IONIA

IONIA, a district of Asia Minor, extending along the coasts of the Ægean Sea about 3430 stadia (4283 miles), according to Strabo, if we include the sinuities of the coast, though by land the distance was much shorter. To the north its boundary was the cape near which stood the city Phocæa, close to the river Hermus; and to the south the promontory Posidium, in the Milesian territory, on the left bank of the Mæander. It was separated in the interior from the plain of Lydia by a chain of mountains extending from the river Hermus, now Sarabat, to the Cayster, a ridge which was known to the ancients by the celebrated names of Tmolus and Sipylus. A continuation of this ridge, under the name of Messogis, ranged along the rest of the Ionian coast, till it terminated in the promontory of Mycæle. The fertility of this small district was only equalled by the excellence of its climate, and every creek furnished excellent harbours for shipping. Its inhabitants rivalled Greece in all the arts and sciences, and in elegance and purity of taste excelled even the mother country. The Ionian temples were remarkable for their grandeur of design and beauty of proportions, and the schools of painting and sculpture were the admiration of the world. Ionia was watered by the river Hermus, now Sarabat, whose waters were said to bring down golden sands; the Cayster, now the Little Mædere; and the Mæander, now the Great Mædere.

We find the Ionians first occupying Attica and that part

of the Peloponnesus called Ægialos, but afterwards better known as Achaia. From this district they were driven out by the Achæi, and took refuge in Attica, where they found a dispute respecting the succession to the throne of Athens, between Medon and Neleus, the descendants of Codrus. When the oracle of Delphi decided in favour of the former, Neleus determined to abandon this country and seek a settlement elsewhere. He invited the Ionians to join him, and having set sail with a large body of Greeks collected from every part of the country, he, along with several of his brothers, proceeded to the coast of Asia, where they founded cities on that part of the coast which was from them called Ionia. The cities were twelve in number, and, not long after their foundation, united themselves into one political body, called the Ionian confederacy. Their names were Miletus, Myus, and Priene, in the district of Caria; Ephesus, Colophon, Lechedus, Teos, Erythræ, Clazomenæ, and Phocæa in Lydia; Samos and Chios on the islands adjacent to Lydia. Smyrna was in later times admitted to the privileges of this confederacy. They held their solemn meetings and festivals in a temple called Panionium, dedicated to the Heliconian Neptune, and erected on the promontory of Mycæle, opposite to Samos. The government of each state seems to have been monarchical, but they do not appear to have made any vigorous efforts to maintain their independence. We find them first subject to the effeminate Lydians, and afterwards to the more powerful but equally mild sway of the Persians. There were, indeed, some instances of patriotic resistance; but as a nation they showed themselves weak and contemptible. They indeed made one bold effort to throw off the Persian yoke, about 500 B.C., led on by Aristagoras and Histieus; but they proved unequal to the task. Though they showed much zeal and ardour in the commencement of the undertaking, they had not perseverance sufficient to insure success in a protracted contest with the power of Persia. The taking and burning of Sardis served only to exasperate the Persians, and they found themselves soon afterwards obliged to give up all resistance by land. (Herodot. v. 98-123.) The contest was still carried on by sea; but here also they were unsuccessful, and they found themselves compelled to acknowledge the superior power of the Persian monarch. (vi. 7-23.) The victories of the Greeks over Darius and Xerxes, B.C. 490 and 480, enabled Ionia for a short time to regain her freedom; but the battle of Mycæle transferred her once more to a foreign power. She now became subject to the Athenians, and during the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 481-405, we find them drawing considerable resources from the tribute imposed on the Ionians. When the Athenians were defeated in Sicily, B.C. 413, they made great efforts to preserve Ionia from the united attacks of Sparta and the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. It does not appear that the Ionians themselves felt much interested in the result of the contest, as no city except Miletus took part in the dispute. But the peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 387, replaced the Ionians in their wonted condition of slaves to the Persian monarch; and neither the passage of Alexander through their country, B.C. 333, nor the subsequent disputes of his captains, seem to have made any material change in their condition. From the weak government of Antiochus they passed under the sway of the Romans, and then became merged in the mighty empire of the latter. From this time they can no longer be considered as a distinct people.

THE Ionian Islands formerly constituted a small part of the Venetian dominions; and, by a fate somewhat singular, they were raised to the rank of an independent power without any efforts of their own, at the very period which witnessed the extinction of Venice itself, with Genoa, Ragusa, and many other small states which had existed for ages. These islands, which are seven in number, exclusively of some small dependent islets, are situated on the western and southern shores of Greece, between 36° and 40° of

north latitude, and between 19° 40' and 23° 10' of east longitude. Four of them lie in a group opposite the entrance of the Gulf of Corinth; two others, Corfu and Paxo, are situated about eighty miles north-west of this central group, from which Cerigo, the remaining island, is distant about 150 miles south-east. The subjoined table gives a view of their extent and population; but the measurements can only be considered as approximations, as, we believe, no accurate map of all the islands has ever been published.

According to this table, these islands contain about 150 persons to each square mile, a density of population nearly equal to that of the most populous countries of Europe, and very remarkable, considering how a great proportion of their surface is too rugged to admit of any species of cultivation.

which is accompanied occasionally with beds of gray foliated gypsum, and with beds or masses of sandstone, is conjectured by Dr Holland to belong to the first flint limestone of Werner. At one spot, ten miles south of the town of Zante, are found a number of pitch wells, agreeing in their situation and appearance with the description given by Herodotus two thousand four hundred years ago. They consist of small pools of water, fed by springs, in a marshy tract near the shore, having their sides and bottoms lined with petroleum in a viscid state, which, by agitation, is raised to the surface in flakes. It is collected once a year, and the produce is about a hundred barrels.²

The surface of all these islands is so remarkably mountainous, that they do not contain a quantity of arable land nearly sufficient to afford corn to the population; and were it not that the vine, the olive, and the currant, enable them to extract a valuable produce from their rocks and declivities, they could support but a very small number of inhabitants. There is a considerable diversity, however, in the aspect and qualities of the surface of the different islands, which renders it necessary to speak of their topography separately. To begin with Corfu, the most north-eastern, and the seat of the general government. This island, which is about forty English miles long, and fifteen in extreme breadth, lies opposite the coast of Albania, from which it is separated at one point by a strait two miles broad. A range of mountains occupies the centre of this island, the highest summits of which, Mount Kassopo, must be nearly 4000 feet high, since the coast of Italy, at eighty miles distance, is visible from it. The island is rather bare of wood, and not abundant in good pasturage. Wheat is raised in some low situations near the coast; but though called "fruitful Coreyra" by Dionysius, and celebrated for its riches by other ancient authors, its inhabitants de-

The climate of the Ionian Islands resembles that of the continent of Greece, except that the surrounding seas temper in a greater degree the extremes of heat and cold, and render the atmosphere more humid. Snow often falls during the winter, and lies on the high grounds, but very rarely in the plains. The winter rains sometimes bring with them great quantities of a reddish sand, which the people think has been transported from Africa by the south wind. Sudden and furious squalls are frequent, and the Sirocco, or hot wind, which occurs at certain periods, produces the usual effects, a dull headache, lassitude, and a sense of oppression. The harvest, which is generally in May on the continent, is here in June. Earthquakes are very frequent, though not often very destructive. In Zante, two or three sometimes occur in a month; it is observed that they are preceded by a peculiar state of the atmosphere, producing a feeling of heaviness, or a sulphurous smell, and that they are generally followed by rain. Malaria prevails in low situations in the autumnal months; and the itch, which is common in some parts, instead of being eradicated by medical means, is rather cherished by the people, from a strange notion that it is a preservative against malaria. In other respects the climate is agreeable and healthy, and instances of remarkable longevity are known.²

The rocks of all these islands belong to the same great calcareous formation which occupies the continent of Greece. They contain some, though very few, organic remains, and are disposed in highly inclined strata. The limestone,

pend chiefly on importation for corn, which they procure in exchange for their wine, oil, and salt. The capital, also named Corfu, which lies on the east side of the island, contains about 15,000 inhabitants, and is a pretty strong place. This island is the Phœacia of Homer. A small bay, five or six miles south of the capital, is conceived to be the Alcinus Portus, where Ulysses, after his shipwreck, met with the daughter of Alcinus; and Fano, a small rocky islet seven or eight miles in circumference, lying twelve miles off the north-west coast of Corfu, is the island of Calypso.¹

Paxo, the next in order, which is about seven miles long and three broad, lies eight miles south-east of Corfu, and twelve miles west of the coast of Albania. Its surface is highly beautiful, much enclosed, and nearly covered with olive trees. Its capital, St Gago, contains a great proportion of the population, amounting to 3948 persons, who depend very much on trade for their subsistence. Antipaxo, an islet five or six miles in circumference, and inhabited by a few fishermen, lies near it.²

Santa Maura, about twenty miles long and eight or nine broad, lies so close to the coast of Greece that it was formerly joined to it by an isthmus. It is sixty miles south-east from Corfu, three miles from Ithaca, and five from the nearest point of Cephalonia. The surface consists of a range of limestone mountains, which rise to the height of nearly 3000 feet, and terminate on the south-west in the celebrated Leucadian promontory, where unhappy lovers, following the example of Sappho, came to cure themselves of an unrequited passion. The cliff is not very lofty, though sufficiently so for the purposes of despairing lovers. It is still the custom of the neighbouring mariners, when passing, to throw in a small piece of money as an expiatory offering. The island contains very little level surface. Its principal products are olives and vines; and salt is made on the coast. The capital, also named Santa Maura, containing 5000 inhabitants, is situated at the northern point of the island, where it is separated by a narrow channel from the continent. The ancient name, Leucadia, or, as it is now pronounced, Lefcadia, is still known among the inhabitants, and ought to be used to distinguish the island from its capital.³

Theaki, the ancient Ithaca, the regal seat of Ulysses, consists merely of a narrow ridge of limestone, seventeen miles long and four in extreme breadth, rising into rugged eminences, with scarcely a hundred yards of continuous level surface in its whole extent. Near the middle it is intersected by a deep bay, which penetrates four miles inwards. Upon this bay the town of Vathi, the capital, is situated, containing 2000 inhabitants. The chief produce of the island is currants; but it yields also a small quantity of oil and wine, the latter much esteemed. The grain raised suffices only for three months' consumption. On a hill near Vathi are some massive ruins of ancient walls, with a number of sepulchres, which are supposed to mark the site of the capital of Ulysses. Near the south-east end of the island is a cliff called Koraka at present, and supposed to be the rock Korax, mentioned in the Odyssey; and under it, in a secluded and picturesque spot, is a fountain, conceived to be that of Arethusa, where Ulysses met the faithful Eumæus. The island is still named Ithaca by the more intelligent natives, which is corrupted into Theaki by some of the lower classes. Between Ithaca, Santa Maura, and the continent, are situated four small rocky islets, named Meganisi, Calamo, Atako, and Carto, besides several minute islets, of little or no importance.⁴

Cephalonia, three miles from the nearest point of Ithaca, is the largest of all the Ionian Islands. Its greatest length is forty English miles, and its greatest breadth twenty-four. A lofty chain of mountains, the Mount Ænos of antiquity, nearly 4000 feet high, occupies the centre of the island, and sends off branches to all the principal promontories. The wood which covered a part of these hills was wantonly burnt, about twenty years ago, during some internal disturbances. A deep gulf penetrates far inland from the south side of the island; and, upon the east side of this gulf stands Argostoli, the capital, containing 4000 inhabitants. Lixuri, the only other town, contains 5000 inhabitants; and there are in the island 175 villages.⁵ The surface of Cephalonia is generally rocky; the soil thin, and less fertile than that of Zante. Its chief productions are currants, oil, and wine. Some ruins of Cyclopian walls mark the site of the city of Samus, mentioned by Homer; and there are some remains of Krani, Pronos, and other ancient cities. Vestiges of the altar of Jupiter Ænesius are said still to exist on the top of Mount Ænos.⁶

Zante, which lies ten miles south from the nearest point of Cephalonia, is about sixty miles in circumference. Unlike the neighbouring islands, its surface consists chiefly of a large plain, reaching from the southern to the northern coast, but bounded on the east and west sides by calcareous ridges about 1200 or 1300 feet high. This plain, covered with vineyards and olive groves, with only a few spots in tillage, presents the appearance of luxuriant fertility, and has procured for the island the title of the "Garden of the Levant." The capital, Zante, situated on the eastern side of the island, contains 18,000 inhabitants. Zante contains very few antiquities; and, though smaller and inferior in population to some of the other islands, is the richest of them all.⁷

Cerigo, the ancient Cythera, the last of the seven islands, is about fifty miles in circumference, and is situated near the south coast of the ancient Laconia, 150 miles from the nearest of its Ionian confederates. The face of the island is mountainous, and, though reported to be the birth-place of Venus, it is rugged, barren, and destitute of beauty. Its productions are similar to those of the other islands, but it is less commercial; and, abounding more in pasture, it raises a considerable number of sheep and cattle.⁸

Landed property, in all the islands, is in the hands of a comparatively small number of persons, who form a proud, oppressive, and rapacious aristocracy. The Venetian senate, whilst it possessed these islands, kept all the more solid advantages to its own citizens, but bestowed titles, which cost nothing, profusely upon the petty insular chieftains; and nobles, destitute of education, honour, or property, are as common here as in Italy. The lands are generally let by the year, the tenant paying half the produce to the landlord; a species of tenure almost universal in rude countries. In Cephalonia, where property is pretty much divided, the largest proprietor has not above L. 800 or L. 900 a year; but in Zante there are estates of more than double this value.⁹ In the rural economy of the Ionian Islands, corn is an object of secondary importance, and farming is conducted on the rudest principles. Barley, wheat, maize, and oats, are cultivated, but the quantity of grain of all kinds raised does not exceed one half, and in some of the islands is not one third, of the annual amount of consumption. Of the corn raised in Ithaca, one tenth is wheat and nine tenths barley. The