwardly; greenish yellow, with virgatus. rosy stripes; beaks obtuse, curved.
53. M. oblong, very thin, white, with obsolete cordatus. striis, and a heart-shaped gap behind. Indian and Southern oceans.
54. M. oval, flatish, and transversely ribbed; 8 flagellis. inches broad, 4 long. In fresh waters.
55. M. oval, convex, rounded behind; elongated, wellensis. and obtusely pointed before; beaks obsolete; 7 inches broad, 3 long. Stagnant waters of Germany.
56. M. suborbicular, with 15 triangular, clefted roscus. grooves, and alternate triangular teeth; 3 inches broad. Africa.
57. M. gibbous, pointed, with 15 grooves; margin pumiceus. toothed; 14 lines long, and as broad; hinge with 4 minute teeth. Africa.
58. M. flat, thin, with fine grooves, covered with niger. a black skin, under which it is milky, and finely polished; 1 inch long; grooves about 100. Africa.
59. M. flat, smooth, covered with a thick fulvous levigatus. skin, under which it is rosy; 2 inches long. Africa.
60. M. transversely wrinkled; obtuse at each end; dubius. fulvous, within pearly; beaks obsolete; hinge without teeth; 5 inches broad, 2 long. Fresh waters of Senegal.
61. M. 5-celled; valves carinated and flatish on the polymor- incumbent side; beaks obtuse and inflected backwards; phus. size of a plumb stone. Russian sea, and in fresh waters, where it is much larger.
canaliculatus. 62. M. smoothish, chestnut brown; within party coloured; socket of the hinge channelled.
rostrum. 63. M. oblong, thin, truncated; beaks sharp and carinated; valves gaping at the end. Amboyna.
camellii. 64. M. oblong, thin, truncated; beak sharp and carinated; valves completely closed. Japan.
avonensis. * 65. M. with a suboval shell, of an olivaceous brown colour, with concentric wrinkles; size of the M. anatinus, but broader in proportion to its length. The posterior side generally more obtuse and rounded. River Avon in Wiltshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. 172.
45
Pinna. Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell bivalve, fragile, upright, gaping at one end, and furnished with a byssus or beard. Hinge without teeth; the valves united into one.
rudis. 1. P. vaulted with arched scales, arranged in rows; from 12 to 16 inches long, and from 4 to 8 broad; red; from 6 to 8 grooves. Atlantic, Indian, and Red seas.
pellinata. 2. P. longitudinally striated half way; one side slightly wrinkled transversely; 3 inches long, 4 broad. Indian ocean.
nobilis. 3. P. striated, with channelled, tubular, subimbricated scales; 7½ inches long, 3½ broad. Mediterranean, Adriatic, and American seas.
muricata. * 4. P. striated with concave, ovate, acute scales; from 3 to 9 inches long, and 1 to 3 broad. European and Indian oceans, Weymouth.
rotundata. 5. P. with obsolete scales, margin rounded; sometimes 2 feet long. Mediterranean.
squamosa. 6. P. with fine undulated scales, and flexuous, broad wrinkles; smaller end pointed and naked; 13 inches long, 6½ broad. Mediterranean.
carnea. 7. P. thin, flesh colour, naked, longitudinally grooved; external margin acute and rounded.
faccata. 8. P. smooth, satchel-shaped; a little erect, and slightly fagliated; 5½ inches long, 2½ broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
digitiformis. 9. P. smooth, tubular, finger-shaped, incurved, extreme margin membranaceous; pellucid.
lobata. 10. P. naked, lobed, straw-coloured, with purple striae.
virea. 11. P. hyaline, with longitudinal, wavy striae; the striae with a few scales, and crossed by other transverse striae at the margin. Indian ocean. Very rare.
incurva. 12. P. narrow, long, naked, carinated, with transverse, undulated wrinkles. Indian ocean.
bicolor. 13. P. thin, inflected at the lateral margin; yellowish, with black brown rays; thinly striated longitudinally. Red sea.
causta. 14. P. flattish, horny, with blackish rays, spots, and clouds; and many smooth striae. Southern ocean of India. Rare.
veixillum. 15. P. truncated at the outer margin; dilated, naked, with a few black clouds; striated longitudinally on the fore-part, and transversely wrinkled behind. India. Very rare.
patyacea. 16. P. thin, brittle, horny, longitudinally ribbed; extreme margin roundish. Indian ocean.
17. P. flattish, slightly incurved, red, with a few sanguineous, perpendicular, smooth striae; 3 inches long.
18. P. very straight, thin, and perpendicularly stri-bullata, ated, with transverse, spinous wrinkles, on the lower margin.
General Observations.—It has been doubted whether the animal which inhabits the pinna be a limax or slug, according to the opinion of Linnaeus; and it is even asserted, that it has not the smallest affinity with this animal, but approaches much more nearly to that which belongs to the mytilus. In proof of this, it is said that the pinna possesses no locomotive power, but remains fixed by its byssus or beard to other bodies; and so firmly attached, that it can by no means be disengaged at the will of the animal; for the fibres are strongly agglutinated to the sand, gravel, or other extraneous bodies within its reach. Indeed it seems not at all improbable that all testaceous animals, furnished with a similar beard, are intended by this structure to remain attached to the spot where they are originally produced.
This shell-fish was celebrated among the ancients on account of the cloth which was made of the fine byssus or beard by which it is attached. As a rare and costly production it brought a high price, and was held in great estimation. At the present day even, according to the information of modern travellers, the inhabitants of Palermo and Naples manufacture gloves and stockings from the same substance.
The pinna has obtained a little reputation for the practice of some of the moral virtues, in treating a small species of crab with hospitality and friendship, by receiving it into the shell, and defending it against its enemies. In return for this kindness, the crab, like the jackall with the lion, acts the part of a provider and monitor, by warning its host of the presence of its prey or of the approach of an enemy. But this friendly intercourse accords ill with the nature of the animals between whom it is practised. The crab, it is far more probable, is a troublesome intruder; and notwithstanding all the service he can repay, is considered as a very unwelcome guest, and is indebted for his lodging to his own activity, and the sluggish nature of his host, rather than to his kindness and hospitality.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a sepia or clio. The shell 46Argonauta is univalve, spiral, involute, membranaceous, one-celled.
1. A. The paper nautilus. Keel or ridge of the shell argoargonauta, slightly toothed on each side. The shell, which is thin as paper, brittle, and transparent, is white or yellowish, with smooth or knotty striae or ribs which are sometimes forked; the keel is generally brownish. This shell presents considerable varieties. Sometimes the keel is narrow, and marked with close bifurcated wrinkles; sometimes it has a broad keel with tuberculated ribs; and sometimes a broad tuberculated keel with few and smooth ribs.
The singular structure and wonderful economy of this
this animal very early attracted the attention of naturalists. To its progressive motion on the surface of the ocean, mankind are indebted, it is said, for the first hint of the art of navigation. This is alluded to in the numbers of Pope:
Learn of the little nautilus to fail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
What is the particular organization which enables this animal to rise to the surface or to sink to the bottom at pleasure, seems not to be understood by naturalists; whether it is by throwing out a quantity of water by which it becomes specifically lighter than the element in which it lives, or by taking in a quantity of air, which will produce the same effect. It is only when the sea is calm and unruffled that the nautilus, with his feeble bark, appears on the surface. In rising through the water, the shell is reversed, the sharp edge of the keel presenting less resistance to the liquid; and when it reaches the surface, the animal, by exerting its arms, restores it to a proper position for its voyage. A quantity of water is taken into the shell to balance it. The animal then employs its arms as oars; or if a gentle breeze sweep the surface, it stretches two of them perpendicularly, by which means the membrane between them is extended in form of a sail; the other arms serve as oars to direct the course, or to keep the bark steady, as well as part of the body which hangs over the shell, and seems to answer for a rudder. Thus equipped, the solitary navigator glides smoothly along the bosom of the ocean. But, on the approach of the smallest danger, the appearance of an enemy, or the slightest rustling of the surface of the water, it instantly retires within the shell, and taking in a quantity of water or ejecting a quantity of air, quick as thought it sinks to the bottom. Mediterranean and Indian ocean.
citrea. 2. A. keel of the shell toothed in the middle. The shell is conic, transversely ribbed, with a convex keel; aperture oval. It is a very rare species.
cymbium. 3. A. keel of the shell wrinkled, and without teeth; depressed, thin, wrinkled, with fine longitudinal lines crossing the wrinkles. Mediterranean.
cornu. 4. A. keel, with 4 smooth elevated rings; 1 line high, 5 broad. Cape of Good Hope.
artica. 5. A. shell perforated with an entire keel; 3 1/2 lines diameter. Greenland seas, where it is frequently seen floating in spring and autumn.
Some species of the argonauta are met with in all climates from the Indian ocean to the shores of Greenland.
Gen. 19. NAUTILUS.
Nautilus. 47. Gen. Char.—The nature of the animal which inhabits this shell is not well known. The shell is univalve, divided into several compartments, communicating by an aperture with each other.
SPECIES.
A. Spiral, rounded, with contiguous whorls.
poenipilus. 1. N. aperture of the shell heart-shaped; whorls obtuse; smooth. Indian and African ocean.—This species is often very large, and it is finely variegated with brown flexuous streaks, spots, and marks, under the epidermis, which is white; within it exhibits a beauti-
ful pearly gloss. It is employed for drinking cups by the inhabitants of the east.
* 2. N. aperture of the shell linear; whorls with elevated joints; minute, white, opaque. Sheppey island.
* 3. N. with lateral spires, with about 20 flexuous, crisped, crenated joints in the exterior whorl; marked by elevated striae; aperture femicordate; syphon central; very minute. Mediterranean, Sheppey island, and Sandwich.
4. N. aperture obovate; 4 or 5 volutions, with deep beccarii-fulcated joints; 10 in the first spire; frequent on moist shores; minute.
* 5. N. similar to the preceding species, but with the perversus spires reversed. Shores of Britain, frequent.
* 6. N. spiral with smooth joints; semipellucid, white, levigatiglossy; very minute. Sandwich.
* 7. N. spiral, slightly umbilicated on each side, with depressed many depressed joints. Reculver, England. Very minute, and rare.
* 8. N. spiral, umbilicated, with furrowed joints; umbilica-colour opaque, white. Sandwich. Minute, not com-tulus.
* 9. N. thick, spiral, doubly umbilicated, with fine crassulus joints; opaque, white. Reculver, England. Minute, rare.
* 10. N. spiral, lobate; spires rounded on one side, lobatulus, depressed on the other. Whitstable.
* 11. N. oblong, carinated; aperture oval, narrow, carinatus. Sandwich. Minute, rare.
12. N. a little bending, with raised joints; length subarcuatulus, 1/10th of an inch.
* 13. N. compressed, subcarinated, spiral, smooth, lacustris. glossy, horn-coloured, with 3 visible volutions; diameter one-fifth of an inch. Brooks, Kent; marshes, Rotherhithe. Not unfrequent. Lightfoot, Phil. Trans.
76. Helix nitida, Lin. This is supposed to be the only species of fresh-water nautilus which has been described.
14. N. white, convex; aperture linear; first spire baltheus. largest. Baltic.
15. N. spires of the shells concealed; very small, heliceus. Found in a fossil state on St Peter's mountain at Mazefricht.
16. N. aperture linear; spires compressed, with rugosus. thickened margins. Southern ocean. Very small.
17. N. aperture compressed, linear; spires compressed, umbilica-fus, umbilicus concave; minute. Croatia.
B. Spiral, rounded, with separate whorls.
18. N. aperture orbicular; whorl cylindrical; one spicula. inch in diameter. American and Indian oceans.
19. N. smooth, with 4 conic tubercles; very minute, spengleri-nute. India.
20. N. diaphanous, middle partitions protuberant unguicula-outwards; surface with six conic tubercles; minute. tus. India.
C. Elongated, and nearly straight.
* 21. N. incurved, spiral at the tip; whorls contiguous, semilitatus. ous; minute, convex; the partitions appearing outwardly. Croatia, Sandwich. Rare.
22. N. subconic; globular divisions growing gra-litatus. dually less; tip incurved, spiral. Red sea. Frequently found fossil.
23. N. with a slight curvature; divisions obliquely oblique-striated;
striated; syphon central. Mediterranean and Adriatic seas.
raphani- 24. N. subcylindrical, with thick divisions, marked with 12 elevated striae; syphon central. Adriatic and Mediterranean seas.
raphanus. 25. N. jointed, divisions thick, with 17 elevated striae; syphon sublateral, oblique. Adriatic and Mediterranean.
granum. 26. N. ovate, oblong, with thick divisions, marked with 8 interrupted elevated striae; syphon oblique; minute. Mediterranean.
radicula. 27. N. oblong, ovate, with 8 or 9 subglobose articulations; aperture a small syphon. Adriatic, Sandwich.
fascia. 28. N. divisions striated; joints smooth, elevated; obtuse at the tip; denticulated at the margin; syphon central. Adriatic. Very small.
inequalis. 29. N. cylindrical, with 8 divisions; aperture margined; very minute. Red sea.
spibuncu- 30. N. smooth, with cylindrical, remote divisions; joints tapering, cylindrical. Seas of Sicily.
legumen. 31. N. compressed, jointed, margined at one end; syphon lateral. Adriatic, Sandwich. Very rare.
costatus. 32. N. straight, subcylindrical, tapering; joints 12, raised, with 4 equidistant, strong, longitudinal ribs the whole length; inch long. Coast of Kent. Montagu, Test. Brit. 109. A variety of this has been discovered with only 6 joints.
orbocera. 33. N. whirls of the shell with carinated striae. The ocean. Frequently found fossil.
belemnita. 34. N. Thunder-stone. Equal, smooth, conic, acute; varies in size, from inch to 8 inches; found fossil in most parts of Europe. It has some degree of transparency; and when burnt or rubbed, emits a smell like rasped horn.
Gen. 20. CONUS, Cone-shell.
48
Conus. Gen. Cbar.—The animal is a limax. The shell univalve, convolute, turbinate; aperture effuse, longitudinal, linear, without teeth, entire at the base; pillar smooth.
SPECIES.
A. Spire or turban nearly truncated.
marmureus. 1. C. conic, brown, with ovate, subangular, white spots; whirls of the spire channelled. American ocean.
imperialis. 2. C. whitish, with longitudinal, livid bands, and divided brown and white; linear belts; spire flat; painted with brown undulated stripes, often emarginated. A rare shell.
litteratus. 3. C. conic, white, with brown dots; spire marked with brown stripes. Asiatic ocean.
generalis. 4. C. conic, polished, with a pointed, muricated spire; whirls channelled. India.
virgo. 5. C. conic, with a bluish base. African ocean.
capitaneus. 6. C. conic, glabrous, with a brown base; spire a little convex; sometimes flat, and generally striped. Asia.
tribunus. 7. C. white, with three yellowish bands, spotted with chestnut; spire convex; base transversely striated.
miles. 8. C. conic, rough with a brown base; spire convex. India.
cingulatum. 9. C. conic, yellowish, with a single elevated belt in the middle; spire acute. Friendly islands.
B. Pyriform with a rounded base; cylinder half as long again as the spire.
10. C. yellow, with purplish brown; longitudinal princeps, branched lines, marked with two white bands, which have a few brown spots; spire obtuse and finely striated transversely: inches long. Indies.
11. C. with rough punctures at the base.—This species is divided into the following varieties. 1. Without bands. 2. With irregular bands. 3. With one regular band. 4. With two regular bands. 5. With three regular bands. 6. With four regular bands. 7. With five or more regular bands. 8. With punctated, reticulated belts. To this last division belongs the cedo nulli, or celebrated admiral shell, which has been esteemed the rarest and most precious of testaceous productions. Some specimens of the C. cedo nulli have brought the extravagant price of 100 guineas. The endless varieties of this species are found in the seas of South America.
12. C. testaceous, spotted with white; with four yellow, immaculate bands; the second angularly divided. Southern ocean.
13. C. conic, smooth, glabrous; with obtuse, sculp-senator, tured whirls: yellow spotted with white.
14. C. subcylindrical, smooth, glabrous; finely po-nobilis, lished; yellow or brown, spotted with white.
15. C. with linear belts, articulated with white and genuanus, brown: red, with bands alternately tessellated with brown and red.
16. C. emarginated at the base, striated; spire un-glaucus, armed, with contiguous whirls. India and Africa.
17. C. gibbous, clouded with bluish brown; acute, monochus, striated at the base; sometimes dotted in rows.
18. C. grayish, surrounded with oblong dots. minimus.
19. C. ovate, rugged, and muricated at the base; rusticus, spire conico-convex. Var. 1. Without band. 2. With a band clouded whitish. Africa.
20. C. ovate, white, with reticulated yellow bands. mercator, Africa.
21. C. slightly emarginated at the base and wrink-betulinus, led; spire flattish, mucronate. India. A large shell.
22. C. slightly emarginated at the base, and wrink-figulinus, led; spire acuminate, with flattish whirls: three inches long. India.
23. C. ovate, white, with black band; composed of ebraeus, transverse spots: a small shell.
24. C. emarginated at the base, and striated: whirls stereus, of the spire channelled. Asia. muscarum.
25. C. elongated, muricated: the spire crowned and varius, acute. Indian ocean.
26. C. elongated, finely striated transversely; vari-achatinus, ously clouded, and spotted with white; spire short, spotted with brown, and tipped with red. American ocean.
27. C. with white rays and bands. radiatus.
28. C. pale yellow or chestnut spots, with white or leoninus, yellow transverse bands; spire rather acute.
29. C. light olive, with multifarious white dots, and jaspidus, an oblique band: oblong. Small.
30. C. brown with blue clouds and white spots. nebulosus.
31. C. conic, yellow, with white eyes and band: oculator, base obliquely striated.
32. C. short, brown, with two white bands: thatoclea, nearest the spire spotted with brown.
amadis. 33. C. pale brown, with a broad band, and articulated belts above and beneath: spire acute, crowned with tubercles, and finely striated transversely.
fulmineus. 34. C. with chefnut stripes the whole length: spire acute, and with the pillar lip spotted with chefnut; the base acute and obliquely striated.
arachnoides. 35. C. reticulated with chefnut, with two or three darker bands; spire crowned and acute: a very rare species.
coffatus. 36. C. brown, with a white band; undulated with reddish, thick and broad stripe: spire nodulous, with a granulated band.
leucostictus. 37. C. white, clouded, striped, and spotted with brown; with numerous rows of white and brown dots: spire crowned with tubercles. American ocean.
citrinus. 38. C. citron with black lines, interrupted beneath: spire crowned with tubercles, with the base white. Curaçoa.
insularis. 39. C. white with chefnut clouds, spots and dots: spire acute.
coronatus. 40. C. with alternate, articulated belts and tessellated spots: spire crowned with tubercles: shell often minute, and with a white band.
punctatus. 41. C. with two yellowish brown bands, and numerous lines of dots: spire varied with yellow dots and lines.
zeylanicus. 42. C. snowy with rosy and brown clouds, and numerous, articulated belts, varied with white and chefnut: spire pointed.
solidus. 43. C. conic, thick, transversely striated; clouded with white and brown, with a broad white band, and pyramidal spire; whirls channelled.
C. elongated and rounded at the base; cylinder as long again as the spire.
clavus. 44. C. with convex smooth stripe, the base bluish. Indian ocean, very rare.
nussatella. 45. C. subcylindrical, red, rough; stripe tuberculated. Island of Nussatella in Asia, but very rare.
terebellum. 46. C. white, shaded with blue; subcylindrical, with annular stripe and yellow bands.
coccineus. 47. C. red, with transverse lines, dotted with black; with a white band, and spire spotted with red.
lactus. 48. C. subcylindrical, with annular ribs; red with darker clouds, and barred with white: spire spotted.
ochroleucus. 49. C. subcylindrical, yellow: the base obliquely striated, with a white band near it: spire pointed with striped spots.
lævis. 50. C. rufous with fulvous spots, and transverse stripe: spire spotted with yellow: base obliquely striated.
affinis. 51. C. bluish white, with four fulvous, linear bands, and intermediate dull purple dots.
violaceus. 52. C. white with violet clouds and bands; rays pale brown; spire pyramidal, with six whirls.
granulatus. 53. C. rough, unarmed, with smooth, grooved stripe; African ocean. Shell red with white bands, and purple linear dots.
polyennas. 54. C. white within; outside yellowish brown and rough, with fine granulated lines, with a white band at the spire denticulated beneath; another at the base with a paler tinge: spire flattened, with striped spots; base outwardly dusky, and violet within.
bifasciatus. 55. C. white with angular chefnut lines, and two
orange bands: spire prominent: base surrounded with orange lines, and intermediate tessellated spots.
56. C. conic, snowy: spire prominent, and crowned niveus. with tubercles: aperture large.
57. C. orange flag, smooth with whitish bands; whirls eransifasciatus. grooved at the tips. India. cus.
58. C. subcylindrical, with longitudinal bands, dox-magus. ted with white. India.
59. C. ovate, oblong, gibbous, clouded with fine striatus. parallel brown stripe: four inches long. Africa.
60. C. with reticulated yellow veins, and yellow and textile. brown spots. Asia.
61. C. white with brown reticular veins and inter- aulicus. rupted longitudinal bands. Asia. It varies much in its colours.
62. C. smooth white with bay characters and rows thoma. of dots, with three white belts and spots; the tip reddish; spire conic with grooved whirls. Indian ocean.
D. Ventricose in the middle, and contracted at each end.
63. C. ventricose, yellow with white eyes base trans- finensis. versely striated.
E. Thin, ventricose, and tinkling when thrown upon its back on a table.
64. C. bluish with yellow clouds and yellowish thick spectrum. dots and stripe: spire rather acute. Asiatic seas.
65. C. yellow clouded with white: aperture large bullatus. and bluish: spire sometimes flat, sometimes acute.
66. C. oblong, gibbous, smooth; aperture gaping, tulipa. India; South America.
67. C. oblong, gibbous, crowned: aperture gaping; geographi. wrinkled at the base, and a little narrower: aperture cus. white: spire sometimes rosy. Indian and African seas.
68. C. white, clouded and spotted with orange, with nubecula. scattered white dots; spire prominent, acute.
69. C. white, with alternate rows of irregular chefnut sparius. nut, or blackish spots, and interrupted, punctured bands.
70. C. brown, shaded with white, with a white in- texillum. terrupted band; the white band is sometimes cruciate.
71. C. brown, barred with white, beneath narrow- ventri-. cer, shaded with bluish, and smooth; spire conic, ex- sur-. fected.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a slug; shell univalve, involute, sub-ovate, smooth, obtuse at each end; aperture effuse at each end; linear, extending the whole length of the shell, and toothed on each side.
- 1. C. slightly turbinated, ferruginous, with whitish exanthe-. round spots and eyes; line down the back a little ma. branched. American, and Atlantic seas.
- 2. C. slightly turbinated, and marked with irregular mappa. characters: line down the back branched. Indian and African seas.
- 3. C. slightly turbinated with irregular characters; arabica. stripe down the back simple. India.
- 4. C. slightly turbinated, sub-cylindrical, sprinkled argus. with
with eyes; beneath 4 brown spots; about 4 inches long. Indian and Atlantic seas.
testudinaria. 5. C. obtuse, sub-cylindrical; extremities depressed. Persian gulf, and Indian ocean. This is the largest shell of this genus.
stercoraria. 6. C. slightly turbinated, gibbous, with livid and testaceous spots; emarginate on each side, and flat beneath. Guinea.
carniola. 7. C. slightly turbinated, pale, with flesh-coloured bands; mouth violet; 2½ inches long. Asiatic ocean.
zebra. 8. C. turbinated, cinereous, with brown bands; is twice as large as the last, and the spire more prominent. India.
talpa. 9. C. slightly turbinated, sub-cylindrical, testaceous, with pale bands; beneath thickened and brown; 3 inches long. India.
amethystea. 10. C. slightly turbinated; sides gibbous and decorticated, 4 clouded, brownish bands above. Madagascar.
lurida. 11. C. slightly turbinated, lurid and slightly barred; extremities pale yellow, with 2 black spots. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
venelli. 12. C. slightly turbinated, spotted, and marked with yellowish dots; extremities spotted with brown; throat rufous.
lota. 13. C. slightly turbinated, white, with subulate denticles. Sicily.
fragilis. 14. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with longitudinal testaceous waves, and pale bands. Mediterranean.
guttata. 15. C. thin, gibbous, fulvous, dotted with white, with a horizontal line in the middle; beneath white, with yellow teeth.
cinerea. 16. C. thin, ventricose, reddish gray, with paler bands.
plumbea. 17. C. slightly turbinated, thin, back lead colour, with four bands varied with blue and brown; undulated with brownish at the margin, and marked with blue and brown lines. Guinea.
eculata. 18. C. slightly turbinated, rufet brown, with white eyes, and three paler bands on the back. American ocean.
histrio. 19. C. ovate, slightly turbinated, with livid eyes; beneath flat, white; sides thickened, black, spotted with brown. Indian ocean.
aurantium. 20. C. slightly turbinated, orange, with a white immaculate edge; throat bright red. Friendly islands.
ferruginosa. 21. C. thin, elongated, yellowish or bluish, with ferruginous spots; within blue.
livida. 22. C. thin, elongated, uniformly straw-coloured, pale yellow or reddish; beneath dotted with brown; teeth subulate.
gibba. 23. C. thin, gibbous; back clouded, and transversely barred.
turbinata. 24. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with angular pale spots.
venerea. 25. C. oblong, brown, with striped gold spots; within blue.
purpurascens. 26. C. oblong, purplish; beneath surrounded with a white line.
albida. 27. C. oblong, whitish; ends of the lips spotted with fulvous.
rufescens. 28. C. oblong, reddish brown; beneath whitish.
translucent. 29. C. cylindrical, cinereous with pellucid bands.
paniculata. 30. C. cylindrical, fragile, white, with transverse bands of reddish dots.
31. C. obtuse, ovate, slightly turbinated with a longi-tigrina. tudinal testaceous line.
32. C. oblong, ferruginous, with paler bands. dubia.
33. C. turbinated, thin, bluish brown, with three trifasciata. yellowish bands varied with brown at each end. Rare.
34. C. turbinated, bluish, white, dotted and clouded consparsa. with brown. cota.
35. C. oblong, shaded with purple, with a straw-bifasciata. coloured band, and another narrower white one, and a brown border; 4 inches long.
36. C. cylindrical, above; pale-violet, and spotted cylindrica. with brown at the sides, with two brown spots at each end.
37. C. cylindrical, milk-white; one side bordered teres. and varied, with a few pale-yellow, narrow marks, backed with three brownish waved bands.
38. C. ovate, a little depressed; one side slightly ovata. bordered; back whitish, with crowded yellowish brown dots and waves, and 3 obsolete darker bands; 1½ inch long, ½ broad.
39. C. oblong, of one colour, with a tinge of bloom; minuta. beneath dotted with white, with the border of one side and the teeth of the lip white; above yellow at each end; spire tipped with black.
40. C. thin, oblong, barred with brown, and dotted sanguinolenta. with red at the sides.
41. C. turbinated, glaucous, margined; above gib-saefiata. bous, with transverse brownish bands; throat glaucous.
42. C. gibbous, glaucous, brown, with triangular, regina. testaceous and whitish spots, and 3 transverse bands; throat blackish, glaucous.
43. C. turbinated, undulated with brownish, cloud-undulata. ed with pale ochre; with deeper bands. Mauritius island.
B. Obtuse, and without a manifest spire.
44. C. triangularly gibbous, and rather obtuse be-caput. hind; brown, spotted with white; beneath white; 1½ serpentis. inch long. Mauritius and Nuffatella islands.
45. C. roundish, gibbous, brown, with white, con-reticulatum. fluent, reticulated eyes, and a white horizontal line in the middle of the back; beneath white.
46. C. triangularly gibbous; behind depressed, acute; mauriti- beneath black; a large shell, spotted with brown. Java, ana. Mauritius, and Nuffatella.
47. C. livid, with small white spots; 2 inches long. vitellus. Indian ocean.
48. C. retuse, gibbous, cinereous, with a longitudi-mus-. nal brown band; teeth of the aperture blackish. American and Mediterranean seas.
49. C. ovate, obtuse behind, and rounded before; tigris. ferruginous, with deep brown spots, and a yellow longitudinal, dorsal line; 4½ inches long. Indian ocean.
50. C. ovate, obtuse behind, and rounded before, flammea. with waved yellow spots; a rare shell.
51. C. ovate, olive, clouded with yellow, and spot-olivacea. ted with brown; beneath flat, pale brown; teeth of the lip white.
52. C. ovate, thin, white with greenish yellow dots, feminea. disposed in rows; within violet.
53. C. oblong, ovate, with brown dots, and a yel-lynx. lowish line; hind part a little acute, with a rufous mouth; 2 inches long. Madagascar.
ifabella. 54. C. sub-cylindrical, with pale yellow extremities; 1½ inch long. Mauritius.
ambigua. 55. C. pyriform, dusky, with paler clouds and spots.
furra. 56. C. ovate, oblong; beneath flat; yellowish, with greenish and livid, confluent drops; fides varied with scattered brown dots. India.
enya. 57. C. beneath brown, above whitish; small. Asia.
clandestina. 58. C. with fine transverse lines here and there meeting together. India.
succinea. 59. C. interior lip rounded at each extremity.
wig-zag. 60. C. pale yellow, with brown dots; the extremities with 2 brown spots.
hirundo. 61. C. above bluish; extremities marked with 2 brown spots. Maldivia islands.
asellus. 62. C. white, with 3 brown bands; oblong; minute. Madeira islands.
erronea. 63. C. with an equal testaceous spot.
urfellus. 64. C. oblong, white; above smooth, varied with brown, and marked with 2 brown dots at the umbilicus or perforation.
pyrum. 65. C. pale brown, with paler bands and ochraceous spots; beneath and at the fides fulvous; within blue.
maculosa. 66. C. narrow, long, with flesh-coloured spots above, varied with pale, fulvous, and glaucous ones; fides chestnut.
pulla. 67. C. thin; fides ruffet brown; above white, or pale brown, with transverse bands, or a fainter horizontal line.
indica. 68. C. cylindrical, marked above with characters, eyes, and a paler horizontal line; fides bloom-colour, dotted with black. India.
evum. 69. C. thin, oblong, olivaceous, with scattered ferruginous spots; beneath white.
felina. 70. C. oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous dots and spots, and paler bands; marked at each extremity with 2 brown spots.
atomaria. 71. C. oblong, snowy, dotted with brown; each end marked with 2 dusky dots; ½ inch long.
nebulosa. 72. C. oblong, gibbous; brown, with chestnut spots.
ochroleuca. 73. C. thin, ochraceous, with paler spots.
stellata. 74. C. thin, cinereous, dotted with brown, and marked with transverse, elevated striae.
subflava. 75. C. oblong, gibbous, smooth, yellowish.
leucogaster. 76. C. oblong, purple; beneath white.
variolosa. 77. C. oblong, dusky, with two bands on the back, and whitish spots.
fulva. 78. C. solid, oblong, fulvous, with brown spots, disposed in rows, and two dusky bands; fides saffron.
leucostoma. 79. C. oblong, gibbous; clouded with brown and blue; fides spotted with black; mouth white.
lineata. 80. C. ovate, marked above with lines; borders spotted.
cancellata. 81. C. ovate, gibbous, with cancellated spots, and a horizontal line above.
luta. 82. C. brownish, with two white bands; beneath pale yellow, dotted with brown.
badia. 83. C. oblong, gibbous; above bay, with brown and white dots.
punctata. 84. C. ovate, white, with testaceous dots.
monaria. 85. C. ovate, smoothish, yellowish, with four brown lunules. Shores of Guinea. Very rare shell.
86. C. lip toothed within; with three rows of tu-considea. berceles; pillar lip without teeth.
87. C. umbilicated, pale yellow, with white round eribrariae spots.
88. C. whitish, with a knotty margin. Mediterr. moneta. near, Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Indian seas.—This species is collected in great quantities, and transported to Bengal, Siam, and other parts of India, where it is employed by the natives as the medium of commerce.
89. C. surrounded on the back with a yellow ring, annulata. Amboyna and Alexandria.
90. C. gibbous, unequal, whitish; margin dotted caurica. with brown; back marked with testaceous clouds. Indian ocean.
91. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted with erosa. white; fides with a brownish spot. Mauritius and Ascension islands.
92. C. with a jagged margin, flesh-colour, with a derosa. greenish back, marked with fulvous dots; fides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.
93. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted with staveola. white; fides marked with obsolete, scattered, brown dots.
94. C. slightly margined, yellowish with deeper spurca. specks; fides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.
95. C. oblong, ovate; above bluish, dotted and spot-oblonga. ted with brown; beneath and at the fides white.
96. C. cinereous, variegated with testaceous; white stelida. beneath, and at the fides; 1½ inch long. Amboyna.
97. C. triangularly gibbous, dotted with white, jag-betulosa. ged behind; beneath yellow, immaculate. Indian ocean.
98. C. slightly margined, pale yellow, with black ocellata. eyes; margin white, dotted with brown; 1½ inch long.
99. C. pale violet, dotted with white; a very small poraria. shell.
100. C. with numerous transverse furrows, some of pediculata. which are forked; a small shell, and ovate with various tints of red or white; sometimes it is marked with a longitudinal groove. Frequent on most shores. Britain.
101. C. margined on each side, slightly produced nuclearis. and rugged, with raised tubercles above; 1 inch long. Nuffellia island.
102. C. whitish, produced on each side; back tuber-madagasculata, and marked with transverse undulated striae. carientis. Madagascar.
103. C. somewhat produced, with elevated dots; ex-staphylea. tremities pale yellow.
104. C. produced on each side, and sprinkled with cicerecula. raised dots. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
105. C. produced on each side, and smooth, white or globulus. yellow. Amboyna.
106. C. oblong, slightly produced, smooth, yellow; affinis. ocellated on each side before.
107. C. thin, oblong, white, with ferruginous spots squalina. and dots.
108. C. white or gray, with obsolete ferruginous simbricata. spots and transverse bands; lips of the mouth marked with violet spots.
eruenta. 109. C. gibbous; above bluish with rufous dots; beneath and at the sides white; lips citron.
reticulata. 110. C. reticulated; margin varied with striped spots.
rubiginosa. 111. C. oblong, white; within violet; back with a ferruginous blotch; each end marked with two pale yellow spots; teeth of the lips yellowish.
miliaris. 112. C. thin, short, yellowish, green, with milk-white eyes, and marked with a lateral horizontal line.
ocularis. 113. C. solid; above yellowish, dotted with brown with a horizontal pale line; beneath milk-white, with impressed dots at the margin.
crassa. 114. C. thick, yellowish, with 3 whitish bands; mouth bluish; 4 inches long.
vinosa. 115. C. above white, with a claret stain, and marked with purple eyes, surrounded with a black circle, and a horizontal white line; blue within. Mediterranean.
angustata. 116. C. narrow, brown, with reddish spots at the sides.
similis. 117. C. oblong, gibbous, yellowish, dotted with white, with a blackish spot at the margin.
striata. 118. C. convex, bluish white, dotted with brown; beneath yellow, striated on one side.
finensis. 119. C. oblong, solid, variegated with orange lips.
pusilla. 120. C. bluish, spotted with brown, and marked with 3 bands.
Bulla.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, convoluted, unarmed with teeth; aperture a little straitened, oblong, longitudinal, very entire at the base; pillar oblique, smooth (B).
ovata. 1. B. ovate, obtuse, slightly doubly beaked; one of the lips toothed, from which it has the appearance of a cypræa; 4 inches long. Amboyna and Friendly Islands.
volva. 2. B. two-beaked; the beaks long, striated and acute. Jamaica. A rare shell.
birostris. 3. B. two-beaked, margin thickened outwardly; beaks long, smooth; size of a bean. Java.
spolia. 4. B. oblong, rather obtuse at both ends; equal; lip arched; margin thickened within; twice the size of a grain of wheat. Mediterranean and Adriatic.
verrucosa. 5. B. transversely angular, ovate, with a bony dot on each side. India.
gibbosa. 6. B. angular, with an elevated belt. Brazil.
nucum. 7. B. rounded, pellucid, slightly striated transversely; perforated at each end; an inch long. African and Indian seas.
operta. 8. B. roundish, pellucid, transversely sub-striated; outside a little wrinkled; gloffy; one inch long. Europe, Africa, Devonshire.
hydatis. 9. B. rounded, pellucid, slightly striated longitudinally; crown umbilicated; size of a pea. Mediterranean, Devonshire.
* 10. B. rounded, obtuse at one end; crown umbili-ampulla-cated. Frequent on most shores; Britain.
* 11. B. oblong, oval, transversely striated; crown lignaria-narrow, and slightly umbilicated; 3 inches long. European shores, Britain.
* 12. B. thick, white, opaque; aperture compressed in regulibien-the middle; minute. Reculver, England.—Bulla fiti. obtusula, Montagu, Test. Brit. 223.
13. B. rounded, glabrous, pellucid, marked with physis-transverse lines; spire retuse. India.
14. B. roundish; spire elevated, obtuse, with stelli-amplestra-coloured bands; shell white. Asia.
15. B. ob-ovate, with a clavated crown, indistinct focus. spire, and elongated beak; surface marked with reticulated striae; 3 inches long. American and Indian oceans.
16. B. rounded, turbinated, slightly striated, with a rapa-curved beak, and finely wrought spire; from 2 to 3 inches long. Indian ocean. [lata.]
17. B. cylindrical; whirls of the spire grooved. canalicu-
18. B. oblong, turbinated, smooth; bale a little stria-conoidea-ted; sutures crenulated; size of an acorn.
* 19. B. ovate, pellucid; spire obsolete; whirls con-fontinalis-trary, or turning from right to left; aperture ovate, oblong; inch long. Shores of the Danube; lakes and rivers of Europe; Britain.
* 20. B. ovate, pellucid; spire contrary, prominent; hypnorum-aperture ovate, lanceolate. Europe, Britain.—Linnaeus supposes that this species may be a variety of the last; but, according to Mr Montagu, the form of the shell, the structure of the animal, and its habitat, are always distinct. Linnaeus says, that this species is found among wet moss. Mr Montagu found it only in ditches, and in a place occasionally overflowed by the river Avon.
21. B. polished, with a pointed spire; aperture ob-turrita-long. Northern Europe, in ditches and wet meadows.
22. B. brittle, with a depressed contrary spire; a-gelatinosa-perture ending in a beak; 2 lines long. Rivers of Denmark.
23. B. sides cylindrical, with a subulate spire, trun-terebellum-cated at the base; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
24. B. ovate; spire indistinct, prominent at the top; cyprea-aperture more dilated behind; pillar twisted; size of an acorn. Mediterranean.
25. B. with party-coloured double bands, and pur-virginea-ple truncated pillar; aperture semilunar. Rivers of Asia.
26. B. conic, pointed with transverse bands and un-fasciata-dulated spots; aperture white. South America, India.
27. B. conic, pointed, glabrous, with undulated ful-strigata-vous streaks; 2 inches long; 8 whirls in the spire.
28. B. conic, white, striated; pillar straight and re-striatula-flected.
29. B. oblong, pointed, white, grooved; spire with exarata-6 or 7 whirls.
30. B. tapering, erect; white, with 2 broad, reddish bifasciata-bands at the aperture; a land species.
(B) In some of the species belonging to this genus, it appears that the animal possesses different characters from those of the limax, and particularly that which inhabits the bulla lignaria, a British shell, which is furnished with a gizzard, of a testaceous nature. See Lin. Trans. vol. ii. p. 15.
ambigua. 31. B. a little tapering and compressed; pale, flesh-coloured, with two remote bands; one broader and brown, the other blue.
zebra. 32. B. ovate, pointed, with longitudinal brown bands; pillar inflected, entire. Tranquebar. A land species.
abatina. 33. B. ovate, pointed, with a wide crimson mouth and lip; pillar truncated; 8 inches long. American ocean.
hyalina. 34. B. oblong, horn-coloured; spire retuse; thin; inch long.
ovata. 35. B. subovate, slightly two-beaked; striated on the back, and gibbous in the middle; chestnut with white spots and bands; within violet.
ferruginosa. 36. B. sub-ovate, equable, pale gray, undulated with brown, and marked with ferruginous spots, and two white bands; inch long.
velum. 37. B. thin, umbilicated on each side; white, with capillary brown lines, and a snowy band, edged with brown on each side; 1 inch long.
vesica. 38. B. ovate, oblong, within milk-white, solid, pellucid; aperture wide; two grooves on the back. Brazil.
cylindrica. 39. B. cylindrical, smooth, white, thin, slightly umbilicated; twice as large as a grain of wheat. Europe, Britain.
oliva. 40. B. cylindrical, aperture sub-orbicular, and dilated beneath.
voluta. 41. B. smooth, cylindrical, olive; aperture effuse; pillar inflated, truncated; 7 whirls in the spire.
dominica. 42. B. sub-cylindrical, spiral, reddish, with longitudinal striae, and spotted; sutures crenulated; pillars sinuated and truncated. St Domingo.
purpurea. 43. B. ventricose, rugged, and longitudinally streaked; aperture ovate, with a pointed lip, and deep black border within. Africa, in rice fields.
spreta. 44. B. ovate, thin, brown, and rough.
solida. 45. B. solid, red, varied with violet; margin red; spire a little prominent.
herculeus-pulchrum. 46. B. inflated, glabrous, horny; cinnamon colour; five rows of dots; pillar sinuated, with an acute lip; extremity thin and ovate.
scabra. 47. B. ovate, rough, slightly carinated on the back, and marked with decussated striae; white with rosy lines; pillar scalloped, reflected. Java.
akeria. 48. B. ovate, pellucid, with a truncated, channelled crown; 6 lines long. Norway seas, Benff in Scotland, and near Portsmouth.
soluta. 49. B. cylindrical, horny, transversely striated, with a retuse top or crown; whirls margined, channelled.
carinata. 50. B. ovate, flesh-coloured, gibbous; lip arched, thickened and toothed within. Shores of Africa.
patula. 51. B. smooth, glossy, white, pellucid, oblong, involuted; aperture large, terminating in a short canal, most contracted at the top; length 1 inch. Weymouth.
balteoides. 52. B. sub-oval, thin, pellucid, white, resembling a halotis; a little wrinkled; aperture oval; length inch. Weymouth.
plumula. 53. B. ovate, oblong, depressed, pellucid, thin; strongly wrinkled concentrically; length inch. Milton sands, Devonshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 214.
catena. 54. B. pellucid, white, finely striated transversely; the striae, magnified, have the appearance of the links of a chain; inch diameter. Devonshire.
* 55. B. oblong, oval, smooth, white; apex rounded, umbilicated; aperture very narrow; inch long. Falmouth.
* 56. B. sub-cylindrical, opaque, white; upper part truncated, longitudinally striated; lower plain; apex truncated, and largely umbilicated. Falmouth.
* 57. B. smooth, glossy, pellucid, white, suboval; body large, ventricose; apex pointed; aperture sub-oval; inch long. Salcomb bay. Rare.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell is one celled, spiral; aperture without a beak, and sometimes effuse; pillar twisted or plaited, generally without lips or perforation.
1. V. contracted, oval, oblong, with a rugged spire; auris-mala pillar 2-toothed; 4 inches long. India. In marshy woods and swamps.
2. V. oval, oblong, with a wide aperture; pillar flammea one-toothed.
3. V. contracted, oblong, oval, grooved; white fulcata. dotted with yellow; pillar with two plaits; inch long.
4. V. thin, transversely striated, flesh-colour, with bifasciata. two white bands; pillar one-toothed; not one inch long.
5. V. contracted on the upper part; yellow, with flava. a crenulated lip; pillar with two plaits; lines long.
6. V. oval, oblong, banded; pillar with three minuta. plaits.
7. V. thin, brown; whirls of the spire cancellated; puffula. pillar three-toothed; very minute.
8. V. oval, oblong, glabrous, with a reflected groove- glabra. ed lip; pillar one-toothed.
9. V. oval, gibbous, umbilicated; pillar with one auris-silenti thick, flexuous plait; two inches long.
10. V. contracted, oblong; spires smooth; pillar 3- auris-juda. toothed. Fens of India.
11. V. fusiform, granulate, with an ovate aperture; auris-mala. pillar cut, spreading; three inches long. New Caledonia.
* 12. V. oval, pointed at each end, and spirally stri- tornatilis. ated; pillar with a single fold; inch long. Europe, Wales.
* 13. V. thin, brittle, with two small spires; mouth ionensis. rounded, wide. Island of Iona, Scotland.
* 14. V. white, opaque, longitudinally striated. Sand- alba. wich. Very minute.
15. V. contracted, oblong, ovate, opaque, striated; solidula. spire elevated and a little pointed; pillar slightly plaited.
16. V. contracted, ovate, cylindrical; spire a little livida. elevated, obtuse; pillar with five plaits; one inch long. Africa.
17. V. contracted, smooth, with an obtuse spire; coffea. aperture toothed on each side.
18. V. smooth; spire obliterated at the base; lip re- porphyria. tuse.
tube in the middle; pillar obliquely striated; five inches long. Brazil.
oliva. 19. V. smooth; spire reflected at the base; pillar obliquely striated. Indian seas.
annulata. 20. V. smooth, white, with a keel-shaped ring on the back; sometimes with reddish waves.
utriculata. 21. V. elongated, smooth, with a prominent spire. Indian and Ethiopic seas.
hiatula. 22. V. thin, with a cinereous spotted back, callous beneath; aperture large; pillar toothed at the base. Shores of Spain.
jaspidea. 23. V. white dotted with greenish brown, or violet; spire prominent; whirls with a band composed of spots at the base; an inch long. Shores of Spain.
nivea. 24. V. snowy, elongated, smooth, banded. Spanish seas.
ispidula. 25. V. smooth with a prominent spire and single margin; pillar obliquely striated; from one to two inches long. India.
carniolus. 26. V. orange with blue bands; spire flattened; aperture white.
C. Oboval, effuse, emarginated.
datylus. 27. V. smooth, with decussated striae, obtuse; pillar with six plaits; inch long. India.
miliaria. 28. V. slightly emarginated, white, with an obliterated pale yellow spire; pillar obliquely striated. Mediterranean.
monilis. 29. V. entire white with an obliterated white spire; pillar obliquely striated; inch long. China; where it is employed for making beads and necklaces. A variety is found in Africa only lines long, with 8 or 10 thin plaits in the pillar.
exilis. 30. V. obovate, entire, yellowish, with two brown bands; spire prominent; pillar obliquely striated.
periscula. 31. V. smooth, with a retuse, umbilicated spire; pillar with seven plaits; lip with a crenated margin: one inch long. African sea.
pallida. 32. V. shell entire, oblong, ovate, with an elevated spire; pillar with four plaits. African and European shores, Britain.
faba. 33. V. slightly emarginated, smooth, a little plaited; spire prominent; pillar with four plaits; lip with a crenulated margin; one inch long. African ocean.
glabella. 34. V. very entire, smooth, with a levigated spire; pillar with four plaits; lip gibbous; margin toothed: from one to two inches long. African and American seas.
prunum. 35. V. very entire, smooth, with a levigated spire; pillar with four plates; lip without tooth, or margin: inch long. Island of Goree.
reticulata. 36. V. with slight decussated grooves; lip internally striated; pillars slightly perforated; two inches long. American ocean and Guinea.
mercatoria. 37. V. striated, with an obtuse spire; pillar retuse, toothed; lip gibbous, denticulated; inch long. Mediterranean, American, and Indian seas.
rustica. 38. V. smoothish with a prominent spire; pillar retuse, toothed; lip gibbous, denticulated. Mediterranean and American seas.
paupercula. 39. V. entire, smooth, with a striated base; spire a little prominent; pillar with four plaits; lip obtuse. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
mendicaria. 40. V. slightly striated, with a slightly granulated spire; pillar smooth; lip gibbous and denticulated:
size of a kidney bean. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
41. V. entire, plaited, and crosswise reticulated; pill-cancellata. lar with three plaits, slightly umbilicated, and a little produced. African ocean.
42. V. smooth, white, with blue bands and yellow elegant. mouth; spire nearly obliterated; pillar six-toothed; scarcely one inch long.
43. V. smooth, greenish white, with numerous ovum. bands; lip inflected; pillar with four plaits; inches long.
44. V. spire obsolete; fides with thickened margins; marginata. four plaits in the pillar.
45. V. substriated, glabrous; spire obtuse, smooth, nucea. prominent; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
46. V. conic, white, with hollow punctured grooves conur. at the base; whirls crenated; six plates in the pillar.
47. V. nearly entire, oblong, smooth, with a prominent-tringa. nent excoriated spire; three plaits in the pillar; lip slightly toothed inwardly. Mediterranean.
48. V. slightly emarginated, oblong, smooth; spire cornicula. longish; four plaits in the pillar; lip equal and unarmed. Mediterranean.
49. V. entire, tapering, plaited and transversely stri-virgo. ated; three plaits in the pillar, which is perforated. About a finger's length, and marked with about 12 grooves.
50. V. emarginated, striated, and transversely wrink-scabriuscula. led; four plaits in the pillar, which is perforated; lip la. notched; two inches long. India.
51. V. nearly entire, transversely wrinkled; four ruffina. plaits in the pillar; lip crenulated. India.
52. V. nearly entire, smooth, yellowish with red nubila. clouds transversely striated; lip crenulated; four plaits in the pillar. Friendly islands.
53. V. emarginated, longitudinally grooved and sanguifuga. transversely striated; lips smooth; four plaits in the pillar; inch long. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
54. V. emarginated, round, smooth; whirls of the caffra. spire with plaited striae; four plaits in the pillar; inches long. Asiatic sea.
55. V. slightly emarginated, round, smooth; about morio. three plaits in the pillar.
56. V. tapering, marked with transverse rays of red acus. dots; spire pointed, smooth: scarcely an inch long.
57. V. emarginated, subangular, unarmed, and trans-culpecula. versely striated; four plaits in the pillar; throat striated; two inches long. India.
58. V. emarginated, angular, anterior angles a little plicaria. spinous; four plaits in the pillar; lip smooth; two inches long. Indian ocean.
59. V. cylindrical, glabrous, reddish, with sublucid bullata. belts; four plaits in the pillar within; aperture effuse. Indian ocean.
60. V. cylindrical with decussated striae, and im-crenulata. pressed dots; white with yellowish clouds; lip and whirls nodulous; margin of the whirls crenulated; eight plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
61. V. tapering, black with white spots, transversely scutulata. striated, first whirl a little ventricose; four plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
nigra. 62. V. tapering, emarginated, blackish; whirls flat-tish; four plaits in the pillar. Guinea, Greenland.
subdivisa. 63. V. tapering, emarginated, longitudinally ribbed, plaited, and transversely striated; three plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
crueniata. 64. V. tapering, emarginated, barred and transversely striated with longitudinal knotty ribs, spotted with red; pillar with three plaits. Indian ocean.
exasperata. 65. V. tapering, emarginated, granulous, with decussated striae and longitudinal ribs barred with brown; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
granosa. 66. V. tapering, emarginated, transversely striated and longitudinally grooved, with elevated dots and reddish lines; three plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
costa. 67. V. tapering, smooth, brown with white bands; six plaits in the pillar, which is emarginated at the base. Shores of Amboyna.
leucogoni-
as. 68. V. tapering, chesnut, with flexuous white bands; pillar obfoletely plaited: two inches long.
maculosa. 69. V. tapering, white with reticulated and spotted brown bands: one inch long.
nodulosa. 70. V. tapering, brown, cancellated; angles of the section nodulous, and whitish: four plaits in the pillar.
spadicosa. 71. V. tapering, chesnut with yellow clouds and spots; eight whirls in the spire, which are longitudinally plaited and transversely striated; five plaits in the pillar.
aurantia. 72. V. tapering, orange; a white band in the four first whirls of the spire; lip denticulated; four plaits in the pillar.
decussata. 73. V. tapering with decussated striae; the longitudinal one undulated; about four plaits in the pillar.
polygona. 74. V. tapering, punctured, whirls longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated transversely; three first angular; about five plaits in a slightly umbilicated pillar.
acuminata. 75. V. tapering, cancellated; beak short and cancellated; four plaits in the pillar. Tranquebar.
biplicata. 76. V. tapering, smooth, white with yellow spots and black dots; pillar doubly plaited.
turricula. 77. V. tapering, two plaits in the pillar: whirls turgid, with a band of black dots; first whirl double.
lineata. 78. V. tapering, with perpendicular black lines crossing a white band; 3 plaits in the pillar.
discois. 79. V. tapering; beneath brown dotted with white; above white, with perpendicular waved yellow stripes; a minute shell.
friata. 80. V. tapering, finely striated transversely; dusky, with red dots, and two paler bands; minute.
fulcata. 81. V. tapering and grooved longitudinally; brown, with a transverse white nodulous band; pillar five-toothed.
levigata. 82. V. tapering, smooth, brown; spire with a paler band; narrow, small.
ocellata. 83. V. tapering, chesnut, with white eyes; minute.
nasuta. 84. V. tapering, red, with rows of black dots; lip prominent; beak reflected.
marmorea. 85. V. tapering, varied with white and brown; lip inflected.
barbaden-
si. 86. V. tapering, reddish, finely striated transversely; aperture oblong, oval; spire obtuse; 1½ inch long. American seas.
87. V. tapering, cancellated, with an obtuse spire; clatbrata, lip margined; beak reflected. American ocean.
88. V. tapering, gibbous, yellow; each whirl with tricolor, a white band, tessellated with black; 3 plaits in the pillar.
89. V. tapering, chesnut brown, with undulated turrita, brown lines; aperture striated; 3 plaits in the pillar.
90. V. tapering, smooth, white, with perpendicular syracusana lar, waved, blackish yellow stripes. Syracuse.
91. V. tapering, polished, chesnut; within white; nitens, pillar with 4 plaits.
92. V. tapering, citron, with rufous bands; 2½ citrina, inches long.
93. V. tapering, pale brown, and longitudinally mueronata striated; spire perforated; pillar perforated, and 4-plaited.
94. V. tapering, a little ventricose; longitudinally rugosa, wrinkled, and transversely striated; whitish with piceous lines.
95. V. tapering, cinereous, striated with red; spire strigosa, glabrous; whirls rather tumid.
96. V. tapering, glabrous; 5 plaits in the pillar; foffilis, has been only found in a fossil state.
97. V. tapering, thin, glabrous; brown surrounded leucostoma, with lines of white dots. Friendly islands.
98. V. tapering, whitish, cancellated; whirls with clatbrata, a band of yellow spots.
99. V. tapering, transversely ribbed, with a trans- virgata, verie brown band, and longitudinal waved spots; two inches long.
100. V. tapering, cancellated; varied with tawny leucostoma, and white, with waved brown spots; mouth ochraceous.
101. V. tapering, transversely striated; yellow with variegata, a brown band and spots.
102. V. emarginated, tapering, marked with decus- filaris, fated striae, and red threads; pillar 3-plaited.
103. V. cylindrical, whitish, glabrous; spire pro- volva, jecting, obtuse, emarginated at the base; pillar 4-plaited; 2 inches long. Shores of Guinea.
104. V. ovate, bay, longitudinally wrinkled; be- siervoyelii, neath transversely grooved; spire obtuse, and crenated at the future; 4 plaits in the pillar; lip denticulated.
105. V. ovate, triangular, rugged, knotty, trans- rhinoceros, versely grooved and umbilicated; pillar 3-plaited; lip toothed; throat striated; whirls muricated with knobs. Shores of New Guinea.
106. V. tapering, white; spire with fine transverse costata, striae, and rounded ribs; first whirl with 3 brown bands; 4 plaits in the pillar.
107. V. ovate, white; spire spotted with brown; spuria, 6 brown bands in the first whirl; tail emarginated; lip impressed; pillar 6-plaited.
108. V. emarginated, striated, and marked with pertusa, hollow punctures; lip denticulated; 5 plaits in the pillar; 3 inches long. India.
109. V. emarginated, transversely striated; white cardinalis, with rows of tessellated chesnut spots; pillar 5-plaited. Indian ocean.
110. V. emarginated, smooth; margin of the whirls epistopalis, entire; lip denticulated; 4 plaits in the pillar; 5 inches long. India.—The animal of this shell is said to be poisonous when it is eaten, and has the power of inflicting a wound on those who touch it, with a kind of pointed trunk. The natives of the island Tanna employ the shell as a hatchet, fixing it in a handle.
111. V.
papalis. 111. V. emarginated, transversely striated; margins of the whirls and lip denticulated; pillar 4-plaited. Indian ocean.
patriarchalis. 112. V. obovate, solid, transversely striated, marked with nodulous plaits; whirls crowned with tubercles. India.
musica. 113. V. margined with obtuse spines in the whirls; lip smooth and very thick; pillar 8-plaited. American ocean. The plaits in the pillar are from 9 to 12 in some varieties.
vespertilio. 114. V. emarginated, with acute spines on the whirls; lip smooth; pillar 4-plaited; from 3 to 6 inches long. Indian seas.
arabica. 115. V. emarginated; whirls tuberculated, and marked with black characters; 4 plaits in the pillar.
bebræa. 116. V. emarginated; whirls with subacute spines; 5 stronger and 3 obsolete plaits in the pillar; 6 inches long. India, Jamaica. Very rare.
turbinellus. 117. V. nearly entire, turbinated, with conic somewhat erect spines; upper ones larger; pillar 4-plaited; 3 inches long. Indian ocean.
capitellum. 118. V. ovate, rugged, knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2½ inches long. Indian and American seas.
ceramica. 119. V. ovate, acute, with divergent spires; about 5 plaits in the pillar; spines on the outer whirls gradually lessening into tubercles. Coromandel and Ceylon.
pyram. 120. V. obovate, slightly tailed, with striated whirls on the spire; tip produced and quite glabrous; pillar 3-plaited; 7 inches long. Tranquebar and Ceylon.
laponica. 121. V. obovate, smooth, with a pointed spire, and ventricose; pillar 5-plaited. Indian and American seas.
voxillum. 122. V. ventricose, yellowish-white, with orange bands; first whirl tuberculated and larger than the rest; pillar 6-plaited. Indian ocean. Very rare.
flavescens. 123. V. pyriform, smooth, with yellowish clouds; spire varied with chestnut spots; 4 plaits in the pillar.
rupitris. 124. V. elongated, ribbed; ribs crossed with fine transverse lines; lip margined; spire papillary at the tip; many plaits in the pillar; 4 inches long.
nassa. 125. V. ventricose; spire ribbed with fine transverse striae crossing the ribs; lip margined, umbilicated; 3 plaits in the pillar; 1 inch long. Mauritius island and Guinea.
craticulata. 126. V. tapering and transversely striated; white with longitudinal chestnut ribs; lip denticulated, striated; 3 plaits in the pillar; 3 inches long.
spiralis. 127. V. longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated transversely; a row of acute tubercles on the two first whirls; 3 plaits on the pillar. Indian seas.
magellani-ca. 128. V. ventricose, ochraceous, with white and brown lines; lip subulate; whirls of the spire convex; first largest; 2 inches long.
filosa. 129. V. finely reticulated and striated, with elevated transverse belts; lip crenated; 4 plaits in the pillar, which is a little umbilicated.
fusata. 130. V. coarle, brown, smooth; base transversely striated; spire obtuse; first whirl ventricose, with 4 narrow bands; the rest with a broad white band; pillar with 3 plaits and umbilicated.
V. Ventricose; the spire papillary at the tip.
retrospica. 131. V. emarginated; spire crowned with vaulted spines; 4 plaits in the pillar; 7 or 8 inches long. Persia, Asia, and the Cape of Good Hope.
132. V. emarginated; whirls of the spire with cymbium, grooved margins; 4 plaits in the pillar; lip callous. Spain, Africa, and America.
133. V. emarginated; spire smooth; pillar 3-plaited. ed; 4 inches long. Spain, America, Philippine isles.
134. V. elongated, with a broad aperture; lip a-ampla. cute; whirls of the spire scarcely visible; 1 inch long.
135. V. emarginated; covered with a brown cuti-neptuni. cle, under which it is reddish; lip a little prominent; 4 plaits in the pillar; 4 whirls in the spire; 8 inches long; nearly as broad. Persian gulf.
136. V. emarginated; lip a little prominent; pillar navicula. 4-plaited; 2 inches long.
137. V. elongated, with a long tubercle at the tip, papillaris. which is sometimes oblique.
138. V. elongated, yellow, with 3 bands of brown indica. dots; 4 plaits in the pillar. India.
139. V. coarse, clouded, with zig-zag brown lines; scapba. lip subulate, pillar bluish with 4 plaits. Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.
140. V. ovate, glabrous; whitish with longitudinal cymbiola. red lines; whirls knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
141. V. subovate, testaceous, with reddish bay preputium. spots, emarginated at the base; 4 plaits in the pillar. Coromandel coast.
142. V. cylindrical, yellowish, emarginated; aper-glanz. ture effuse, spreading; 3 plaits in the pillar. Eastern shores of Africa.
143. V. white, smooth, reticulated with gold, e-reticulata. margined; 4 plaits in the pillar; spire conic; first whirl cylindrical and ventricose; 2 inches long. Java.
144. V. brownish yellow, striated with brown; 3 speculabilis. plaits in the pillar; 5½ inches long. Straits of Magellan.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, gibbous; aperture ovate, terminating in a short canal, leaning to the right, with a retuse beak or projection; pillar lip expanded.
A. Inflated, rounded, thin, subdiaphanous, and brittle.
1. B. roundish, surrounded with obtuse grooves, be-olearium. tween which is an elevated line; aperture without teeth; 4 inches long. Indian sea.
2. B. obovate, surrounded by grooves which are galea. double on the fore-part; aperture without teeth; pillar umbilicated. Mediterranean and Adriatic seas.—This shell is nearly as large as a man's head.
3. B. ovate, inflated, slightly grooved, and undula-perdix. ted with white; aperture without teeth; 6 inches long. India, America, Weymouth.
4. B. ovate, surrounded with obtuse grooves; aper-pomum. ture toothed; 2½ inches long. Java, Amboyna, Mexico.
5. B. ovate, surrounded with remote obtuse grooves; dolium. beak a little prominent. Sicily, Africa, India.
6. B. ovate, surrounded with rounded ribs; beak a caudatum. little prominent; ½ inch long.
niveum. 7. B. snowy ribbed; outer whirls of the spire scarcely prominent.
elathratum. 8. B. ovate, longitudinally wrinkled and transversely plaited; with a short recurved beak; pillar lip crenated and grooved within.
lineatum. * 9. B. pyramidal or sharp-pointed at bottom; white with dark brown spiral lines; very small. Cornwall.
breve. * 10. B. white, with 5 whirls, which are longitudinally ribbed, and transversely striated. Pembrokeshire coast.
minimum. * 11. B. with 5 spines, spirally striated, and transversely ribbed; less than a pea. Norway, England.
obtusulum. * 12. B. white, opaque, with 3 spines; aperture oval. Faversham creek, England. Minute and rare.
B. With a short, exserted, reflected beak; lip outwardly unarmed.
minutum. * 13. B. white, opaque, with 3 whirls, which are longitudinally ribbed; very minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
keve. * 14. B. smooth, with 3 whirls and a long beak; very small. Pembrokeshire coast.
obtusifissum. * 15. B. smooth, with 3 whirls, and a long beak; aperture contracted; very minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
ecbinophorum. 16. B. with 4 tuberculated belts and prominent beak. Adriatic and Mediterranean seas.
plicatum. 17. B. a little plaited forwards, marked with decussated striae; aperture toothed; beak recurved. Jamaica.
cornutum. 18. B. Great spiked casket. Turbinated, or crowned with spines; aperture toothed, beak recurved; from 9 to 12 inches long. India.
rufum. 19. B. Red helmet. With decussated striae, and knotty belts, between which is a double line; aperture toothed; beak recurved. America and India.
tuberosum. 20. B. Persian tuberk. With two tuberculated belts, and recurved beak; 10 inches long. American ocean.
flammeum. 21. B. slightly plaited and crowned; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 5 inches long. American ocean.
testiculus. 22. B. obovate, with decussated striae, and elevated longitudinal ones; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 4 inches long. America and India.
decussatum. 23. B. with decussated striae, and covered with small square scales; aperture toothed; beak recurved. Africa, Mediterranean.
areola. 24. B. Small diced casket. Substriated and surrounded with 4 rows of square spots; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 3 inches long; outer pillar lip with a toothed inner margin. India, Mediterranean.
tigrinum. 25. B. ovate, smooth, bluish, with transverse yellow bands; spotted with brown, and intermediate brown characters. New Zealand.
undulatum. 26. B. with sometimes transverse, striated, and waved spots; spire obtuse; inner lip glabrous.
cinericeum. 27. B. ovate, smooth, and covered with hollow punctures; spire elongated; lips toothed; beaks recurved. India.
teffelatum. 28. B. thin, cinereous with white bands tessellated with brown; whirls with 5 rows of tubercles; 6 inches long. South seas. Very rare.
pennatum. 29. B. white, with variegated yellowish, chestnut, and white bands; beaks recurved. India.
maculosum. 30. B. with 4 spotted bands; whirls a little prominent, and longitudinally ribbed; the first crowned with tubercles; inches long.
* 31. B. transversely striated; spire obtuse; whirls bilineatum with a spotted band and 2 lines. Weymouth.
32. B. coarse, transversely striated and wave spot-gibbous; spire acute, pyramidal; 2 inches long.
33. B. ventricose, striated, pillar lip thin, beak ventricose-short.
34. B. transversely striated; spire acute; the 2 first frigosum. whirls crowned with spines; outer pillar lip spotted within, and emarginated without.
35. B. smooth, with undulated spots; spire rugged rugosum. and striated; beak with 5 plaits; outer pillar lip strong and straight.
36. B. coarse, and with a slightly prominent, acute ponderosum. spire; first whirl crowned with tubercles; outer pillar lip ribbed within.
37. B. smooth, and marked with a band of rufous recurvispots; spire a little prominent; first whirl inflected; rostrum. inches long. Barbadoes.
38. B. transversely striated, and spotted here and trifasciatum. there, with three equal bands; aperture bluish within; tum. outer pillar lip toothed; inner with rows of tubercles; 3 inches long.
39. B. finely striated transversely, and with three senegalispotted bands; second whirl of the spire surrounded cum. with a turgid ring; outer pillar lip crenated. Senegal.
40. B. ochraceous, transversely striated; first whirl ochroleucum. crowned with spines; outer pillar lip toothed; inner cum. repand; inches long.
41. B. transversely striated; spire depressed; outer striatum. whirl knotty at the margin; aperture toothed; beak recurved. America.
42. B. obovate, umbilicated, fulvous, with nume- causum. rous transverse striae; pillar lip membranaceous; united lip of the aperture acute. Mediterranean.
43. B. ovate, transversely grooved, whitish with frigatum. reddish bands, varicose; spire conic, with decussated striae; aperture oblong, toothed; inner pillar lip plaited, granulated; lip of the aperture fringed, spotted. India.
44. B. globular, yellowish, grooved and striated; tyrrenum. spire conic; aperture white; lip margined, and slightly toothed within. Seas round Tuscany.
45. B. ovate, white, transversely striated, and groo- abbreviatum. ved; spire conic; lip of the aperture doubled, and tum. toothed within; pillar lip reflected and wrinkled; beak very short. India and America.
C. Lip prickly outwardly behind.
46. B. Small curled casket. A little plaited, and erineus. crowned with papillae. America, India.
47. B. Smooth gray casket. Smooth, crowned with glaucum. papillae; 5 inches long. Indian sea.
48. B. Smooth spotted-lipped casket. Entirely smooth, vibex. with yellowish, waved, brown spots. America, India.
49. B. ventricose; whirls of the spire with a band at teffelatum. the base, tessellated with black.
50. B. slightly plaited and crowned with papillae; nodulosum. lip smooth, with two rows of sharp spines behind; 1 inch long.
51. B. grooved, with an acute spire; whirls with fimbriatum. rows of tubercles.
papillosum. 52. B. Small bagle netted whelk. Covered with tubercles, in rows; 2½ inches long. Indian sea. Rare.
glans. 53. B. smooth, inner pillar lip with two teeth; 2 inches long. Indian ocean. Very rare.
D. Pillar lip dilated and thickened.
arcularia. 54. B. plaited and crowned with papillae. Indian ocean.
pallus. 55. B. Small coffee shell. Gibbous, obliquely striated and tuberculated; aperture wrinkled; not an inch long. Mediterranean and European coasts, Britain.
gibbosulum. 56. B. gibbous, smooth, snowy, tinged or spotted; small. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
mutabile. 57. B. smooth, rugged; spire exserted; inner lip extended forward, and thickish. Mediterranean.
neriteum. 58. B. convex, obtuse, smooth; inner pillar lip obsolete; size of a pea. Mediterranean.
E. Pillar lip appearing as if worn flat.
barpa. 59. B. Muscal-barp shell. With equal, longitudinal, distinct mucronate veins, pillar lip smooth; from 3 to 5 inches long. Indian sea.
costatum. 60. B. with equal, longitudinal, crowded mucronate veins; pillar lip smooth. Falkland islands, Very rare.
perficuum. 61. B. flat, with the lip crenulated, and the pillar flat; 4 inches long. India, and Persian gulf.
monodon. 62. B. rough with a crenulated lip; pillar flat, protruding obliquely a subulate spine; gray, white within. America.
patulum. 63. B. muricated; the lip crenated without; the pillar falcated; 4 inches long. America and Ethiopia.
haemastoma. 64. B. slightly muricated; lip striated within; the pillar rather flat; throat fulvous; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and Ethiopic seas.
lapillus. 65. B. Purple whelk. Ovale, acute, spirally striated, without protuberances; pillar flatish; 1½ inches long. The colour is white, cinereous, or yellowish; the shell is often transversely bored or grooved; it is sometimes thin and without teeth in the aperture, and sometimes more solid, and the aperture toothed. Shores of Europe, Britain.—This is one of the species which yields a fine purple dye.
smaragdula. 66. B. ovate, acute and glabrous; pillar flatish and slightly plaited; grooved; shines with a green gloss, and like mother-of-pearl.
taba. 67. B. fusiform, yellowish brown; the spire cancellated; first whirl smooth, and three times longer than the rest; ventricose above. India.
pyrum. 68. B. turbinated; aperture red; pillar smooth; the spire short; first whirl ventricose. India, Red sea. Very rare.
spadicum. 69. B. oblong, turbinated; chesnut, with transverse undulated white lines.
fossile. 70. B. convex, transversely plaited; spire short; pillar callous. Found fossil in Germany.
umbilicata. 71. B. oblong, turbinated and plaited; spire knotty; aperture grooved within; pillar slightly umbilicated.
candidum. 72. B. oblong, turbinated; solid, smooth and white.
scola. 73. B. oblong; aperture oval, emarginated, four-toothed; base white; spire acute; the whirls distant; the first with four glabrous ribs.
74. B. ventricose, coarse, gray, glabrous; aperture crassum. oval; pillar callous; base with two callosities; spire scarcely prominent; has 5 whirls.
75. B. subglobular, glabrous; aperture oval, marginata. gined on each side; lip toothed; pillar a little striatum. ed; spire scarcely prominent. Found in a fossil state.
76. B. ponderous, convex, glabrous; whirls di-labryntant. and margined; aperture oval, ample; pillar obtusus. liquely plaited. Holland.
77. B. coarse, ovate, oblong, white with transverserusticum. brown stripe; aperture oval; beak prominent; first whirl ventricose. India, Africa.
78. B. ovate, coarse, yellow, with elevated knotty, varium. transverse darker ribs; aperture oval, without teeth.
79. B. ovate, whitish, surrounded with red threads; stolosum. spire a little prominent; aperture oval; lip striated with red; pillar slightly umbilicated.
80. B. ovate, striated, whitish with chesnut shades; coronatum. a white band in the middle, edged with brown spots on each side; gibbous in the middle.
81. B. subglobular; whitish with leek-green and squalidum. lurid tessellated spots in rows; 4 whirls in the spire.
82. B. subcylindrical, transversely striated, reddish crassum. with chesnut bands; lip denticulated. Ceylon.
83. B. striated; brown, spotted and barred with formica-white. whirls channelled with 4 rows of knots; 1½ tum. inch long.
F. Smooth, and not included in the former division.
84. B. Diced whelk. Smooth; whirls 6 or 7 in the spiratum. spire, separated by a canal; pillar abrupt and perforated; 2 inches long. India and China.
85. B. with transverse plaits and undulated striae; pyronomias. the base and spine a little prominent; each of the whirls with a fulvous band; the first double.
86. B. oblong, finely striated, pale brown with leviscul-. darker bands; aperture oval, terminating in a canal; tum. first whirl gibbous and large; whirls 5 or 6. India.
87. B. smooth, black with rows of white spots and ocellatum. dots; spire prominent; first whirl ventricose.
88. B. obtusely pyramidal and transversely striated; pyrami-. white with blackish and brown clouds and stripes. dale. Tranquebar.
89. B. quite glabrous and minute; sometimes with glaberr-. a tessellated band on the two first whirls. tum.
90. B. minute, transversely striated; toothed or strigosum. spotted in the aperture.
91. B. glabrous with 3 broad red bands within; trifascia-. first whirl of the spire ventricose; 1 inch long. tum.
92. B. glabrous, and marked with a white band and leucoc-. chesnut lines. Minute. mias.
93. B. glabrous with decussating bands and lines. cancellatum.
94. B. glabrous, ochraceous; spire with an obtuse obtusum. blue tip; first whirl ventricose; 2 inches long.
95. B. glabrous, with obtuse whirls; the lowest glabratum. slightly channelled and produced at the base; 4 inches long. America, Africa.
96. B. glabrous; 5 or 6 whirls distinct; lip promi-. stromboi-. dent; base obliquely striated. des.
97. B. ovate, smooth, black with a carious spire; prærosum. pillar glabrous; size of a bean; crown jagged, abrupt. Southern Europe.
98. B. oblong, smooth, thin, banded; aperture o-australe. oval, entire; 3 inches long. Rivers of New Zealand.
orbis. 99. B. ovate, thick, whitish, transversely ribbed and grooved; aperture oval; lip plaited within; pillar lip flat. Shores of New Zealand.
turgidum. 100. B. obovate, slightly umbilicated; yellowish with rows of red spots; lip sinuated. New Zealand.
G. Angular, and not enumerated in the former divisions.
undosum. 101. B. ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae; belly obtusely five-angular; lip striated within; 2 inches long. Malacca.
affine. 102. B. ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae; belly cylindrical; lip striated within.
tranquebaricum. 103. B. ovate; spire with 12 angles and transversely striated; aperture toothed; lip orange; pillar perforated. Coromandel coast.
versicolor. 104. B. coarse, dirty brown, transversely striated; 2 rows of black dots in the interstices of the striae; 4 channelled whirls in the spire. India.
eruentatum. 105. B. transversely striated with red parallelogram spots.
fulcatum. 106. B. ovate; brown with snowy spots; whirls of the spire grooved; lip crenulated; throat striated.
rumpfi. 107. B. thin, narrow, ventricose; spire conic, depressed; first and second whirls crowned with spines.
benosar. 108. B. roundish, wrinkled; whirls lamellated on the fore-part; pillar perforated. China.
glaciale. 109. B. ovate-oblong, smooth, a little striated; lower whirl slightly keeled; 2 inches long. Northern seas.
undatum. * 110. B. Waved tubell. Oblong, coarse, with deep, transverse, undulated striae; whirls 7, with many curved angles; 3 to 4 inches long. India, Europe; very common on the shores of Britain.—The fishermen, from supposing that it is destructive to the large scallop, (ostrea maxima), by insinuating its tail, as they term it, into the shell, either use it for bait, or destroy it when they take it in dredging. The spawn of this species is often found in clusters in many parts of the coast.
striatum. * 111. B. ovate-oblong, with transverse elevated striae, which are undulated near the tip; 4 inches long. Coasts of Britain.
ciliatum. 112. B. elongated, slightly tailed; angular; longitudinally ciliated; pillar slightly plaited; whirls 5; 6 inches long. Greenland seas.
turidulum. 113. B. oblong, pointed, glabrous; minutely striated transversely, and longitudinally ribbed; 4 lines long. Greenland seas.
carinatum. 114. B. oblong, conic, and transversely striated; upper whirls with many oblique and obtuse angles, lower ones with a single ridge. South sea.
foliatum. 115. B. ovate with unequally distant longitudinal tubercles on the belly; lip channelled and a little distinct; ribs 6; first and second whirls broadest; spire obtuse. Shell whitish mixed with yellow.
tania. 116. B. oblong, glabrous, brown, with a yellowish band in the middle of the first whirl.
lineatum. 117. B. cinereous, with longitudinal, undulated, and interrupted transverse, brown striae; margin white, spotted with brown; aperture white.
macloviense. 118. B. oblong, with waved spots and clouds; spire short; first whirl gibbous; tail narrow, prominent.
foliorum. 119. B. thin, with a short, acute, slightly ribbed spire; the first whirl a little globular; 1 inch long.
India, among the leaves and branches of maritime shrubs.
120. B. ventricose, cancellated; whirls distant; 1 textum. inch long.
121. B. oblong; longitudinally plaited, and trans-strigosum. versely striated; the striae brown and black, and striated with white, ventricose; aperture ribbed; pillar slightly plaited; 2 inches long.
* 122. B. oblong with transverse elevated striae; 6 anglicum. brown whirls in the spire; a little ventricose. Britain.
* 123. B. ventricose, ribbed, brown; the first whirl porcatum. covering the next. Britain.
124. B. glabrous, white; spire bluish at the tip, ob-laevissimum. tuse; first whirl largest, ventricose.
125. B. oblong, narrow, glabrous; yellowish with igneam. red waved spots and clouds; outer whirls perpendicularly striated.
126. B. oblong, narrow, chestnut with darker belts; plumatum. throat narrow, black or blue, with striated teeth; lip striated within; spire acute. South American islands.
127. B. oblong, narrow, horizontally ribbed; ribs lyratum. transversely striated; pillar smooth.
128. B. ovate, ventricose, hoary; longitudinally clathra-ribbed, and transversely plaited; lip grooved within; tum. spire acute; beak short, recurved.
* 129. B. Reticulated whel. Oblong, ovate, transversely striated, and longitudinally wrinkled; aperture tooth-reticulata. ed, glossy; size of a nut. European and Ethiopic seas, tum. Britain.
* 130. B. with 5 whirls, spirally striated and trans-minutum. versely ribbed; less than a pea. Norway, Britain.
131. B. ovate, cancellated, white; 5 whirls, first niveum. ventricose; 1 inch long. Tranquebar.
132. B. yellow, with pale brown bands; spire with scalaris. 6 whirls cancellated; whirls flat, distant, the first a little convex; aperture triangular; lip toothed; pillar plaited, verrucose, umbilicated. A very rare shell.
133. B. with decussated striae, brown, within white. indicum. India.
134. B. white varied with brown; transversely stri-nodulosum. ated; here and there knotty. Shores of American islands.
135. B. cancellated and nodulous in the angles of piscatori-the section; aperture toothed on each side, and acute. um. India.
136. B. white, within yellowish; lip 6-toothed; mauritii. whirls crowned with spines, the first with 4 rows. Mauritius.
137. B. oblong; aperture simple, and without teeth; armilla-each whirl crowned with a row of tubercles. tum.
138. B. oblong; perpendicularly plaited, and trans-placitulum. versely striated; with alternate white and brown bands; violet within. India.
* 139. B. ventricose, oblong; with longitudinal plait-vulgatum. like striae, crossed with fine undulated transverse ones. Mediterranean, Shores of England.
140. B. with party-coloured bands, transversely stri-foliatum. ated; spire horizontally ribbed, part of the first whirl glabrous. Tranquebar.
141. B. white, cancellated; spire acute; minute. nanum.
142. B. narrow, cancellated; aperture large, crena-exile. ted and spotted; small.
143. B. cancellated; with perpendicular ribs; the chaly-interstices.
interstices smooth and flat; aperture ovate; spire hardly prominent; a minute shell.
verrucosum. 144. B. striæ decussated, knotted in the angles of section; ventricose; pale yellow, with a bluish band on each whirl; inches long.
alatum. 145. B. gibbous with decussated striæ, knotty in the angles of section, the transverse striæ undulated; lip winged; 1 inch long.
nigro-punctatum. 146. B. narrow, rugged; wrinkles tuberculated with white, and dotted with black; inch long.
nitidulum. 147. B. ovate, oblong, polished; barred and marked with longitudinal ragged striæ; lip slightly toothed within. Mediterranean.
lavigatum. 148. B. ovate, oblong, polished, striated with brown and smooth; aperture without teeth or pillar lip; spire without plait. Mediterranean.
lamellosum. 149. B. slightly plaited, transversely ribbed, grooved, tuberculated, lamellous; barred with chestnut, brown, and white. New Zealand.
scutulatum. 150. B. smooth, chestnut-brown, veined, with flatish whirls, and obtuse beak. New Zealand.
baustorium. 151. B. ovate, ventricose, black with a short spire; pillar depressed, white; throat white; lip striated and crenulated within. New Zealand.
ventricosum. 152. B. ovate, oblong; brown striated with white, and slightly plaited.
testudineum. 153. B. ovate, smooth, with alternate whitish and brownish spots in interrupted rows. Shores of New Zealand.
catastarrhac-ta. 154. B. ovate, rough, with crowded transverse grooves and flame-coloured undulations. New Zealand.
tabitense. 155. B. tapering; transversely ribbed and grooved; with a nodulous spiral stria at the future of the whirls; aperture ovate; lip slightly plaited. Otaheite.
lamellatum. 156. B. imperforated, lamellated; white, within purple; lip white; inches long.
H. Tapering, subulate, smooth.
maculatum. 157. B. somewhat spindle-shaped, with smooth, undivided, entire whirls; spire with 14 or more whirls. Africa.
subulatum. 158. B. subulate, smooth, undivided, very entire; first whirl not gibbous; 5 inches long. Indian ocean.
crenulatum. 159. B. whirls of the spire bifid, with a crenated margin; 5 inches long. Africa and India.
heclicum. 160. B. whirls of the spire bifid; upper margin compressed, tapering; 4 inches long. Africa.
vittatum. 161. B. substriated, with a double crenated future on each of the whirls; 2 inches long. Africa and India.
firigilatum. 162. B. whirls of the spire 16 or 20, bifid and obliquely striated; inches long. Southern seas of Africa.
duplicatum. 163. B. whirls of the spire biparted and striated; 4 inches long. India.
lanceatum. 164. B. smooth with entire whirls, and longitudinal testaceous lines; thin; spire acute. India.
dimidiatum. 165. B. whirls of the spire bifid, smooth; 4 inches long. Africa and India.
murinum. 166. B. whirls of the spire subangular, with 3 muricated striæ; black; base gibbous; whirls white at the base. Africa.
ligrinum. 167. B. pellucid, white with reddish dots; the whirls slightly emarginated on the back; a very minute shell.
168. B. acute, whitish, with undulated horizontal acrus lines; whirls bifid, crenulated, and wrinkled; pillar spirally twisted; inch long.
169. B. subulate, horizontally striated; whirls girt; succineus. white or straw colour. Indian ocean.
170. B. subulate, varied with yellow or reddish commaculatus patches; whirls flatish, transversely striated, and surrounded with an elevated belt.
171. B. ventricose; whirls perpendicularly striated bastatum. with alternate brown and white bands; inches long.
172. B. white with brown bands of hollow dots. aciculatum
173. B. whirls of the spire longitudinally ribbed, the phallus. base with a rugged future; lip a little prominent and emarginated above; 9 whirls in the spire; ribs a little curved. India.
174. B. whirls of the spire convex, distant, transverse-flumineum. ly striated; upper ones horizontally ribbed; inches long. Found in fresh waters.
175. B. whirls of the spire ribbed, and transversely asperum. striated, the first gibbous; beak a little prominent; inch long.
176. B. reticulated, wrinkled, with an incurved muricinum spire; aperture crenated; pillar wrinkled; lip thickened.
177. B. the whirls surrounded with a row of tuber-tuberculatum. cles; minute.
178. B. subulate, punctured, transversely striated; punctulatum. aperture obovate; whirls of the spire surrounded with a band, the first ventricose; 1 inch long.
179. B. subulate, smooth, thin, and finely striated acicula. transversely; whirls of the spire contiguous; tapering to a point. In fresh waters.
180. B. aperture ovate, oblong; whirls ventricose, fasciculatum. distant and horizontally striated; the striæ elevated and separated by an intermediate band.
181. B. subulate, smooth, snowy, with 2 bands; niveum. whirls of the spire contiguous.
182. B. a little ventricose; white with brown un-maculatum. mucronulations; aperture oval; whirls 5; 3 inches long.
183. B. coarse, with a subincurved obtuse lip; digitellus. inch long. India.
184. B. whirls of the spire entire, with oblique de-obliquum. cussated striæ; a finger's length, thickness of a quill. India.
185. B. subangular, grooved; steel-blue or dotted ebalybeum. with white and black; inch long. India.
186. B. thin, with contiguous whirls; beak slight-fluviale. ly emarginated; 4 to 5 inches long. India, in the mouths of muddy rivers.
187. B. subulate; whitish with reddish rays; whirls radiatum. convex, surrounded with granulated striæ; first largest and ventricose.
188. B. whirls of the spire longitudinally wrinkled, lividulum. and marked with transverse granulated striæ, the first twice as large as the next; 1 inch long.
189. B. whirls spotted; aperture long, without teeth; edentulum. pillar plaited.
190. B. longitudinally striated, with punctured spot-pugio. ted bands between the whirls. [latum.
191. B. spotted with 17 grooved whirls. canaliculatum.
192. B. whirls of the spire convex, and twice varicosum. crowned;
crowned; the first with 3 rows of punctures; inches long.
cuspidatum 193. B. subulate, spotted; whirls convex, subremote.
cinereum 194. B. subulate, smooth, cinereous, with obsolete bands; whirls undivided and longitudinally striated at the future; whirls 14; 2 inches long.
virginium 195. B. greenish yellow with 2 red bands; whirls of the spire flatish; aperture large, oval. Rivers of Virginia.
proximatum 196. B. whirls of the spire bifid; lower one substriated, upper one filiform; subulate, glossy.
monile 197. B. whirls of the spire bifid; upper one grooved; lower one moniliform, subulate; yellowish white.
cingulatum 198. B. with 3 elevated belts grooved above and beneath; size of a cherry. Iceland.
geminum 199. B. whirls of the spire bifid; the lower one substriated, upper one more protuberant; white; subulate.
obtusulum * 200. B. white, glossy, semipellucid; 5 whirls in the spire; aperture oval. Faversham, England.
Strombus. Gen. Char.—The animal a limax: the shell univalve, spiral; aperture much dilated; the lip expanding, and produced into a groove leaning to the left (c).
fusus 1. S. tapering, smooth, with a subulate beak and toothed lip. Red sea.
per-pelican 2. S. Corcorani's Foot; lip with four palmated angular claws; mouth smooth; whirls tuberculated; 2 inches long. European and American seas, shores of Britain.
ebirogra 3. S. lip with 6 curved claws, and recurved beak; lip striated; two hind claws divergent and bent outwards; beak tuberculated. Indian ocean. Rare shell.
scorpius 4. S. lip with 4 knotty claws; hinder one very long; 4 inches long.
lambis 5. S. lip with seven straightish claws; mouth smooth. Asia. A large shell.
millepeda 6. S. lip with 10 inflected claws; mouth substriated; back compressed; gibbous. Asia. Rare.
clavus 7. S. tapering, smooth, with a subulate beak, and simple lip.
lentiginosus 8. S. lip thickened and 3-lobed on the fore-part; back warty, and crowned with tubercles; beak obtuse; inches long. Asia, America.
fasciatus 9. S. lip entire; back crowned with 3 rows of protuberances, and rosy between them. Africa.
raninus 10. S. lip thin, rugged, repand above; back orange, transversely striated, and crowned with tubercles; aperture white, polished.
gallus 11. S. lip mucronate on the fore-part, and very
long; back crowned with tubercles; beak straight; 6 inches long. Asia and America.
12. S. lip projecting into a sharp point; back auris-diamuricatus; beak erect and acute; 3 inches long. ne. Asia.
13. S. anterior lip prominent, rounded, smooth; pusillus. spire spinous; beak 3-lobed, obtuse. South America.
14. S. anterior lip rounded, prominent, smooth; spire alatus. unarmed; beak 3-lobed, obtuse.
15. S. lip a little prominent; beak entire; back marginat. margined, smooth.
16. S. lip a little prominent; back smooth; whirls lubuanus. rounded, equal; inches long. Asia.
17. S. lip a little prominent; beak smooth; whirls gibberulus. gibbous, unequal. Asia.
18. S. obovate, with knotty belts, and a subulate, oniscus. smooth projection; an inch long. South America.
19. S. lip rounded, entire on the fore-part; belly lucifer. doubly striated; spire crowned with tubercles; upper ones minute. South America.
20. S. lip rounded, and very large; shell crowned; gigas. belly and spire with conic expanded spines; glossy white; within, a rich rose colour; 10 inches long. South America.
21. S. lip rounded, very large; belly unarmed; latissimus. spire a little knotty; 14 inches long. Asia.
22. S. lip rounded, short; belly smooth; spire a lit-epidromis. tle knotty; inches long. Southern Asia.
23. S. lip retuse, gibbous; belly and spire with minimus. knotty plaits; aperture 2-lipped, smooth; inch long. India.
24. S. somewhat heart-shaped; with a round, short, canarium. retuse, smooth lip; pillar smooth; inches long. Asia.
25. S. lip rounded, short; belly smooth; spire e-vittatus. longated; whirls divided by an elevated future; 4 inches long.
26. S. lip rounded, retuse; belly smooth, with 4-fasciatus. pale, linear, punctured belts. Asia.
27. S. lip tapering, entire, slightly plaited, and spiniferus. crowned with fine spines; spire prickly. Hitherto found in a fossil state only.
28. S. lip continued into a longitudinal cleft ridge, filifarella. India. Frequently found fossil in Campania.
29. S. lip tapering, retuse, short, striated; belly urceus. and spire with knotty plaits; aperture 2-lipped, unarmed; inches long. Indian ocean.
30. S. thin, white, with orange spots and clouds; tridentatus. back smooth, plaited; whirls grooved; lip 3-toothed; tus. beak violet. Indian ocean.
31. S. lip tapering, short-toothed; belly and spire dentatus. plaited; inch long.
32. S. very thick; first whirl crowned with tuber-costatus. cles; interspaces of the tubercles plaited; the next whirl transversely ribbed; the rest transversely striated; 6 inches long.
(c) It ought to be observed, that these shells, in their young state, want the lip, and then have a thin turbinated appearance; from which circumstance they have been sometimes referred to a different genus.
bryonia. 33. S. conic, with a mucronate, 8-toothed lip; spire knotty; 7 inches long; very rare.
affinis. 34. S. transversely striated, gibbous; spire unarmed; first whirl crowned with tubercles.
lotus. 35. S. lip a little prominent, and twice emarginated beneath; first whirl of the spire smooth in the middle, and transversely striated on each side; the rest crowned with obtuse knots.
levis. 36. S. smooth, silvery, radiated with brown; with obsolete transverse plaits; spire elongated, with inflated, rounded whirls; above 2 inches long.
rexillum. 37. S. solid, subcylindrical, with alternate, reddish and ochraceous bands; lip denticulated within; pillar flat, glabrous, and emarginated at the base. Indian ocean; very rare.
norwegicus. 38. S. oblong, subulate, white, with round whirls; aperture spreading; ovate; beak a little ascending.
tuberculatus. 39. S. oblong, ovate, tuberculated; lip thickened.
palustris. 40. S. smoothish; lip separated behind. Savannahs of the Indian ocean.
ater. 41. S. smooth; lip separated before and behind; 26 lines long. Fens of Amboyna.
lineatus. 42. S. subulate, brown, with 7 spiral, impressed lines; aperture ovate; 11 lines long.
paniculatus. 43. S. shell subulate, yellowish, with a white band; striated with red near the future; lesser whirls grooved, 6 larger ones smooth; spire with 12 or 13.
vibex. 44. S. subulate, cinereous, transversely striated; whirls 8 to 11 knotty, and marked with red streaks. Coromandel, Friendly islands.
auritus. 45. S. barred with brown; whirls 7, muricated; each with 7 yellow compressed tubercles; aperture ovate; 10 lines long. Africa.
aculeatus. 46. S. brown, tuberculated; whirls 12, with 5 rows of tubercles on each; minute; lip depressed, crenulated; 18 lines long. Marshes of Africa.
agnatus. 47. S. smooth; lip very prominent, and emarginated behind.
dealbatus. 48. S. with black whirls transversely striated; outer ones smooth; margin of the lip and pillar white.
fuscus. 49. S. brown, with numerous tubercles and whirls; lip separated before and behind; within striated with [fus. brown.
marginatoides. 50. S. brown; lowest whirl edged with white.
striatus. 51. S. subangular, with spinous knots; lip separated on the fore-part; brown, transversely striated.
finister. 52. S. convex, striated, white, with a few fulvous streaks; pillar sinuated, inflected, thin, pellucid; 2½ inches long.
finister. 53. S. whirls reversed, thin, longitudinally striated; 1¼ inch long, with 10 whirls. Hitherto found in a fossil state only in Helvetia.
54
Murex. Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, rough, with membranaceous sutures; aperture oval, terminating in an entire, straight, or slightly ascending canal.
A. Spinosa, with a produced beak.
baustellum. 1. M. ovate, tuberculated; with a long subulate, straight, muricated beak. Asia, America, Red sea.
2. M. Thorny woodcock. Ovale, with a triple row tribulus, of fetaceous spines; beak elongated, subulate, with similar spines. Var. 1. With spines shorter than the beak. 2. With spines as long as the beak. This last is rare. Asia, America, Red sea.
3. M. roundish, surrounded with subulate, oblique cornutus. spines; beak long, subulate, straight, with a few short spines; 8 inches long; spines 2 inches. Africa. Very rare.
4. M. subovate, surrounded with straight spines; brandaris. beak subulate, straight, obliquely surrounded with spines. Mediterranean, Adriatic.
5. M. ovate, knotty, and surrounded with spines on trunculus. the fore part; beak short, perforated, truncated. Mediterranean, Jamaica.
6. M. ovate, knotty, with 3 to 7 protuberances; pomum. beak broad; coarse and ponderous. Eastern shores of Africa.
7. M. ovate, transversely grooved, with transverse decussatus. ribs crossed by perpendicular knots; beak imperforated; 7 distinct whirls in the spire. Africa.
8. M. turgid, knotty, transversely striated, with a triacanthus. triple row of spines. Found in a fossil state.
9. M. transversely striated, with 8 rows of hollow melanabla. black spines; spire a little knotty and prickly; beak matboz. subulate.
10. M. white, with numerous rows of leafy, black, radix. undulated spines. A very rare shell.
11. M. white, with rows of spines, and very short candidus. beak; some of the spines black; 2 inches long.
12. M. inflated, with rows of spines, white barred fasciatus. with brown; 4 distinct turgid whirls in the spire.
13. M. a triple row of foliations; spire contiguous; ramosus. beak truncated. America, Asia, Red sea.
14. M. a triple row of foliations; aperture 1-tooth-foliatus. ed. North America.
15. M. 4 rows of foliations; spire capitate; beak scrope. truncated. Asia. Very rare.
16. M. 5 rows of foliations; spire contiguous; saxatilis. beak abbreviated. Mediterranean, Asia.
17. M. white, diaphanous; 6 rows of foliations, diaphanus. which are tipped with black.
18. M. ochraceous, transversely striated, with numer-cicboreum. ous rows of foliations.
19. M. varied with white and red; with flat acute versicolor. foliations; pointed with black.
20. M. subangular; whirls crowned with tubular erinaceus. and subspinous rays, scales or points; beak short and covered; 2 inches long. European seas, shores of Britain.
21. M. 7 rows of foliations, white with elevated striatus. transverse, brown striæ; 7 whirls in the spire. India.
22. M. shell elongated, triangular, with membra-triptenus. naceous foliations at the angles; 7 whirls in the spire. Found fossil in Campania.
23. M. umbilicated with muricated ribs; whirls facellum. flatish above, with acute margins; lip crenated; beak straight, ascending. Nicobar.
24. M. triangular, knotty, transversely grooved, motacilla. with a triple row of tubercles; beak long, subulate, straight; mouth white. India.
trigueter. 25. M. long, subulate, triangular; ribs reticulated; beak straight, closed; spire pyramidal, with 6 whirls.
C. With thick, protuberant, rounded sutures.
lyratus. 26. M. protuberances crossed by smooth belts; aperture ovate.
rana. 27. M. rough, with opposite, impressed protuberances, with one or two muricated belts. Asia.
gyrinus. 28. M. protuberances opposite, continued, and barred with tuberculated dots; aperture orbicular. Mediterranean, Atlantic, India.
affinis. 29. M. turgid, with opposite continued protuberances; spire pointed; whirls surrounded with a crown of tubercles; the outermost glabrous.
lampas. 30. M. protuberances nearly opposite, gibbous, with longitudinal tuberculated protuberances; from 4 to 14 inches long. Indian ocean.
olearium. 31. M. protuberances alternate, and numerous tubercles; back unarmed and striated behind; aperture toothless. Mediterranean and African seas.
semorale. 32. M. protuberances decussated, triangular, wrinkled and knotty on the fore-part; aperture ovate, toothless; from 5 to 7 inches long. Asia, Guinea, and America.
cutaceus. 33. M. with a single protuberance; angular, and a little wrinkled with knots; pillar perforated; aperture toothed; 3 inches long. Barbary, Guinea, South America.
litorium. 34. M. protuberances decussated, angular, with longitudinal tuberculous knots; beak flexuous; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.
pileare. 35. M. protuberances decussated, and a little wrinkled with knots; aperture toothed; beak subascending. Mediterranean.
bafonius. 36. M. six opposite, continued, vaulted protuberances, and knotty belts; beak oblique. A rare shell.
pyrum. 37. M. varicose, ovate, transversely grooved and knotty; beak long, flexuous, subulate. Indian ocean.
caudatus. 38. M. thin, transversely striated; beak subulate; spire a little prominent, tipped with brown; whirls grooved; first gibbous.
rubecula. 39. M. protuberances decussated, obtuse, with knotty wrinkles; belly equal; aperture toothed. Africa, India, South America. Rare.
serobiculata. 40. M. protuberances hollowed, smooth, nearly opposite; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.
reticularis. 41. M. protuberances nearly opposite, reticulated with tuberculated spots; pillar almost toothless; beak ascending; 6 inches long. Mediterranean, America.
lamellosus. 42. M. protuberances membranaceous, continued through the spire, and terminated with a spine. Falkland islands.
nodatus. 43. M. whirls knotty; aperture violet; lip toothed; beak straight. New Holland.
acus. 44. M. protuberances and lips membranaceous, dilated; gibbous and reticulated with tubercles; aperture sinuous; beak erect; 3 inches long. Mediterranean and Asia.
miliaris. 45. M. varicose with tuberculated belts; aperture a little toothed; beak elongated; whirls ventricose.
senegalensis. 46. M. transversely striated, with spinous protuberances; the spines decreasing towards the head; 2½ inches long. Senegal.
carinatus. 47. M. ventricose, with 5 or 6 whirls, forming an-
gular ridges; aperture semicircular; beak a little reflected; 4 inches long. Europe, Britain.
D. More or less spinous, and without manifest beak.
48. M. obovate, with subulate spines in rows; u-ricinus. aperture and lip toothed; 1½ inch long. Asiatic ocean.
49. M. obovate with conic spines; lip toothed; nodus. pillar smooth, coloured; 3½ inches long.
50. M. knots in numerous rows; lip with pointed neritoides angles; pillar flatish. India.
51. M. coarse, ventricose, transversely striated, with fuscus. 4 rows of knots; pillar impressed; outmost whirls flatish.
52. M. obovate and knotty on the fore part; aper. loco. ture suborbicular, toothless; 4 or 5 inches long. Chinese shores. Yields a purple fluid.
53. M. subovate, with acute spines in 4 rows; aper. hystrix. ture toothless, repand.
54. M. ovate, with obsolete spines, which are mancinella blackish; aperture toothless; pillar transversely striated.
55. M. ovate, striated, with 3 or 5 rows of obtuse hippocastis spines or tubercles; aperture transversely striated. num. Guinea, India.
56. M. Small prickly whelk. Tapering, longitudinally ribbed, and transversely cancellated; aperture striated; ribs prickly; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
57. M. obovate, glaucous, with a subspinous whirl; melongera. spire somewhat prominent; aperture smooth; 5½ inches long. India, America.
58. M. thick, ventricose, transversely grooved and confus. knotted; aperture repand, ovate; lip sinuous, inwardly plaited and denticulated. India.
59. M. brown, subovate, slightly beaked with lima. crowded, nodulous, paler belts. George's bay.
E. With a long, straight, subulate, closed beak, and unarmed with spines.
60. M. without beak, slightly plaited, ovate, point-cariosus. ed; lip carious. Found in the aqueduct at Seville.
61. M. tapering with acute spotted belts, and straight babylonius. tail; lip cleft; 4 inches long. Indian and American islands.
62. M. tapering, with immaculate knotty belts; lip jovanus. with a separate scoop. India.
63. M. ventricose, pointed with a cancellated, re-finensis. flected beak; aperture oval; whirls with transverse, granulated striae; base crowned with spines. Senegal.
64. M. spire with elevated rings; interstices fill stramineus. ed with short, straw-like projections; whirls crowned with tubercles at the base; 3 inches long. Southern ocean.
65. M. ovate, longitudinally striated; lip undulated; australis. whirls channelled; first turgid, and 4 plaited; the next 3 plaited; 2½ inches long. South sea.
66. M. spire pointed, and transversely striated; 4 uncinatus. first whirls with a callus, armed with hooks in the middle, 5 and 6 ribbed, the rest glabrous.
67. M. tapering; whirls crowned with tubercles, turris. and surrounded with a granulate belt; the first finely striated transversely.
68. M. beak a little reflected, and obliquely striated; cestratus. 3 first whirls of the spire ribbed; other 4 cancellated; first
first obconic; pillar with a single plait. Found fossil in Campania.
asper. 69. M. longitudinally plaited, and transversely ribbed; spire a little prominent; aperture ovate; lip crenulated.
colus. 70. M. tapering, striated, knotty; carinated, with a long straight beak; lip crenulated; beak 3 inches long. Indian ocean.
morio. 71. M. black, with a white band; beak dilated; pillar wrinkled; whirls knotty; 6 inches long. Africa.
coelobidum. 72. M. beak dilated; whirls of the spire flat above. Indian ocean.
spirillus. 73. M. beak long, spire mucronated; whirls convex above. Tranquebar.
canaliculatus. 74. M. beak dilated; whirls of the spire separated by a small canal. Canada, Frozen sea.
fuscus. 75. M. beak dilated; whirls separated by a small canal; first crowned with knobs at the base.
carica. 76. M. transversely striated; beak dilated; spire a little prominent; whirls crowned with spines at the base; 8 inches long.
ropea. 77. M. solid, umbilicated, with a triple row of knots transversely striated; aperture largely striated. India.
niveus. 78. M. beak dilated; whirls of the spire separated by a small groove; the first with transverse, carinated ribs. Brazil.
granum. 79. M. hemispherical, glabrous, diaphanous; beak straight, spreading; crown papillary. North America.
aruanus. 80. M. beak dilated; spire crowned with spines. New Guinea.
perversus. 81. M. beak dilated and repand; spire recurved and slightly crowned. American ocean. Exceedingly rare.
antiquus. * 82. M. beak dilated; shell oblong; 8 round whirls, first ventricose; 4 to 6 inches long. European seas, Scotland.
despectus. * 83. M. oblong, striated, and somewhat rugged; beak dilated; whirls 8, with two elevated lines; 5 inches long. European seas, shores of Britain.
fornicatus. 84. M. ovate oblong; beak dilated; whirls ventricose; a little angular and longitudinally striated; 7 inches long. Greenland seas.
incrassatus. 85. M. oblong, transversely wrinkled, and longitudinally striated; lip denticulated within, and thickened without.
truncatus. * 86. M. oblong, longitudinally ribbed; beak a little reflected, emarginated and truncated: very minute; whirls 6. Coasts of Europe, and shores of Britain.
acuminatus. * 87. M. narrow, oblong, ribbed; spire pointed. Shores of England.
argus. 88. M. gibbous, with transverse, tuberculated ribs; brown, with darker band; within white; aperture ovate.
maculosus. 89. M. cancellated, yellow, with alternate white bands, and chestnut patches; 11 round whirls in the spire. India. Very rare.
magellanicus. 90. M. ventricose, umbilicated, transversely striated; whirls of the spire with parallel ribs; the first large. Straits of Magellan.
cancellatus. 91. M. ovate, solid, opaque, cinereous; whirls of the spire cancellated, and separated by a groove.
92. M. whirls surrounded with grooves, and tu-scolopaceus beracles above; tip of the tubercles and aperture white.
93. M. ventricose, tapering, spotted with black; literatus. beak short; pillar with a single plait; spire with 8 prickly whirls.
94. M. subtriangular, cancellated; spire with 7 in. trigonus. flat, contiguous whirls; the first with a large distinct tubercle; 2 inches long. Senegal.
95. M. longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated; semilunatus. transversely; spire with flattish distant whirls, with iris. rows of tubercles; aperture semilunar; 1 inch long. Senegal.
96. M. rounded with annular grooves; aperture fulcatus. oval; first whirl of the spire turgid; 1½ inch long. Senegal.
97. M. ventricose, oblong, smooth, with rounded tritonis. whirls; aperture toothed; beak short; 16 inches long. India and the South seas.—This shell is used by the natives of New Zealand as a musical instrument, and by the Africans and many nations of the East, as a military horn.
98. M. ventricose, oblong, smooth; spire striated pusio. with rounded whirls; aperture smooth; beak short; 1½ inch long. Mediterranean and Africa. Rare.
99. M. ventricose, oblong, smooth; whirls rounded talipa. with a double future; pillar with two plaits; beak dilated, striated. South America.
100. M. oblong beak, and grooved with longitudi- clatbratus. nal membranaceous plaits. Iceland.
101. M. solid, black or pale brown, with a white nassa. subdiaphanous band; whirls knotty; pillar a little plaited.
102. M. whirls of the spire plaited and knotty. plicatus.
103. M. umbilicated with distant, wedged, rib- scala. bed, and transversely striated whirls; aperture heart-shaped.
104. M. angular, longitudinally plaited, and trans- sfcellum. versely striated; lip toothed; mouth violet; beak straight, short. China.
105. M. faliigated with brown and yellowish bands; corona. beak straight, entire. Mexico.
106. M. ovate, with a few elevated obtuse belts on dolarium. the whirls; size of a walnut. The ocean.
* 107. M. oblong, slender, white; margins of the corneus. whirls complicated; aperture toothless; 3 inches long. British and North seas.
108. M. oblong, coarse, with obtusely knotty whirls; lignarius. aperture toothless; beak short.
109. M. oblong, obtusely angular, with slightly trapezium. knotty whirls; aperture toothed; 6 inches long. Indian ocean.
110. M. solid, ventricose, smooth, with an oblong vespertilio. oval aperture; beak and crowned spire striated; 4 inches long. Indian ocean.
111. M. thin, diaphanous, ventricose, and transverse- scolumus. ly striated; middle of the beak smooth; spire with obtuse, undulated knots; pillar 3 plaited.
112. M. ventricose, longitudinally ribbed; ribs barpa. transversely striated; spire a little prominent; whirls distant.
113. M. fusiform, transversely striated; white, with tuba. a brown tip to the spire, which has 8 whirls distant, and crowned at the base with knots. China.
114. M. oblong, with striated plaited whirls, co- syracusa- vered nuc.
vered with tuberculated ridges; aperture toothless; beak short. Mediterranean; rare.
eraticulatus. 115. M. oblong, with rounded, plaited, and transversely reticulated whirls; aperture toothed, striated within. Mediterranean.
scriptus. 116. M. nearly without beak; fusiform, smooth, pale, with longitudinal brown striae; lip toothed; very small. Mediterranean.
ternatatus. 117. M. transversely striated, with distant undulately tuberculated whirls; aperture oblong; beak straight; 4 inches long; yellow. Ternate island.
infundibulum. 118. M. umbilicated, undulately knotty; striae elevated, brown; perforation funnel-shaped; pillar two-plaited; 4 inches long; very rare.
polygonus. 119. M. ventricose, undulated with tubercles; striated, grooved, and obtusely angled; black, with an oval aperture, and short beak; 3½ inches long. Indian ocean.
icelandicus. 120. M. transversely striated; spire papillous at the tip, with round whirls; first large and ventricose; 5 inches long. Iceland.
levigatus. 121. M. fusiform; spire transversely striated; whirls distant, flatish; the first round, smooth; 3½ inches long. Found fossil in Campania.
fossilis. 122. M. fusiform, incancellated, with a long beak; 1½ inch long. Found fossil in Campania.
candidus. 123. M. snowy, transversely striated; spire with distant whirls, keeled in the middle, and crowned with tubercles; lip grooved within, and denticulated at the margin; 9½ inches long.
ansatus. 124. M. brown, transversely striated, spire mucronated; whirls distant, convex, and knotty at the base; beak long.
undatus. 125. M. solid, ventricose, with waved angles, and finely striated transversely; spire mucronate; whirls knotty at the base; lip denticulated; 8½ inches long; ponderous. India.
longissimus. 126. M. thin, striated, with an obtuse, knotty spire, and long straight beak; 9 inches long. India.
lancea. 127. M. narrowed; whirls of the spire transversely ribbed, and longitudinally crenated; aperture ovate; ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin; pillar 2-plaited. Amboyna.
angustus. 128. M. narrowed; first whirl of the spire longitudinally plaited, and transversely ribbed; the other smooth and round; beak transversely striated.
versicolor. 129. M. subcylindrical; spire obtuse; whirls round and striated; lower ones mostly glabrous. India.
verrucosus. 130. M. umbilicated and surrounded with belts; middle ones more raised; whirls crowned with tubercles, which are spotted with brown. Red sea.
striatulus. 131. M. thin, transversely striated, spire mucronate; whirls round; lip crenulated; 4 inches long.
pardalis. 132. M. rounded, white, with violet spots, longitudinally ribbed, and transversely striated; spire obtuse.
gigas. 133. M. whirls of the spire turgid, gibbous, nodulous and annulated; lip denticulated beneath; 21 inches long.
lignosus. 134. M. whitish; spire obtuse; whirls slightly crowned with wrinkled, unequal tubercles; beak transversely striated; 1½ inch long.
gibbulus. 135. M. tapering, orange; spire obtuse; whirls distant, with longitudinal ribs, and flexuous transverse striae.
136. M. tapering; spire with contiguous whirls, granularis. separated by a flexuous line; first ventricose; Adriatic.
137. M. tapering, transversely ribbed; whirls convex. vexillum. vex; aperture oval; lip denticulate.
138. M. oblong, ventricose; whirls with a striated vulpinus. margin; aperture glabrous; beak short, and bent outward.
139. M. ovate, transversely striated; spire with flat-os. tish whirls; crowned with a row of rounded tubercles; 1½ inch long. Senegal.
140. M. ventricose; spire obtuse, cancellated, with campani- carinated whirls; first ventricose and smooth; beak cur. long and smooth; three inches long. Found fossil in Campania.
141. M. whirls of the spire with decussated ribs, arenosus. the first large, three outermost smooth; lip toothed outwardly; very small. Sandy shores of India.
142. M. narrow, transversely striated; spire mucro-maro- nated; whirls distant, contrary, round, and longitudi-cenfis. nally ribbed; beak prominent; 1½ inch long. Shores of Morocco.
143. M. oblong, whitish, with transverse, reddish lineatus. striae; beak short, straight. New Zealand.
144. M. a little tapering; whirls carinated above, perron. margined and flattened; beak long and straight. Southern ocean.
145. M. cylindrical; spire with a crenated callous larva. belt; upper whirls with plaited knots, lower ones flat-tish; beak short, straight, emarginated.
146. M. solid, thick, coarse; spire exserted; whirls neretoides- transversely striated; aperture semiorbicular and stri-us. ated.
147. M. ovate, angular, iridescent; longitudinally prismati- grooved and plaited; beak short; lip denticulated. cus. India, and South seas.
148. M. ribs longitudinally plaited, and transversely columbari- grooved; angular, spinous, carinated; alternately um. varied with white and brown; whirls suddenly diminishing; beak short, straight. Pulo Condor.
149. M. ribbed, varied with brown, yellow and asperrimus white; whirls oblique, with a tuberculated margin, and brown band in the middle; beak short, dilated, ascending; two inches long.
150. M. white, undulated with bay; with grooves undulatus. marked with raised striae; whirls nodulous at the margin; beak straight; four inches long. Red sea.
F. Tapering, subulate, with a very short beak.
151. M. whirls of the spire plaited above; pillar vertigatus. plaited within; beak ascending; three inches long. India.
152. M. whirls of the spire tuberculated, with a elceo. spinous streak in the middle; pillar with a single plait; beak ascending; four inches long. Southern ocean, Red sea, Atlantic.
153. M. whirls surrounded with belts longitudinally annularis. striated; first whirl transversely striated; beak ascending.
154. M. ventricose; spire transversely striated; plicatulus. whirls longitudinally plaited and knotty; aperture oval.
155. M. ventricose, transversely striated and crown fordidus. ed with black knots; lip dilated.
156. M. spire transversely striated and grooved; cingulatus. whirls
whirls surrounded with three rows of granulations, the first a little knotty. Tranquebar.
fuscus. 157. M. rounded, brown; first whirl of the spire gibbous; the others varicose; the last with numerous spines.
fasciatus. 158. M. transversely striated; spire crowned. Rivers of America.
fluviatilis. 159. M. brown; first whirls of the spire crowned with spines, the others with knots; aperture repand.
alatus. 160. M. reticulated; spire mucronate; first whirl grooved and transversely striated; lip winged.
nodulosus. 161. M. transversely striated, and alternately barred with brown and white; spire mucronate; whirls distant, with undulated knots.
terebella. 162. M. with a triple moniliform belt on each of the whirls; aperture oval, with curved striae within; 1 to 2½ inches long.
fuscatus. 163. M. whirls crenulated; the upper stria denticulated. Mediterranean.
torulosus. 164. M. whirls of the spire with a slightly knotty zone above; beak short.
radula. 165. M. whirls of the spire tuberculated, with a double row of punctured striae. Africa.
asper. 166. M. whirls of the spire grooved, transversely striated and muricated. Guinea.
granulatus. 167. M. rough, with decussated tubercles; beak acute, ascending; 2 inches long; white. India.
decollatus. * 168. M. whirls of the spire with longitudinal plaited grooves, with the tip seemingly broken off. European seas. Britain.
molluccanus. 169. M. striated; whirls of the spire transversely grooved with undulated, longitudinal plaits; lip dilated, crenulated. Marshes of Molucca islands.
minimus. 170. M. with transverse, undulated striae, crossed by longitudinal lines; aperture orbicular.
frigidatus. 171. M. longitudinally striated; whirls undivided, with a snowy belt at the future, marked with reddish spots.
tuberculatus. 172. M. transversely striated, and surrounded with glabrous knots; lip thickened.
gibbosus. 173. M. whirls of the spire margined; belly gibbous; lip cleft, denticulated; beak short.
atratus. 174. M. black; whirls transversely striated and tuberculated; pillar with one plate.
contrarius. 175. M. four contrary whirls marked with double striae; beak dilated. European and North seas.
eburnea. 176. M. contrary, hyaline, with 6 finely crenulated whirls.
conditus. 177. M. tapering, rough with granulations; lip doubled, emarginated on each side, and toothed within; aperture oval and striated.
clava. 178. M. transversely striated and spotted; whirls with plaited knots; lip double, dilated. Pulo Condor.
hexagonus. 179. M. yellowish, hexagonal, with transverse, granulated striae; first whirl tuberculated. South sea; and is often found fossil.
minutissimus. * 180. M. with five whirls, spirally striated, and remote ribs; pellucid; a very minute and elegant shell. Coasts of Wales.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; shell univalve, spiral, more or less conic; aperture somewhat angular
or rounded; the upper side transverse and contracted; pillar placed obliquely.
1. T. conic, smooth, somewhat umbilicated; a niloticus. large ponderous shell, with oblique, red, perpendicular striae. Indian ocean.
2. T. conic, tuberculated, with an oblique perfora-maculatus. tion; inner lip two-lobed. Asia, South America.
3. T. convex, obtuse, margined; the umbilicus per-perspectivus and crenulated, 2½ inches long. Asia, Africa, &c.
This is a very beautiful shell.
4. T. convex; pillar 2-toothed; perforation crenu-hybridus. lated. Mediterranean.
5. T. convex, with callo-punctured striae; pillar 1-cruciatus. toothed. Mediterranean.
6. T. obovate, striated; marked with concatenated, pharonis. globular dots; aperture and pillar toothed; umbilicus crenated. European and Asiatic seas.
* 7. T. convex, obliquely umbilicated; ridges of the magus. whirls rising into obtuse tubercles. European and African coasts, Britain.
8. T. striated, plaited above, and more convex be-modulus. neath; aperture ovate and 1-toothed. Red sea.
9. T. subovate; grooves moniliform and alternately scaber. larger; shell black; aperture yellowish.
10. T. obliquely umbilicated; convex; whirls varius. slightly margined. Mediterranean.
* 11. T. ovate, obliquely umbilicated; whirls round-cinerarius. ed; size of a pea. Shores of Europe. Britain.
12. T. ovate, subumbilicated; perforation nearly divarica-shut up; lowest whirl more remote. Mediterranean and Greenland seas.
13. T. conico-convex; perforation pervious, exactly umbilica-cylindrical; whirl slightly emarginated. Shores of ris. Europe.
14. T. convex, conic; whirls spinous and margined; solaris. aperture semi-heart-shaped; 2 inches diameter. India and America.
15. T. depressed, oblique; white with brown lines; tecum. spire transversely striated, and longitudinally ribbed; first whirl ventricose; aperture orbicular; first whirl large; pillar brown.
16. T. conic, white spotted with red; whirls round, conus. with moniliform belts; first whirl only perforated. India.
17. T. subequal, mucronate; whirls 9, spinous be-spinosus. neath; on each side a linear band of white and black, with a triple row of knots.
18. T. lateritious, spotted with white; the base flat, jububinus. with concentric lines of concatenated dots; whirls channelled, tessellated at the lower margin with white and chesnut. South America.
19. T. plaited with knots, transversely striated, aloearc. with belts of concatenated dots; perforation funnel-shaped; pillar crenulated. India.
20. T. base and continued perforation funnel-shaped; concavus. whirls contiguous, undulated and plaited; aperture denticulated at the margin; 2 inches broad. India.
21. T. surrounded with granulations and knots, vernus. green, and whitish towards the tip; the tip varied with black dots. India.
22. T. covered with white, greenish, and buff-co-conspersus. loured spots; tip with red and black ones; base white spotted.
spotted with red; within pearly; whirls with many rows of knots; lower margins glabrous. India.
tentorium. 23. T. wrinkled and plaited; whirls knotty beneath, with concatenated dots in the middle; whirls distant; perforation funnel-shaped. India.
ochroleucus. 24. T. wrinkled and plaited, obliquely crenated and transversely striated; base flat; white with red dots. India.
stellatus. 25. T. plaited and wrinkled, sea-green; whirls with concatenated dots; upper ones with a radiated spinous margin. India.
spengleri. 26. T. surrounded with rows of ochraceous knots and granulations, waved with red; one part of the base smooth.
costatus. 27. T. dots elevated, concatenated; whirls with oblong white knots beneath, and intermediate purple grooves.
inqualis. 28. T. rough, with unequal knots and granulations; many rows of knots on the whirls; tubercles larger on the marginal row.
regius. 29. T. white with a rosy shade; transversely striated, with many rows of knots; margin of the whirls prominent; perforation funnel-shaped.
verrucosus. 30. T. white, radiated with purple; conic; margin of the whirls knotty; perforation funnel-shaped.
cylindricus. 31. T. brownish, cylindrical; whirls convex, marked with transverse striæ; perforation crenated. Very rare.
radiatus. 32. T. radiated with red; pyramidal; whirls with concatenated dots; perforation funnel-shaped. South America.
viridis. 33. T. green; first whirl with 5 rows of knots, second with 4, the rest glabrous.
rusticus. 34. T. black-brown; obtusely pyramidal. China.
nigerrimus. 35. T. deep black; whirls flatish; spire transversely striated; pillar 1-toothed. China.
sanulum. 36. T. whirls of the spire ochraceous, with spotted tubercles; and with an intermediate, spotted, wrinkled groove.
frigosus. 37. T. ochraceous, varied with black at the tip; pyramidal and transversely striated; whirls of the spire flatish; margin tumid and spotted with red; very small. Shores of Morocco.
pyramis. 38. T. pyramidal, with chesnut spots and clouds; margin of the whirls vaulted and nodulous; to 2 inches long.
capensis. 39. T. depressed, varied with white and chesnut; base convex, with a scarlet ring marked with deeper spots. Cape.
egyptius. 40. T. depressed, white spotted with red; whirls transversely striated and plaited, distant; pillar 1-toothed; inch long. Red sea.
depressus. 41. T. whitish, radiated with red, and red at the tip; depressed; whirls surrounded with a belt of moniliform dots.
lavigatus. 42. T. pale brown; base sub-convex; whirls smooth, obsoletely striated transversely; perforation white, funnel-shaped.
grælandicus. 43. T. pellucid, flesh-colour; base convex; whirls 6, convex and finely striated transversely.
vesus. 44. T. convex, rosy, grooved; perforation very minute; shell small. Cape of Good Hope.
patbelatus. 45. T. depressed, brown with whitish spots; very minute.
viridulus. 46. T. greenish, obliquely radiated with white; whirls convex, with a belt of moniliform granulations; pillar toothed.
47. T. convex, with numerous rows of granulations; urbanus. perforation denticulated; aperture crenulated.
48. T. clouded with brown and gray; rows of granulations numerous, with knots; aperture crenated; perforation toothed; 6 lines long. Guinea.
49. T. cinereous, with moniliform belts of granulations; perforation white, toothed; aperture crenated.
50. T. depressed, pale flesh colour, with crowded carmine moniliform belts of granulations; perforation large; 1-toothed.
51. T. transversely striated; whirls distant; numerous tessellatus square spots on the spire. European seas.
52. T. convex, chesnut; whirls of the spire convex, croceus. the outer ones saffron-coloured. Africa.
53. T. depressed, convex; with oblique violet rays; obliquatus. whirls convex. Mediterranean.
54. T. convex, chesnut; whirls with a fillet, varied vittatus. with red and white at the upper margin.
55. T. depressed, pyramidal; base concave; whirls schreteri. transversely striated and obliquely ribbed, the first with a keeled margin; perforation funnel-shaped. Found fossil in Campania.
56. T. conic-convex; whirls unarmed; aperture semi-indicus. heart-shaped; perforation spiral; scarcely 1 inch high. India.
57. T. depressed, chesnut; whirls transversely striated and crenated, with rows of granulations; perfora-liformis. tion pervious, crenulated.
58. T. straw-colour; whirls convex, with decussated stramineus. striæ separated by a groove; perforation pervious. Tranquebar.
59. T. white, marked with brownish rays and cre-variegatus. nated striæ; perforation crenated, pervious.
60. T. convex, transversely striated; white, with areola. square reddish spots; perforation crenulated; whirls of the spire separated by a white streak.
61. T. greenish yellow, with longitudinal plaited ribs inermis. terminated by a spine; aperture compressed; perforation wrinkled.
62. T. conic, olive, covered with rows of raised vio-imperialis. let scales; whirls inflated, with a spinous radiate margin; spire with 7 whirls; large. South seas.
63. T. depressed, straw colour, with darker ribs; planus. whirls of the spire plaited; perforation pervious.
64. T. conic; white, with oblique brown bands; albidus. whirls channelled near the future.
65. T. conic; base greenish gray, spotted with suscatus. brown; whirls round, flatish at the future.
66. T. conic; red, dotted with white; slightly per-corallinus. forated; whirls round, the first with 15, the next with 6 rows of tubercles; 6 whirls in the spire; 4 lines long. Senegal.
67. T. gray, with whitish spots; whirls flatish, and griseus. transversely grooved. Senegal.
68. T. convex; the whirls reversed. Found near ferrugineus. Scaphusa, converted into iron ore.
69. T. pyramidal, with contrary round whirls; 3novus. of them with a quadruple trifarious row of tubercles, the fourth very distant.
70. T. very thin, and of a wax colour; first whirl fragilis. large, with a brown band in the middle.
71. T. obtusely pyramidal; 4 elevated contiguous callosus. whirls, tumid at the margin, in the spire.
asper. 72. T. convex, gray with whitish spots; whirls flatish; 6 lines long. Senegal.
neritoidens. 73. T. sub-ovate, convex, depressed; smooth, reddish, glabrous; 2 lines long. Greenland.
perlatus. 74. T. reddish, with elevated dots; unequally ribbed; spire depressed; whirls convex.
terrestris. * 75. T. conic; livid; minute. Mountains of Cumberland.
fuscus. * 76. T. opaque, brown, margined; aperture roundish; spires 5. Sandwich.
B. Imperforated, erect; umbilicus closed.
vestiarius. 77. T. conic, convex, with a gibbous callous base; aperture somewhat heart-shaped; very small. Mediterranean and Asia.
labio. 78. T. ovate, sub-striated; pillar 1-toothed. Asia, Africa, New Zealand.
tuber. 79. T. depressed; whirls somewhat keeled, and knotted at the upper and lower margin; 2 inches diameter. Mediterranean and South America.
striatus. * 80. T. conic; aperture obovate; last whirl angular; minute. Mediterranean; Falmouth.
conulus. * 81. T. conic, smooth; whirls separated by a prominent line. European seas; Britain.
ziziphi-nus. * 82. T. conic, livid, smooth, transversely striated; whirls margined. European and African coasts, shores of Britain.
obeliscus. 83. T. conic; surrounded with numerous rows of white or green moniliform granulations; pillar 1-toothed; 2 inches high. India.
distortus. 84. T. solid, white, polished; striated, distorted, and obtuse at the tip; first whirl gibbous; aperture compressed, ovate.
virgatus. 85. T. pyramidal, with rosy and white stripes, and numerous rows of knots; base with concentric white and red circles. India.
foveolatus. 86. T. cinereous, variegated with greenish, whitish, and reddish; whirls of the spire tuberculated at the lower margin. Red sea.
diaphanus. 87. T. thin, pellucid, with alternate chesnut and white moniliform belts of granulations; 1½ inch high. New Zealand.
iris. 88. T. covered with a smooth coat, under which it is bluish and reddish, shining with iridescent. Southern ocean.
rostratus. 89. T. pyramidal, transversely striated; varied with white and red; tip green, pellucid; 1 inch high. South sea.
notatus. 90. T. striæ decussated; grooved within; tip deep red.
elegans. 91. T. pyramidal, striated, brownish purple. South sea.
melanostoma. 92. T. obtusely pyramidal; spotted with greenish. South sea.
erythroleucus. 93. T. pyramidal; striated with white and red. [1st. Morocco.
punctulaimbricatus. 94. T. red, punctulated; very minute. Morocco.
america-nus. 95. T. pyramidal, obliquely grooved, plaited and ribbed; whirls a little prominent at the margin. South American seas.
colatus. 96. T. ochraceous; longitudinally grooved; whirls transversely striated; lip denticulated. South America.
colatus. 97. T. sea-green, with protuberances and oblique scaly plaits; whirls of the spire transversely striated
and grooved in the middle, concave spines on the lower margin of the first whirl.
98. T. purple, with plaited tuberculated whirls. purpureus.
99. T. sea-green, with numerous rows of tubercles cooki. and oblique undulated plaits; 4 inches long, as broad, and covered with a horny lid. Cooke's bay.
100. T. brownish, with a convex base; whirls with nodulosus. a single row of tubercles, first with 2. South seas.
101. T. pyramidal; white, varied with reddish and mauriti-green; whirls spinous; pillar emarginated, plaited. anus. Bourbon and Mauritius islands.
102. T. pyramidal; white; whirls of the spire longi-fenestratus tudinally ribbed, with transverse moniliform belts of green granulations: 1½ inch wide. Indian and South seas.
103. T. convex on each side, solid; spire smooth; belicinus. 2 first whirls obliquely ribbed. South seas.
104. T. ovate, with undulated ribs and transverse argyrostre; whirls ventricose; 2 inches broad and high. mus. South sea.
105. T. obtusely pyramidal; black, with a purple sinensis. band at the base; pillar white. China.
106. T. black, with a sub-convex granulate base; lugubris. minute, with 5 whirls. South seas.
107. T. obtuse; whirls round, with many rows of asper. tubercles, grooved and transversely striated; pillar toothed.
108. T. conic, convex, transversely striated, with teffellatus. oblong square spots disposed in rows; pillar lip spotted with black. Mediterranean, Africa.
109. T. conic, convex; citron, with angular black citrinus. lines. Asia.
110. T. pyramidal, white, variegated with scarlet; granatum. 2 first whirls very large; 2 inches high. South seas.
111. T. smooth, conic, white with a saffron tip. erocatus.
112. T. whirls round, and obsoletely plaited; aper- conchylio- ture compressed, brownish; 2 inches high. South phorus. America.
113. T. convex; white, with green, brown, and ful- pantheri- vious spots; 2 rows of tubercles on the whirls; 8 lines nus. long. Senegal.
114. T. rough, with concatenated globules; base grandina- convex, with concentric, granulated striæ; lip double- tus. toothed. Palmerston island.
115. T. depressed, with belts dotted with white be- inaqualis. neath; whirls crowned with spines. Friendly islands.
116. T. gray, with red stripes, and transversely stri- tigris. ated with white. New Zealand.
117. T. conic, brown, obliquely striated with black. pulligo. George's bay.
* 118. T. conic, white; whirls 4, tuberculated. Pem- parvus. broke shore coast.
C. Tapering, with an exserted pillar, and falling on the side when placed upon the base.
119. T. imperforated, striated; pillars spiral; 4 teleco- inches long. Indian ocean. pium.
120. T. umbilicated, glabrous; pillar with recurved dolabratus. twisted plaits. South America.
121. T. glabrous, imperforated; whirls reversed; perversus. small. Mediterranean.
122. T. flat at the base; finely striated transversely; pufillus. whirls reversed; ½ inch long. Indian seas.
123. T. flat at the base; longitudinally ribbed; undulatus. whirls reversed. Indian shores.
ventricosus. 124. T. cancellated, glabrous at the base; whirls reversed; upper ones ventricose; very small. Indian sands.
annulatus. 125. T. aperture nearly square; whirls reversed, and ribbed on each side; small. Indian sands.
flumineus. 126. T. sub-pyramidal, umbilicated, smooth; white, with a reddish tip; whirls separated by a groove.
punctatus. 127. T. whirls with a triple row of prominent dots; imperforated; size of a barleycorn. Southern Europe, Africa.
striatus. 128. imperforated; longitudinally and obliquely striated; small. Mediterranean.
zigzag. 129. T. sub-striated, and marked with darker angular lines; whirls five or six.
lunaris. 130. T. whirls 5, reversed; convex, smooth, umbilicated.
bortensis. 131. T. white, with a reddish band; pyramidal, nearly imperforated. In gardens in warmer climates.
56
Turbo. Gen. 28. Turbo, the Wreath.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, solid; aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.
A. Pillar margin of the aperture dilated and imperforated.
obtusatus. 1. T. roundish, smooth, very obtuse; above ventricose. North seas.
neritoides. 2. T. ovate, glabrous, obtuse; minute. Mediterranean, America.
littoreus. * 3. T. peritwinkle: sub-ovate, acute, striated; inch high; finely striated transversely. Shores of Europe; Britain. The animal of this species is frequently eaten.
tumidus. * 4. T. pale red; 5 distinct, tumid, striated whirls; first ventricose. England, in woods; very rare.
rudix. * 5. T. smooth; whirls 5, distinct, tumid. Western shores of England.
lineatus. * 6. T. somewhat conic, cinereous; variegated with fine zigzag black streaks. Western coasts of England.
muricatus. 7. T. umbilicated, sub-ovate, acute; surrounded with striae of raised dots; pillar margin a little obtuse; an inch high. Europe, America.
lituus. 8. T. sub-ovate, smooth; aperture lateral, margined; umbilicus covered. Pulo Condor.
punctulatus. 9. T. sub-ovate, smooth, brown, with paler, flat, dotted belts.
cinereus. * 10. T. oblong ovate; stria decussated and raised with dots; very minute. Shores of Europe, Britain.
pullus. * 11. T. ovate, smooth; variegated with red and white; minute, transparent, glossy. European seas, shores of Britain.
fasciatus. * 12. T. oblong, white, marbled, or banded with black; 6 tumid whirls in the spire; inch long. Coasts of Wales.
personatus. 13. T. convex, smooth; aperture somewhat angular. India.
petiolatus. 14. T. ovate, smooth, glossy; whirls somewhat angular on the upper part. India, South America.
cochlus. 15. T. ovate, striated, with one stria thicker on the back. India.
chrysostomus. 16. T. sub-ovate, wrinkled; whirls surrounded with
two rows of vaulted spines; yellowish, radiated with brown. India.
17. T. sub-ovate, wrinkled, with obtuse vaulted spines cebinatus. and whirls; pillar lip expanded, crenated. South sea, and Friendly islands.
18. T. ovate; spines obtuse, depressed; beneath pa-tellum-per-piliosum. India.
19. T. conic; spines obtuse, concatenated; striae pa-pagodus. pillos beneath; 3 inches high. India.
20. T. sub-conic; variegated with black and gray, fulcatus. and covered with hollow scales. Friendly islands.
21. T. nearly imperforated, depressed; whirls rough; calcar. with compressed hollow spines above. India.
22. T. subovate, striated; whirls rugged above. rugosus. Mediterranean, New Zealand.
23. T. sub-ovate, smooth; 3 rows of protuberances marmorata in the whirls; beak dilated behind. South America. tus.
24. T. convex, obtuse; whirls knotty above, and se-farmaticus parated by a canal. Asiatic and African seas.
25. T. convex, obtuse, smooth, angular. India. olearius.
26. T. whirls and spire round, with decussated striae; cornutus. the first with 3 rows of imbricated spines; a large shell. China.
27. T. rugged; whirls round, distant, transversely radiatus. striated, and armed with small imbricated spines. Red sea.
28. T. glabrous, glossy green; within snowy; aper-imperialis. ture silvery; pillar lip callous above; whirls of the spire very convex.
29. T. wrinkled; white, with greenish clouds; tip coronatus. orange; whirls crowned with spines and knots; pillar produced into a beak. Seas of Malacca. Very rare.
30. T. grooved and transversely striated; whirls 6, canaliculatus. very convex. India.
31. T. whirls of the spire cylindrical; grooved and setosus. transversely striated. India.
32. T. oblong, with broad, smooth striae; yellowish spartverius. spotted with brown. India.
33. T. oblong, transversely striated; striae spinous; spiniferus. aperture silvery. India.
34. T. silvery gray, with transverse orange and yel-molitianus. low bands; whirls of moniliform belts of granulations.
35. T. variegated white and yellowish; whirls round, spengleri. transversely striated, and separated by a canal. Indian anus. ocean. Very rare.
36. T. transversely striated; chestnut brown spotted costanea. with white; whirls 5, surrounded with rows of knots. South America.
37. T. silvery gray, surrounded with many rows of crenulatus. knots; aperture milk-white within.
38. T. ponderous, slightly depressed; smoothish and smaragdus. obliquely wrinkled; 4 whirls in the spire; first round and larger; 2 inches broad and high. New Zealand.
39. T. pellucid, thin and finely annulated; first papyra. whirl large, the next with a band varied with red and ceus. white.
40. T. transversely grooved; first whirl black, finely ethiops. striated; the rest silvery; lips bordered with brown.
41. T. brownish, reticulated; whirls surrounded nicobaricus. with belts; throat golden. Nicobar islands. cus.
42. T. smooth, with compressed roundish whirls; cidaricus. the first round and very large; aperture compressed, silvery; pillar a little prominent. India, China.
nigerrimus. 43. T. smooth, deep black; whirls distant, with a hollowed margin. Southern ocean.
belicinus. 44. T. smooth, nearly imperforated; roundish, with contiguous convex whirls; pillar thickened.
punctatus. 45. T. ovate, thick, with a mucronate spire; whirls smooth, flattish; the 2 first very large; 6 lines long. Senegal.
hemastomus. 46. T. ovate, solid, glabrous; whirls 6, striated; aperture margined, oval.
torquatus. 47. T. ovate, with convex, transverse grooves, and rugged striae; whirls with a knotty belt. New Zealand.
undulatus. 48. T. ovate, convex, with longitudinal, undulated streaks; spire obtuse; mouth silvery. New Zealand.
niveus. 49. T. spiral, snowy, diaphanous, transversely striated; whirls often distorted. Nicobar islands.
belicoides. 50. T. horny, sub-diaphanous, smoothish; ribs 3; whirls distant, aperture triangular. Indian ocean.
nitidus. 51. T. smooth, obtuse; whirls 4; aperture oval. Pembrokeshire coast.
scriptus. 52. T. smooth, opaque; whirls 3; with brown lines resembling characters; aperture roundish; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
costatus. 53. T. opaque; 4 whirls deeply ribbed longitudinally, and finely striated transversely. Devonshire.
subulatus. 54. T. opaque; 5 longitudinally ribbed whirls; aperture rounded, margined; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
albulus. 55. T. opaque; whirls 5, longitudinally ribbed; aperture roundish; not margined. Pembrokeshire coast.
reticulatus. 56. T. white, opaque; whirls 4, reticulated. Pembrokeshire coast.
ruber. 57. T. opaque, smooth, with 5 whirls. Cornwall.
interfasciatus. 58. T. pellucid, smooth; whirls 5, finely ribbed. Devonshire.
striatus. 59. T. pellucid, white; whirls 5, separated by a fine rib. Plymouth.
subarcuatus. 60. T. pellucid, white, curved towards the tip; whirls 10, longitudinally ribbed. Pembrokeshire coast.
areus. 61. T. pellucid; whirls longitudinally ribbed; brassy between the ribs. Pembrokeshire coast.
elegans. 62. T. pellucid; whirls 6, spirally striated; ribs remote. Pembrokeshire coast.
pellucidus. 63. T. pellucid, white, with 5 reticulated whirls. Pembrokeshire coast.
canaliculatus. 64. T. pellucid, whitish; whirls 5, longitudinally grooved. Pembrokeshire coast.
divisus. 65. T. pellucid, white; whirls 4, each divided into 2 parts; upper one smooth, the lower one spirally striated. Pembrokeshire sands.
C. Solid, perforated.
pica. 66. T. conic, rounded, smooth; a small tooth near the umbilicus; inches broad. In most seas.
sanguineus. 67. T. umbilicated, conic, convex, striated and smooth; whirls slightly grooved; size of a pea. Africa.
argyrostomus. 68. T. subovate, with transversely striated lines on the back. India.
margaritaceus. 69. T. subovate, with smooth, elevated, dorsal lines. Indian ocean.
versicolor. 70. T. glabrous; finely striated transversely, and varied with green and white. South sea.
71. T. umbilicus rough; whirls with branched delphinus spines. India.
72. T. depressed, knotty; an unequally tuberculate nodulosus. ed ridge on the back of the first whirl.
73. T. submucronate; covered with smooth spines. disortus.
74. T. base convex; whirls radiated with spines; stellatus. 12 large ones on the first; small. South sea.
75. T. whirls crowned with laciniated spines; the aculeatus. first with 9 large ones. Nicobar islands.
76. T. base flattened; whirls spinulous at the lower stellatus. margin.
77. T. whirls convex, and separated by a band, tes. mespilus. felated with brown and white; colour of a medlar. South sea.
78. T. surrounded with knotty rings; dirty green, granulatus with a reddish tip. Indian and South seas.
79. T. spire annulated; first whirl very large; per-ludus. foration spoon-shaped. South sea.
80. T. black, with double, alternate, black, and atratus. cinereous moniliform belts of granulations; pillar toothed; size of a nut. Nicobar islands.
81. T. depressed, orbicular; white varied with dentatus. brown; lower margin of the pillar denticulated.
82. T. dirty green varied with brown; whirls 4, diadema. first large. New Zealand. A large shell.
83. T. smooth, roundish, cinereous; whirls substri-cinereus. ated, ventricose, flattened at the future.
84. T. thin, diaphanous, white, round; 6-keel-carinatus. shaped whirls in the spire; perforations spiral.
85. T. thin, smooth; whirls flattened; 2 lines long, asper. Senegal.
86. T. depressed, smooth, opaque, brown; whirls planorbis. 4; line in diameter.
87. T. hyaline, smooth, subcarinated; whirls 6, marginellus. rounded; lip fringed, reflected.
88. T. whirls rounded; perforation deep, wide, and belicoides. funnel-shaped.
89. T. pyramidal, with foliaceous wrinkles; perfo-foliaceus. ration large.
90. T. transversely striated; within margaritaceus. anguit.
91. T. granulated, slightly umbilicated; within porphyri- margaritaceous. New Caledonia.
92. T. white, glabrous, striated green. New Zea-smaragdus. land.
D. Cancellated.
93. T. navel flattish, spreading; whirls round, with crinellus. crenated striae.
94. T. umbilicated, somewhat oblong and obtuse; thermalus. whirls round, smooth; 4 whirls. Minute. Fresh water near the baths in Tuscany.
95. T. wentle-trap; conic; whirls distant, longitu-scularis. dinaly ribbed. Var. 1. perforated with 8 whirls.
2. Imperforated with 10 whirls; 2 inches long. Barbary, Coromandel.—The wentle-trap is a very rare shell, and therefore greatly esteemed among collectors. As a proof of this, in the year 1753, four specimens which were disposed of at the sale of Commodore Lisle's shells in London, brought 751. 12s. Two were sold at 16 guineas each; one at 18 guineas, and the fourth at 231. 2s.
* 96. T. falsse wentle-trap; taper, not umbilicated; clatbrus. spire with longitudinal ribs; whirls smooth, ventricose, and separated by a deep canal; from 1 to 2 inches long.
long. Indian and European seas, Britain, Falmouth, South Devon.
tuberculatus. * 97. T. dusky, with 12 finely tuberculated whirls. Northumberland coast.
ambiguus. 98. T. tapering, perforated; whirls contiguous; smooth, ribbed. Mediterranean.
crenatus. 99. T. taper, subcancellated; whirls 8-ribbed, contiguous; crenated above.
laeteus. 100. T. taper; striae crowded, longitudinal, raised; size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
striatus. 101. T. subcancellated, taper; whirls contiguous; belts interrupted, varicose; size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
uva. 102. T. ovate, obtuse; whirls contiguous, imbricated and longitudinally striated; inch long. South America.
corneus. 103. T. umbilicated, rounded, rather acute; whirls round, with decussated striae; aperture reflected.
lineata. 104. T. oblong, obtuse, with wrinkled striae; aperture with a dilated, flat, crenated border; 8 lines long. Jamaica.
linulatus. 105. T. white, cylindrical, reticulated; aperture remote.
labio. 106. T. oblong, umbilicated, brown, striated with convex dots; lip white, dilated; 15 lines long. Jamaica.
striatus. * 107. T. ovate, imperforated, ventricose; finely striated spirally; 6 lines long. Woods of Europe, Britain.
reflexus. 108. T. umbilicated, convex, a little prominent; whirls round, substriated; aperture reflected. Southern Europe.
dubius. 109. T. umbilicated, oblong; whirls equal; striae decussated; aperture dilated.
limbatus. 110. T. subovate, wrinkled, perforated. Coromandel.
E. Tapering.
imbricatus. 111. T. whirls of the spire imbricated downwards; 4 inches long. American islands.
replicatus. 112. T. smooth; whirls imbricated upwards; 3 inches long. Tranquebar.
acutangulus. 113. T. with a single prominent, acute, transverse rib; 4 inches long. Tranquebar.
plicatus. * 114. T. whirls with 2 prominent, acute, transverse ribs; 5 inches long. Coromandel, shores of Britain.
evolutus. * 115. T. whirls with 2 prominent, obtuse, distant, transverse ribs; 2 inches long. Europe, Guinea, shores of Britain.
terebrata. * 116. T. whirls 6, prominent, acutely striated; from 2 to 6 inches long. Shores of Europe, Africa and China; Britain.
lavis. * 117. T. with 8 smooth whirls nearly obsolete. Minute. Shores of Anglesea.
albus. 118. T. white, with 8 whirls transversely striated.
variegatus. 119. T. whirls of the spire flattish, with 7 obtuse striae; 2 to 3 inches long. South America, Barbary.
angulinus. 120. T. whirls of the spire with 10 obsolete striae; 2 to inches long. European, Mediterranean seas.
chrysollianus. 121. T. whirls of the spire ribbed; aperture ovate. Denmark.
albus. 122. T. imperforated, glabrous; whirls rounded, striated. Depths of the Greenland seas.
annulatus. 123. T. whirls with a prominent, margined suture; inch long.
* 124. T. pellucid; whirls contrary; sutures subere-bidens. nated; aperture 2-toothed behind; inch long. Europe; roots of trees, Britain.
* 125. T. pellucid; whirls reversed, not crenated; perverfus, aperture 3-toothed; inch long. Europe, Britain, among moss, and in old walls.
126. T. obtuse; grooves curved; whirls 11; fusus. lines long.
127. T. obtuse; groove straight; whirls 9; aper-fusus. ture toothed.
128. T. obtuse, white; grooves oblique; aperture sulcatus. nearly square; whirls 8; 12 lines long.
129. T. whirls 9, recurved; aperture 4-toothed; quadrident 5 lines long. Bombay, Italy.
130. T. whitish; whirls 7; aperture 3-toothed; 5 trident. lines long. Italy.
* 131. T. ovate, obtuse, pellucid; 4 to 6 whirls; muscorum. aperture toothless, oval; 1 line long. Among moss, Britain.
* 132. T. deep brown, spires 4; first ventricose; a-ulve. pture oval; size of a grain of wheat. Britain.
* 133. T. imperforated, smooth; whirls 5, nearly ob-trifasciatus folet; transversely barred. Minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 134. T. smooth; whirls 5, obliquely barred; aper-membra-ture suboval. Minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 135. T. whirls 5, subobtus, roundish; minute, interrup-tus. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 136. T. smooth; whirls 5, somewhat angular a-subrusus. bove. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 137. T. whirls 3; the first with 3 transverse ridges; strigatus. minute. Sealster, England.
* 138. T. whirls 7, ridged; aperture oval. Seal-albidus. ter. Rare.
* 139. T. carinated; whirls 7; aperture contracted, carinatu-lus. margined. Sandwich. Rare.
* 140. T. whirls 6; aperture oval, margined; mi-clathratu-lus. nate. Sandwich. Very rare.
* 141. T. thick, barred; whirls 5; aperture round, crassus. margined; minute. Sandwich. Rare.
* 142. T. nine whirls, dotted, reversed; aperture con-punctatus. tracted; minute. Sandwich.
143. T. whirls 6, reticulated; aperture oval, sub-sheppeia-nus. margined; minute. Sheppey island.
144. T. whirls 3, elegantly reticulated; aperture sandvoicen-si. oval, toothed; minute. Sandwich.
145. T. whirls 5, distinct, transversely striated, bar-obtusus. red with white.
146. T. white, smooth; aperture with a flattish, aurifical-concave, obtuse, reflected lip. Mediterranean. pium.
147. T. imperforated, glabrous; aperture oval; politus. size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
148. T. flattish; whirls annulated, and erected on daelylius. the back; minute. In stagnate waters in Europe.
149. T. two obtuse, approximate ridges on the obsoleteus. whirls of the spire.
150. T. subumbilicated, whitish; whirls 12; aper-quinque-dentatus. ture 5 toothed.
151. T. pyramidal, ventricose, horny, pellucid; pyramida-aperture compressed; above one-fourth of an inch long, lis. Germany.
* 152. T. conic, smooth, glossy; whirls 5 or 6; a-unidenta-perture suboval; pillar furnished near the middle with tus. 1 tooth; inch long. Salecomb bay.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; shell univalve, spiral, subdiaphanous, brittle; aperture contracted, semilunar, or roundish.
scarabæus. 1. H. ovate, both edges keel-shaped; aperture toothed. Mountains of Asia, and the Friendly Islands.
lopicida. * 2. H. umbilicated; convex on each side; aperture transverse, margined, ovate; inch in diameter. Rocks, woods, and hedges in Europe, Britain.
marginata. 3. H. subumbilicated, a little depressed; obliquely striated; aperture transverse; 9 lines in diameter.
cicatricosa. 4. H. umbilicated, depressed and wrinkled; whirls reversed.
ægephthal-mor. 5. H. umbilicated, depressed, greenish, immaculate; whirls 7; an inch across. India, South America.
oculus ca-pri. 6. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex; aperture margined. Trees in Asia.
albula. * 7. H. umbilicated, flattish; gibbous beneath; aperture somewhat heart-shaped. Europe, Britain, rocks and dry banks.
maculata. 8. H. perforated, flattish, subcarinated; white, dotted with brown; gibbous beneath, with linear bands; 5 lines across.
albina. 9. H. perforated, flattish, white, gibbous beneath; aperture quadrangular.
striatula. 10. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, striated; more gibbous beneath; aperture roundish, lunated; minute. Water-falls of Lombardy.
algira. 11. H. subangular, umbilicated, convex; whirls 6; navel perversus.
leucas. 12. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, smooth; beneath gibbous; navel very minute; aperture roundish, lunate.
lævipes. 13. H. perforated, subcarinated, contrary, convex, pale with a rufous band, united to a white one; inch in diameter.
exilis. 14. H. perforated, depressed, subcarinated; pale with a rufous band joined to a white one; whirls striated; 10 lines across. Tranquebar.
vermicula-ta. 15. H. subglobular, depressed, rough, imperforated; dotted with white; lip reflected; white. Italy and Portugal.
candida. 16. H. umbilicated, convex on each side; aperture not margined.
spadicæa. 17. H. perforated, umbilicated, chesnut; whirls 5; 7 lines high.
incarnata. 18. H. perforated, subglobular, subcarinated; whirls 6; lip flesh-coloured; 6 lines broad. Woods of Denmark and Germany.
sericea. 19. H. perforated, subglobular, convex on each side; tomentose. Denmark, in gardens.
coronulata. 20. H. perforated, globular, subcarinated and striated; white, with a brown band; 3 lines wide. Lyons.
planorbis. * 21. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, flat; above concave; aperture oblique; ovate and acute on each side. Ponds and rivers of Europe and Barbary, Britain.
complan-a-ta. 22. H. carinated downwards, umbilicated, convex; flat beneath; aperture semi-heart-shaped. Ponds and rivers of Europe.
23. H. subcarinated, imperforated, convex, with ringens. an inverted, ringent aperture; lip 4-plaited behind; 1 inch wide. India.
24. H. imperforated, subcarinated, reddish brown, finuata. with a white ridge; aperture transverse; toothed and 3-plaited behind; 9 lines in diameter. America.
25. H. imperforated, white; flattish above; beneath lucerna. gibbous; aperture transverse, 2-toothed; 13 lines broad.
26. H. imperforated, flattish above, beneath gib-lampas. bous; whirls scared. A rare shell.
27. H. imperforated, a little convex on each side, carocolla. with a white transverse lip. India.
28. H. imperforated, top-shaped, white with ful-lychnuchus. yous bands; aperture transverse, 2-toothed.
29. H. subglobular, umbilicated, subcarinated; cepa. yellowish, with a whitish band; aperture transverse, 2-toothed, and sinuated behind.
30. H. subcarinated, imperforated, convex; aper-cornu-mili-tare. ture with a white margin. India.
31. H. subcarinated, with flame-colour, red, and pellis-ser- white bands; beneath surrounded with 4 rows of dots; pentis. aperture fringed. Warm parts of America.
32. H. flat, thin, concave above; aperture oval, vortex. flat; 3 lines wide. Ponds and rivers of Europe, Britain.
33. H. subcarinated, imperforated, ovate, pointed, scabra. and striated.
34. H. convex on each side; horny, with subferru-gothica. ginous bands. Woods of Sweden.
35. H. imperforated, depressed, with decussated. qualteri- striæ; aperture acute on each side. India. A landana. species, very rare.
36. H. top-shaped, acuminated, with convex spiral tricarin- striæ, and triple ridge; aperture dilated; 11 lines ata. wide.
37. H. brownish, depressed; first whirl round; a-ifo-gono- aperture contracted; nearly triangular; 3-toothed and mostamus. margined. Virginia and Alfaca.
38. H. depressed, umbilicated; whirls contiguous; oculus com- the first large; aperture oblong, ovate. munitis.
39. H. umbilicated, convex on each side; varieg-a-assis. ted with white and chesnut; aperture winged and slightly margined.
40. H. umbilicated, obliquely striated; convex a-marginella. bous; beneath a little depressed; first whirl carinated; 1 inch broad.
41. H. subcarinated, imperforated; convex on each finuosa. side, with hollow dots; aperture transverse; 7-toothed; whirls 6.
42. H. umbilicated, subcarinated, obliquely striated maculosa. and a little depressed; aperture lunated, with a margined lip.
43. H. subumbilicated, subcarinated; aperture trans- punctata. verse, oblong; lip margined, 3-toothed.
44. H. ovate, glabrous; whirls 5; the first gib-vitrea. gibbous, the rest carinated; aperture oblong-ovate; 2 inches high.
45. H. umbilicated, depressed, white; whirls 4, annulata. the first gibbous and doubly carinated; aperture ovate; 2 lines in diameter.
46. H. umbilicated, white, depressed above; whirls rhenana. carinated
carinated and irregularly striated, the last brown. Rhine.
nevia. 47. H. depressed, umbilicated; white, with longitudinal black spots above, and 5 bands beneath. Santa Cruz.
corrugata. 48. H. umbilicated, wrinkled, and obliquely striated; aperture lunated. Jamaica.
faba. 49. H. imperforated, smooth, saffron with brown margin, and base of the whirls; aperture blue. Otahite.
crenata. 50. H. rounded, brown; whirls carinated; aperture sinuous. New Zealand.
carinata. * 51. H. striated, carinated; whirls 3; aperture sub-oval; minute. Fresh water near Favertham, England.
cornea. * 52. H. above umbilicated, flat, blackish; whirls 4. Fresh waters, Europe, Coromandel, Britain.
spirorbis. 53. H. concave on each side, flat, whitish; whirls 5, rounded; line diameter. Stagnant waters, France, Germany.
polygyra. 54. H. flatish, orbicular; aperture oval; lip fringed.
contorta. 55. H. subumbilicated, flat on each side, equal; aperture linear, arched; 1 to 2 lines wide. Stagnant waters of Europe.
nitida. 56. H. polished, yellowish, above convex, umbilicated; flat beneath, perforated; 1 to 3 lines in diameter. Ditches of Denmark.
alba. 57. H. white, umbilicated on each side; aperture dilated; 1 to 2 lines wide. Denmark, aquatic plants.
familiaris. 58. H. pellucid, umbilicated above; striated with dots. Ditches in Denmark and Berlin.
cornu-arietis. 59. H. umbilicated, flatish; aperture oval; 12 to 16 lines in diameter. China.
hispidula. * 60. H. umbilicated, convex, hispid, diaphanous; whirls 5; aperture roundish, lunated. Woods of Europe, Britain.
ampulla-cea. 61. H. subumbilicated, subglobular, glabrous; whirls above more ventricose; aperture large, ovate, oblong; 1 to 5 inches wide. Asia and America.
piscinalis. 62. H. globular, perforated, reddish brown; whirls four. Fish ponds of Denmark.
puffilla. 63. H. globular, perforated; aperture rolled spirally inwards. Lakes of Germany.
spherica. 64. H. globular, horny, with an obtuse crown; 1 to 2 lines wide. Seas of Denmark.
pomatia. * 65. H. subumbilicated, subovate, obtuse; aperture roundish, semilunar; reddish brown, with obsolete, paler bands. Woods of Europe, Britain.—This species was a favourite dish among the Romans. It is still used as an article of food in many parts of Europe, during the season of Lent. It was introduced into England by Sir Kenelm Digby, as a cure for consumption.
glauca. 66. H. umbilicated, roundish, pointed; lip margined; aperture oval.
citrina. 67. H. subumbilicated, convex, obtuse; yellowish, with a brown band; from 12 to 18 lines wide. Woods of Jamaica and China.
castanea. 68. H. perforated, subglobular, dull chestnut, with a rufous band united to a white one; whirls 7, striated.
69. H. perforated, subglobular, with hollow dots rapa, and a red band; first whirl larger; 8 lines wide.
70. H. globular, subumbilicated, white; lip reflected globular, ed; whirls 5.
71. H. imperforated, depressed; gray, with white laetea, dots; aperture red brown. Jamaica and Portugal.
72. H. depressed, umbilicated, white, with a cutinosa, margin.
* 73. H. umbilicated, convex, pointed; aperture sub-arbusco-orbicular, a little reflected at the rim, brown, with a rum, single black spiral band; 9 lines wide. Shrubbies and hedges, Britain.
74. H. nearly imperforated, globular, pellucid; fulva, fulvous, with a white lip; 1 to 3 lines wide. Woods of Denmark.
75. H. subimperforated, subglobular, striated; whirls epistylum, 7; 12 lines in diameter.
76. H. subimperforated; white, with rufous lip and cincta, bands; whirls 5; 18 lines wide.
77. H. subimperforated, subglobular; white, with ligata, rufous bands; whirls 4; 14 lines wide. Italy.
78. H. subimperforated, subglobular; pale yellow, aspera, with 4 rufous bands, interrupted with white spots; whirls 4; 12 to 18 lines in diameter. Italy.
79. H. subimperforated, subglobular, pale, imma-estensa, culate; aperture large; whirls 4, distant.
80. H. perforated, globular; white, with subinter-pifana, rupted red bands; lip rosy; 5 to 7 lines wide. Barbary, Italy.
81. H. perforated, with a depressed crown; white, stirigata, with rufous bands, and numerous lines; lip white on each side; 10 lines wide.
82. H. perforated, globular, polished; white, with nemoren-brown bands; 15 lines wide. India. sis.
* 83. H. umbilicated, convex, slightly depressed; a-zonaria, aperture rather oblong and margined; whirls 5; first ventricose; 11 to 13 lines in diameter. Barbary, Europe, Britain.
84. H. umbilicated; subdepressed, striated, white; striata, 6 lines wide. Italy.
* 85. H. umbilicated, depressed, yellowish, with aerico-brown band or bands; 4 to 11 lines wide. Europe, rum, Britain.
* 86. H. umbilicated, subdepressed, fulvous, horny, nitens, or yellowish green; substriated; aperture large; whirls 4 or 5; 1 to 4 lines wide. Wet woods of Europe, Britain.
87. H. umbilicated, cinereous; whirls 4; rib trans-costata, verily plaited; aperture circular; 1 line wide. Highlands of Denmark.
88. H. umbilicated, subdepressed; aperture circi-palebella, nate; lip white, reflected; whirls 4; 1 line wide. Moist woods of Denmark.
89. H. umbilicated, subdepressed, with elevated, rotundata, transverse lines, and ferruginous spots; 2 lines wide. Moist places, and rotten wood, in France, Germany, and Denmark. Common.
90. H. umbilicated, depressed; yellowish, polished; cellaria, white beneath; aperture large; whirls 5; 3 lines wide. Cells in Germany.
91. H. umbilicated, depressed on both sides; whirls obvoluta, obvoluted. Var. 1. Whitish, glabrous, with a triangular aperture. 2. Brown, hispid, with a linear aperture; 4 to 5 lines wide. Italy.
strigosa. 92. H. perforated, subdepressed, striated; white, with a rufous band; 5 lines wide. France.
radiata. 93. H. perforated, striated; convex beneath; radiated. France and Virginia.
crystallina. 94. H. perforated, depressed, gloffy white, diaphanous; 4 to 5 whirls; 1 line wide. Denmark, among moss.
ungulina. 95. H. umbilicated, convex; aperture margined, suborbicular, and elongated above; of the shape of an apple; 16 lines wide. India.
varia. 96. H. globular, umbilicated, whitish yellow; whirls 5, reversed; the outermost divaricated; 19 lines wide.
frunicum. 97. H. umbilicated, globular; aperture without pillar lip; 7 lines wide. Hedges of Denmark.
lucena. 98. H. subglobular, umbilicated; gibbous beneath; lip reflected, white; whirls 5; the first very convex.
vittata. 99. H. subglobular, subumbilicated; white, with crowded chevron bands and blue crown; lip reflected, white; 9 lines in diameter. Coromandel.
rosacea. 100. H. subglobular, subumbilicated; flesh colour, and transversely striated; whirls 5; 19 lines wide.
itala. 101. H. umbilicated, convex, obtuse; whirls 5, round; navel wide; size of a nut. Southern Europe. A land species.
lustranica. 102. H. umbilicated, perforated, convex, obtuse; whirls 5, round, and yellowish white; umbilicus spreading; size of a small apple. Southern Europe. A land species.
mammellaris. 103. H. umbilicated, ovate; whirls 3, striated; aperture large, ovate, and united to the tip. Rivers of Africa.
hispana. 104. H. umbilicated, convex; whirls 5, round; umbilicus thin, perforated; aperture suborbicular. Southern Europe.
lutaria. 105. H. umbilicated, ovate, oblong; finely striated; aperture white within.
ovalis. 106. H. perforated, ovate, ventricose, and streaked; tip ribbed and rosy; lip of the same colour; pillar white; whirls 6; 4 inches long.
oblonga. 107. H. perforated, ovate, oblong, striated; lip and pillar rosy; whirls 6; aperture oval; 3 inches long. South America and India.
flammea. 108. H. perforated, oblong; white, with longitudinal, rufous bands; pillar reflected, straight; 18 to 20 lines long. Guinea.
pilosa. 109. H. top-shaped, white with rufous bands; whirls 6; aperture transverse, large; 15 lines long.
nucleata. 110. H. top-shaped, umbilicated; convex on both sides; brown, with prickly ribs; lip whitish; 1 line wide. Woods of Denmark.
volvulus. 111. H. top-shaped, umbilicated, acuminated; aperture circinate; 11 to 22 lines wide.
involutulus. 112. H. top-shaped, umbilicated, pointed; white, with spiral, convex striæ; aperture circinate; 13 lines wide.
neritina. 113. H. glabrous, hardish, umbilicated; chevron, with white bands; whirls flat beneath; aperture ovate, oblong; 1 inch long.
turturum. 114. H. umbilicated, rounded, thin; aperture semilunar. Woods of Europe; Britain.
oliveto-rum. 115. H. umbilicated, a little depressed, yellow; aperture compressed; first whirl flattish, round. Olive groves, Florence.
116. H. umbilicated, subglobular, smooth; aperture ladia. linear; 1 inch high.
117. H. subumbilicated, smooth; whirls convex; erectacea. aperture lunated; 10 lines high.
118. H. subumbilicated, conic, white, with chevron pileata. bands; aperture semilunar; tip obtuse.
119. H. rounded, subumbilicated, thin; aperture suscescens. semilunar. Thuringia.
120. H. flat on both sides, with an obtusely mucronate terrefris. spire; first whirl very large, the rest gradually decreasing; aperture margined, semilunar; whirls 6.
121. H. rounded, umbilicated, thin, gloffy white; nivea. aperture semilunar.
122. H. flat on both sides, umbilicated; whirls 6, media. the first round; aperture suborbicular. Germany.
123. H. umbilicated, very thin, flat, polished, and tenella. convex above; aperture compressed, semilunar; whirls 5, contiguous.
124. H. umbilicated, depressed, white; whirls 6, crepuscula. round, 3d and 4th brown, the last reddish at the tip; aperture semilunar, smooth. Guinea.
125. H. umbilicated, pellucid; beneath hemispherical- hyalina. cal, white; whirls reversed. Shores of Guinea.
126. H. umbilicated, obtusely subtriangular, rough, avellana. plaited and silvery within; aperture smooth, cased; first whirl with an elevated circle; size and colour of a nut; pillar lip white. Southern ocean.
127. H. inflated, subumbilicated, fragile; whirls 5; rufescens. first very large; aperture semilunar; 6 lines wide. Rivers of Hamburg.
128. H. umbilicated, obtusely subpyramidal; whirls pervia. 4, convex; the first with an elevated circle; the rest surrounded with a groove; aperture semilunar; minute.
129. H. umbilicated, oblong; whirls round and levissima. smooth; aperture orbicular.
130. H. umbilicated, pellucid; whirls 3, divided suscescens. by a groove; aperture orbicular and not margined. laris. The animal, besides the two tentacula, is furnished with a crest. Waters of Strasburg and Paris. Very rare.
131. H. umbilicated, depressed; first whirl villous, boloseri. flat; aperture triangular, margined; whirls 6; 1 inch wide. France and Switzerland.
132. H. thin, fragile, white, umbilicated; first turgida. whirl round, inflated; whirls 6; 1 inch wide. Waters of Hamburg.
133. H. umbilicated, pellucid, horny, transversely tenuis. striated, and convex; whirls 6, gradually decreasing; aperture semilunar; 4 to 5 lines in diameter.
134. H. cartilaginous, horny, pale yellow, subpel- coriacea. lucid, gibbous. Kurile islands.
135. H. depressed, deeply umbilicated. Leaves and cornu-ve- branches of trees, Senegal. natorum.
136. H. pyramidal, white, umbilicated; whirls 6, elegans. acute, flattish, and margined. Barbary and Southern Europe. A land snail.
137. H. pyramidal, smooth, white, obtuse; base im- cookiana. perforated, convex. South sea islands.
138. H. pyramidal, subcarinated, very finely stri- bidentata. ated; lip reflected, 2-toothed. Botanic garden at Strasburg.
139. H. pyramidal, subimperfected, varied with turbo-. yellow and rufous. Coromandel.
140. H.
trifasciata. 140. H. conic, ovate, white, with 3 brownish bands in the first whirl; aperture fringed; lip white, dilated. Tranquebar. A land species.
bonita. 141. H. conic, ventricose, perforated, pellucid, with a black tip; first whirl with 3 yellowish bands. Bengal.
trochoides. 142. H. top-shaped, perforated, polished; longitudinally striated; whirls reversed, the first keel-shaped; aperture angular.
tomentosa. * 143. H. umbilicated; whirls 3, bristly; aperture roundish; minute. Boggy ground, Pembrokeshire.
tubulata. * 144. H. whirls 3, longitudinally striated; tube at the base margined; minute. Coast of Pembrokeshire.
fasciata. * 145. H. subumbilicated, smooth; whirls 3, first more ventricose; aperture dilated; minute. Sandwich and Tenby.
nitidissima. * 146. H. umbilicated; whirls 2, transversely striated; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
bicolor. * 147. H. slightly umbilicated, smooth; whirls 2; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
spinosa. * 148. H. subglobular, umbilicated; mouth roundish; margin thorny; minute. Near Faverham. Rare.
reticulata. * 149. H. subumbilicated, reticulated; mouth rounded margined; minute. Reculver. Very rare.
perversa. 150. H. subumbilicated, ovate, oblong; whirls 5 to 8 contrary; 18 to 28 lines long. India.
dextra. 151. H. conic, yellow; lip reflected, white; whirls 6 to 7; aperture ovate; 18 to 22 lines long.
recta. 152. H. conic, a little pointed; whitish with a rufous band and streaks; lip reflected; whirls 7; 2½ inches long.
inversa. 153. H. conic, pointed; whirls 8, obliquely streaked, contrary; 2½ inches long. Mauritius, and Bourbon islands.
interrupta. 154. H. conic, pointed, white with fulvous streaks; lip white, reflected; whirls 7; 22 lines long.
contraria. 155. H. conic, pointed; whirls contrary; white, with undulated, interrupted, brown streaks; 15 lines long; very rare.
læva. 156. H. subcylindrical, glabrous, contrary, barred; pillar yellow; lip slightly reflected; 12 to 16 lines long; very rare.
arenaria. 157. H. glossy, whitish, thin, longitudinally striated; spire contrary, hemispherical; minute. Armenian coast.
jamaicensis. 158. H. globular, chestnut-brown, barred with white; lip fringed, white; crown obtuse. Jamaica.
rhodia. 159. H. subglobular, depressed; base concave; aperture lunated. Rhode island.
labiosa. 160. H. oblong, polished, white, diaphanous; whirls 8; aperture ovate, toothless; 14 lines long. India.
pubica. 161. H. oblong, a little wrinkled, rosy; whirls 6; aperture toothless; 20 lines long.
ianthina. 162. H. nearly imperforated, roundish, obtuse, diaphanous and very brittle; aperture dilated behind, with an emarginated lip; 1 inch broad and high. In most seas.—The animal which inhabits this shell thins in the night, and flails the hand with a violet or purple dye.
gigantea. 163. H. imperforated, roundish, solid, with a depressed spire; whirls 6, contiguous.
vivipara. * 164. H. imperforated, ventricose, subovate, obtuse; whirls 5 to 6, very convex; aperture nearly orbicu-
lar; 1½ inches long. Stagnant waters of Europe, Britain. This species is viviparous.
165. H. ovate, ventricose; white with 3 shining fasciata. red bands; whirls 5; spire acute; 9 to 15 lines long. Italy.
166. H. subovate, pointed, yellowish white, with a diffusilis. black lip; whirls 6. Tranquebar.
* 167. H. perforated, roundish, thin, pellucid, and nemorabilis. marked with variously coloured transverse bands; whirls 5, from 9 to 11 lines wide. Woods of Europe, Britain.
* 168. H. Garden Snail; imperforated, globular, pale, bartenstz. with broad interrupted, brown bands; lip white; 7 to 8 lines wide. Gardens and orchards, Europe, Britain.—This species is extremely destructive to the tender leaves of plants, and fruits. It is oviparous; the eggs are round, and about the size of small peas.
169. H. imperforated roundish, smooth; whitish lucorum. with rufous streaks and bands. Southern parts of Europe.
170. H. imperforated, subovate, obtuse, gray with grisea. two pale bands; aperture rather oblong. Woods of Europe.
171. H. imperforated, roundish, brown, with a long hemiflora. longitudinal white band; whirls 5, round, first large; 1½ inches broad; 1½ inch broad. Ceylon.
172. H. imperforated, subovate, brown striped; pulla. whirls 4; aperture oblique, margined, whitish; 2 inches broad.
173. H. imperforated, subovate; sulphur with a venusta. white band margined with red; whirls 4; lip reflected, margined; 10 lines broad.
174. H. imperforated, subglobular, glabrous; whirls pietta. 4, round, first ventricose, the others depressed; aperture lunar. Italy.
175. H. imperforated, subovate, covered with a variegata. brown cuticle, under which it is barred; aperture white within. Italy.
176. H. imperforated, solid, ovate; whirls 6, round, solida. contiguous; pillar thickened; 1 inch long.
177. H. imperforated, subglobular, finely striated aperta. longitudinally; whirls 3, first ventricose; aperture lunar; pillar spiral.
178. H. imperforated, roundish, and transversely versicolor. striated; whirls round, the first ventricose; aperture ovate.
179. H. imperforated, ovate; whirls 6, flatish, con- esra. tiguous; aperture unequal, 5 toothed; 3 lines long. Senegal.
180. H. imperforated, ovate, transversely striated nucleus. with black belts; aperture sinuous. Otaheite.
181. H. imperforated, ovate, smooth, red; aperture coccinea. pale yellow. New Zealand.
* 182. H. imperforated, subpellucid, smooth, with variegata. red lines; whirls 4, the first more ventricose; minute. Welch coast.
* 183. H. whirls 3; aperture rounded, margined; mi-fulgida. minute. Welsh coast.
* 184. H. striated; aperture suboval; whirls reflected striata. on the back; minute. Sandwich. Very rare.
* 185. H. imperforated, tapering; spire mutilated, decollata. truncated; whirls 4 to 7, first large; 6 to 15 lines long. Europe, Asia, and Africa; Britain.
scularis. 186. H. conic, tapering, imperforated; whirls 5, ventricose, remote; spire obtuse; aperture ovate.
circinata. 187. H. hyaline, transversely ribbed, perforated, and a little tapering; whirls distant; aperture circular; 6 lines high.
subcylindrica. 188. H. imperforated, tapering, subcylindrical, obtuse; whirls 4; aperture ovate; size of a grain of rye. Fresh waters, North of Europe.
flagnorum. 189. H. subperforated, and a little tapering; whirls 5; aperture ovate; minute. Fresh waters.
oblonga. * 190. H. subperforated, tapering; whirls 8; aperture roundish; 4 lines long. America, Europe, Britain.
tenera. 191. H. tapering, convex, striated; pillar sinuated, inflected; whirls 7 to 8, with incumbent margins; aperture ovate, oblong; 2½ inches long.
columna. 192. H. tapering, white, with a fulvous tip; whirls 7 or 8, contrary, spotted; aperture oblong; 27½ lines long.
pella. 193. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed, transversely striated; brown, with yellow bands; band on the first whorl double, on the rest single. Iceland.
plicaria. 194. H. subulate, semipellucid, longitudinally plaited; whirls 10, round; aperture ovate.
undulata. 195. H. subulate, smooth, finely striated transversely; whirls about 12, round; aperture ovate; pillar glabrous.
fuscata. 196. H. subulate, smooth, finely striated transversely; whirls about 10, round; aperture ovate; pillar smooth.
priapus. 197. H. imperforated, tapering, glabrous; pillar somewhat depressed; pillar inflected.
folliculus. 198. H. tapering, pellucid, glabrous; whirls 5 or 6, round, equal; aperture ovate; pillar slightly plaited; size of an oat. Barbary.
sepium. 199. H. tapering, milk-white, longitudinally striated; whirls 7, contiguous; aperture ovate; ¼ inch long. Mountains of Southern Europe.
splendida. 200. H. thin, glossy, pellucid; whirls 6; aperture oblong; ¼ inch long. France.
mitra. 201. H. shell tapering; whirls 8 or 9, distant ribbed; first round, the rest flatish; aperture ovate; 1 inch long.
atra. 202. H. black, tapering, minutely striated; whirls 7, rather convex; aperture oblong, oval; 2 inches long.
cuspidata. 203. H. tapering, horny, finely striated transversely, and longitudinally plaited; lip acute. Rivers of India.
crenata. 204. H. tapering, white, transversely substriated, and surrounded with a crenulated belt near the future. Rivers of India.
carinola. 205. H. white, tapering, somewhat umbilicated; first whorl a little keel-shaped, with a blackish band.
crocea. 206. H. cylindrical, glabrous, yellowish orange; tip obtuse.
lansebruria. 207. H. tapering, very glabrous, chestnut-brown with darker spots; throat whitish. Fresh waters, Coromandel.
obtusata. 208. H. white, densely striated, subcylindrical; whirls a little convex; lip margined; 3 inches long.
purpurea. 209. H. ovate, oblong, purplish, tessellated with purple; within iridescent. New Zealand.
E. Ovale, imperforated.
210. H. coarse, nearly imperforated, ovate, oblong; pupa. whirls 6; aperture oblong, lunated. Mauritania.
211. H. coarse, oblong, imperforated; whirls 8; barbara. aperture roundish, lunated; size of a barley-corn. Algiers.
212. H. oblong, imperforated; whirls toothed, spi-amarula. nous; 10 lines long. Rivers of India.
* 213. H. transversely grooved; white striated with naevia. black; whirls flatish, the first large and round; spire pointed; an inch long. Southern ocean, Plymouth dock.
214. H. pointed, cinereous, transversely striated; aspera. whirls 7 to 8, toothed, marked with red streaks, and armed with sharp spines; 5 to 8 lines long. Coromandel.
* 215. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point; flagnalis. somewhat angular, by several longitudinal wrinkles; whirls 6 to 7, first ventricose; aperture oblong, oval; 2½ inches long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
* 216. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point; fragilis. spire acute; whirls 5 to 7; aperture oblong, oval; 11 lines long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
217. H. cylindrical, pointed, horny; aperture o-glabra. vate; whirls 8; four lines long. Moist meadows of Denmark.
* 218. H. oblong, pointed, brown; aperture ovate; polystrix. whirls 5 to 6. Meadows of Europe, Britain.
219. H. ovate, oblong; whirls 5, truncated up-trunca-wards; aperture ovate; 2 to 5 lines long. Greece. tula.
* 220. H. subconic, horny, with a sharp point; aper-peregra. ture ovate; 2 to 8 lines long. Stagnant waters of Denmark, Britain.
* 221. H. ventricose, diaphanous, with an obtuse pro-glutinosa. jection; 2 to 3 whirls; aperture wide; 2 to 4 lines long. Denmark, chiefly on the leaves of nymphaea lutea. Marlies at Deal.
* 222. H. imperforated, obtuse, ovate, yellow; whirls putris. 3, the first large, the others minute; aperture ovate; 1 to 8 lines long. Ponds in Europe, Britain.
223. H. conic, pointed, white with a red band; acuta. whirls 7; aperture ovate, toothless; 4 lines long. Italy.
224. H. conic, perforated; spire rugged; aperture papilla. tranverse; whirls 6; 10 lines wide.
225. H. subcylindrical; whirls 5; aperture tooth-minuta. less, oval. Greece. Not a line long.
* 226. H. conic, white, with tranverse rufous lines; detrita. whirls 6; aperture ovate; 8½ lines long. Saxony, Britain.
227. H. conic, pale, striated; whirls 7, the 4 out-ventricosa. ermost nearly of equal width; 8½ lines long. Greece.
* 228. H. conic, brown; whirls 6; aperture oval, obscura. toothless; snail white; above dusky, eyes only black. Roots of trees, Europe, Britain.
* 229. H. conic, fulvous, polished; whirls 5 or 6; lubrica. aperture toothless; 2½ lines long. Moss and wet rotten wood, Britain.
* 230. H. imperforated, somewhat oblong, pellucid; limosa. aperture ovate. Wet meadows of Europe, Sandwich, river Avon.
231. H. turbinated, cinereous, nearly imperforated; contortu- crown truncated; whirls 5; aperture circinated. plicata.
232.
angularis. 232. H. imperforated, greenish; whirls 5, spirally angular; throat white; 12 lines long. China.
tentaculata. * 233. H. imperforated, ovate, obtuse, clouded with brown; whirls 4 or 5; aperture subovate; 1-4 lines long. Ponds and still waters of Europe, Britain.
auricularia. * 234. H. imperforated, ovate, gibbous, with a depression in the middle of the lip; whirls 3-5; the first ventricose; spire acute, short; aperture much dilated; 2-15 lines long. Ponds of Europe, Britain.
levigata. * 235. H. whirls 2; first ventricose; the other minute, and placed laterally; pale red, pellucid. Europe, Devonshire.
balbica. 236. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed; whirls 4; wrinkles elevated; aperture ovate, dilated. Shores of the Baltic.
neritoides. 237. H. imperforated, convex, longitudinally striated; aperture roundish.
perspicua. 238. H. imperforated, convex, ovate; without lip; aperture extending to the tip. Mediterranean.
balistoides. 239. H. imperforated, depressed, with waved scribe; aperture oval; open all the way down; whirls 4, lateral. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian and North seas.
muralis. 240. H. imperforated, subdepressed, white; whirls 6; 6 lines wide. France.
vertigo. 241. H. cylindrical, glabrous; whirls 4 or 5; round, reversed; aperture square, 6-toothed; 1 line long. In decayed wood, Denmark.
carychium. 242. H. hyaline, subconic, glabrous; whirls 5, round; aperture ovate, with 3 teeth within.
ambigua. 243. H. subimperforated, convex; grooves remote, compressed; aperture semiorbicular. Mediterranean sea.
cornea. 244. H. imperforated, ovate, black; aperture ovate. Waters of Greece.
pyrum. 245. H. subcylindrical, with decussated scribe; whirls 7, reversed; 3 very large, depressed in the middle. Guinea.
marmorata. 246. H. marbled with white, cinereous and blue; whirls 5, round; aperture ovate; inch long. Rivers of Strasbourg.
achatina. 247. H. chestnut, pellucid, thin; whirls 4, narrow; aperture ovate.
lugubris. 248. H. ovate, pointed, pellucid, transversely striated; whirls 7, first largest; aperture oblong, ovate; 9 lines long.
minima. 249. H. ovate, conic, subimperforated; 2 last whirls in the centre of the first; aperture orbicular; line long.
inflata. 250. H. white, solid, opaque; first whirl twice as large as the rest; aperture large, margined. River Unstrut.
albicans. 251. H. white, opaque, pointed; aperture oval. Waters of Hamburg.
repanda. 252. H. ovate, pointed, subimperforated; first whirl ventricose, large; aperture semicircular; 6 or 7 lines long. Stagnant waters.
opaca. 253. H. ovate, pointed; whirls 5, first large; aperture ovate, oblong. Aquatic.
turgida. 254. H. obtuse; whirls 4, distant, inflated in the middle; aperture orbicular, margined; 2 lines long.
carulef-cens. 255. H. bluish, ovate, pointed; whirls 4, a little ventricose; aperture oblong, rounded; 2 lines long.
256. H. inflated; whirls 4, short; two lower ones cinereous, distant; aperture orbicular, not margined; 2 lines long. Allace.
257. H. imperforated, oblong, white with longi-undata, tudinal red undulations; whirls 6-7, first thrice as large as the next; inch long.
258. H. imperforated, oblong, thin, brown; whirls 4; first ovate, and thrice as large as the next; aperture ovate.
259. H. subimperforated, oblong, finely striated substriata, with white; whirls 5; first twice as large as the next; aperture oval, margined; inch long.
260. H. smooth, brown; aperture triangular, mar-trigono-gined; minute. stoma.
261. H. ventricose, pointed, cinereous; first whirl tumida, large; aperture oval, large; margined on one side; inch long.
262. H. oblong, pointed, longitudinally ribbed, acicula, and transversely striated; whirls 10, equally decreasing; aperture oval; inch long. Coromandel.
263. H. ovate, imperforated; whirls 8-9, round, peregrina, distant, and equally decreasing; aperture oval; inch long. American islands.
264. H. oblong, imperforated; whirls distant, ven-danubia-tricote; aperture orbicular; inches long. Danube.
265. H. oblong, imperforated, smooth, pointed; turbinata, whirls inflated; the first larger, the rest gradually decreasing; aperture suboval, margined; inches long. Danube.
266. H. oblong, curved, subimperforated; aperture curvata, ovate, margined; inches in diameter. Danube.
267. H. thin, smooth, white, with chestnut bands; exilis, spire obtuse; whirls flattish; 8 lines to one inch long.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, gibbous, flattish at bottom; aperture semiorbicular, or semilunar; pillar lip transversely truncated, flattish.
1. N. smooth; spire slightly pointed; umbilicus cancrena, gibbous, and bifid. India, Africa, America.
2. N. with decussated scribe, and impressed dots; cancel-spire subclavate; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. American islands.
* 3. N. smooth, glossy, faintly wrinkled; spire rather glauca, obtuse; umbilicus rather closed by the pillar lip, which is gibbous, and two-coloured; 2 inches long. Barbary, Europe, Britain.
4. N. subglobular; umbilicus perforated, equal. In vitellus, dian ocean.
5. N. convex; umbilicus somewhat heart-shaped, albumen, with a flattened lobe. Cape of Good Hope, Barbary, Indian islands. Extremely rare.
6. N. ovate, glabrous; umbilicus partly covered; mammilla, whirls 4 or 5; aperture ovate.
7. N. subglobular, solid, bay with white bands; leuco-spire somewhat depressed; whirls 4 or 5; an inch long.
spadicosa. 8. N. subglobular, solid; tip bluish; lateritious bands in the throat, and a white one on the beak. Mauritius island. Rather large.
rufa. 9. N. thin, rufous; umbilicus darker, with a white border; throat with a reddish band. Mauritius island.
salmonina. 10. N. subglobular, with angular, tawny lines, and flattened lobe; white or yellowish. Africa. Rare.
stercus-muscorum. 11. N. smooth, snowy, with rufous spots and specks; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. Mediterranean, American seas.
orientalis. 12. N. subglobular, polished very smooth; base of the spire a little wrinkled; pillar snowy. Eastern seas.
cruentata. 13. N. subglobular, white, with red spots; lip obtuse and bluish; umbilicus spiral.
rugosa. 14. N. wrinkled; within glabrous; umbilicus bordered with white. American islands.
macrochrois. 15. N. subglobular, smooth, light green, brownish within; livid at the tip; wrinkled at the angle of the whirls. Africa.
fulcata. 16. N. subglobular, obliquely plaited; spire with 4 whirls, mucronate; umbilicus bifid.
arachnoides. 17. N. white, reticulated with reddish lines, and blackish at the tip; umbilicus nearly covered; whirls convex.
vittata. 18. N. subglobular, brown, with a double white fillet in the middle; reticulated and denticulated on each side. Africa.
melanofrons. 19. N. thin, pellucid, smooth, oblong; first whirl ventricose, flat and large; umbilicus half closed; 2 inches long. Indian sea.
pallidula. * 20. N. semitransparent, horn-colour; whirls prominent; aperture semilunar, and patulous; umbilicus large; a small shell. Coasts of Kent and Dorset.
papilla. 21. N. pellucid, thin, oblong, with decussated striae; dirty yellow; whirls 4; aperture suboval; pillar white; umbilicus half closed. Tranquebar.
clabrata. 22. N. depressed, ovate, transversely undulated and longitudinally ribbed; ribs flat, oblique, and semilunar; spire papillary. Fossil in Comptia.
valvata. 23. N. flatish, with a circinate aperture. N. seas.
icelandica. 24. N. globular, subacute, thick; whirls 4, separated by deep grooves. North seas.
affinis. 25. N. globular, thick; spire submucronated; whirls 3. New Zealand.
corona. 26. N. whirls of the spire crowned with spines; minute. India, America.
radula. 27. N. grooved, with equal, tuberculated ribs; size of a walnut. Indian islands.
cornea. 28. N. obfoletely striated; white or pale violet. Red sea.
flavicilis. * 29. N. rugged, spotted, streaked, or mottled with white and purplish brown or pink; mouth closed with a testaceous operculum; 4 lines long. In flow rivers of Barbary and Europe, Britain.
littoralis. * 30. N. smooth, with a carious crown; whirls 4 or 5, first large; size of a horse bean. Europe, Shores of Britain. Common.
lacustris. 31. N. smoothish, horny, or blackish, ending in a very fine point. Still waters and warm springs of Europe; supposed to be only a variety of N. flavicilis.
magdalene. 32. N. grooves wide and black; within white;
whirls 3; lip smooth, 2 toothed; 6 lines long. Magdalene islands.
33. N. thin, with decussated striae, tuberculated; margin black with ochraceous spots; subglobular; aperture nata, margined outwardly.
34. N. thin, pellucid, ovate, polished; dull yellow dubia, varied with black; outer lip acute; inner glabrous; crown prominent; very rare.
35. N. smooth, pellucid; whirls 3; very minute; pellucida. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 36. N. smooth, somewhat pellucid; whirls 2; very alba. minute. Pembrokeshire coast.
37. N. smooth, coarse, with an excavated eye-like pulligera. small spire; inner lip smooth, crenulated; whirls 2, one large, terminating in an acute tooth; 14—16 lines long. Rivers of India.
38. N. thin, smooth, undulated, with an obtuse undulata. crown; outer lip substriated, and toothless; inner one a little denticulated. India.
39. N. thick, opaque, globular; deep black with co-atterrima. loured lines; outer lip glabrous; inner lip tuberculated, wrinkled.
40. N. smooth, subglobular; white, with yellowish larva. brown bands; crown obtuse; lip slightly denticulated; middle fixed. Amboyna. Rare.
41. N. smooth, roundish, milk-white; whirls with pupa. transverse, parallel, black striae; lip flat; teeth scarcely visible.
42. N. smooth; inner lip 2-toothed; size of a bidens.
43. N. smooth, green; inner lip crenulated in the viridis. middle. Minorca and Jamaica.
44. N. smooth, ovate; inner lip denticulated; 2 to virginea. 10 lines long. India, South America.
45. N. smooth; crown obliterated; lip toothed on polita. each side; brown. India, South seas.
46. N. striated; lips toothed; inner one flatish and peloronta. wrinkled. American islands.
47. N. striated; lip slightly toothed; inner one tu- albicilla. berculated. Cape of Good Hope. Indian ocean.
48. N. grooved, transversely striated; inner lip tooth- bifris. ed; ribs 30, unequal.
49. N. grooved; 17 to 20 transverse ribs; outer plicata. lip 5 or 6 toothed within; inner convex, wrinkled, with three long, strong teeth, beside lesser ones. India.
50. N. grooved, lips toothed; inner lip with a vel-grossa. low spot, and 3 or 4 teeth; convex and wrinkled. Molucca islands.
51. N. with 20 grooves, varied with undulated al- ebonata. teinate black and white rays; lips toothed; inner one leon. wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian ocean.
52. N. grooves 30; ribs about 30, flattened; lips undata. toothed; inner one wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian seas.
53. N. grooved, with 15 to 19 ribs; lip toothed; evata. inner one tuberculated. India.
54. N. solid, thick, glabrous; undulated with black maxima. and yellowish rays; outer lip toothless; inner one concave, 4-toothed; a very large shell.
55. N. angular black lines; with 16 crenated ribs textilis. and grooves; outer lip crenated without, and toothed within; inner lip wrinkled above, and tuberculated beneath.
56. N. deep black, glabrous, and thinly striated atrata. above;
above; both lips white; outer one finely grooved, and slightly toothed within. Atlantic and South seas.
ascenfonsis. 57. N. with 16 white grooves; ribs spotted with white; crown a little prominent; outer lip glabrous on each side; inner one concave, yellowish and toothed. Ascension island; a large shell.
lineata. 58. N. mouth and lips white; whorls round, surrounded with black, parallel striae; outer lip striated within. Malacca seas.
versicolor. 59. N. with blackish bluish, red and white square spots, and bands, spotted with red and white; inner lip striated within, and toothed on each side. Antilles islands.
pica. 60. N. white, radiated with black without; striae transverse, rounded, smooth; inner lip wrinkled and 4-toothed. Indian seas.
costata. 61. N. yellowish within, subglobular, surrounded with thicker striae; interstices snowy; lips white, toothed; outer one crenated without. Nicobar islands.
quadricolor. 62. N. subviolet with a yellowish tip; white within, with elevated black striae; lips toothed; outer one grooved within; inner one wrinkled. Red sea.
malaccensis. 63. N. grooved, yellowish within; crown a little prominent; outer lip unarmed and crenulated outwardly; inner lip yellowish, smooth. Malacca.
antillarum. 64. N. subglobular, black; white within; grooved and striated; lips wrinkled and denticulated. Antilles islands.
flammea. 65. N. subglobular, with crowded transverse striae; white, with purplish, undulated rays; outer lip grooved within; inner lip wrinkled above.
sulgrans. 66. N. subglobular, with crowded transverse striae; deep black with ochraceous rays; lip slightly denticulated; inner one tuberculated in the middle. American islands.
testulata. 67. N. obtuse, transversely striated; the striae marked with nearly square black and white spots; both lips denticulated; outer lip slightly striated within, inner lip with one or two teeth; concave, glabrous, and denticulated beneath. Islands between Africa and America.
biseficiata. 68. N. blackish with 2 gray bands; crown white. India.
litterata. 69. N. subglobular, white, with various characters; inner lip crenulated, toothed. India.
violacea. 70. N. ovate, solid, smooth, violet dotted with white; inner lip denticulated beneath.
senegalensis. 71. N. ovate, obtuse, deep black; whorls 3, the first with turgid 25—30 grooves; the two others very minute; 1 inch broad. Senegal.
promontorii. 72. N. black, ovate, pointed; whorls 3, with 30 grooves; left lip wrinkled. Africa.
tricolor. 73. N. variegated with red, black and white; right lip with 10 teeth; left lip glabrous, with three large emarginated teeth; 9 lines long.
perversa. 74. N. surrounded with belts; spire reversed; aperture 8-toothed. Found only in a fossil state.
turris. 75. N. bands alternately white and black; within white; crown much elevated; outer lip acute; whorls 4. Fresh waters in Antilles islands.
aculeata. 76. N. blackish, transversely striated; the striae spinous; inner lip flatish, smooth, and slightly toothed. India.
valve, dilated, ear-shaped, with a longitudinal row of orifices along the surface; spire lateral and nearly conical.
- 1. H. Midas ear; roundish, both sides polished; orifices from 8 to 10; 7 to 9 inches long. Indian ocean, Cape of Good Hope.
- 2. H. subovate; outside transversely grooved, rug-tuberculated and tuberculated; wrinkles on the outside undula-lated. The inner margin of the shell has a ridge the whole length, which terminates in one spiral turn at the end. This ridge is beset with tubercles, the last 6 of which, or from 6 to 9, are open. The inside is open, concave, and of a beautiful mother-of-pearl: the length is from 3 to 4 inches; breadth from 2 to 3. It is found on the shores in the South of England, after violent storms. It is common in the island of Guernsey, adhering to the rocks at the lowest ebb. The fish is eaten by the inhabitants, and the common people adorn their houses with the shells, by sticking them on the outside with plaster.
- 3. H. ovate, ferruginous, transversely wrinkled, and striated, longitudinally striated; 4 or 5 orifices open. Asia, Barbary.
- 4. H. ovate, longitudinally striated; larger striae varia. tuberculated; orifices 20 to 30; 4 to 5 open. India.
- 5. H. oval, longitudinally striated, with obsolete marm. transverse ones; orifices about 30, 4 to 5 open; 2 to 4 rata. inches long. Africa, India.
- 6. H. affes ear; smoothish, oblong; margin some-afnum. what falcated; nerves on the outside elevated; orifices about 30, 5 to 7 open; 3 inches long. India.
- 7. H. ovate, red, with an elevated angle on the parva. belly; orifices 30, 4 or 5 open. Africa, India.
- 8. H. ovate, greenish, spotted with brown; striae bifriata. elevated, double, transverse; 6 orifices open. Africa.
- 9. H. varied with gray, bluish, and red; ovate; australis. spire prominent, inflated; 7 to 9 orifices open; 3 inches long. New Zealand.
- 10. H. ovate, somewhat convex, solid, with de-guineensis. cuffed striae; orifices flattened; 6 open; 2½ inches long. Guinea.
- 11. H. ovate, imperforated, with prickly ribs; imperfo. spire exserted; 1 inch long. India. Extremely rare. rata.
- 12. H. ovate, imperforated; margin oblique above, perverfa. and tuberculated within; spire reversed; ½ inch long. Fossil.
- 13. H. transversely plaited on the outside; margin plicata. broad, thick, and finely striated longitudinally; ¼ inch long. Fossil near Hildesfa.
- 14. H. ovate, smoothish, solid; varied with white glabra. and green; 6 orifices open; 2½ inches long.
- 15. H. roundish, varied with rosy and white; outer pulchra. lip crenated; orifices 30, 6 pervious; 7 lines long. rima. South sea islands.
- 16. H. ovate, with decussated, undulated striae; virginea. under side iridescent; 6 orifices open; 1½ inch long. New Zealand.
- 17. H. suborbicular, depressed, wrinkled; varied ovina. with white, chestnut, and yellowish; orifices in the middle pervious.
- 18. H. oval, rugged, varied with white and red; gigantea. spotted; inner lip with a very broad margin; 3 to 7 orifices open.
59
Haliotis. Gen. 31. HALIOTIS, Sea-ear.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax, the shell is uni-
19. H. ear ventricose, fulvid brown, with transverse wrinkles, and longitudinal, tuberculous plaits; under side iridescent; inches long. New Zealand. Extremely rare.
Patella.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve, subconic, shaped like a basin, without spire.
equitris. 1. P. orbicular, perfoliated outwardly; lip vaulted, perpendicular; 1 inch wide. Indian and American seas.
meritoides. 2. P. ovate; tip subspiral; lip lateral; size of a cherry; inhabitant red.
sinensis. * 3. P. subconic, smooth; lip somewhat lateral. Mediterranean and Indian seas. On oysters in Salcombe-bay, Devonshire.
porcellana. 4. P. oval; tip recurved; lip placed behind and flattened. India and Goree.
fornicata. 5. P. oval, obliquely recurved behind; lip placed behind, and concave. Barbadoes, Mediterranean.
aculeata. 6. P. oval, brown, with prickly suture; crown recurved. American islands.
trochiformis. 7. P. conic, longitudinally plaited; internal lip lateral. Tranquebar and Falkland islands.
auricula. 8. P. roundish, with radiated grooves, and striated; crown recurved; internal cavity ear-shaped. Borneo, Santa Cruz.
rugosa. 9. P. ovate, thin, obsoletely wrinkled transversely; margin unequal; lip unequally repand; above 1 inch long. China. It is generally found on the lucerinum spiratum.
goreensis. 10. P. oval, flat, thin, white, glossy, lamellated on the outside; 5 to 6 lines in diameter. Rocks at Goree.
contorta. 11. P. granulated with white, and fine perpendicular, oblique ribs; lip thin, oblique, and covering half the cavity. Rare.
explanata. 12. P. white, finely striated; crown inclining downwards and dilated, behind which the shell is depressed.
plicata. 13. P. conic, ochraceous, with ferruginous rays within; with longitudinal, transversely striated plaits.
striata. 14. P. white, conic, striated; grooves undulated; crown a little lateral.
solea. 15. P. twisted, pellucid, with ferruginous spots; thinly plaited and transversely grooved above; lip undulated, repand; inch long.
ecbinata. 16. P. conic, prickly; within glabrous. Found fossil near Crignon.
crepidula. 17. P. oval, flattish, smooth; lip semilunar, flat behind. Mediterranean.
laciniosa. 18. P. rays unequal, elevated; thicker and obtuse on the outside. India.
facebarina. 19. P. angular, with 7 keel-shaped, obtuse ribs. Java and Barbadoes.
barbara. 20. P. toothed, with 19 elevated, vaulted, and muricated rays. Falkland islands.
granularis. 21. P. toothed, with elevated, angular, imbricated suture; 2 inches long. Southern Europe, and Cape of Good Hope.
22. P. angular, with numerous muricated suture; granatina. to 3 inches long. Jamaica, southern Europe.
* 23. P. with about 14 obsolete angles, and di-valgata. lated, acute, crenated margin; crown central; 2 inches high. Marine rocks of Europe and India, Britain.
* 24. P. oblong with about 14 angles; crown lateral. depressa. Rocks of Europe, Britain.
25. P. crenated, subangular; suture numerous, un-cerulea. equal; beneath blue; blackish on the outside. Mediterranean.
26. P. conic, tuberculated; tubercles white, in tubercu-lata. rows; slightly toothed; retuse behind.
27. P. roundish, perfoliated; rays imbricated, tu-lepar. berculated, and transversely striated; crown incurved; inches long. Chili, Falkland islands.
28. P. oval, three-ribbed, white; striated at the trifasciata. fides; internal margin flattish, a little jagged. Indian ocean.
29. P. carinated, rounded on the fore-part, with mytilina. undulated suture; brown and pearly within; hinder margin crenated; 1 inch long. South America.
30. P. toothed, oval, conic, somewhat compressed; ovata. ribbed; brown between the ribs; brown within, with white grooves; 9 lines long.
31. P. angular, ovate, depressed; rays 10, elevat-stellata. ed, with short, intermediate ribs; 8 lines long.
32. P. solid, ovate, gibbous; unequally ribbed; icelandica. glabrous within, with alternate, cuneous, and horny rays; margin crenated; inch long. Shores of Iceland.
33. P. oval, subpellucid; ribs 16 to 20; tuberculat-cypria. ed and foliaceous on the outside; 1 to 3 inches long. Shores of Cyprus.
34. P. ovate, a little gibbous, white; ribs 20 to costata. 40; keel-shaped, crowded, unequal, tuberculated; 2 inches long.
35. P. ovate, dusky; ribs smooth, unequal, white, leucopleura. crowded; crown usually brown; 1 inch long.
36. P. a little rugged, white, with brown, flexuous striatula. suture, branching outwards; 2 brown spots in the bottom of the hollow.
37. P. convex; ribs 11 to 16; 8 larger, tubercu-ellorata. lated; inch long. American islands.
38. P. toothed; red under the brown skin, with rubra. elevated, rounded suture, and lesser imbricated ones; with white; inch long.
39. P. ovate, gibbous, thin; toothed, liver-colour; bracteata. suture elevated, keel-shaped and obtusely spined; crown white; inch long.
40. P. subconvex, brown; with 12 larger rays, badia. each surrounded by a rib, and as many lesser ones; inches long.
41. P. flattish, brown, with 10 elevated suture; crown fuscescens. of a different colour; bottom of a pale liver-colour; spatulated spot, edged with glaucous and gold; inner margin brown; 2 to 3 inches long.
42. P. flattened; forepart narrow and rounded; maculosa. yellowish spotted with brown; crown white; rays 10 or 11 equal, rounded, flat; to 1 inch long.
43. P. suboval, flattened, varied with brown; ribs rotundata. flat, rounded; crown and bottom differently coloured; 1 to 2 inches long.
44. P. ovate, obscurely edged with white; radiat-pellucida. ed,
ed, striae distant, pectinated outwardly; crown gray; 1 to 2 inches long. North America.
corrugata. 45. P. ovate, wrinkled, chestnut; crown with a white circle; inch long.
alboradiata. 46. P. oval, brown, radiated with white on each side; striae elevated, pectinated; crown white; bottom yellowish; inch long.
olivacea. 47. P. ovate, olive-coloured; within brown varied with white, with elevated unequal striae; margin with 2 rows of unequal spines; brown, pale yellow; inch long.
cerca. 48. P. ovate, wax-colour on both sides; perpendicularly striated; ribs 13, flattened; bottom white; inch long.
impressa. 49. P. ovate, with striae elevated, transverse, brownish; spotted with white, and reaching half way down; crown with a white, impressed circumference; and 3 brownish spots; inch long.
aurantia. 50. P. ovate, solid, citron undulated with brown; striae elevated, crowded, wrinkled; bottom white; 1 inch long.
cingulum. 51. P. ovate, denticulated, cinereous, with three black belts; within milk-white, with elevated, unequal striae, nodulous on the outside, and spinous at the margin; 1 inch long; crown acute, reddish or whitish.
sculata. 52. P. ovate, white; ribs flattened, of unequal lengths; interstices brownish; crown obtuse, with a brown belt; inch long.
magellaniaca. 53. P. thin, ovate; margin knotty; within pearly, with elevated chestnut striae; crown pointed, brown; inch long. Straits of Magellan.
echroleuca. 54. P. ochraceous, with three yellow bands, and elevated, acute, unequal striae; crown white; 1 inch high.
dentata. 55. P. white, denticulated; striae unequal, elevated, acute; crown surrounded with a double row of cinereous dots, and a dusky gray band; 1 inch long.
nodosa. 56. P. yellow, radiated with brown; striae unequal, elevated, knotty; crown and bottom white; inch long.
cinerea. 57. P. toothed, cinereous; striae unequal, elevated; interstices brown and rugged; crown pointed; milk-white or silvery.
exalbida. 58. P. whitish, rays brownish, and striae unequal, elevated, rounded; interstices rugged; crown obtuse, white, with a broad, interrupted brown band, and another marginal one; inch long.
cancelata. 59. P. cinereous and brown, with decussated striae, and 2 rows of tubercles; crown yellowish; bottom with a spatulated white spot; inch long. Jamaica.
levis. 60. P. rounded, smooth, yellowish, with a broad, citron, marginal band, spotted with brown, and another narrower one; margin dilated, acute; crown varied with bluish and white; inch long.
argentea. 61. P. smooth, thick, silvery; rays 11, brown; margin silvery: crown pale yellow; bottom ivory, with a double white ring; 2 inches long. Very rare.
cuprea. 62. P. white, with strong, rounded, brown ribs; pearly within; crown and bottom copper-coloured; 2 inches long.
rubida. 63. P. pale liver-colour on both sides; ribs keel-shaped, alternately larger and less; crown flat, white; inch long.
glabra. 64. P. brown, glabrous above; striae beneath, elevated, crowded, white; crown obtuse, white; border fulvous; bottom fulvous; inch long.
65. P. yellowish, varied with brown; ribs unequal, flaccid, flattened; crown obtuse; bottom varied reddish and white; 1 inch long.
66. P. denticulated, compressed on each side; round, infundibular, yellow, perpendicularly striated; ribs keel-shaped; lum. bottom varied, white and cinereous; inch long. Rare.
67. P. rounded, glabrous, white; a small shell. eyathus.
68. P. ovate, entirely yellow, with undulated grooves; finica. perpendicularly striated within; margin scalloped here and there; 3 inches long. China.
69. P. roundish, white, with many coloured dots; punctata. radiated at the base, and surrounded with 2 brown rings; margin flexuous.
70. P. ovate, with annular striae; black, with ele. lugubris. vated, unequal striae; margin crenated; crown and bottom white.
71. P. ovate, toothed, yellowish, with elevated flat. uligipos- tened striae; crown pointed, orange. Lisbon. nensis.
72. P. oblong, red, with elevated, unequal, white umbella. striae; margin crenated. Africa.
73. P. thin, pellucid, striated, blackish with olive crenata. rays; within glaucous or cinereous; crown pointed; margin crenated, bottom milk-white. Shores of Africa, Malaga, Lisbon.
74. P. ferruginous, with angular or undulated rus. ferruginea. set lines and cinereous belts; within milk-white, with elevated, knotty striae; crown pointed; margin plaited.
75. P. oval, ochraceous, with elevated black striae; melano- within silvery, spotted; crown pointed, white, smooth, gramma. bottom with a straw-coloured spot.
76. P. ovate, thin; margin flexuous; within silvery, repanda. with brownish rays, and thin, undulated striae, with bay granulations. Seas of Magellan.
77. P. oval, white, thinly striated, and varied with angulosa. red spots and dots; margin with 8 angles.
78. P. oval, smooth, polished, pellucid, striated tigrina. with 7 yellowish ribs; bluish olive dotted with brown; margin with 7 angles.
79. P. oblong, flattish; bay striated with white; monopis. within milk-white, with 11 elevated, unequal striae; crown rounded, white. American islands.
80. P. ovate, toothed, brown dotted with green; chlorostic- with 11 elevated, hollow, broader striae, and as many to. narrower ones; crown white.
81. P. thin, white, unequally striated, within margarici- pearly; crown with an orange mark, surrounded with tacea. a yellow ring; margin crenated. Iceland.
82. P. oval, thin, ochraceous, with angular chef. tenuissima. nut lines, and 10 to 12 elevated, obtuse, hollow, unequal striae.
83. P. solid, fabconic, transversely plaited; margin mitrula. flexuous. Barbadoes.
84. P. ovate, toothed, with 30 elevated, obtuse, plicaria. undulated, and transversely wrinkled striae. Shores of Magellan.
85. P. whitish, obtusely pentagonal; margin cre. pentagona. nated, dilated; crown obtuse; bottom reddish.
86. P. ovate, tender, pellucid; striae elevated; anca. crown and bottom copper-coloured; inch long. Straits of Magellan.
87. P. thin, oblong, ovate, with fine undulated concavacea. striae;
striae; yellowish with elevated dark rays; crown recurved. South America.
baanea. 88. P. ovate, silvery; striae elevated, flattened; crown obtuse, copper colour; bottom with an oval bay mark; margin flexuous; 1 inch long.
candidissima. 89. P. suborbicular; striated; white with a brownish band; dotted with brown; margin transversely wrinkled.
C. With the tip or crown pointed and recurved.
hungerica. 90. P. entire, conic, pointed, striated, with a hooked, revolute crown; 2 inches high. America, Mediterranean, and Asiatic seas; shores of Britain.
imbricata. 91. P. entire, oblong, imbricated; the crown placed behind.
mammella. 92. P. entire, conic, striated, subdiaphanous, with a smooth reflected crown. Shores of the Mediterranean and Africa, Britain.
tricarinata. 93. P. substriated, with 3 ribs on the forepart; 2½ inches high.
pectinata. 94. P. entire, ovate, with wrinkled, slightly branched striae; crown nearly central; 2 inches long. Mediterranean.
lutea. 95. P. entire, oval, convex, striated, with a submarginal, reflected, mucronate crown; size of a melon seed. India.
crystata. 96. P. crown revolute; back crested, keel-shaped.
lacustris. 97. P. entire, oval, membranaceous, with a central, mucronate, reflected crown; 1½ to 2½ lines long. Fresh waters of Europe, Britain.
fluviatilis. 98. P. entire, oval, a little horny, with a marginal, mucronate crown; aperture oval; 2½ lines long. Rivers of Europe, Britain.
caca. 99. P. entire, with elevated dots and striated; crown acute, straight. Bays of Norway, on stones.
virginea. 100. P. entire, white, with 18 red bands. Bays of Norway, on fuci.
teffelata. 101. P. entire, whitish, tessellated with red. Norway, on rocks and fuci.
fulva. 102. P. entire, orange, with a mucronate and nearly vertical crown. Norway.
subspiralis. 103. P. ovate, with an obtuse, nearly spiral tip. Norway.
ambigua. 104. P. ovate; margin slightly toothed, point reflected, somewhat acute. Norway.
rubicunda. 105. P. entire, subconic, smoothish, and reddish; 2½ lines long. Deep of Greenland.
borniana. 106. P. ovate, entire, finely striated longitudinally; white with red veins; 6 lines long.
calyptro. 107. P. entire; ribs somewhat imbricated; crown hooked; margin sinuated. North America.
melanoleuca. 108. P. striated, entire, alternately black and white; 1 inch long.
pectuncularis. 109. P. oblong, convex, slightly toothed, within polished; striae knotty, elevated; crown bent forwards; 1 inch long.
fasciata. 110. P. ovate, white, with a brown band; striae elevated, acute; margin dilated, crenated, and cinereous within; 1 inch long.
elegans. 111. P. with decussated striae, white radiated with red; denticulated; crown gray; 2 inches long.
squamosa. 112. P. striae elevated, and transversely undulated on the outside; brown, silvery towards the margin; crown hooked and bronzed; 3½ inches long.
equalida. 113. P. entire brown, whitish within; margin bluish, radiated with brown, with elevated, obsolete striae; crown knotty.
114. P. smooth, subangular, yellow radiated with crocea. brown; crown obtuse, white; 1 inch long.
115. P. ovate, smooth, white on both sides, with a candida. rosy belt on the outside; crown lateral; ½ inch long.
116. P. compressed, convex in the middle, cancel-trigonal. lated, white, with a brownish band on the outside, and margined within; crown marginal, obtuse; ½ inch long.
117. P. rounded, convex, thin; whitish with red spots; minima. crown obtuse, white, marginal; ½ inch long. Ferro islands.
118. P. ovate, thin, pellucid, with fine crowded transverse. striae; chestnut with white scales; within milk-white; barica. with a brown spot at the bottom, and azure spot on the crown. Tranquebar.
119. P. oblong, horny, very thin, pellucid, glabrous, perversa. with a ferruginous base. Africa.
120. P. with decussated grooves; thin, pale, flesh-cernua. colour; aperture oblong.
121. P. entirely white, flat; point of the crown incurva. twisted.
122. P. oval, depressed, brownish with green dots, interrupta. disposed in oblique, interrupted rays; crown with an obtuse hook; 1 inch long.
D. Entire, and not pointed at the tip or crown.
123. P. conic, striated, greenish or pale brown; afra. within white; crown glabrous, white, obtuse; margin glabrous. Island of Goree.
124. P. conic, white, with brown rays marked with lustranica. striae granulated with black; crown acute, surrounded with a chestnut ring; very small. Portugal, on the sea rocks.
125. P. rounded, convex, gray with decussated striae; radiata. crown pointed, central, and marked with 12 orange, radiated lines; bottom horny. Jamaica.
126. P. pyramidal, reddish gray, with thin, circu-areolata. lar striae crossed by longitudinal ones; crown violet.
127. P. ovate, with fine annulated striae, reddish flammea. gray, with undulated brown rays; crown acute, central; white in the middle.
128. P. reddish gray, with radiated striae, glabrous, indica. narrower on one side; crown acute, smooth, surrounded with a reddish ring; 3½ inches long. India.
129. P. thick, subovate, yellowish, with black rays, furina. and longitudinal, unequal striae; and surrounded with menstr. knotty belts; crown obtuse, smooth, white. Surinam.
130. P. ovate, yellow; base unequally striated; vitellina. crown whitish, obtuse.
131. P. ovate, convex, white, solid, with flexuous, sanguinea. elevated, longitudinal striae, intermixed with capillary lenia. ones; crown lateral, surrounded with a broad ring, dotted with red. Africa.
132. P. ovate, yellow, within bluish white; with laevigata. oblique flattened striae alternately thicker and thinner; crown white, smooth, polished.
133. P. rounded, white, with many-coloured dots, punctulata. radiated towards the base, and surrounded with 2 brown rings.
* 134. P. entire, obovate, gibbous, pellucid, with 4 pellucida. blue rays; size of a walnut. European and northern seas, shores of Britain.
testudinaria. 135. P. entire, acute, smooth, glabrous. Indian and North seas.
testudinaria. 136. P. entire, ovate, striated; crown obtuse, nearly central; 14 lines long. Greenland seas.
compressa. 137. P. entire, oval, oblong, striated, smooth; compressed on the back; 14 inches long. India.
rustica. 138. P. entire, conic, with 50 obtuse striae; three inches long.
fusca. 139. P. entire, ovate, obtuse, with 39 cinereous, filiform, elevated striae.
notata. 140. P. entire, striated, with a submucronate, erect crown; within white, with a black, heart-shaped spot, white in the middle; minute. Mediterranean.
cruciata. 141. P. entire, oval, sub-convex; brown, with a white cross; 1 inch long.
reticulata. 142. P. entire, conic, compressed, with reticulated veins.
deaurata. 143. P. oval, entire, gilded; within silvery, with somewhat imbricated striae; margin with plaited teeth. Straits of Magellan, and Falkland islands.
stellifera. 144. P. oval, entire, striated; black brown radiated with white; within silvery. Friendly islands and New Zealand.
radiata. 145. P. entire, oval, pellucid, depressed, striated, horny, and radiated with black spots. New Zealand.
vota. 146. P. roundish; the inside silvery; the outside with reddish streaks, and a yellowish border. Indian and American seas.
umbellata. 147. P. entire, roundish, diaphanous; depressed with yellowish rays within; crown pale yellow; margin very acute; 4 inches long. Indian ocean.
pustulata. 148. P. thin, oval, depressed, radiated, white dotted with red; within smooth; 6 lines long.
symmetrica. 149. P. ovate, conic, solid; brown divided into partitions, by perpendicular white lines; within smooth, white; margin cut archwise; 6 lines long.
citrina. 150. P. ovate, convex, with fine decussated striae; white, with two broad yellow bands; within whitish, with a milk-white bottom; crown brownish; near 2 inches long.
copensis. 151. P. oval, with decussated striae, longitudinal ones alternately brown and white; within pearly, with a white bottom; 1½ inch long. Cape of Good Hope.
anomala. 152. P. coarse brown, orbicular, with the crown near the margin. Deep of the seas of Norway.
guttata. 153. P. finely striated and varied with dots of different colours; bottom dusky; 1½ inch long.
rugilifor-
mis. 154. P. glabrous, lead-colour, with a white, horse-shoe-shaped band within; ½ inch long. Ferro islands.
scutiformis. 155. P. oval, thin, black, with white, perpendicular, flattened striae; crown gray; bottom with a brownish spot; not an inch long.
cochlearis. 156. P. white, flattish; one part narrow, channelled within, with a bluish callus, shaped like a horse-shoe; the other part rounded; 1 to 2 inches long.
eraticulata. 157. P. oval, thin, depressed, cancellated, radiated; 1 to 1½ inch long.
cruentata. 158. P. oval, convex, varied with red, and slightly toothed, with elevated, unequal, rough striae; 1 to 2 inches long.
papyracea. 159. P. depressed, thin, hyaline, dotted with red, with chefnut rays outwardly, and crowned thinner, and granulated thicker striae; an inch long.
cylindrica. 160. P. oval, flat, with crowded longitudinal striae, of unequal thickness, and all granulated; an inch long.
161. P. somewhat convex; white, with crowded red decussated dots; within radiated with red and white, with decussated, glabrous striae, and a few longitudinal, thicker, white ones; 1½ inch long.
162. P. thin, depressed, white dotted with red; hematospheric within brownish, striated; crown varied with cinereous and brownish; near an inch long.
163. P. flattish, cancellated, cinereous, with a chief-asteroides, nut star, and rays towards the margin; crown smooth, gray, surrounded with brown dots; an inch long.
164. P. oval, somewhat convex, thin; striae crowded-ovalis; gray, with blackish rays and spots; an inch long.
165. P. a little convex, striated, reddish; crown rubella, whitish, spotted with red; bottom whitish; 1½ inch long.
166. P. flattish, a little wrinkled; striated, reddish speculabilis, white, with a chefnut band towards the crown, and another bay one at the margin; 3 inches long.
167. P. solid, flattish, striated; black, with cine-conspicuous dots; within bluish; crown dirty yellow; two inches long.
168. P. solid, flattish, striated; whitish, with cine-melanostreous rays, and black dots, disposed in 5 or 6 belts; crown pointed and whitish.
169. P. black, striated, with a paler crown; bottom with a brownish mark, surrounded with a white horse-shoe-shaped band; 1½ inch long.
170. P. oval, convex, solid, glabrous; liver colour specularis, within, and the crown brownish; the latter surrounded with a white border, and interrupted, whitish band.
171. P. oval, black; within bluish, striated; the canescens, larger striae flattened and gray; crown obtuse, brownish, with a whitish area; 2 inches long.
172. P. oblong, flattish, dilated on each side and virecent, striated; olivaceous, radiated, and spotted with white; within blue; 1½ inch long.
173. P. rounded, convex, longitudinally striated pulla, and transversely wrinkled, brownish; within ruffet brown, with whitish and brownish rays, and two milk-white bands above; 1½ inch long.
174. P. suboval, crenated, striated, ochraceous, revoluta, with red spots and rays, broader on one side; margin revolute; an inch long.
175. P. ovate, convex, striated; the striae scaly squamata, varied with white and black; crown gray, nearly central; an inch long.
176. P. ovate, finely striated, testaceous, with 3 testacea, transverse brownish rings; within pale yellow, with a whitish bottom; an inch long.
177. P. ovate, thin, brown, with darker bands capillaris, and paler striae; within brownish; crown and bottom white; ½ inch long.
178. P. ovate, narrower on one side, finely striated glauca, ed; bluish, with a white band towards the margin, and another bluish one; crown and margin white; ½ inch long.
179. P. ovate, flattish, striated; varied with yellow obscura, lowish and brown, and dotted with green; within brown; crown bay; scarcely ½ inch long.
180. P. oval, subconvex, unequally striated; whit-exoleta, ish, with a few black lines, reaching half way; near an inch long.
181. P. oval, flattish, solid, with a few black rays, affinis, reaching
reaching half way; bottom with a spatulated white spot; inch long.
rotalis. * 182. P. white, opaque, flat, round; margin regularly toothed. Sandwich. Rare.
fulcata. 183. P. ovate, convex, finely striated and varied with brown.
mellea. 184. P. rounded, solid, glabrous, honey-colour; white within; crown brownish; margin spotted with brown, and silvery within; inch long.
anceps. 185. P. solid, glabrous, pointed, pale chestnut; pale flesh-colour within.
guineensis. 186. P. ovate, convex, smooth; one side broader, and chestnut; the other with the crown pale yellow; margin flesh-colour on each side; inch long. Guinea. Rare.
complanata. 187. P. depressed, hemispherical; obsoletely cancellated, varied with white and brownish; margin white on one side.
virgata. 188. P. ovate, longitudinally striated; whitish with brown rays and crown; pearly within.
nivea. 189. P. subconic, solid, glabrous, snowy; with 7 to 8 transverse, concentric rings; crown rounded; 4 lines wide. Africa.
grisea. 190. P. oval, with crowded, radiated grooves, polished within; crown nearly central; an inch long. Africa.
navicula. 191. P. narrow, with decussated suture; rosy, with a whitish, callous belt on one side in the middle; margin acute, revolute on each side; an inch long.
cingulata. 192. P. somewhat oval, obsoletely striated, ferruginous, with two elevated, obscurely barred belts; crown nearly central.
scapba. 193. P. clear white, with undulated suture, narrow; broader side with an acute callus; narrower side repand; crown towards the narrower side; inch long.
parva. * 194. P. small, entire, without gloss, whitish, faintly radiated with red; rather larger than a pea. Devonshire coasts. Very rare.
E. With the crown or tip perforated.
fissura. * 195. P. oval, conic, with reticulated suture; cleft on the fore-part; crown recurved; inch long. European and Barbary coasts, Devonshire.
fissurella. * 196. P. grooved and perforated on the fore-part; crown recurved; lines long. Iceland seas, Falmouth harbour.
pustula. 197. P. oval, gibbous, convex, with reticulated suture; margin crenated; perforation near the posterior margin. Mediterranean, and Indian seas.
græca. * 198. P. ovate, convex, reticulated; crown not much elevated; perforation oblong; margin crenulated; length inch. Foreign specimens inch. European seas, Sandwich.
nimbosa. 199. P. ovate, striated, rugged, brown; perforation oblong; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and Atlantic.
nubecula. 200. P. subovate, rugged, white radiated with red; perforation ovate. Mediterranean.
picta. 201. P. ovate, solid, clouded white and green, with oblique, undulated, alternate, violet and white rays; inches long. Straits of Magellan.
barbaden-
si. 202. P. oblong, unequally striated; within smooth; milk-white with greenish bands; margin crenated; perforation circular, and surrounded with a chestnut ring. Barbadoes.
203. P. whitish, transversely annulated with longi-jamaicens-tudinal suture; covered with foliaceous tubercles; per-fis- foration oblong. Jamaica and Barbadoes.
204. P. ovate, compressed, striated; finely annula-cassa-ted, and radiated with black; bottom milk-white; perforation nearly central.
205. P. a little convex, transversely wrinkled; perforata-brownish, with straw-coloured rays and spots; suture longitudinal, and alternately larger and scaly; inch long.
206. P. oblong, compressed, unequally striated; porphyro-white, with 5 purple, interrupted belts; greenish white zonias. within; perforation minute, surrounded on the inside with a red circle. North America.
207. P. thinly striated with alternate rosy and white rafea-rays; perforation oval, and surrounded with a red ring on the inside. Minute.
208. P. repand on each side, compressed; perfora-scutellum-tion radiated with grooves; from 1 to inch long.
209. P. thin, white, and finely striated; perfora-avellana-tion oblong, and divided by a ligament.
210. P. ovate, convex, white; suture elevated, thick-spinosa-er towards the margin, and marked with four rows of tubercles; exterior tubercles spinous; perforation oblong.
211. P. ovate, gibbous; whitish radiated with denticuloto-brown; green within; suture elevated, somewhat rug-ged, and alternately larger; margin denticulated; cre-nated within; perforation in form of a parallelogram.
212. P. ovate, convex; suture elevated, knotty, nodulosa-crossing thinner transverse ones; within white; crown black.
213. P. depressed, white; suture elevated, every 4th angusta-of which is larger; perforation narrow, surrounded with a chestnut band on the outside, and a green one within; inch long.
214. P. ovate, convex; suture decussated; perfora-inequalis-tion surrounded with an elevated ring and red line; 1 inch long.
215. P. oval, pyramidal, reddish, with 12 elevated, minuta-white suture; bottom white; perforation oval and nearly central.
216. P. ovate, convex, striated; yellowish, with conspersa-red dots and 3 oblique rays; crown central; perfora-tion linear.
217. P. oval, striated, reddish, with a white band rubescens-in the middle; margin entire; perforation linear; 1 inch long.
218. P. oval, thin, red; within greenish white; sanguinea-suture longitudinal, crossing finer transverse ones, which are rugged outwardly; inch long.
219. P. oval, ventricose, with red decussated suture; ventricosa-crown depressed; perforation orbicular; an inch long.
220. P. oval, flatish, striated; white with 3 brown triradiata-rays; crown central; perforation linear; inch long.
221. P. pellucid, oval, a little convex; longitudi-tenuis-nally striated; white, with 5 half brown rays; perforation with a cinereous margin, not inch long.
222. P. convex, rosy, with an interrupted black melanozo-band, and elevated, unequal, white suture; crown nias-pointed; perforation orbicular, and surrounded within with an elevated, gray ring; inch long.
effusa. 223. P. convex, rosy, with elevated, knotty, white, and alternately larger striae; perforation round and large; inch long.
punicæa. 224. P. convex, chestnut; striae unequal, crowded, decussated; within smooth, with alternate green and white bands; perforation round, surrounded with a chestnut ring, and an elevated white one within; above an inch long.
rufescens. 225. P. convex, white shaded with red; here and there striated with red; within smooth, white; perforation oval.
dimidiata. 226. P. convex, above clear white, and cancellated; longitudinally striated towards the margin, with a rosy band; perforation orbicular; an inch long.
laëta. 227. P. convex, white; striae glabrous, acute, unequal; crown rosy; perforation large, orbicular; an inch long.
pyramidalis. 228. P. convex, rosy, striated; ribs 12, smooth; within smooth, and greenish white; one and one-fourth of an inch long.
bicolor. 229. P. narrow, alternately radiated with chestnut and white; striae unequally thick, lamellated; margin inflected; perforation oblong; inch long.
erythrocephala. 230. P. convex, white, with red lines outwardly, and elevated, rugged, contrary striae; 10 of them larger; margin repand, inflected; crown reddish; inch long.
versicolor. 231. P. above brown, striated, terminated by a knotty belt; beneath radiated with red, with acute, knotty ribs; perforation orbicular; three-fourths of an inch long.
contaminata. 232. P. convex, with nodulous, unequal ribs; larger ones yellowish brown, and marked with black dots, disposed in interrupted circles; crown cinereous; perforation surrounded within with an elevated, grass-coloured ring, and a brown circle.
strata. 233. P. a little convex, narrow, white, with red lines; outwardly spotted with black, with elevated, convex, unequal striae; perforation oblong, with a chestnut margin within, with a reddish ring; inch long.
eandicans. 234. P. white, chestnut towards the margin, with 20 alternately larger ribs; crown reddish, with an oblong perforation; near an inch long.
succincta. 235. P. ovate, pointed, white; above smooth, with an elevated belt in the middle; dotted with ferruginous towards the margin; with elevated, unequal, smooth striae; perforation narrow, orbicular; inch long.
pufilla. 236. P. flatish, white, suborbicular, with 20 elevated, alternately less and shorter striae; perforation round, and surrounded on each side with a reddish circle; inch long.
flavescens. 237. P. thin, effuse, pointed, finely striated, yellowish, with 6 brown rays; crown cinereous; perforation oblong.
antiquata. 238. P. convex, obsoletely striated, and furnished with concentric, imbricated wrinkles; perforation oval, or nearly round; inch diameter.
galeata. 239. P. solid, ovate, compressed; within white; crown a little recurved, and obtuse; perforation linear; 6 lines long.
personata. 240. P. convex, with decussated lines and black rays. Falkland islands.
Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella; shell univalve, Dentalium, tubular, straight or slightly curved, with an undivided cavity open at both ends.
- 1. D. with 10 ribs, slightly curved and striated; 4 elephantini- inches long. Indian and European seas. numm.
- 2. D. with 10 ribs, smooth, and slightly curved. aprinum. Indian seas.
- 3. D. ribbed, curved, subulate, of one colour, arcuatum. greenish.
- 4. D. with 8 ribs and 8 striae, pointed; green tip-striatulum. ped with white. Sicilian seas. [lum.
- 5. D. ribs 6, striated. Found fossil at Loretto. sexangu-
- 6. D. with 20 striae, slightly curved, interrupted; dentalis. red tipt with white. Mediterranean.
- 7. D. finely striated, slightly curved; gray, with fasciatum. darker bands; thickness of a crow quill. Sicily.
- 8. D. straight, doubly or triply striated, and annu-rectum. lated.
- 9. D. roundish, somewhat obtuse; finely and e-fossile. qually striated. Fossil near Loretto.
- 10. D. round, obliquely striated. Found fossil. annulatum.
- 11. D. slightly curved, somewhat obtuse; striae de-radula. cussated, longitudinal ones granulated; an inch long. Found fossil in Piedmont.
- 12. D. striae decussated, all of them smooth; longi-interrupt- tudinal striae with finer interrupted ones. Found fossil tum. in Piedmont.
- 13. D. round, slightly curved, continued, with positum. crowded, annular striae; inch long. Indian and European seas.
- 14. D. white, smooth, round, slightly curved, with eburneum. remote rings. India.
- 15. D. round, slightly curved; smooth, glossy, ta-entalis. pering to a small point; pervious; inch long. Indian and European shores; western coasts of Eng- land.
- 16. D. round, curved, continued and smooth. aristinum. Scandinavia.
- 17. D. round, slightly curved, interrupted, opaque; corneum. inch long. African ocean.
- 18. D. curved, very smooth, white, with fulvous nebulosum. clouds and spots. Sicily.
- 19. D. horny, flexible, straightish, round and smooth; pellucidum. inches long. North seas.
- 20. D. hyaline, glabrous, slightly curved, and ta-vitreum. pering gradually; inch long. Found fossil in Pied- mont.
- 21. D. round, straightish, smooth, minute; not minutum. larger than a bristle. Mediterranean.
- 22. D. white, opaque, transversely striated and im-imperfora- perforated; minute. Sandwich, Falmouth harbour. tum.
- 23. D. subpellucid, subarcuated, tapering to a small gadus. point; pervious, contracting a little towards the larger end; white, glossy, and smooth. British channel; called by the mariners bake's-tooth. It is frequently brought up with the sounding line.
- 24. D. subcylindrical, arcuated, marked with regu-trachea. lar, strong, transverse striae; aperture round, tapering
to the other extremity, which is closed; inch long; resembles the trachea of an animal. Milton, Devonshire. Rare.
glabrans. * 25. D. cylindric, arcuated, smooth, glossy, without striae or wrinkles; aperture orbicular; the other end closed, rounded; length one line. Devonshire coast. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 497.
62
Serpula. Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella; shell univalve, tubular, generally adhering to other substances; often separated internally by entire divisions at unequal distances.
nautiloides. * 1. S. flattish, minute, confluent, verrucose, spiral, with very thin, internal, semilunar divisions. Seas of Norway, and on the byssus of the pinna ingens on the coast of Devonshire.
eminulum. 2. S. regular, oval, loose, glabrous, not larger than a grain of sand. Adriatic and Red seas; and is sometimes found fossil.
planorbis. 3. S. orbicular, regular, flat, equal; resembles a round scale; adheres to shells.
spirillum. * 4. S. regular, spiral, orbicular; whirls round, gradually decreasing. Found in the ocean, on zoophytes, on the corallina officinalis from Milton rocks, Devonshire.
spirorbis. * 5. S. regular, spiral, orbicular; whirls slightly channelled above and inwardly, and diminishing gradually towards the center. Found in most seas, adhering to fuci. Shores of Britain.
triquetra. * 6. S. strong, opaque, irregularly twisted and contorted; triangular; to 1 inch long. Found in the ocean, adhering to marine substances, stones, and the bottoms of ships. Coasts of Britain.
intricata. * 7. S. filiform, rough, and intricately twisted; greenish white, a little rugged and coarse. European and Indian seas; shores of Britain, on shells.
filograna. 8. S. capillary, fasciculated, unbranched complications, and cancellated; forms a beautiful kind of network; 4 inches long. Mediterranean.
granulata. 9. S. round, spiral, glomerated; 3 elevated ribs on the upper side; size of a coriander seed. North seas, in masses adhering to shells and stones.
contortuplicata. * 10. S. angular, rugged, and irregularly entwined; transversely striated; 3 to 4 inches long. European and American seas; shores of Britain.
glomerata. 11. S. round, glomerated, with decussated wrinkles. European and Atlantic seas.
lumbrella. 12. S. round, flexuous, with a spiral, acute tip; transversely ribbed, and longitudinally wrinkled; 3 to 5 inches long. Atlantic and Indian seas, in large masses.
polythalamia. 13. S. round, diaphanous, smooth, straightish, with numerous internal divisions. Mediterranean and Indian seas, under the sands.
arenaria. 14. S. jointed, entire, distinct, flattish beneath. India and Africa.
anguina. 15. S. roundish, somewhat spiral, with a longitudinal, jointed cleft. Indian ocean.
vermicularis. * 16. S. round, tapering, curved, wrinkled; 2 to 3 inches long. European seas; coasts of Britain.—The animal which inhabits this shell is of a bright scarlet
colour, and is furnished with elegant feathered tentacula, from the midst of which arises a trumpet-shaped tube, and a lesser simple one.
17. S. Watering-pot; round, straight, taper, with a penis, dilated, radiated, larger extremity; the disc is covered with cylindrical pores; 3 to 5 inches long. Indian ocean.
18. S. roundish, flexuous, rosy, with numerous rows of scrinata, of prickles, obtuse at the end; aperture margined; size of a crow quill.
19. S. brown, roundish, striated. Indian ocean, ad-ocrea, adhering to corals.
20. S. polished, smoothish, with annulated plaits, a protena, little tapering towards the end; size of a quill. Indian and American seas.
21. S. round, with decussated striae, slightly wrinkled—decussata, led, flexuous, red; within smooth, white.
22. S. smooth, white, the broader part straight, and proboscis transversely plaited; 2 to 4 inches long. dea.
23. S. substriated, yellowish brown, round, twisted ofra, into 3 whirls, with a central tip.
24. S. long, narrow, round, smooth, yellowish; many cereolus, times twisted. America.
25. S. conic, spirally twisted, yellowish, with brown cornucopia bands; the middle round and twisted; aperture orbicular.
26. S. round, cancellated, yellow, within horny; 8 goreensis, to 9 inches long. Goree.
27. S. triangular, twisted, tuberculated, with hollow intestinalis, dots; 8 to 9 inches long. Africa.
28. S. round, white, transversely striated, and thrice infundibula, twisted; the first turn seemingly composed of 5 fun-lum, nels placed in each other. Indian ocean; fixed to stones.
29. S. cinereous, convex above, beneath flat; pyra-pyramidalis, and many times twisted; an inch long; open lis, at the narrower end. Indian sea.
30. S. white, round, subulate, straight, and toothed denticulata, at the sides; with a longitudinal, glabrous rib in the ta, middle; tip glabrous, a little incurved; inch long. Found in the lepas tintinnabulum.
31. S. roundish, twisted, umbilicated, with decussated melitenfis, striae, and longitudinal, knotty ribs; within smooth, with numerous divisions. Found fossil in Malta.
32. S. round, smooth, incurved; base nearly obso-norvegica, lete, undulated; mouth obliquely truncated. Norway.
33. S. round, smooth, polished, ascending in a flexu-porrecta, ous manner from the spire or base.
* 34. S. round, regular, spiral, orbicular, wrinkled, virrea, with a thickened aperture. Greenland seas; shores of Britain.
35. S. spiral, glomerated, with three grooves, the cancellata, lower interrupted by transverse ribs; aperture 2-toothed. Greenland seas.
36. S. sub-orbicular, umbilicated, convex, radiated stellaris, with wrinkles. Greenland seas.
37. S. somewhat triangular, and a little flexuous, gigantea, gradually tapering, violet; within smooth and pale yellow; aperture white, with undulated striae, and armed with a conic tooth; a foot high, and as thick as the little finger. Africa and America.
38. S. filiform, glabrous, conglomerated, perforated, cinerea, Shores of Massilia.
fulcata. * 39. S. whirls 2, deeply and spirally grooved; greenish, minute. Coast of Pembrokeshire, on the roots of fucus digitalis.
ovalis. * 40. S. sub-oval, with 2 bends, imperforated, minute. Found at Denbigh.
reflexa. * 41. S. regular, rounded; margin reflected at the aperture; minute. Pembrokeshire sands.
cornuta. * 42. S. regular, rounded, pellucid, with 3 whirls; horny. Pembrokeshire coast.
bicornis. * 43. S. semilunar, ventricose, white, opaque, glossy; minute. Sandwich and Reculver.
perforata. * 44. S. white, opaque, glossy; semilunar and perforated; minute. Sandwich. Rare.
laetea. * 45. S. oval, thin, smooth, pellucid, with milky veins; minute. Sandwich; very rare.
lagena. * 46. S. round, striated, grooved with a narrow neck, like an oil flask; minute. Sandwich and Sheppey.
retorta. * 47. S. rounded, margined, with a slender recurved neck. Sandwich; rare.
incurvata. * 48. S. straight, with 3 close whirls at the smaller end; minute. Sandwich.
63
Teredo. Gen. Char.—The animal is a terebella, with two calcareous, hemispherical valves, cut off before, and two lanceolate ones; the shell tapering, flexuous, and penetrating wood.
navalis. 1. T. Ship-worm; shell thin, cylindrical, smooth; more or less twisted; rather obtuse at the tip; 4 to 6 inches long.
At the smaller end the shell becomes thick and strong, and is furnished within with plaits or laminae, which contract that part, leaving a very small opening. The anterior valves attached to the head of the animal, are of a hemispherical form, one half of the front projecting in a sharp angle, and somewhat pointed. The inside of each valve is white, furnished with a long, flat, curved tooth, projecting inwards, under the hinge, and a short lateral tooth at the extremity of the hinge, corresponding in each valve. The margin opposite the hinge runs to an acute angle, at the point of which, in each valve, is a small knob, which comes in contact when the valves are brought together. Near the extremity of the tail there are two valves, one on each side; a little concave on the inside, and rounded at the end. By their means the extremity of the tube at the thickened part is closed. These are properly to be considered as the shell of the animal, because they are attached to it. The tube, or testaceous sheath, which lines the hole made in the wood, appears only to be formed as an apartment, in which the animal may move with more ease; for it is found that two tubes never come in immediate contact with each other, although the fibres of the wood between them are frequently no thicker than paper. This tube it seldom so long as the animal; the internal part of the perforation is usually not lined with it for the space of 2 inches, and sometimes more; but the smaller end is always even with the surface of the timber which is perforated; but so small, as not easily to be discovered, yet it is sufficient to admit the water, which is regulated by the posterior valves of the animal.
It is found in the sides and bottom of ships, and even
the strongest oak, which has been some time under water. This testaceous animal was originally a native of the warmer climates, and was brought to Europe, where it has been produced, and has proved extremely destructive to the bottoms of ships, and to works constructed of wood, which remains for some time constantly under water. It appears, from some piles of solid oak which were examined in the dock-yard of Plymouth, and which had remained under water for about 4 or 5 years, that the destructive effects of these animals are very great in that time; for these piles were found to be greatly perforated, which rendered it necessary to remove them, and replace them with others. The bottoms of ships which frequent warm climates, it is well known, are sheathed with copper, to secure them from the effects of these destructive animals. But the method which is adopted about the dock-yards to preserve the timbers which are constantly under water, is to cover them with broad-headed nails; which, by the effects of the sea water are soon incrustated with a coating of rust, which is found to be impenetrable to the ship-worm.
It has been observed that the teredo navalis cuts across the grain of the wood as seldom as possible. After it has penetrated a little way, it turns and continues with the grain, till it meets with another shell, or a knot in the wood. The course which it then takes is regulated by the nature of the obstruction. If this be considerable, it makes a short turn back in the form of a syphon, rather than continue for any distance across the grain.
2. T. solid, cylindrical, undulated; 7 inches long. utriculatus. In wood.
3. T. clavated at one end, incurved at the other; clavata. narrower, obtuse and perforated in the middle; 2 inches long. Found in the feed-vessels of the xylosteum granatum.
64
Sabella. Gen. Char.—The animal a nereis, with a ringent mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head; shell tubular, composed of particles of sand, broken shells, and vegetable substances, united to a membrane by a glutinous cement.
1. S. solitary, loose, curved with lentiform, glossy gra-scuroposa. nulations; thickness of a swan's quill. India and American islands.
2. S. solitary, fixed by the base, simple, curved, with scabra. radiated, rough granulations. America.
* 3. S. numerous, parallel tubes, communicating by alveolata. an aperture, forming in the mass the appearance of honey combs; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, Britain.
* 4. S. solitary, sub-cylindrical, papyraceous, chiefly ebryfodan. composed of fragments of shells; thickness of a quill; 2 to 6 inches long. European and Indian seas, shores of Britain.
* 5. S. straight, conic, composed of minute particles belgica. of sand; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, shores of Britain.
6. S. brown, with alternate white and black rings; rectangula. straight, with a rectangular, gibbous extremity; 9 inches long.
capensis. 7. S. cylindrical, conic, open at both ends; membranaceous; rough, with interrupted, transverse striae, Cape of Good Hope.
nigra. 8. S. cylindrical, black, smoothish on the outside; composed of minute particles of sand; inch long. Rivers of Thuringia.
flagalis. 9. S. straight, tapering, open at both ends; smooth, with a margined aperture, composed of very minute particles of sand. Rivers of Thuringia.
conica. 10. S. narrow, conic, smooth, straight, cinereous; with a blackish open tip, composed of very minute particles of sand; not inch long.
uncinata. 11. S. smooth, round, tapering, with an open hooked tip; inch long. Rivers of Thuringia.
fabulosa. 12. S. cylindrical, closed at the tip, subclavated, perforated, and composed of larger grains of sand; not an inch long. Thuringia and Belgium.
vegetabilis. 13. S. depressed, composed of fragments of twigs, stems and bark, and broken pieces of the tellina cornea; an inch long. Waters of Thuringia.
ammonia. 14. S. polygono-cylindrical, within smooth, composed of fragments of cornu ammonis. Rivers.
helicina. 15. S. round, within smooth, composed of fragments of the helix pucilla; an inch long. Stagnant waters of Thuringia.
dimidiata. 16. S. one part of the shell composed of sand or gravel, the other thicker, clavated, and composed of fragments of shells. Waters of Thuringia.
fixa. 17. S. composed of small stones; tapering towards the tip; an inch long; affixed to stones in the water, and open at the side by which it is fixed. Thuringia.
clavata. 18. S. composed of small stones, the open end clavated, and consisting of larger stones; solitary. Thuringia.
corticalis. 19. S. composed of pieces of bark, towards the end of broken stems.
arundinacea. 20. S. subconic, open at both ends, composed of fragments of the bark of reeds, placed on each other; an inch long.
aculeata. * 21. S. composed of small twigs, the points of which project a little; an inch long. Thuringia, Britain.
marsupialis. 22. S. black; open end cylindrical and narrower, the other part tinged and ovate; 2 inches long.
norvegica. 23. S. roundish, open at both ends, brittle, membranaceous; composed of very minute grains of sand; 4 inches long. Norway.
lumbriacalis. 24. S. coarse, creeping, fragile, open at both ends; the animal not furnished with tentacula at the mouth; body prickly, jointed. Deep of the Greenland seas; fixed to stones.
indica. 25. S. cylindrical, composed of capillary, sub-cylindrical, agglutinated crystals of quartz. Indian ocean.
arenaria. * 26. S. extremely fragile, cylindrical, composed of pure sand, slightly cemented together, without any internal membrane; size of a raven's quill; from 1 to 2 inches long. Dorsetshire coast. Montagu.
subcylindrica. * 27. S. long, sub-cylindric, slender, fragile, composed of fine sand, and minute bits of broken shells, cemented together on a fine membrane; 3 inches long. Salcomb-bay. Montagu.
setiformis. * 28. S. long, slender, gradually tapering to the lower end, composed of fine fragments of shells, and minute
flat bits of stones, cemented together at their edges; 3 to 4 inches long. Salcomb-bay.—Some have been observed with a lateral branch near the smaller end, which is supposed to be a young one. Montagu.
* 29. S. small, short, composed of sand and minute bits of flat stones, agglutinated to a tough membrane; size of a crow quill; an inch long. Inlet near Kings-bridge. This fabella is gregarious, covering the whole surface of the shore, appearing like bits of straw covered with mud. Montagu.
* 30. S. short, broad, and very flat, composed of large compressed fragments of flat, bivalve shells, placed with the concave side inwards; inch long. Deep at Torcross, Devonshire.
65
Number of Species included under each Genus, in the Enumeration of the preceding Classification. Species.
| I. MULTIVALVES. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Genera. | Species. | |
| 1. Chiton, | - | 29 |
| 2. Lepas, | - | 33 |
| 3. Pholas, | - | 12 |
| — 74 | ||
| II. BIVALVES. | ||
| 4. Mya, | - | 31 |
| 5. Solen, | - | 24 |
| 6. Tellina, | - | 94 |
| 7. Cardium, | - | 52 |
| 8. Mactra, | - | 27 |
| 9. Donax, | - | 21 |
| 10. Venus, | - | 152 |
| 11. Spondylus, | - | 4 |
| 12. Chama, | - | 25 |
| 13. Arca, | - | 43 |
| 14. Ostrea, | - | 136 |
| 15. Anomia, | - | 31 |
| 16. Mytilus, | - | 65 |
| 17. Pinna, | - | 18 |
| — 743 | ||
| III. UNIVALVES. | ||
| 18. Argonauta, | - | 5 |
| 19. Nautilus, | - | 34 |
| 20. Conus, | - | 71 |
| 21. Cyprea, | - | 120 |
| 22. Bulla, | - | 37 |
| 23. Voluta, | - | 144 |
| 24. Buccinum, | - | 200 |
| 25. Strombus, | - | 53 |
| 26. Murex, | - | 180 |
| 27. Trochus, | - | 131 |
| 28. Turbo, | - | 152 |
| 29. Helix, | - | 267 |
| 30. Nerita, | - | 76 |
| 31. Haliotis, | - | 19 |
| 32. Patella, | - | 240 |
| 33. Dentalium, | - | 25 |
| 34. Serpula, | - | 48 |
| 35. Teredo, | - | 3 |
| 36. Sabella, | - | 30 |
| — 1855 | ||
| Total number of species, | 2672 | |
| Species | ||
Of the Constituent Parts of Shells, &c.
Species of Shells which have been found in the Fossil State.
66
Found fossil.
- LEPAS Anserifera.
- CARDIUM Lithocardium. Only found fossil.
- VENUS Cassina.
- Merccenaria. Mountains of Sweden.
- Imbricata. France.
- CHAMA Foliaces. Campania.
- ARCA Fossilis. Limbourg.
- Nucleus.
- OSTREA Diluviana. Sweden.
- Mytiloides. Alsace.
- Torta. Alsace.
- ANOMIA Craniolaris.
- Gryphus.
- Pecten.
- Scriatula. Exists only fossil.
- Reticularis.
- Plicatella. Only fossil.
- Crispa. England and Switzerland.
- Lacunosa. Only fossil.
- Cuspidata. Derbyshire.
- Farcis. Switzerland.
- Terebratula.
- Angulata.
- Hylcrita. Germany.
- Biloba. Only fossil.
- Spinosa. England.
- Dorsata.
- Sandalium. Germany.
Of the Constituent Parts of Shells, &c.
- NAUTILUS Helicites.
- Litus.
- Orthocera.
- Belemnita.
- VOLUTA Fossilis. Only fossil.
- BUCCINUM Fossile. Germany.
- Marginatum.
- STROMBUS Spinosus. Only fossil.
- Fissurella. Campania.
- Sinister. Fossil only. Helvetia.
- MUREX Tricinctus.
- Triptenus. Campania.
- Costatus. Campania.
- Lievigatus. Campania.
- Fossilis. Campania.
- Campanicus. Campania.
- TROCHUS Schroeteri. Campania.
- NERITA Clathrata. Campania.
- Perversa. Only fossil.
- HALIOTIS Perversa.
- Plicata.
- PATELLA Echinata.
- DENTALIUM Sexangulum. Loretto.
- Fossile. Loretto.
- Annulatum.
- Radula. Piedmont.
- Interruptum.
- Vitreum. Piedmont.
- SERPULA Seminulum.
- Melitenfis. Malta.
CHAP. V. OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF SHELLS, &c.
HAVING in the former chapter enumerated, under each genus, all the species of testaceous animals which have been hitherto discovered; and having given the characteristic marks by which each is distinguished, which marks are derived from the shell or testaceous covering; we now propose to inquire what is the nature of this substance; in what way it is produced by the animal, and how it is enlarged as the animal increases in size. These topics shall be the subject of the present chapter, which may be conveniently divided into the following sections. 1. Of the constituent parts of shells. 2. Of their formation. 3. Of the colours of shells. 4. Of the formation of the umbilicus and protuberances, &c. 5. Of the pearl.
SECT. I. Of the constituent Parts of Shells.
THE nature and component parts of testaceous substances have been particularly investigated by Mr Hatchett, from whose paper we extract the following observations.
In his examination of marine shells, Mr Hatchett found, from the nature of the substance of which they are composed, that they might be arranged in two divisions. Under the first are included those which have a porcellaneous appearance and enamelled surface, and exhibit, when broken, something of a fibrous texture. The other division is distinguished, by having a strong epidermis or covering, under which is the shell, composed principally or entirely of mother-of-pearl. To
VOL. VI. Part II.
the first division belong different species of voluta, cypræa, and others. The second comprehends the oyster, the river mussel, and some species of haliotis and turbo.
Porcellaneous shells.—The shells of this description Porcellana, which were examined, were different species of voluta and cypræa. When they were exposed to a red heat for a quarter of an hour, they crackled, and lost the colours of their enamelled surface. No apparent smoke, and no smell, like that of burnt horn or cartilage, were emitted during the process. The figure remained the same, excepting a few flaws; and they became of an opaque white, partially tinged with pale gray. When they were dissolved in acids, after being burnt, they deposited a small quantity of animal coal, which proves that they contain some portion of gluten. Shells which had not been exposed to the fire, dissolved with great effervescence in the different acids; and the solution remained transparent and colourless; from which it appears, that the proportion of gluten is small, since it could not be traced in the solution of the unburnt shells.
In examining the different solutions of shells, whether burnt or unburnt, by chemical tests, it was found, that no trace of phosphate of lime, or of any other combination of phosphoric acid, existed in these substances. And it appeared from many experiments, that the component parts of porcellaneous shells, are carbonate of lime, cemented with a very small portion of animal gluten.
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
Some species of patella, which were brought from Madeira, were also subjected to chemical examination, by the same philosopher. When exposed to a red heat in a crucible, they emitted a perceptible smell of horn or feathers; and by farther examination, by solution, the proportion of carbonic matter deposited appeared to be greater, and the proportion of carbonate of lime less, than what was indicated by the result of the experiments on porcellaneous shells. When unburnt shells belonging to the same species, were immersed in nitric acid very much diluted, the epidermis separated, and the whole of the carbonate of lime was dissolved. A gelatinous substance, nearly in a liquid state, remained, but it did not retain the figure of the shell, and exhibited no appearance of a fibrous structure. These shells, therefore, contain a larger portion of gelatinous matter than the porcellaneous shells, but the other component part consists entirely of carbonate of lime.
Mother of
pearl.
Shells composed of mother-of-pearl.—Shells of this description, were subjected to similar experiments with the former. When the common oyster was exposed to a red heat, the effects were the same as those which were produced by the same process on the species of patella from Madeira. The solution of the unburnt shell was also similar, excepting only that the gelatinous part was of a greater consistency. When the river mussel was burnt in a crucible, it emitted much smoke, with a strong smell of burnt horn or cartilage; the shell became of a dark gray colour, and exfoliated. By solution in the acids, the proportion of carbonic matter separated was greater, and that of carbonate of lime obtained was less, than from the other shells on which experiments were made.
When an unburnt shell of this description was immersed in diluted nitric acid, a rapid solution and effervescence took place; and at the end of two days, the whole of the carbonate of lime was nearly dissolved. A series of membranes now only remained, of which the epidermis constituted the first. These membranes still retained the figure of the shell. The carbonate of lime was at first readily dissolved, because the acid came easily in contact with it; but the process became slower, as it was more difficult for the acid to insinuate itself between the different membranes of which the shell is composed. The halitosis iris, and the turbo olearius, were found to resemble this mussel, except that the membranaceous parts were more compact and dense.
When these shells are deprived by an acid of the carbonate of lime, which gives them their hardness, they appear to be formed of different membranes, applied stratum super stratum. Each membrane is furnished with a corresponding coat or crust of carbonate of lime, and it is so situated, that it is always between every two membranes, beginning with the epidermis, and ending with the internal membrane, which has been last formed. The animals which inhabit these stratified shells, increase their habitation by the addition of a stratum of carbonate of lime, which is secured by a new membrane. And as every additional stratum exceeds in extent that which was previously formed, the shell becomes stronger in proportion as it is enlarged; and thus the growth and age of the animal may be denoted by the number of strata of which the shell is composed. Similar experiments were made
on pieces of mother-of-pearl as they are imported from China, and with precisely the same results. They appeared to be composed of the same gelatinous matter and carbonate of lime. In all the shells of this description which were immersed in acids, the membranaceous parts retained the exact figure of the shell, and they appeared distinctly to be composed of fibres, arranged in a parallel direction, corresponding to the configuration of the shell.
Pearl.—The constituent parts of pearl appear to be similar to those of mother-of-pearl. They are composed of concentric coats of membrane and carbonate of lime, and resemble in structure the globular, calcareous concretions which are known by the name of pisolites. The iridescence and undulated appearance of pearl and mother-of-pearl, evidently depend on their lamellated structure and semitransparency.
From these experiments it appears, that shells are composed of carbonate of lime and gluten. In some, parts as in the porcellaneous shells, the proportion of carbonate of lime is great, while that of the animal matter is small; and these may be regarded as the beginning of the series; while shells that come under the description of mother-of-pearl are to be placed at the other extremity, having a smaller proportion of carbonate of lime, and a greater proportion of membranaceous substance. In the first the carbonate of lime is merely cemented by the animal matter; in the latter the carbonate of lime serves to harden the membranaceous substance. But between these two extremes, in the proportion of carbonate of lime and animal gluten, of which all testaceous substances are composed, there are no doubt numerous intermediate gradations, arising from the nature of the animal to which they form a covering, its peculiar habits, or mode of life.
SECT. II. Of the Formation of Shells.
The shell or covering of testaceous animals, has been considered as in some measure analogous to the bones of other animals, although its formation and growth are very different, since it serves as a base or support to the muscles, which are attached to its internal surface. The principal use of the shell, however, is to serve as a covering or defence to the animal.
Testaceous animals are not only extremely different in external form, but also in the mode of their production. Some are viviparous, as the most of those which inhabit bivalve shells, multivalves, and even some of the univalves; while the others, which form the far greater proportion, are oviparous. In one point, however, they all agree, that whatever be the mode of production, whether from an egg, or directly from the uterus of the mother, the shell is formed on the body of the young animal, and is proportioned to its bulk.
The best observations which have yet been made, and the most elaborate investigation which has hitherto appeared, concerning the formation and development of shells, are those of the celebrated Reaumur, which were published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for the year 1709. The same subject has been prosecuted by other authors, but their results have been nearly the same as those of this distinguished naturalist. Klein is almost the only author who has advanced a different opinion. In his dissertation concerning the formation
Of the Con-
fituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
74.
His opinion
mistaken.
Of shells, he charges Reaumur with supporting the opinion, that testaceous animals, when they proceed from eggs, are not furnished with the shell, but that it is formed after being hatched. This opinion indeed has been ascribed to Reaumur by the historian of the academy, who, in the analysis of his excellent memoir on the formation of shells, has observed, "that hitherto the curious have been struck with the prodigious variety, the exact regularity of structure, the singular beauty and splendour of colour of shells; but naturalists have been less attentive in studying and investigating the mode of their formation. They seem to have thought that although shells, as well as the covering of crustaceous animals, are bones placed externally to the animals which they cover, it was necessary to consider them as part of their bodies, and to include this inexplicable circumstance under that of the general formation of animals, which is incomprehensible to the human mind. They have therefore supposed that the animal and its shell proceeded from the same egg, and were developed together; and they have rested satisfied in admiring the economy of nature in providing so elaborate a covering for so low an order of animals. But this supposition, although probable, is not founded in truth. The animal only, not the shell, is produced from the egg. The discovery of this fact is owing to Reaumur."
It must seem very extraordinary, that such an error should have crept into the abstract of the memoir of this celebrated philosopher, who in the course of it has clearly expressed a contrary opinion. "I have frequently," says Reaumur, "compared the shells of snails which were just hatched, and even with those which I had taken from the eggs before they were hatched, with other shells of full grown snails of the same species, with which I had left only the same number of whirls of the spire with the small shells, and then they appeared in all respects the same." He further observes, "that what has been said with regard to the increase of shells, renders it unnecessary to enter into the detail of their original formation; for it is easy to conceive, that when the body of a small embryo which is one day to fill a large shell, has arrived at a certain state, in which the different teguments in which it is included have sufficient consistence to secrete from their pores the peculiar fluid which is destined to the formation of the shell, this fluid may be deposited on the surface, may thicken, and at last become firm and solid. And thus commences the formation of the shell, in the same way as its increase is continued. Snails do not proceed from the egg without being previously furnished with this shell, which then has one turn and a little more of the spire.
75.
All testaceous animals
furnished
with the
shell be-
fore being
hatched.
When the eggs of testaceous animals are hatched, the young appears with its shell already formed, and according to the observation of Reaumur, it has then one complete turn of the spire and a little more; but at that period the shell is extremely thin. It seems probable that the formation of the shell is posterior to that of the principal organs of the animal, as the bones in the foetus of other animals are formed after the brain and heart.
76.
Shell last
formed.
Reaumur has suspected that the shell is the last formed, and if proofs are wanting to establish this fact, it is certain that at particular periods, if the eggs of
testaceous animals are opened, the external parts of the embryo are found already developed, without any appearance of the shell. But whatever may be the period of the formation of the shell, it may be received as an established fact, that the animal is furnished with it at the time it leaves the egg. LeeuwenHOCK first observed this fact with regard to oysters; the same observation was afterwards made by LILIER, and extended to others, both land and river shells. This observation has been confirmed by other naturalists, and particularly by RUMPHIUS, SWAMMERDAM, REAUMUR, and ADANSON. From the investigations of the latter it appears, that although there are many of the marine testaceous animals which are viviparous, they resemble those which are oviparous, in being furnished with the shell when they are separated from the parent.
77.
Two opinions
of the
formation
of shells.
Since then it appears, that the shell of testaceous animals is completely formed previous to the development of the animal, and that it may be considered as an essential part of its organization, let us now inquire into the mode by which its growth is effected. According to the decisive experiments of Reaumur, the enlargement of shells is owing to juxta-position, or successive additions of earthy and animal matter, independent of any organized structure. Klein has supported a contrary opinion, and supposes that the growth of shells is effected by intus-suspension, or a kind of circulation. The opinion of Reaumur, however, has most generally prevailed. Excepting BONNET, few naturalists have adopted that of Klein; and it will appear that this celebrated naturalist was led to entertain this opinion concerning the mode of the formation of shells, by the experiments of HERISSANT on the generation of bone and shell. From these experiments it was clearly demonstrated, that shells are composed of two substances, the one a membranaceous or animal substance, and the other an earthy matter; but no such conclusion can be drawn from them in support of the opinion, that the shell is a continuation of the body of the animal, or that it is so closely connected as the bones in the bodies of other animals; or even that this connexion is formed by means of fibres of the ligament which attaches the animal to its shell: for it has been shown, that these muscular or ligamentous fibres, in all descriptions of testaceous animals, are successively separated, in proportion to the increase or enlargement of the shell. This could not possibly take place, if the evolution and formation of the shell, according to the opinion of Herissant, depended on an internal circulation, analogous to what happens in the body of the animal. In this case the vessels which proceed from its body, having no longer a communication with those which are supposed to exist in the shell, it would be deprived of nourishment, and consequently could not increase in size. And it is found, that this separation takes place in all shells. It is gradually completed as the growth of the shell advances.
78.
A body may increase in volume in two different
ways. Either the particles of which it is composed
pass through that body by means of circulation, and
undergo certain changes by which they are prepared
to form part of the body; or the particles of which a
body is composed, may unite with it by juxta-position,
without any previous circulation or preparation within
the body, to the increase of which they are destined.
3 N 2 It
Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
79
Reaumur's
experi-
ments.
80
Process of
the forma-
tion of
shell.
81
By secre-
tion from
the animal.
It is in the first way that the growth of vegetables and animals is accomplished; the second is the mode by which shells receive new additions of matter, and enlarge in size. The first is the mode of increase peculiar to living, organized substances; by the second, inorganic substances receive new additions of matter, and increase in volume. These indeed afford sufficient characteristic marks for a natural division of bodies into two classes, namely organized and inorganic substances.
The experiments of Reaumur have decisively proved, that the growth of shells is owing to the latter mode of increase. These experiments were made, not only on sea shells, but also on land and river shells; on univalves and bivalves; and in all the result was invariably the same. In conducting these experiments, he included the shells on the progress of which he made his observations, in boxes pierced with small holes, so as to admit the water, but so small as to prevent the egress of the animal. These boxes were sunk into the sea, or the river, and in this way he was enabled to watch the process of the growth of the shell. He first observed, that when the animal which exactly filled its shell, began to increase its size, the shell in a short time, not being sufficiently large to cover its whole body, part of it was naked or unprotected. This part of the animal must always be towards the opening of the shell, because the shell being previously completely filled, it cannot extend in any other direction. All animals which inhabit shells of a spiral form, such as the snail and volute, can only extend at the head, or the opening of the shell; whereas the animals in bivalve shells, such as the mussel and the oyster, may enlarge in their whole circumference. In all the species of testaceous animals, it is this part which appears by the increase of the animal when it enlarges the shell. This increase takes place, according to Reaumur, by the following mechanism.
It is a necessary effect of the laws of motion, when liquids run in canals, that the small particles of these fluids, or the small foreign bodies mixed with them, which on account of their figure, or their less degree of solidity in proportion to their surface, move slower than the others, fly off from the centre of motion, and approach towards the sides of these canals. It even frequently happens, that these small particles attach themselves to the internal surface of these canals or tubes, and form concretions of different degrees of thickness. It is besides certain, that the fluids which circulate in these tubes, press against their sides on every point of their interior surface; so that if they were pierced with a number of small holes of sufficient diameter to give passage to the small particles of matter floating in these fluids, these particles would be deposited on the external surface, where a crust would be formed, similar to that in the inside; with this difference, that it would become thicker and more solid, being less exposed to the friction of the fluid, than that which is deposited in the interior of the tube.
To a similar mechanism Reaumur ascribes the increase of shells. The external surface of that part of the body of the animal which has extended beyond the limits of the old shell, is furnished with a great number of canals, in which circulate the necessary fluids for the nutrition of the animal. A great many small
particles of a viscous and earthy matter are mixed with these fluids. Now, as these particles are less fluid than those of which the liquids themselves are composed, they approach the sides of the vessels, which are themselves furnished on that side of the external surface of the body of the animal, with a great number of pores, which allow them to escape from the vessels, so that they are deposited on the external surface of these tubes, or rather in that of the body of the animal itself, which is uncovered by the shell.
These particles of earthy and viscous matter having reached the surface of the body of the animal, readily unite with each other, and with the extremity of the old shell, especially when the excess of moisture is dissipated; and thus by their union they compose a small solid body, which is the first layer of the new addition. Other particles of similar matter continuing to escape in the same way from the excretory vessels of the animal, form a second layer under the first; afterwards a third, and a fourth, or more, till the new part of the shell has acquired sufficient consistency and thickness. It is, however, observed to continue thinner for a certain time than the former opening, till the increase of the animal requires another enlargement of its covering.
When a testaceous animal is going to enlarge its shell, as for instance the common snail, the body projects from the opening. It is then seen to attach itself to a wall or some other solid substance, and the portion of its body which is unprotected by the shell, is soon covered with the fluids which are excreted from its surface. The pellicle which they produce when the fluid dries, is at first thin and elastic, but gradually assumes more consistency, and becomes at last similar to the old part of the shell. If in this stage of the process a bit of the shell is broken and removed, without injuring the body of the snail, the skin of the animal is soon covered with a fluid, which gradually thickens, and becomes solid. Twenty-four hours after the operation, a fine crust may be observed, which constitutes the first and external layer, for repairing the breach which was made. At the end of some days this layer has become thicker, and in 10 or 12 days, the new piece of shell which is formed, has acquired the same thickness as that which was removed. In making this experiment, certain precautions are necessary, otherwise there is some risk of its failure. If, after the broken piece of the shell has been removed, and particularly if the fracture is made near the edge of the opening, the animal is not supplied with a sufficient quantity of nourishment, its volume or bulk is soon diminished; and now finding that what remains of the shell is a complete covering to its diminished body, no excretion takes place for the production of a new portion. In removing snails from a wall to which they had attached themselves, for the purpose of observing the progress of the formation of the shell, some days will elapse after they are placed in the box, before the process commences, because the testaceous matter which had been already expended after fixing on the wall, must be fully supplied before any new portion can be again formed.
This experiment shows clearly, that shells are only enlarged by receiving new additions of matter, after it has been excreted from the body of the animal, and not
Of the Con-
sistent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
not by intus-susception, or a circulation through the body of the shell itself. If this were the case, the production of new matter to fill up the breach made in the shell, would first appear all round the edge of the opening, and forming a kind of callus, similar to what happens in the reproduction of bony matter in other animals, it would gradually extend till the whole breach is filled up. But, on the contrary, this matter first appears on the body of the animal from which it has exuded, and the whole extent of the opening is closed at once by the fluid which has been directly secreted from the surface of the body. Nor can it be supposed, that the liquid has insensibly exuded from the shell, and falling on the body of the animal, is there collected in sufficient quantity for the formation of the new piece of shell. This is fully demonstrated by the two following experiments of the same naturalist.
83
Other experiments of Reaumur.
Reaumur broke several shells of snails; and, having made a very large hole about the middle of the shell, and about an equal distance between its summit and opening, he introduced between the body of the animal and its shell, through the hole, a piece of skin which was extremely fine, but of a very close texture. He glued this skin to the internal surface of the shell, so that it shut up accurately the artificial opening which he had made. It must then be obvious, that if the reproduction of the piece of shell which was removed, depended on the excretion of a fluid from the shell itself, and not on that which proceeds from the surface of the animal's body, the new piece of shell would be formed on the external surface of the piece of skin which was introduced; and it is not possible that it could be formed between the skin and the body of the animal. But the contrary of this has always happened. The new testaceous matter is always deposited on the internal surface of the skin; that is, on the side which is in contact with the animal's body; and no matter whatever was deposited on the other surface. This experiment has been repeated by others, and has been invariably attended with the same result.
The second experiment made by Reaumur is not less decisive than the first. He took a number of snails, and broke the shells, so that he diminished the number of the turns of the spire about part. Having in this way rendered the shells too small to cover the body entirely, they were nearly in the same situation as when an increase of the animal's body requires an augmentation of the shell. He then took a bit of skin, as in the former experiment, sufficiently large for the opening of the shell, and introduced one of its edges between the body of the animal and the shell, to the interior surface of which he glued it; after which having folded back the other extremity of the skin on the external surface of the shell, he glued it in like manner, so that the whole external opening was completely covered with the skin. The results were exactly the same as before. The shell grew, the skin remained in its place, and that part of it which was attached to the interior surface was fixed between the new piece and the old shell, which consequently could not contribute to its formation.
From these experiments, which may be easily repeated, it appears that the increase of shells is owing to the sec e-
tion of an earthy and viscid animal matter which is prepared in the body of the animal, and which is successively formed by layers from the interior part of the shell to the external surface. This formation is determined by the previous enlargement of the animal. The different strata or layers of which shells are composed, can be easily demonstrated by exposing them to the action of fire, and removing them before their structure is entirely destroyed. By this process the animal matter is consumed, and the earthy substance remains, exhibiting a laminated structure. The same structure may be demonstrated, as has been already observed, in detailing Mr Hatchett's experiments, by immersing a shell of the description of mother-of-pearl in a diluted acid. The earthy matter in this case is dissolved by the acid, and the layers of animal matter which are interposed, resisting the action of the acid, remain unchanged, and still retain the original figure of the shell.
84
Layers of shells seen by burning.
85
Turns of
It is a necessary consequence of the mode in which the shells of snails are increased, that they cannot create. enlarge in volume, but by the augmentation of the turns of the spire, and that the length of each turn of the shell already formed, remains always the same. This may be easily put to the test of experiment, by reducing the shell of a snail which has reached its full size to the same number of turns with those of younger shells of the same species. The two shells do not then exhibit any other difference than in their thickness; and it would be the same, by comparing the youngest shells, those which have been just separated from the egg, with the first turns of those of the same species which have been reduced by breaking them to an equal diameter. The number of turns or whirls of which the spire of a shell is composed, increases very considerably the size of the shell in univalves, and one turn more or less makes a great difference in their volume. According to Reaumur, the diameter of each turn of the spire is in the snail nearly double that of the preceding one, and of that which follows; but in many other shells, both marine and river, the last whirls of the spire, compared with the preceding ones, greatly exceed this proportion. In some, the external opening is 12 times greater than the preceding one, and in others, it is not more than eight times. This depends entirely on the increase of the animal's body, and the proportion of that increase. The growth of some is lengthwise; and in them the increase of diameter is proportionally less, while others increase more in thickness than in length. Those testaceous animals which have only a few turns in the spire of the shell, are of this description. To the former belong such as have a greater number of turns in the spire.
86
The animal is detached from the shell in many cases.
Those who have adopted the opinion of Klein with regard to the formation of shells, have denied the separation of the animal from the shell, which successively takes place near the tip in univalves. It is indeed on this circumstance of the connexion of the animal with the shell, that the truth of this theory depends. According to it, the animal is attached to the internal surface of the tip of the shell in univalves, and on this connexion depend the increase of the shell, and even the life of the animal. But it is a certain fact, that the posterior part of the body of the animal is entirely detached from the tip of the shell; and this holds,
Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
not only with regard to all land and sea shells which have lost the first turns of the spine, and consequently those of the tip; but also in a great number of other marine testaceous animals. It seems not only certain, but even necessary, that this separation between the animal and the shell should also take place in bi-valve shells, if we take a distinct and rational view of their growth. Whether this separation is suddenly effected, or by a gradual process, which is most probable, it seems to be sufficiently obvious, by examining the internal surface of the valves. This is still more strongly confirmed by sawing univalve shells, particularly those which are considerably elongated, and have a great number of turns in the spine, in a direction perpendicular to their axis. In old shells, several of the first turns of the spine will be found completely filled up with testaceous matter, so that the tip of the shell has become quite solid, or at least it will appear to have been long unoccupied by any part of the body of the animal. But in transparent shells, as in some species of helix, it is seen that this attachment does not exist; and the H. planorbis can be preserved alive, although the tip of the spine is broken off.
SECT. III. Of the Colours of Shells.
87
Inquiry cu-
rious.
The infinite variety of the colours of shells is one of the most striking parts of their history; and it becomes a curious and interesting object of investigation to inquire, whether these colours are uniform and constant in the species, and from what proceed this regularity and uniformity. The experiments and observations of Reaumur will assist us in this investigation. When a hole is made in a shell, nearly at an equal distance between its tip and opening, the new piece of shell which is formed to shut up the hole is usually of a white colour, and often very different from that of the rest of the shell. It would appear at first that the new piece is of a different nature, and that it is not formed in the same way as the rest of the shell. To meet this difficulty, it will be necessary to explain on what depends the regular variety of the colours of certain shells: the same experiments which lead to the discovery of the cause of the one, will serve to unfold the other.
88
Colours va-
ry from par-
ticular cir-
cumstances.
This remarkable variety of colour is in no shell more remarkable than in the helix nemoralis. The ground of this shell is white, citron or yellow, or of a compound of different shades of these colours. Different coloured rays are traced on this ground, turning spirally with the shell; in some they are black, in others brown, and sometimes reddish. The breadth of each of these rays gradually increases as they approach to the opening of the shell. It even sometimes happens, that two of these bands are so much extended in breadth, that they meet together and form one. Some individuals have five or six of these bands, while others have three or four, and even two, and sometimes only one. Others again have none at all, although of the same species; and among the individuals which are marked with coloured bands, they are not always of the same breadth in the same parts of the shell; from which it appears, that no certain specific characters can be derived from the colour, since it is subject to so much variety. According to Reaumur, the viscid
and earthy matter of which the shell is composed is secrete. Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
and earthy matter of which the shell is composed is secrete. Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
This seems to be a necessary consequence of the Colouring
matter se-
creted from
the neck.
This seems to be a necessary consequence of the Colouring
matter se-
creted from
the neck.
The whole external layer of the shell is formed by the neck of the animal, because it is that part which is nearest to the head, and consequently as the animal increases in size, this part ceases to be covered with the old shell. It, therefore, depends on this part of the animal to extend the shell, and for this purpose it is sufficient that the neck be furnished with glands for secreting the different fluids, to form a shell of different colours. If, for instance, there are two or three glandular bodies which secrete brown or black particles, and that these glandular bodies are disposed in a parallel direction to each other, while the glands on the rest of the surface only secrete particles of matter which reflect the light of a citron colour, the shell formed by these bodies will have a citron ground, with black or brown bands, nearly parallel, or which gradually approach to each other, and become larger in the same proportion as the external organs of the animal increase in size.
If no such glandular structure, or difference in the
matter secreted, could be traced on the neck of the
helix nemoralis, this explanation of the cause of the
variety of colours in shells would appear extremely
probable; but this probability amounts to certainty,
from the actual observation of the existence of this pecu-
liarity of structure and effect. When the helix ne-
moralis is deprived of part of its shell, the body ap-
pears of a white colour, excepting towards the neck,
where the white inclines to yellow, and where besides
there is a number of black or brown bands, equal to
that of the bands on the shell, and arranged in the
same direction. It has been observed, too, that the
individuals which have only one black stripe on the
shell, have only one single black spot on the neck;
and those having four spots on the neck, have four
stripes of the same colour on the shell. These rays
are placed immediately under those of the shell; they
commence at the distance of about a line from the
extremity of the neck, which is itself usually spotted
with black all round. The existence, therefore, of
these excretory organs can no longer be doubted.
The difference of colour seems to prove the difference
of structure. But to establish this beyond the possi-
bility of doubt, it is only necessary to have recourse to
experiment, by observing what happens in the new
piece of shell which is renewed, in place of that portion
which has been removed; and if it appear that that
part of the shell which is formed opposite to the black
rays of the animal, is black, and if that which is
formed between the stripes be of a different colour
from that of the stripes themselves on the rest of the
body, no further proof can be required. Now, it has
been observed, that that part of the new shell formed
on the neck opposite to the black or brown stripes on
the
Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
the animal's body, is itself black or brown, that formed between the stripes is white or citron, while the rest of the body is white, but different from that of the neck, when it is of this colour.
91
Seeming
exception.
It sometimes happens, that the part of the shell which has been renewed is of a different colour. This apparent deviation will appear less difficult to be reconciled to the explanation of the process which has now been given, if we attend to the circumstance that the new shell formed opposite to the neck of the animal is never different from that of the old shell, excepting that the external surface is extremely rough, and presents numerous furrows or grooves, in place of the smoothness and fine polish of the old shell. In this case, the inequality of surface is occasioned by the motion of the animal retiring within its shell, before the new piece has acquired sufficient consistency and solidity; and thus the new shell, having contracted on its surface wrinkles or furrows, the light is very differently reflected. But there is another cause for this difference of colour in these circumstances. When a large piece of shell is removed, the first layer which is formed is usually white. The particles of the fluid which are necessary for the formation of the shell of this colour, seem to be more easily excreted from the surface of the body than the particles of fluid which go to the formation of any other colour. It is observed that the body of the animal is covered with this fluid, long before there is any appearance of secretion about the neck. This liquid is extended to the neck, and there produces a new layer of white shell; but as this layer is extremely thin and transparent, it does not prevent the usual secretion of the colouring matter at the neck to appear. In this period of the process, if the animal retire within its shell, the new layer, still adhering in many points to its body, and not having acquired sufficient solidity, will be distorted and wrinkled; and not only exhibit that inequality of surface which generally appears in shells thus formed, but the arrangement of the stripes or colours will also be destroyed.
92
Causes of
this.
It would be a very false conclusion from this account of the mode of the formation of the stripes which appear on certain species of shells, that the external surface of all shells should be marked with colours, or should be uniformly of the same colour; and that there should be no shells whose external surface is marked with different spots, differently arranged, of an irregular figure, and separated from each other by unequal intervals. For if it has been shown, that these colours are produced on the surface of the shell, only by means of the secretory organs, situated on the neck of the animal, it cannot be supposed that the same effects will follow, unless the animal is placed in the same circumstances. These secretory organs, therefore, must exist during the entire formation of the shell, to furnish the same quantity of colouring matter during the whole of its progress. But if it happen on the contrary, that these organs undergo any change; if the pores through which the liquid is poured out to form a shell or part of a shell of a brown colour, become too large or too small, or in other respects change their form, after having poured out a certain quantity of this fluid; and that those which furnish the fluid of which the white part of the shell is composed, are also
changed, it must happen that the shell which is produced is marked with different black and white spots, combined with a degree of irregularity corresponding to the change on the secretory organs. This will appear to be the case, by attending to the changes which take place in the secretory organs of snails which produce coloured shells; for in them it may be observed, that the colours are distinct and well marked in some, towards the opening, while they are scarcely perceptible on the first turn of the spire towards the tip of the shell; and these changes of colour cannot be supposed to exist without a corresponding change on the secretory organs.
94
Difference
of fluidity
in the mat-
ter secret-
ed.
The fluidity of the liquid secreted for the formation of the shell, has probably also some effect in the regular distribution of the colours which appear on some species. It is easy to imagine that some animals may secrete a fluid for the formation of the shell, of such a degree of fluidity as to flow easily from one place to another, and thus produce irregular marks on the shell. But besides, if there are secretory organs situated on the neck of the animal, which prepare fluids of different colours; if the animal moves, or is disturbed by Motion of any means, when these fluids are excreted on the surface, the colours will appear in a different place from their original distribution, or be mixed and blended together, and thus occasion that irregularity which is observed in those parts of shells which have been last produced, or renewed.
95
Motion of
the animal
during the
deposition
of the mat-
ter.
96
Secretory
organs en-
larged with
the animal.
But it will be necessary to have recourse to the first of these causes, namely to the change of structure in the secretory organs of the neck, to explain the regular distribution of the round spots, or of those of a square or rectangular figure, with which certain shells are marked, and to suppose that those vessels which are arranged in a square or rectangular manner, which furnish peculiar fluids, are shut or open at different periods. It may happen that the development of a great part of the animal, occasioned by a more vigorous growth in certain species than in others, may, in some cases, be the only cause of those regular spots, sometimes white on a coloured ground, and sometimes coloured on a white ground, which the shell exhibits, if the glands which secrete the colouring matter correspond in their distribution, to that of the divisions on the shell; and if they occupy a greater space on the neck than is usual in other species. In this way may be accounted for the regularity of these marks, and the increase of their size, which is usually proportioned to that of the turns of the spire, from the consideration of the secretory organs of the animal enlarging in the same proportion as the other parts of its body; and their effects in the formation of the shell corresponding to the development of these parts. Hence it follows, that the largest marks are observed on the external convolutions of the shell.
97
Last formed
layer usu-
ally white.
According to Reaumur, the last layer of the shell which is formed from a fluid secreted from that part of the surface of the animal's body which does not reach the neck, should be white, and this is most generally the case. In those shells which are internally coloured, the fluids secreted from the body of the animal are of the same colour, and they take the place of those which are usually white, or of a pearly nature, as is observed in many others. The nature of these in-
Of the Con-
tinent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
58
Formation
of Arac.
99
Growth in-
terrupted.
100
Example
of this.
white, they exhibit everywhere a uniform colour, and never variegated, like what appears externally. By removing with a file any part of the external surface of the shell, the layers which appear immediately under the surface, are those which have been furnished by the body of the animal, while those on the surface itself, usually more variegated than the rest, owe their formation to the vessels about the neck, and have been formed in the way already described.
The growth of shells, being proportioned to that of the inhabitant, proceeds almost imperceptibly. In most shells, however, it is easy to distinguish the different additions which they have received; for they are marked on their convex surface with different eminences which are parallel to each other, similar to lines of different degrees of depth, which give the shell a fibrous structure. These elevations are called striae, may be traced through the whole of the shell in bivalves, and in the longitudinal direction of those which have a spiral form. From the slightest observation of the manner in which shells are formed, it is easy to see that they can receive no addition, without leaving in a greater or less degree, some trace of these inequalities; for every small addition of testaceous matter which is made, must be attached to the old part of the shell, which consequently must be more elevated than the former, whatever be its thickness, when the enlargement of the animal requires the formation of the latter. Thus, the shell will be marked with a great number of these striae, parallel to each other, which may be distinctly seen on many different species.
Every shell has usually some of these eminences at greater distances, and more elevated than the others. By these the different periods when the shell ceased to increase, or rather those when its growth was interrupted, are marked; and they have some degree of analogy with the different shoots from the branch of a tree. The heat of summer or the cold of winter interrupting the growth of the animal, at least among such as are testaceous, which live on the land, or inhabit rivers in temperate regions, the shell is not enlarged in extent during these seasons. It is otherwise, however, with regard to its thickness, for there is continually exuded from the body of the animal, small quantities of fluid, which increase its thickness. Hence it is, when the shell begins to increase in extent, the edge to which the new portion is cemented, is much thicker than when the growth was gradual and imperceptible, and consequently the place at which the growth commences after a long interruption is distinguished by a more elevated ridge, than in the continued progressive additions which it receives. The numerous instances of this interruption in the growth of shells, will occur to the attentive conchologist in the progress of his researches. We have at present in our possession, a fine illustration of the same thing, in a specimen of murex ramusus. The animal, it would appear from the original part of the shell, had been for some time in a sickly or unhealthy state; for it has undergone many of the changes to which dead shells are subject. It has lost its enamel; it seems to have undergone some degree of decomposition, and some species of serpula, and other parasitical animals had made it their abode; but from this sickly state it seems to have recovered,
and acquired great vigour; for the next addition which is made to the shell, is equal to its original bulk. It is clean, entire, and in perfect preservation, forming a singular contrast with the old shell.
The place at which shells begin to increase, after the growth has been for some time interrupted, may be distinguished by a difference of colour in the striae with which the shell is usually marked. In these places, black or brown striae exhibit more vivid colours, and sometimes even little different from those on the rest of the superior surface of the shell. The cause of this change is not difficult to trace, if we collect that the secretory organs which prepare the colouring matter, at least in the helix nemoralis, have their origin at some distance from the extremity of the neck, from which we have seen that the first layer of shell which is traced to the extremity itself, should be of a different colour from that of the striae; but as the increase of the animal occasions the striae to be formed under this first shell, during which it is still very thin, and consequently transparent, it does not prevent the shell produced under it, of a black colour, to appear so. But when the animal has ceased to grow for some time, it then increases the thickness of the shell last formed, so that the shell which is next produced from the colouring matter, when the animal begins to grow, being laid on one part of the old shell much thicker and less transparent, the colour of these striae must appear less bright, and therefore different in those places, from the other parts of the shell.
In taking a review of what has been said concerning the production of the colours of shells, it must appear that these rays or coloured lines are owing to glands which secrete the colouring fluid, and which are arranged on the anterior edge of the neck, while the posterior part furnishes only a fluid of a different colour, and usually less deep than the first. By means of this principle it is not difficult to account for the arrangement of the different colours which are so splendidly exhibited among this class of natural objects. These colours may be reduced to one or more, which are more vivid on a lighter ground; to coloured, circular bands on a ground of a less vivid colour, or pure white; to longitudinal lines, round or square spots, and in a regular, or irregular, zig-zag form. All these may be easily explained, according to the principles which have been laid down, the application of which, from what has been said, will not, we hope, be found difficult.
But from this mode, which is the most general in the production of the colours of shells, there are certain deviations. In that division of shells which is made by some naturalists, and which is distinguished by the name of porcelain shells, on account of the fine enamel with which they are covered, there are two sets of colours, which are disposed in a parallel direction to each other. The external range of these colours is owing to a peculiarity of structure in the animals which inhabit them, different from that of other testaceous animals, and to an operation which does not take place in other shells. In these shells, the colouring matter seems to be deposited in two different ways, and at two different periods. In the first process, when the body of the shell is formed, the colouring matter is excreted from the glands, in the same way
Of the Con- as in other testaceous animals; and it is arranged ac-
stituent cording to the disposition of the glands on the body of
Parts of the animals. At this period of the process, the shell is
Shells, &c. only of a moderate thickness, and much less than what
it afterwards acquires, when completely formed. On
the external surface of the shell first formed, another
layer is deposited, which is more compact than the
first, in some places thicker, and usually variegated
with different colours. The external surface of the shell
being thus completely covered with this second layer,
the original colours are concealed; and if the same
shell were examined at different periods of its forma-
tion, it would appear like two distinct species. The
organs which are employed by the animal in the pro-
duction of this second layer of shell, and set of colours,
are two soft, membranaceous wings, which being pro-
truded from the opening of the shell, completely cover
the whole of its external, convex surface. These two
wings, which are quite distinct from the glandular
structure about the neck of the animal, which is situ-
ated a little lower, are also provided with glands,
which furnish colouring matter, usually different from
that which is furnished by the glands of the neck; and
it is the upper surface of the wings, which is alone
provided with this glandular structure. This surface,
when this part of the animal is protruded from the
shell, and extended over it, comes in contact with the
external surface of the latter. Hence it is, that these
membranaceous organs deposit on the first formed and
coloured layers of the shell, new layers of testaceous
matter, which is differently coloured, and diversified
with entire spots, either circular, or in a waved direc-
tion, which are sometimes of a more vivid tint than
that of the ground, or white upon a dark ground, or
brown upon a yellow ground; or are composed of
straight lines, or curved, or interlaced with each other,
reddish, brown, yellow or white, on different coloured
grounds, or in dots or points, whose shades and ar-
rangement are not less diversified.
This mode of the formation of the external layer of
porcelain shells, has been proved by the actual observa-
tion of some naturalists. In some species, a longitudi-
nal line of a paler colour is observed on the convex sur-
face of the shell. This is ascribed to the junction of
the two wings of the animal, where a smaller quantity
of colouring matter has been deposited, or where the
shell has been less completely covered with the protrud-
ed part of the animal. But the existence of this second
layer is still more distinctly proved by mechanical
means. The external layer may be removed by means
of a file, and the shell restored to its original state; and
then the colours which it first received are brought in-
to view. This circumstance is still further demonstra-
ted by an attentive examination of different species of
shells, and particularly the cyprea argus. In examin-
ing this shell, there are observed under the external
layer, which is of a yellow colour, some slight traces of
four transverse bands of a brown colour, which surround
the shell, and which must have been formed previous to
the more superficial yellow layer. By a more minute
examination, it will appear that the circular spots with
which the external yellow layer is marked, have been
posteriorly formed to this layer; and finally, on the four
turns of the spire forming a slight projection at the base
of the shell, there are some brown, circular spots, which
VOL. VI. PART II.
are quite superficial, and which sometimes include two
turns of the spire, which could not happen if the yel-
low colour had not been prior in its formation to these
circular spots. If the colouring matter of which these
spots are composed, had been deposited at the time that
the different parts of the spire were formed, one spot
could not have included two turns of the spire at the
same time.
This effect of communicating a new set of colours
to the external surface of the shell, is not the only one
which is produced by the membranaceous structure of
the animal which inhabits the porcelain and other shells.
The form of the shell is also changed in a remarkable
manner, a great quantity of testaceous matter being de-
posited on the surface of the opening, which then as-
sumes a considerable thickness. The turns of the spire
are incruusted, and sometimes disappear on the outside
of the shell; and wrinkles, furrows, and even tuber-
cles, which exist on the surface of some species, are also
formed. The surface of cyprea pediculus exhibits circu-
lar striæ which did not originally exist, and which owe
their formation to this cause. In other species, the
surface is marked with projecting points or tubercles,
which are produced in the same manner as the circular
striæ of the former, and which also depend on the struc-
ture of the membranaceous wings of the animal, and
the testaceous substance which is secreted and deposited
from their surface. Thus, it appears that porcelain
shells, and those of some other species, are formed at
two distinct periods. It is during the second period
of the process that the colour of the complete shell is
formed. In further illustration of this point, of the for-
mation of shells of this description at two different
periods, one or two examples may be given of the differ-
ence which takes place, when the last layer formed is
removed. In the cyprea exanthera, the shell is ferru-
ginous, with whitish round spots and eyes, but when
the outer coat is worn off, it becomes barred or tess-
lated with brown or blue. The cyprea arabica, as its
name imports, exhibits characters on its surface, having
some resemblance to Arabic letters. The ground on
which these characters, which are of a brown colour, are
placed, is whitish or bluish; but when the outer coat
is worn down, the shell is sometimes bluish with brown
bands, or pale with darker angular spots and lines;
brown, mixed with violet, or reddish blue.
But besides the causes which have been mentioned
concerning the production and variety of the colours of
shells, arising from the difference of structure in the or-
gans which secrete the colouring matter, and the chan-
ges to which these organs are subjected in the growth
of the animal, the effects of light and heat, altogether
independent of the animal itself, are probably very con-
siderable. Two individuals of the same species, the
one from the Mediterranean or European seas, and the
other from the tropical regions, exhibit very different
shades of colour. The colours of the inhabitant of the
torrid zone are always more bright and vivid than
those of the native of more temperate climates. The
two shells, although similar in form, size, and other
characters, are uniformly different in the intensity of
their colours. These differences, which have led con-
chologists to increase the number of species, obviously
depend on the action of the climate, and particularly
of light, on nourishment, and other circumstances which
Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
109
Lower
valve co-
loured,
110
and shells
inclosed in
other bo-
dies.
111
Four clas-
ses of for-
mal shells.
have hitherto eluded the observation of naturalists, are uniform and constant, as long as the causes which operate in their production, continue to act. At first sight it might be supposed that the difference of temperature is the cause of the difference in the intensity of colour, in shells produced in different climates. It might be supposed too, that the different depths at which shells are found in the ocean, the medium in which they live being thus very different, would occasion great diversity in the colour. Near the surface, where the heat is greatest, if the operation of this cause were considerable, the colours of shells should be expected to be most vivid, and as the depth increased, at least to a certain extent, the intensity of colour should be diminished. But it has been observed in bivalve shells which are found at great depths, such as some species of oyster and spondylus, that the lower valve which is attached to the rock, is almost always white or colourless, while the upper valve often exhibits bright and vivid colours; but this difference cannot be ascribed to the difference of temperature, for in both valves it must be the same; the matter secreted for their formation is prepared by the same organs, and is deposited in a similar manner; and indeed they are altogether placed in the same circumstances, and have been exposed in their production and growth to the operation of the same causes, excepting that the upper valve is exposed to the rays of light, and is therefore coloured, while the lower valve is removed from the action of this cause, and is colourless.
The same difference is observed in the valves of other shells, which are produced in similar circumstances. The different species of pholas which make their abode in calcareous or coral rocks, and the teredo navalis or ship-worm, which pierces wood, and makes it its habitation, are usually colourless. Those testaceous animals too, which live at great depths in the ocean, and are thus far removed from the influence of light, are also distinguished by very faint colours, or are entirely white.
SECT. IV. Of the Formation of the Umbilicus, Protuberances, &c.
We have hitherto considered only the general formation of shells. In the present section we shall treat of some other circumstances which produce variations in their external figure. Such, for instance, is the formation of the umbilicus, of spines, tubercles, ribs, and other protuberances.
Umbilicus. Univalve shells, which are furnished with a regular spire, may be divided with regard to their form, into four classes; namely, shells having a disc, cylindrical shells, turbinated, and ovoid or egg-shaped shells. These four forms are the most common which spiral univalve shells assume, and they depend on the manner in which the turns of the spire are applied to the common axis, and the difference of their arrangement. They derive their primitive figure from the small shell while it is yet inclosed in the egg, and probably from that of the external organs of the animal which is contained in it. But although all univalve shells may be referred to one or other of these four principal forms, they exhibit a great variety of slighter shades of difference. Let us now see in what way
it may be conceived that the bodies of the animals which inhabit univalve shells, give them a spiral form. If we can suppose that from the first production of these animals, when they begin to be developed, the fibres of one part of the body, such as those of the external surface, are longer than those of the opposite surface, it is obvious that the body of the animal continuing to increase, according to this original tendency, will assume a curved form, the concave part of which will be on that side where the fibres are shortest; and if the long fibres on the external surface, and the short fibres on the internal surface, continue to increase in the same proportion, this must give the body a spiral form; but in this case, the different convolutions of which the animal is composed, will be in the same plane, and can only apply to a small number of shells included in the first division, namely those which are characterized with having a disc.
The convolutions of the spire which are described by the shell of univalve testaceous animals, and the body which serves as a mould for these, are disposed in different planes. Some other cause, therefore, must operate in producing this deviation. Between the two surfaces of the body of the animal, which is supposed to be furnished with fibres of different lengths, it is easy to conceive two other surfaces directly opposite to each other, an upper and an under surface, each of which is included between the two preceding surfaces, but of smaller extent; and it is easy to conceive farther, that these two latter surfaces are so formed, that the fibres of the one are longer than the corresponding and opposite fibres of the other. According to this structure, the body of the animal will tend to that surface on which the fibres are shortest, and thus describe, during its development, a spiral line in different planes, in proportion to the difference of tension between the superior and inferior surface of the body, as well as between the lateral surfaces.
The form of the shell depending on the external form of the body of the animal, the umbilicus which is a different cavity from that of the opening of the shell in which the animal is contained, and which is seen on the inferior surface of some shells, in the centre of the convolutions of the spire, depends entirely on the plane on which the animal has formed the additions to its shell. If the plane of these convolutions has been directed round a conical or elliptical axis, and each convolution of the spire be more or less distant towards the centre of the shell, from this hollow point a shell may be thus formed, whose umbilicus will be more or less open, according to the greater or less degree of separation which the animal must give to the convolutions of the spire, corresponding to its structure. An opposite effect will be observed, if the increase of the convolutions of the spire is supposed to take place round an axis which is so small as to permit them to come in contact with each other. In this case no cavity will be formed in the centre, no appearance of umbilicus will be seen. But if we conceive that the animal, in enlarging itself, turns round a solid of a curved figure, in place of the conic axis above alluded to, and that the end of this solid is at the summit of the shell, it is obvious that an opening or an umbilicus of the shape of this solid, will be formed in the shell.
Ribs. The longitudinal elevations which are ob-
Of the Con-
sistent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
114
Formation
of ribs ac-
counted
for.
served on univalve shells, which run in a transverse direction to the successive growth of the convolutions of the spire, have been denominated varices, by Linnaeus, in allusion to the dilated veins on the bodies of other animals. They are composed of one or more elevations, usually arranged in a line parallel to the axis of the shell, and sometimes slightly oblique. They consist of the same substance as that of the rest of the shell, but are thicker and always more elevated than the surface of the convolutions of the spire on which they are placed. To explain the manner in which these elevations are formed, we may examine the opening of land shells which have arrived at the last stage of their growth. This period is marked in these shells by a kind of margin of about a line in breadth, which is sometimes turned outwards, although the rest of the shell turns on a regular, spiral line. This reflected margin never appears in land shells, but when they have reached the last period of their growth, and when it is once formed, the animal of some species ceases afterwards to continue the convolutions of its spire. Having now arrived at that period of its growth, when it is fit to perform the act of generation, it protrudes itself more frequently from its shell, and each time it returns, a viscid fluid which exudes from its neck, is interrupted and deposited on the external margin of the shell. The bulk which the anterior parts of the body have acquired in consequence of the evolution of the generative organs which are contained in that part of the body, causes it to press more strongly than formerly on the edges of the opening of the shell, every time it protrudes itself, and gradually forces the particles of testaceous matter which have been recently deposited, to the external surface, and in a direction quite different from that of the former plane of the spire. A short time only is requisite for the complete formation of this elevation; but after it has been formed, if the animal has the power of continuing the spire on the former plane, the shell which had arrived at a larger size will exhibit from time to time, if the same process be repeated, longitudinal projecting ribs, convex or bent, exactly similar to the external swelling of the opening of the shell, and analogous to the varices which are seen on some species of marine shells.
115
Limited to
sea-shells.
This power of continuing the spire, after the formation of the eminence at the opening, is peculiar to sea-shells. No farther increase, after it is once formed in land shells takes place. The young of some sea-shells, as some species of murex, also possess this faculty of continuing the growth of the shell after the formation of similar elevations, even from the earliest period of their existence, and long before it can be supposed that the organs of generation are evolved. This no doubt depends on some peculiar structure or organization of the animal, and particularly on those of the anterior parts of the body.
116
Tubercles
produced
in the same
way.
Tubercles. Many shells are furnished with tubercles, which are produced by the same organs as the rest of the shell. The fleshy protuberances which are placed on the external surface of the neck of the animals which inhabit them, serve as a mould, and according as there are more or less of these tubercles, while the animal enlarges the turn of the spire, and increases its shell so much, there is the same number of protuberances in the convolution. These protuberances, while
they remain on that part of the body of the animal on which they were formed, are hollow, and during the remaining part of its existence, as the body enlarges, they are partly hollow, and partly solid, being filled up with testaceous matter, excreted from the body of the animal, and then the internal surface of the shell becomes smooth and even.
Spines, and fringed or irregular protuberances, with which some shells are armed, have, according to all appearance, the same origin as the other inequalities on the external surface of shells. They are usually formed at the end of the different successive periods of the growth of the shell. This will be sufficiently obvious, if we trace the whole series of wrinkles or striæ which run parallel to the circumference of the opening. Those which arise immediately from the ribs or varices, are produced by particular organs which surround the extremity of the neck, and stretch out from every part of its circumference, secreting a testaceous matter, which partly forms a sheath around them, gradually increases in thickness, and successively assumes the form of that part of the body which in some measure serves the purpose of a mould. In all the species of murex, which are furnished with spines, the elevations called varices or ribs, as well as the spines with which they are armed, are placed on the shell at equal distances; and the intermediate parts of the shell, although frequently grooved or striated, are not furnished with spines. This uniform observation, not only in shells belonging to this genus, but also in almost all spinous shells, proves, that the spines as well as the ribs, are to be considered as formed by the margin of the anterior parts of the body, which is renewed in the same proportion as the change in the position of this part of the body takes place. It proves also, that the formation of shells is entirely owing to the successive and regular enlargement of the animal; and that it increases every time it is displaced from the whole extent in breadth of the anterior part of the body, the margin of which only being furnished with long fleshy processes or fringed appendices, is in reality the only part which produces them on the shell at each period of its increase. In the same way is formed the break or prolongation of the shell, which terminates the inferior extremity in the form of a canal. This canal is produced in all shells in which it exists, by a cylindrical organ, susceptible of extension and contraction, and which, according to some naturalists, is employed by the animal as a kind of feeler, and occasionally to attach itself to solid bodies. It excretes and deposits a testaceous layer which serves it as a kind of sheath, in a similar manner to the production of spines.
117
Spines pro-
duced by
fleshy pro-
cesses.
118
Formation
of ribs and
grooves.
It is easy to explain the formation of the grooves or elevated ribs which are found on the outer surface of other shells; while the whole of the internal surface is smooth and polished. In bivalve shells, which exhibit this structure, the whole anterior surface of the animal is grooved or channelled in the same way; and from this the shell derives its shape and structure. In these shells it may be observed, that it is only the anterior margin that is grooved on the internal surface; because, in the progress of the growth of the animal, that part of the body which presents a smooth, equal surface has advanced, and nearly filled the whole of the shell; and the testaceous matter secreted from this
Of the Con-
stituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
part of the body being deposited on the grooves, channels, or striae, which were formed when the anterior part of the body occupied that part of the shell, fills them up completely, and leaves the surface quite smooth and polished. New additions being made to the shell as the growth of the animal requires it, the smooth surface of the body advances forward, and fills up with its secretions what is now grooved; while the new part of the shell, which corresponds to that part of the body which has an unequal surface, only presents this appearance. It is in this way that the ribs or grooves are formed in different species of ostrea, cardium, and other bivalve shells.
119
Formation
of hollow
ribs,
But there is a peculiarity of structure in a species of cockle, the white fluted or ribbed cockle, cardium costatum, which seems more difficult of explanation in its mode of formation. The ribs of this species are not only of the usual structure of other species of ribbed or grooved shells, but are particularly distinguished by having them hollow. The whole number of the ribs amounts to about 18 on each valve, of which the 11 exterior ones are of a triangular form, of about three lines high, and hollowed through their whole length, from the beak to the margin of the valves. To have a distinct notion of the formation of these hollow, triangular ribs, it is necessary to conceive, that the margin of the anterior part of the animal is deeply channelled or grooved; and when this part of the body is in contact with the recent shell, the ribs or elevations are formed, and are then open to the internal surface of the shell; but the posterior part of the body being hard and smooth, never comes in contact with the excavated part of the ribs. On the contrary, as the testaceous matter is excreted from this part of the body, it is deposited on that part of the internal surface of the shell which it touches, stretches across the deep grooves, and forms the third and interior side of the triangular ribs.
120
and of
striae, &c.
Thus it appears, that spines, tubercles, and all other protuberances on the surface of bivalve shells, owe the peculiarity of their form and shape to the peculiar structure of different organs situated on the anterior margin of the body of the animal, and are composed of the testaceous matter which is excreted by these organs. The nature of the process is the same as in univalve shells of a spiral form. The diversity only appears in the difference of the organs and structure of the animals which inhabit different shells. To a similar process may be ascribed the formation of striae, of scales, and of various excavations which sometimes accompany them.
SECT. V. Of the Production of Pearls.
122
Pearl found
in mother-
of-pearl
shells.
In treating of the constituent parts of shells, it was observed, that the composition of the pearl appears, from analysis, to be precisely the same as the mother-of-pearl, or those shells in which the pearl is usually found. From this we must conclude, that the pearl, and the mother-of-pearl, are produced by the same secretion. It appears, from the observations of naturalists, and indeed it might have been expected, from the similarity of composition, that all testaceous animals, whose shells come under the description of mother-of-pearl, occasionally produce pearls.
Different opinions have been entertained with regard to the cause of the formation of this precious production. According to some, it is merely a morbid concretion, formed within some part of the body of the animal, or at least within the shell, without any apparent external injury; while others suppose that it is only owing to wounds which the shell, or the animal, or both, have received from accidental causes, or from the action of insects, or some testaceous animal, making perforations in the shell. It is not improbable that pearls may be formed in both ways.
Every day's experience informs us, that similar concretions are formed in different cavities of the bodies of other animals; but without any obvious cause or external injury. The formation of such concretions, as, for instance, biliary and urinary calculi, producing the most excruciating disorders in the human body, are too fatally known. These concretions, no doubt, owe their origin to the diseased or unhealthy action of the vessels secreting the fluids in which they are formed. By this diseased action producing a superabundance of the matter which enters into the composition of the concretion; or this matter in the fluid state meeting with some solid body, which becomes a nucleus, is attracted by it, and deposited in concentric layers, till the concretion acquires a larger or smaller size, according to the duration and quantity of the secretion and deposition. In the same way, it seems extremely probable the pearl may be frequently formed; the matter of which it is composed being constantly secreted by the animal for the production of the new part of the shell. If then this matter should at any time be produced in greater quantity than what is necessary to form the inner layers of the shell, and particularly if it should meet with a solid particle of any body, it will be attracted by it, and thus constitute the rudiments of a pearl, which will receive constant additions of concentric layers, and increase in size in proportion to the age of the animal and the quantity of matter deposited. Pearls, it is said, have been found within the body of the animal. If this be true, the pearly matter, in its passage through the vessels of the body, must have met with some nucleus, around which the concentric layers have been formed. In most cases, however, the pearl is found loose in the shell, entirely detached from the animal. It must then have been formed of the matter which was thrown out of the body; but it is not unlikely that pearls are formed both ways, or that the same pearl may be partly formed within the body of the animal, and be afterwards excluded, and arrive at its utmost size, while it remains loose in the shell.
But, according to others, the pearl owes its formation to some external injury. The following seems to be a pretty distinct view of this opinion. When Faus-
jas de St Fond visited Loch Tay, he was led to make some inquiries concerning the pearl-fishery, which had been carried on in several parts of the river Tay for some years. Shells were brought to him; and in these shells the fishermen pretended to find pearls, which they expected to sell at a higher rate, as they were found in the presence of the traveller. But he informs us, that they attempted to impose on him, by introducing a pearl secretly into the shells as they opened them. Observing this circumstance, he told them that he could know at once, by examining the outside of the
Of the Ha- the shell, before opening it, whether it contained any
bitation of pearl. He mentions this to introduce some specu-
Shells, &c. lations concerning its formation. When no perforation
or callosity appeared on the outside, he concluded that
there was no pearl in the shell. The pearl-fish, he
supposes, is attacked by two classes of enemies. One
is what he calls the anger-worm, which penetrates in-
to the inside near the edge of the valve, by making a
longitudinal passage between the layers of the shell.
The length of the channel is one inch, or one inch
and a half when it doubles back in a line parallel to
the first. At the inner extremity there is a small cir-
cular portion, formed by the worm in turning round.
These excavations are in the pearly part of the shell.
The pearly juice, extravasating, forms protuberances
in the same direction; and the cylindrical bodies which
are thus formed, may be considered as elongated pearls
adhering to the internal surface. When several worms
of this kind unite their labours by penetrating near
each other, the result is a kind of pearly wen with ir-
regular protuberances.
Another sea-worm, which he says belongs to the
multivalves, a species of pholas, also attacks the pearl
shells. The shell of this species of pholas has a hinge
in the form of a crooked bill, as he saw in some spe-
cies of oyster, which he examined, from the coast of
Guinea. The hole was of the shape of a pear. Pearls
of this shape have been found, and have been held in
great estimation. Observing this circumstance, arti-
ficial perforations are made in the shell, and this forces
the animal to produce pearls. In some shells brought
from China, this artificial hole has been observed filled
up with brass wire, rivetted on the outside like a nail,
and the inner extremity of the wire was covered with
a well-formed pearl, which seemed as if soldered to its
extremity *.
Pearls are also produced by another artificial pro-
cess. The shell is opened with great care to avoid in-
juring the animal, and a small portion of the internal
surface of the shell is scraped off. In its place is insert-
ed a spherical piece of mother-of-pearl, about the size
of a small grain of lead shot. This serves as a nu-
cleus, on which is deposited the pearly fluid, and in
time forms a pearl. Experiments of this kind have
been made in Finland, and have been repeated in other
countries.
A remarkable discovery has been ascribed to Lin-
naeus respecting the generation of pearls. This was a
method which he found out, of putting the pearl mul-
sel (mya margaritifera) into a state of producing pearls
at his pleasure. It was some years before the final ef-
fect could take place; but, in five or six years after
the operation, the pearl, it is said, had acquired the
size of a vetch. But it does not seem to be known in
what this operation consisted. Whether it consisted in
imitating the process of insects, by wounding the shell
from the outside, or by following the other process, by
scraping away part of the inner layer; nor is it much
known what have been the effects of this operation, or
whether it has turned to any account, or indeed is at
all practised in Sweden or any of the northern states,
where it must have been originally known. For this
discovery, however, the Swedish naturalist, it is said,
was raised to the rank of nobility, and otherwise lib-
erally rewarded by the states of the kingdom.
The value which is put on the pearl depends on its
size, colour, shape, and purity. The largest pearls
are always held in the highest estimation, when their
other qualities are in any degree of perfection. The
finest shape of the pearl must be quite globular; it
must be of a clear brilliant white, smooth and glossy,
and entirely free from spot or stain. Pearls were great-
ly esteemed and much sought after by the Romans.
Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, we are informed,
presented a pearl to Cæsar, which was valued at
50,000 sterling; and Cleopatra dissolved one, which
is said to have been worth 250,000 sterling, in vine-
gar, which she drank at a supper with Mark An-
tony.
* Trav.
vol. ii.
CHAP. VI. OF THE HABITATION OF TESTACEOUS ANIMALS, METHODS
OF FISHING, COLLECTING, &c.
TO the detailed account which we have now given
of the natural history of testaceous animals, and par-
ticularly of the formation and growth of the shell, we
have only to add a few observations concerning their
habitation, the methods of fishing, collecting, and pre-
serving them. These topics shall be the subject of the
following sections.
SECT. I. Of the Habitation of Testaceous Animals.
TESTACEOUS animals are found on every part of the
surface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land,
while others only frequent rivers and lakes, and a third
and numerous class live in the ocean. From this a classi-
fication of shells has been formed, and they have been
divided into land, fresh-water, and sea shells. But
whatever difference might exist in the habits and eco-
nomy of testaceous animals which are produced in
places so different, it affords few marks of discrimina-
tion for the purpose of classification.
Land shells are spread over the whole surface of the
earth, and although more accessible, are perhaps less
known than those which inhabit the ocean. From the
small number of land shells which have been collected,
it would appear at first sight that they are less num-
erous than marine shells. This, however, seems not to
be the case, with regard to the number of species; and
it is well known, that the number of individuals of land
shells, in some instances, far exceeds that of sea shells.
The sea shells of the Mediterranean have been observed
by naturalists, to be nearly the same from the straits of
Gibraltar to the island of Sicily; but the land shells of
Languedoc are different from those of Provence, of
Dauphiny, Piedmont, and different parts of Italy.
Some are found in Spain, in Corsica, in Sardinia and
Sicily, which are not to be met with in other places;
and
125
Found on
every part
of the
globe.
126
Land shells
are perhaps
less num-
erous.
bitation of
Shells, &c.
Shells most
beautiful
within the
tropics.
Shells
found in
Asia.
In Ame-
rica.
and from the great variety and number of land shells, it seems probable that many of them are yet unknown. But let us now take a general view of those places of the world where different tellaceous animals are most frequently found.
It has been already observed, that light and heat have very considerable influence in adding to the splendour of the colours of shells. The most beautiful shells are found in countries between the tropics, where they are more immediately subject to the direct rays of the sun, and a higher temperature. From these causes, the shells produced in these countries have a lustre and brilliancy, which those of colder climates never possess.
The shores of Asia furnish us with the pearl-oysters and scallops in great perfection. About Amboyna are found the most beautiful specimens of the cabbage-shell, the arrosoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral-oysters, or echinated oysters. Here also are found a great variety of extremely beautiful mussels, tellinæ, and volute; some fine buccinum, and the shell called the Estriopian crown, in its greatest perfection. The dolia, the murices, and the cassandrae, are also found on these coasts in great beauty. Many elegant snails and screw-shells are also brought from thence; and finally, the scorpion and spider shells. The Maldivæ and Philippine islands, Bengal, and the coast of Malabar, abound with the most elegant of all the species of snails, and furnish many other kinds of shells in great abundance and perfection. China abounds in the finest species of porcelain shells, and has also a great variety of beautiful snails. Japan furnishes us with all the thicker and larger bivalves; and the isle of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world for the beauty and variety of the patella or limpet found there.
America affords many very elegant shells, but neither in so great abundance nor beauty as the shores of Asia. Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we have beside, from the same place, some good porcelains and a very fine species of dolium, or concha globosa, called from this place the Panama purple shell. One of the most beautiful of the cylinders is also known among our naturalists under the name of the Panama shell. About Brazil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found murices and dolia of extreme beauty; and also a great variety of porcelains, purpureæ, peçtens, nerites, bucardiæ or heart-shells, and elegant limpets. The isle of Cayenne affords one of the most beautiful of the buccinum kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this place. Jamaica and the island of Barbadoes have their shores covered with porcelains, chamæ, and buccina; and at St Domingo there are found almost all the same species of shells that we have from the East Indies; only they are less beautiful, and the colours more pale and dead. The pearl-oyster is found also on this coast, but smaller than in the Persian gulf. At Martinico there are found in general the same shells as at St Domingo, but yet less beautiful. About Canada are found the violet chamæ; and the lakes of that country abound with mussels of very elegant pale blue and pale red colours. Some species of these are remarkably light and thin; others are very thick and heavy. The Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in shells; the principal kind found there are mussels of several species, some of which are of considerable beauty. About Carthagenæ there are many mother-of-pearl shells,
but they are not of so brilliant colours as those of the Of the Ha-
Persian gulf. The island of Magellan, at the southern
point of America, furnishes us with a very remarkable
species of mussel called by its name; and several very
elegant species of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal.
In Africa, on the coast of Guinea, there is a prodigious quantity of that small species of porcelain which is used there as money; and there is another species of porcelain on the same coast which is all over white: the women make bracelets of the latter, and the people of the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coast of Zanguebar is very rich in shells: we find there a vast variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great beauty; and the nux moris, or sea-nut is very frequent there. Beside these, and many other shells, there are found on this coast all the species of nautili, many of which are very beautiful. The Canary isles abound with a vast variety of the murices, and some other good shells; and we have from Madeira great variety of the echini or sea-eggs, different from those of the European seas. Several species of mussels are also common there, and the sea-ears are nowhere more abundant. The Red sea is beyond all other parts of the world abundant in shells, scarcely any kind is wanting there; but what we principally have from thence are the purpureæ, porcelains, and echini marini.
The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a great variety of shells, and many of very remarkable elegance and beauty; they are upon the whole, however, greatly inferior to those of the East Indies. The Mediterranean abounds much more in shells than the ocean. The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of purpureæ, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oysters; the coasts of Naples and Sardinia afford also the same, and with them a vast number of the solens of all the known species. The island of Sicily is famous for a very elegant kind of oyster which is entirely white; pinnæ marinæ and porcelains are also found in great plenty there, with tellinæ and chamæ of many species, and a great variety of other beautiful shells. Corsica is famous, beyond all other places, for vast quantities of the pinnæ marinæ; and many other very beautiful shells are found there. About Syracuse are found the gondola shell, the alated murex, and a great variety of elegant snails, with some of the dolia and nerites. The Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, is less furnished with shells than almost any of the seas thereabout. Mussels and oysters of several species are however found there, and some of the cordiform or heart shells; there are also some tellinæ. About Ancona there are vast numbers of the pholades buried in stone; and the sea-ears are particularly frequent about Puzzoli. (Bonani Recreat. Ment. et Ocul.)
The ports of Marseilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are full of pinnæ marinæ, mussels, tellinæ, and chamæ. The coasts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the conchæ anatiferæ and pouffe-pieds; they are found on old rotten boards, on sea substances, and among clusters of sponges. The other ports of France, as Rochelle, Dunkirk, Brest, St Maloes, and others, furnish oysters excellent for the table, but of the common kind, and of no beauty in their shells; great numbers of mussels are also found there; and the common tellinæ, the onion-peel oysters, the solens, and conchæ.
Of the Habitation of Shells, &c.
133
of Britain.
conchæ anatiferæ, are also frequent there. At Granville, in Lower Normandy, there are found very beautiful peccens, and some of the cordiform or heart-shells.
Our own English coasts are not the least fruitful in shells, though they do not produce such elegantly painted ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are found oysters, mussels, and solens, in great abundance; and there, and on most of our shores, are numbers of the aures marine and dentalis, with peccens, which are excellent food; and many elegant species of the chamae and tellinae are fished up in the sea about Scarborough and other places. Ireland affords us great numbers of mussels, and some very elegant scallop-shells in great abundance, and the pholades are frequent on most of our shores. We have also great variety of the buccina and cochlearia, some voluta; and, on the Guernsey coast, a peculiarly beautiful snail, called thence the Guernsey-snail.
134
of Spain and Portugal, &c.
The coasts of Spain and Portugal afford much the same species of shells with the East Indies, but they are of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty. There are, according to Tavernier and others, some rivers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnae marine, and some fine buccina. The isles of Majorca and Minorca afford great variety of extremely elegant shells. The pinnae marine are also very numerous there, and their silk is wrought into gloves, stockings, and other things. The Baltic affords a great many beautiful species, but particularly an orange-coloured peccen, or scallop shell, which is not found in any other part of the world.
135
Fresh-water shells.
The fresh-water shells are found much more frequently, and in much greater plenty than the sea-kinds; there is scarce a pond, a ditch, or a river of fresh water in any part of the world, in which there are not found vast numbers of these shells with the fish living in them. All these shells are small, and they are of very little beauty, being usually of a plain grayish or brownish colour. Our ditches afford us chamae, buccina, neritæ, and some patellæ; but the Nile, and some other rivers, furnished the ancients with a species of tellina which was large and eatable, and so much superior to the common sea tellina in flavour, that it is commonly known by the name of tellina regia, "the royal tellina." We have a small species of buccinum common in our fresh waters, which is very elegant, and always has its operculum in the manner of the larger buccina; a small kind of mussel is also very common, which is so extremely thin and tender, that it can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces. The large fresh-water mussel, commonly called in England the horse-mussel, mya margaritifera, is too well known to need a description; and the size sufficiently distinguishes it from all other fresh-water shells.
SECT. II. Of the Methods of Fishing and Collecting Shells.
136
Land shells.
LAND shells are immediately within the reach of the hand of the collector, as well as many sea and river shells, which inhabit shallow waters, or attach themselves to rocks or marine plants on the shores of the ocean. Those shells which are at moderate depths in
the sea, are to be collected by dredging. But in what-
ever way shells are found, those are always to be preferred which still contain the living animal; for then, not only some information may be obtained with regard to its structure and natural history, but the shells themselves are in all their natural beauty, and the full glow of their colours. Those shells too should be preferred, which are procured from the deeper parts of the ocean, because they have then arrived at the largest size, and are in the greatest perfection. But these are beyond the reach of man, and are only accidentally found on the shores after storms, or attached to sea-weeds which have been torn from the rocks by the agitation of the waves.
137
Sea shells.
When shells are found with the animal alive; the method recommended to destroy it and separate it entirely from the shell, is to boil it in water for a very short time, and after allowing it to cool gradually, to lay it in cold water till it is cleaned. By this process, the attachment between the shell and animal is destroyed, and the latter, which has become hard and contracted, is easily picked out from its covering. The shell, after this treatment, is ready to be placed in the cabinet, or to be polished in the way we shall presently describe, according to the state in which it is found, or the views of the collector.
138
Method of killing the animal.
As the pearl has been held in high estimation in all ages of the world, and as it is an important object of commerce in many parts of it, the history of the pearl fishery, or of those shell fish which produce the pearl, cannot fail to be interesting.
139
Pearl-fisheries.
In different parts of Britain the pearl-fishery has been carried on to a considerable extent; and in some places it has been reckoned of such value, that government have granted the right of fishing to individuals by patent. By a grant of this kind, Sir John Hawkins obtained the privilege of fishing for pearls in the river Irn in Cumberland; and Buchan of Auchmescy seems to have held, by a similar right, the sole privilege of the pearl fishery near the mouth of the river Ythan in Aberdeenshire; for it appears that this grant was refused by government in 1633, in the first parliament of Charles I. In the same river, at the distance of 10 miles from the sea, a successful fishery of pearls has been frequently carried on; and a few years ago, in the river Cluny in the same county, a few employed a number of people to collect the mussels which contained them, and some large and valuable pearls were found. Some years ago, in the river Teath in Perthshire, the pearls which were got brought about 1000. sterling to those employed in searching for them, in the course of one season. It was observed, that those mussels only which were crooked and distorted, yielded pearls. The method which has been practiced in this river for fishing the pearl mussel, is the following. The fisherman provides himself with an instrument formed of two iron plates or spoons, having something of the shape of the mussel. Each of these is attached to an elastic handle of the same metal, terminating in an open tube, which is fixed to the end of a long wooden handle. The concave sides of the plates approach other, and are kept in close contact by the elasticity of the handles. With this instrument the fisherman enters the water, and directs his course to those places which he supposes are resorted to by the mussels.
Of the Ha-
bitation of
Shells, &c.
These he discovers with his feet, and having found one, he presses the instrument upon it, the plates or valves of which, in consequence of the elasticity of the handles, separate, and then grasp it firmly. In this way he can detach it from the place to which it adheres, and bring it to the surface of the water. The pearl-mussel is a native of many other of the rivers of Scotland, as of the Esk in Forfarshire, where a pearl was found of the size of a pistol bullet, and sold for 41. sterling; of the Devon in Clackmannanshire, the Clyde, and of Loch Ken in Galloway, where it is said great numbers of pearls are fished in dry summers, many of which sell from one shilling to one guinea. But the greatest pearl-fishery which has ever been established in Scotland, of which there is any record, is that of the river Tay, about 30 years ago. The pearl-mussel is found in every part of this river, from its source in Loch Tay, to its junction with the sea. In different parts of the river, but particularly in the vicinity of Perth, we are informed, that not less than 11,000. worth of pearls were sent to London between the years 1761 and 1764. They were sold from 10s. to 11. 16s. per ounce. About this time one pearl was found which weighed 33 grs. This fishery, however, as well as the pearl-fishery in the other rivers of Scotland, seems to be greatly exhausted, and very probably, as it has been supposed, from the improvident avarice of the undertakers, not allowing the animal to arrive at that age which seems to be necessary for the production of pearl.
141
in Ceylon.
But the pearl-fishery of the warmer climates, in different places of the East Indies, in the gulf of Persia, and the Red sea, and particularly that which is annually carried on in the bay of Condatchy, in the island of Ceylon, is by far the most extensive and most important of any in the world. The latter, of which we have given a detailed account in the description of CEYLON, and to which we refer our readers, has been under the inspection of government since it fell into the hands of the British, as it was under that of the Portuguese and Dutch, its former masters. To the Dutch, it is said, while they were in possession of the island, this fishery brought an annual tribute of 20,000. To the account which has been already given of this fishery, we may add the following, from the Asiatic Annual Register for the year 1800.
The person who farmed the pearl-fishery at Ceylon, last year, was a Tamu merchant, who for the privilege of fishing with more than the usual number of donies or boats, paid between two and three hundred thousand Porto Novo pagodas (d), a sum nearly double the usual rent. His excellency the honourable Mr North, by the last ships from Ceylon, has transmitted a very minute detail of the fishery in all its stages, some of which are truly singular and remarkable. It appears that the fear of sharks is the cause of a great deal of interruption to the fishery, the divers being extremely timid and superstitious; every one of them, even the most expert, entertain a dread of sharks, and will not on any account descend until the conjuror has performed his ceremonies. This prejudice is so
deeply rooted in their minds, that the government was obliged to keep two such conjurors in their pay, to remove the fears of the divers. The manner of enchanting consists of a number of prayers learned by heart, that nobody, probably not even the conjuror himself, understands, which he, standing on the shore, continues muttering and grumbling from sunrise until the boats return. During this period, they are obliged to abstain from food and sleep, otherwise their prayers would be of no avail; they are, however, allowed to drink, which privilege they indulge in a high degree, and are frequently so giddy as to be rendered very unfit for devotion. Some of these conjurors accompany the divers in their boats, which pleases them very much, as they have their protectors near at hand. Nevertheless, I was told, said Mr North, that in one of the preceding fisheries, a diver lost his leg by a shark; and when the head conjuror was called to an account for the accident, he replied, that an old witch had just come from the coast, who, from envy and malice, had caused this disaster by a counter-conjuration, which made fruitless his skill, and which he was informed of too late; but he afterwards showed his superiority, by enchanting the sharks so effectually, that, though they appeared to most of the divers, they were unable to open their mouths. During my stay, continues Mr North, at Condatchy, no accident of this kind happened. If a shark is seen, the divers instantly make a signal, which on perceiving all the boats return immediately. A diver who trod upon a hammer oyster, and was somewhat wounded, thought he was bit by a shark; consequently made the usual signal, which caused all the boats to return; for which mistake he was afterwards punished. The largest and most perfect pearl taken last season, was about the size of a small pistol bullet."
SECT. III. Of the Methods of Polishing Shells.
The art of polishing shells has but lately reached its present state of perfection; and as the admiration of sea shells has become so general, it may be expected that we should give some instructions in the means of adding to their natural beauty.
Among the immense variety of shells with which we are acquainted, some are taken up out of the sea, or found on its shores, in all their perfection and beauty; their colours being all disposed by nature upon the surface, and their natural polish superior to any thing that art could give. Where nature is in herself thus perfect, it were madness to attempt to add any thing to her charms: but in others, where the beauties are latent and covered with a coarser outer skin, art is to be called in; and the outer veil being taken off, all the internal beauties appear.
Among the shells which are found naturally polished are the porcelains, or cowries; the cassanders; the doxia, or conchæ globosæ, or tuns; some buccina, the volutes and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are generally though improperly called, the rbombi; excepting only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the butter-tub
Of the Ha- bitation of Shells, &c.
butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromising film on the surface, hiding a very great share of beauty within. Though the generality of the shells of these genera are taken out of the sea in all their beauty, and in their utmost natural polish, there are several other genera, in which all or most of the species are taken up naturally rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis, or coarse outer skin, which is in many rough and downy or hairy. The tellinae, the mussels, the cockles, and many others, are of this kind. The more nice collectors, as naturalists, insist upon having all their shells in their native and genuine appearance, as they are found when living at sea; but others who make collections, hate the disagreeable out-sides, and will have all such polished. It would be very advisable, however, for both kinds of collectors to have the same shells in different specimens both rough and polished: the naturalist would by this means, besides knowing the outside of the shell, be better acquainted with its internal characters than he otherwise could be; while those who wish to have them polished, might compare the beauties of the shell, in its wrought state, to its coarse appearance as nature gives it. How many elegancies in this part of the creation must be wholly lost to us, if it were not for the assistance of an art of this kind! Many shells in their native state are like rough diamonds; and we can form no just idea of their beauties till they have been polished and wrought into form.
Though the art of polishing shells is a very valuable one, yet it is very dangerous to the shells; for without the utmost care, the means used to polish and beautify a shell often wholly destroy it. When a shell is to be polished, the first thing to be examined, is whether it have naturally a smooth surface, or be covered with tubercles and prominences.
A shell which has a smooth surface, and a natural dull polish, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with a piece of chamoy leather, with some tripoli, or fine rotten stone, and it will become of a perfectly bright and fine polish. Emery is not to be used on this occasion, because it wears away too much of the shell. This operation requires the hand of an experienced person, that knows how superficial the work must be, and where he is to stop; for in many of these shells the lines are only on the surface, and the wearing away ever so little of the shell defaces them. A shell that is rough, foul, and crusty, or covered with a tartareous coat, must be left a whole day steeping in hot water: when it has imbibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with rough emery on a stick, or with the blade of a knife, in order to get off the coat. After this, it may be dipped in diluted aquafortis, spirit of salt, or any other acid; and after remaining a few moments in it, be again plunged into common water. This will add greatly to the speed of the work. After this it is to be well rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common soap; and when by these several means it is made perfectly clean, the polishing is to be finished with fine emery and a hair-brush. If after this the shell when dry appears not to have so good a polish as was desired, it must be rubbed over with a solution of gum arabic; and this will add greatly to its gloss, without doing it the smallest injury. The gum-water must not be too thick, and then it gives no sensible coat, only heighten-
VOL. VI. Part II.
ing the colours. The white of an egg answers this purpose also very well; but it is subject to turn yellow. If the shell has an epidermis, which will by no means admit the polishing of it, it is to be dipped several times in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off; and then the shell is to be polished in the usual way with putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine brush. When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the shells must be steeped in hot water, and after that the skin worked off by degrees with an old file. This is the case with several of the cylinders, which have not the natural polish of the rest.
When a shell is covered with a thick and fatty epidermis, as is the case with several of the mussels and tellinae; in this case aquafortis will do no service, as it will not touch the skin: then a rough brush and coarse emery are to be used; and if this does not succeed, 144With pu- seal-skin, or, as the workmen call it, fish-skin and pu. mice-stone, mice-stone, are to be employed.
When a shell has a thick crust, which will not give way to any of these means, the only way left is to plunge it several times into strong aquafortis, till the stubborn crust is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris marina, the helmet-shells, and several other species of this kind, must have this sort of management; but as the design is to show the hidden beauties under the crust, and not to destroy the natural beauty and polish of the inside of the shell, the aquafortis must be used in this manner: A long piece of wax must be provided, and one end of it made perfectly to cover the whole mouth of the shell; the other end will then serve as a handle, and the mouth being stopped by the wax, the liquor cannot get in to the inside to spoil it; then there must be placed on a table a vessel full of aquafortis, and another full of common water.
The shell is to be plunged into the aquafortis; and 145With acids, after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken out, and plunged into the common water. The progress the aquafortis makes in eroding the surface is thus to be carefully observed every time it is taken out: the point of the shell, and any other tender parts, are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis from eating them away; and if there be any worm-holes, they also must be stopped up with wax, otherwise the aquafortis would soon eat through in those places. When the repeated dippings into the aquafortis show that the coat is sufficiently eaten away, then the shell is to be wrought carefully with fine emery and a brush; and when it is polished as high as can be by this means, it must be wiped clean, and rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg. In this sort of work the operator must always have the caution to wear gloves; otherwise the least touch of the aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow; and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the skin and the nails.
These are the methods to be used with shells which require but a moderate quantity of the surface to be taken off; but there are others which require to have a larger quantity removed, and to be uncovered deeper: this is called entirely scaling a shell. This is done by means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impregnated with rough emery; and the shell is wrought down in the same manner in which stones are wrought by the lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the performing
Of the Ha-
bitation of
Shells, &c.
performing this work with nicety: very often shells are cut down too far by it, and wholly spoiled; and to avoid this, a coarse vein must be often left standing in some place, and taken down afterwards with the file, when the cutting it down at the wheel would have spoiled the adjacent parts.
After the shell is thus cut down to a proper degree, it is to be polished with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten stone, with a wooden wheel turned by the same machine as the leaden one, or by the common method of working with the hand with the same ingredients. When a shell is full of tubercles, or protuberances, which must be preserved, it is then impossible to use the wheel: and if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be attempted, the tubercles being harder than the rest of the shell, will be corroded before the rest is sufficiently scalded, and the shell will be spoiled. In this case, industry and patience are the only means of effecting a polish. A camels-hair pencil must be dipped in aquafortis; and with this the intermediate parts of the shell must be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry: this is to be often repeated; and after a few moments the shell is always to be plunged into water to stop the erosion of the acid, which would otherwise eat too deep, and destroy the beauty of the shell. When this has sufficiently taken off the foulness of the shell, it is to be polished with emery of the finest kind, or with tripoli, by means of a small stick; or the common polishing-stone used by the goldsmiths may be used.
This is a very tedious and troublesome thing, especially when the echinated oysters and murices, and some other such shells, are to be wrought: and what is worst of all is, that when all this labour has been employed, the business is not well done; for there still remain several places which could not be reached by any instrument, so that the shell must necessarily be rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg afterwards, in order to bring out the colours and give a gloss; in some cases it is even necessary to give a coat of varnish.
146
Some shells
are dis-
guised by
polishing,
such as
These are the means used by artists to brighten the colours and add to the beauty of shells; and the changes produced by polishing in this manner are so great, that the shell can scarcely be known afterwards to be the same it was; and hence we hear of new shells in the cabinets of collectors, which have no real existence as separate species, but are shells well known, disguised by polishing. To caution the reader against errors of this kind, it may be proper to add the most remarkable species thus usually altered.
147
The onyx-
shell.
The onyx-shell or volute, called the purple or violet-tip, which in its natural state is of a simple pale brown, when it is wrought slightly, or polished with just the superficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow; and when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-white, with the lower part bluish: it is in this state that it is called the onyx shell; and it is preferred in many cabinets in its rough state, and in its yellow appearance, as different species of shells.
148
Violet
shells.
The violet shells so common among the curious, is a species of porcelain, or common cowry, which does not appear in that elegance till it has been polished; and the common sea-ear shows itself in two or three different forms, as it is more or less deeply wrought. In its rough state it is dusky and coarse, of
a pale brown on the outside, and pearly within; when it is eaten down a little way below the surface, it shows variegations of black and green; and when still farther eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and without.
The nautilus, when it is polished down, appears all over of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten away but to a small depth, it appears of a fine yellowish colour with dusky hairs. The burgau, when entirely cleared of its coat, is of the most beautiful pearl colour: but when slightly eroded and red; whence it has been called the parroquet shell. The common helmet-shell, when wrought, is of the colour of the finest agate; and the mussels, in general, though very plain shells in their common appearance, become very beautiful when polished, and show large veins of the most elegant colours. The Persian shell, in its natural state, is all over white, and covered with tubercles; but when it has been ground down on a wheel, and polished, it appears of a gray colour, with spots and veins of a very bright and highly polished white. The limpets, in general, become very different when polished, most of them showing very elegant colours; among these the tortoise-shell limpet is the principal; it does not appear at all of that colour or transparency till it has been wrought.
That elegant species of shell called the jonquil-chama, which has deceived so many judges of these things in chama, to an opinion of its being a new species, is only a white chama with a reticulated surface; but when this is polished, it loses at once its reticular work and its colour, and becomes perfectly smooth, and of a fine bright yellow. The violet-coloured chama of New England, when worked down and polished, is of a fine milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, disposed like the variegations in agates.
The afes-ear shell, when polished after working it down with the file, becomes extremely glossy, and ob-
tains a fine rose-colour all about the mouth. These are some of the most frequent among an endless variety of changes wrought on shells by polishing; and we find there are many of the very greatest beauties of this part of the creation which must have been lost but for this method of searching deep in the substance of the shell for them.
The Dutch are very fond of shells, and are very nice in their manner of working them; they are under no restraint, however, in their works; but use the most violent methods, so as often to destroy all the beauty of the shell. They file them down on all sides, and often take them to the wheel, when it must destroy the very characters of the species. Nor do they stop here: but determined to have beauty at any rate, they are for improving upon nature, and frequently add some lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering them with a fine coat of varnish, so that they seem the natural lineations of the shell: the Dutch cabinets are by these means made very beautiful, but they are by no means to be regarded as instructors in natural history. There are some artificers of this nation who have a way of covering shells all over with a different tinge from that which nature gives them; and the curious are often enticed by these tricks to purchase them for new species.
Of the Habitation of Shells, &c. There is another kind of work bestowed on certain species of shells, particularly the nautilus; namely, the engraving on it lines and circles, and figures of stars, and other things. This is too obvious a work of art to suffer any one to suppose it natural. Buonani has figured several of these wrought shells at the end of his work; but this was applying his labour to very little purpose; the shells are spoiled as objects of natural history by it.—They are principally done in the East Indies.
253
Imperfections of shells natural and accidental. Shells are subject to several imperfections; some of which are natural and others accidental. The natural defects are the effect of age, or sickness in the fish. The greatest mischief happens to shells by the fish dying in them. The curious in these things pretend to be always able to distinguish a shell taken up with the fish alive from one found on the shores: they call the first a living, the second a dead shell; and say that the colours are always much fainter in the dead shells. When the shells have lain long dead on the shores, they are subject to many injuries, of which the being eaten by sea-worms is not the least: age renders the finest shells livid or dead in their colours.
Besides the imperfections arising from age and sickness in the fish, shells are subject to other deformities, such as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts where there should be none. When the shell is valuable, these faults may be hid, and much added to the beauty of the specimen, without at all injuring it as an object of natural history, which should always be the great end of collecting these things. The cavities may be filled up with mastic, dissolved in spirit of wine, or with isinglass; these substances must be either coloured to the tinge of the shell, or else a pencil dipped in water-colours must finish them up to the resemblance of the rest; and then the whole shell being rubbed over with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, scarce any eye can perceive the artifice: the same substances may also be used to repair the battered edge of a shell, provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And when the excrencences of a shell are faulty, they are to be taken down with a fine file. If the lip of a shell be so battered that it will not admit of repairing by any cement, the whole must be filed down or ground on the wheel till it become even.
Fig. 1. Chiton aculeatus. Under part showing the bristly fringe.
Fig. 2. Animal inhabiting Lepas tintinnabulum.
Fig. 3. Lepas balanus.
Fig. 4. Lepas anatifera.
Fig. 5. Animal inhabiting the genus Pholas.
Fig. 6. Animal inhabiting the Mya.
Fig. 7. Animal inhabiting the Solen.
Fig. 8. Animal of the Tellina.
Fig. 9. Animal of the Cardium.
Fig. 10. Animal of the Mastra.
Fig. 11. Animal inhabiting the Donax.
Fig. 12. Animal inhabiting the Venus.
Fig. 13. Animal of the Ostrea.
Fig. 14. Chiton aculeatus. Shell with 8 valves; a, the valves longitudinally arranged, and incumbent on the back; b, b, the rounded sides.
Fig. 15. Lepas anatifera. Shell having 5 valves; a, the larger valves nearly quadrangular; b, the lesser valves nearly triangular, at the apex of the shell; c, the solitary valve, rounded, acute.
Fig. 16. Pholas dactylus. The shell is bivalve, with a, a, a, three subsidiary valves; b, b, the upper extremity dotted like net-work; c, c, the superior transversely striated.
Fig. 17. Mya margaritifera, the pearl-bearing mussel.
Fig. 18. Solen radiatus, radiated solen.
Fig. 19. Tellina radiata, radiated tellina.
Fig. 20. Cardium cardissa, Venus heart cockle; a, a, beaks approaching to each other.
Fig. 21. Mastra stultorum, simple mastra.
Fig. 22. Donax denticulata, denticulated donax.
Fig. 23. Venus fimbriata, bordered Venus shell.
Fig. 24. Spondylus gardaropus, silt spondylus.
Fig. 25. Chama gigas, giant chama, or gaping cockle.—This is the largest shell known.
Fig. 26. Arca Noe, Noah's ark.
Fig. 27. Ostrea pallium, the ducal-mantle pecken.
Fig. 28. Anomia ephippium.
Fig. 29. Mytilus margaritifera, pearl-bearing mussel, or pearl-oyster of the East Indies.
Fig. 30. Pinna muricata, muricated sea-wing.
Fig. 31. Argonauta argo, paper nautilus; a, a, the shell; b, b, b, b, b, the animal protruded from the shell as it moves on the surface of the water.
Fig. 32. Nautilus beccarii, chambered nautilus. A section of the shell; a, a, a, the genicula; b, b, b, the articulations; d, d, the lateral syphon.
Fig. 33. Cyprea lynx; a, a, the lips turned in and toothed; b, the linear aperture.
Fig. 34. Cyprea moneta, cowrie; a, a, knobbed margin; b, back gibbous; c, c, prominences instead of a spire.
Fig. 35. Bulla ampullacea; a, back without spire; b, vertex umbilicated.
Fig. 36. Voluta musca; a, venter, marked with interrupted lines; b, base emarginated; c, c, wreaths crowned at the futures with obtuse spines; d, d, columella or pillar, plaited; e, e, outer lip, smooth.
Fig. 37. Buccinum barpa, musical harp-shell; a, dilated venter; b, b, b, longitudinal varices, crowned with c, c, c, harp spines.
Fig. 38. Buccinum undatum.
Fig. 39. Strombus scorpio, scorpion strombus; a, a, a, back with knobby cingula and waved striae; b, spire conical; c, c, elevated futures; d, d, waved margin of the lip; e, e, caudal digitus; f, f, lateral digiti.
Explan-
ation of the
Plates.
Fig. 40. Murex tribulus, thorny woodcock.
Fig. 41. Trochus telescopium, telescope-top shell; a, the base; b, pillar projecting, spiral; c, outer lip dilated.
Fig. 42. Turbo scalaris, wentle-trap; a, a, cancellated wreaths; b, b, membranaceous cingula; c, spire acute, papillary; d, aperture circular; e, e, lip reflexed.
Fig. 43. Helix lusitanica; a, umbilicus; b, b, b, round venter; c, closed, semilunar aperture.
Fig. 44. Helix decollata.
Fig. 45. Nerita canrena; a, umbilicus gibbous,
deep; b, b, outer lip, dilated, arched, entire; c, lip of the pillar, transverse, truncated.
Fig. 46. Haliotis varia; a, a, ribs acute, and striated crosswise; b, lateral spire, with its margin denoted.
Fig. 47. Patella saccharina; a, a, seven ridged acute ribs; b, obtuse vertex.
Fig. 48. Dentalium arcuatum, arched tooth-shell.
Fig. 49. Serpula glomerata.
Fig. 50. Teredo navalis, ship-worm.
Fig. 51. Sabella alveolata.
INDEX of the GENERA, showing the page on which the Classification of each Genus begins.
| A. | D. | N. | Solen, | p. 404 |
| ANOMIA, - p. 419 | Dentalium, p. 461 | Nautilus, - p. 423 | Spondylus, | 412 |
| Arca, - 413 | Donax, - 408 | Nerita, - 453 | Strombus, | 437 |
| Argonauta, 422 | ||||
| B. | H. | O. | T. | |
| Buccinum, 402 | Haliotis, - 455 | Ostrea, - 414 | Tellina, - 404 | |
| Bulla, - 428 | Helix, - 448 | Teredo, - 463 | ||
| C. | L. | P. | Trochus, - 442 | |
| Cardium, - 406 | Lepas, - 402 | Patella, - 456 | Turbo, - 445 | |
| Chama, - 412 | Mastra, - 407 | Pholas, - 453 | ||
| Chiton, - 401 | Murex, - 438 | Pinna, - 422 | V. | |
| Conus, - 424 | Mya, - 403 | Sabella, - 463 | Venus, - 40 | |
| Cypræa, - 425 | Mytilus, - 420 | Serpula, - 462 | Voluta, - 429 |
I N D E X.
| ACORN-shell, species of, | Nº 25 | Colours of shells vary, | Nº 88 | Dentalium, species of, | Nº 61 |
| Adanson, his system of shells, | 11 | Colouring matter secreted from the neck, | 89 | Dipper, see Bulla, | 50 |
| Ambitrite, generic character of, | 15 | proved, | 90 | Donax, species of, | 31 |
| Ancients prolecut the study of shells, | 3 | feeming exceptions, | 91 | Doris, generic character of, | 15 |
| Animal gives form to the shell, | 112 | causes of these, | 92 | Dutch method of polishing shells, | 153 |
| method of killing, | 139 | changes in the organs of, | 93 | F. | |
| Anomia, species of, | 43 | difference of fluidity in the matter, | 94 | Fishery, pearl, | 140 |
| Arca, species of, | 36 | motion of the animal, | 95 | in Britain, | 141 |
| Argonauta, | 46 | of porcelain shells, | 103 | in Ceylon, | 142 |
| Ark-shell, see Arca, | 36 | affected by light, | 108 | G. | |
| Ascidia, generic character of, | 15 | Conchology introduction, | 1 | Gaping cockle, see Chama, | 35 |
| B. | importance of, | 2 | Geoffroy, his system of shells, | 12 | |
| Bivalves, terms of, defined, | 18 | cultivated by the ancients, | 3 | Grooves, formation of, | 118 |
| generic characters of, | 22 | moderns, | 4 | Growth of shells, | 80 |
| Breynius, his system of shells, | 7 | Concretions, pearls supposed to be morbid, | 122 | interrupted, | 99 |
| Buccinum, species of, | 52 | Cone-shell, see Conus, | 48 | H. | |
| Bulla, species of, | 50 | Conus, species of, | ib. | Haliotis, species of, | 59 |
| C. | Coturnie, see Cypræa, | 49 | Helix, species of, | 57 | |
| Cardium, species of, | 30 | Cypræa, species of, | ib. | K. | |
| Chama, species of, | 35 | D. | Klein, his system of shells, | 10 | |
| Characters, generic of testaceous animals, | 15 | Da-Costa, his system of shells, | 14 | opinion of the formation of shells, | 77 |
| Chiton, species of, | 24 | D'Argenville, his system of shells, | 9 | L. | |
| Classification of shells, | 20 | Land shells very numerous, | 126 | ||
| Clio, generic character of, | 15 | Land | |||
| Cockle, see Cardium, | 30 |
This plate contains 15 detailed scientific illustrations of marine shells and their internal structures, labeled as follows:
- Fig. 1. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 2. A small, triangular shell with a prominent, feathery or serrated edge.
- Fig. 3. A small, conical shell with a single, pointed apex.
- Fig. 4. A large, elongated, and curved shell with a distinct, feathery or serrated edge.
- Fig. 5. A large, elongated, and curved shell with a distinct, feathery or serrated edge, similar to Fig. 4 but with a different shape.
- Fig. 6. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 7. A large, elongated, and curved shell with a distinct, feathery or serrated edge.
- Fig. 8. A large, fan-shaped shell with a distinct, feathery or serrated edge.
- Fig. 9. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 10. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 11. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 12. A large, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 13. A large, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 14. A small, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
- Fig. 15. A large, oval-shaped shell with a central longitudinal ridge.
Fig. 31.
Paper. Nautilus.
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35.
| Index. | C O N C H O L O G Y. | 485 |
|---|---|---|
| Land shells, method of collecting, N° 137 | Pholus, species of, N° 26 | Snails, see Helix, N° 66 |
| Langius, his system of shells, 6 | striata perforates wood across the fibre, 111 | Solen, species of, 26 |
| Layer of shells, last formed, white, 97 | Pilerimus visiting the Holy Land, wear the scallop, 37 | Species of shells enumerated, found fossil, 65 |
| Lepus, species of, 25 | Pinna, species of, 45 | Spines, produced, 117 |
| Light, effects of, on shells, 108 | Polysibing shells, with leather, 143 | Spio, generic character of, 15 |
| Limax, generic character of, 15 | pumice-stone, 145 | Spores of the shell, turns increased, 85 |
| Limpet, see Patella, 60 | Dutch method, 153 | Spondylus, species of, 34 |
| Lyster, his system of shells, 5 | Porcelain shells, colours of, 103 | Sprat's, Bishop, history of the oyster, 41 |
| M. | have an external layer formed, 104 | Siriac, formation of, 98 |
| Mastra, species of, 31 | layer formed, proved, 105 | Strombus, species of, 53 |
| Moderns, progress of, in conchology, 4 | become thicker, 106 | Systems of conchology, 4 |
| Muller, his system of shells, 13 | R. | Lyster's, 5 |
| Multivalves, terms of, defined, 17 | Razor-sheath, see Solen, 26 | Langius's, 6 |
| Murex, species of, 54 | Reaumur's investigation of the formation of shells, 73 | Breynius's, 7 |
| Mussel, see Mytilus, 44 | opinion mistaken, 74 | Tournefort's, 8 |
| Mya, species of, 27 | controverted, 77 | D'Argenville's, 9 |
| margaritifera yields pearl and mother-of-pearl, ib. | experiments, 79 | Klein's, 10 |
| Mytilus, species of, 44 | Ribs of shells, formation of, 114 | Adanson's, 11 |
| margaritiferus produces pearls, ib. | only on sea-shells, 115 | Geoffroy's, 12 |
| N. | hollow, 119 | Muller's, 13 |
| Nautilus, species of, 47 | S. | Da Costa's, 14 |
| Nereis, generic character of, 15 | Sabella, species of, 64 | T. |
| Nerita, species of, 58 | Scallop, see Ostrea maxima, worn by pilgrims, 111 | Tellina, species of, 29 |
| O. | Sea-ear, see Haliotis, 59 | Teredo, species of, 63 |
| Organs secreting colouring matter, enlarge, 96 | Sea-wing, see Pinna, 45 | Terebella, generic character of, 15 |
| Ostrea, species of, 37 | Sepia, generic character of, 15 | Terms explained, 16 |
| Oyster, see Ostrea edulis, 37 | Serpula, species of, 62 | in multivalves, 17 |
| employed as food, 38 | Shells, confluent parts of, 71 | bivalves, 18 |
| of different kinds, 39 | porcellaneous, 68 | univalves, 19 |
| grows on trees in warm climates, 40 | mother-of-pearl, 69 | Testaceous animals both oviparous and viviparous, detached from the shell, 72 |
| in Jamaica, 111 | formed in the egg, 75 | Teibyt, generic character of, 15 |
| the British noted among the Romans, 111 | last formed, 76 | Tooth-shell, see Dentalium, 61 |
| retains its superiority, 40 | process of their formation, 80 | Tournefort's system of shells, 8 |
| management of, 41 | formed by secretion from the animal, 81 | Triton, generic character of, 15 |
| liquid of, seen by the microscope, 42 | time necessary, 82 | Trochus, species of, 55 |
| P. | layers seen by burning, 84 | Tropical shells most beautiful, 127 |
| Patella, species of, 60 | growth of, interrupted, 99 | Tubercles on shells, formation of, 116 |
| Pearl, component parts of, 70 | distinguished by colour, 101 | Turbo, species of, 56 |
| found in mother-of-pearl shells, 121 | lower valve colourless, 109 | U. |
| supposed to be a morbid concretion, 122 | spiral, four classes, 111 | Umbilicus, formation of, 111 |
| from external injury, 123 | derive their form from the animal, 112 | Univalves, terms of, defined, 19 |
| discovery of its formation by Linnaeus, 124 | found on every part of the globe, 125 | generic character of, 23 |
| fishery, 140 | land, numerous, 126 | V. |
| in Britain, 141 | tropical, most beautiful, 127 | Valve, lower, of shells, colourless, 109 |
| in Ceylon, 142 | sea, methods of fishing, 138 | Venus, species of, 33 |
| Ship-worm, natural history of, 63 | Voluta, species of, 51 | |
| Volute, see Voluta, ib. | ||
| W. | ||
| Wedge-shell, see Donax, 32 | ||
| Wheal, see Buccinum, 52 | ||
| Wreath, see Turbo, 56 |