ALEXANDRIA, now SCANDERIA, by Athenæus called Xeros, a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long time its capital. This city was built by Alexander the Great, soon after the overthrow of Tyre, about 333 years before Christ. It is situated on the Mediterranean, twelve miles west of that mouth of the Nile anciently called Canopicum, and lies in long. 29. 54. E. lat. 31. 10. N.
Alexander is said to have been induced to build this city on account of its affording a fine port, and being advantageously situated for trade. It realized his expectations; for it soon became the emporium, not only for merchandise, but also for all the arts and sciences of the Greeks. Alexandria, according to Strabo, was 30 stadia in length from east to west, and 7 or 8 stadia in breadth where narrowest. The circumference was about 70 stadia, or 9 miles; but Pliny, including no doubt the suburbs, reckons the circumference 15 miles. Lake Mareotis bathed its walls on the south, and the Mediterranean on the north. It was intersected lengthwise by straight parallel streets. This direction left a free passage to the northern wind, which alone conveys coolness and salubrity into Egypt. A street of 2000 feet wide began at the gate of the sea, and terminated at the gate of Canopus. It was decorated with magnificent houses, temples, and public buildings. In its extensive range, the eye was never tired with admiring the marble, the porphyry, and obelisks, which were destined at some future day to embellish Rome and Constantinople. The great street, the handsomest in the world, was intersected by another of the same breadth, which formed a square at their junction of half a league in circumference. From the middle of this great place the two gates were to be seen at once, and vessels arriving under full sail from the north and from the south.
A neck of land a mile in length (not an artificial mole, as some imagine) stretched from the continent to the isle of Pharos, and divided the great harbour into two. That which is to the northward preserved its name. A dike drawn from the island to the rock whereon was built the
Pharos secured it from the westerly winds. The other was called Eunostos, or the Safe Return. The former is called at present the new, the latter the old harbour: a bridge that joins the mole to the city served for a communication between them. It was raised on lofty pillars sunk into the sea, and left a free passage for ships. The palace, which advanced beyond the promontory of Lochias, extended as far as the dike, and occupied more than a quarter of the city. Each of the Ptolemies added to its magnificence. It contained within its inclosure, the museum, an asylum for learned men, groves, and buildings worthy of royal majesty, and a temple where the body of Alexander was deposited in a golden coffin. The infamous Seleucus Cibyofactes violated this monument, carried off the golden coffin, and put a glass one in its place. In the great harbour was the little island of Anti-Rhodes, where stood a theatre and a royal place of residence. Within the harbour of Eunostos was a smaller one called Kibotos, dug by the hand of man, which communicated with Lake Mareotis by a canal. Between this canal and the palace was the admirable temple of Serapis, and that of Neptune near the great place where the market was held. Alexandria extended likewise along the northern banks of the lake. Its eastern part presented to view the gymnasium, with its porticoes of more than 600 feet long, supported by several rows of marble pillars. Without the gate of Canopus was a spacious circus for the chariot races. Beyond that the suburb of Nicopolis ran along the sea-shore, and seemed a second Alexandria. A superb amphitheatre was built there, with a race-ground, for the celebration of the quinquennalia.
Such is the description left us of Alexandria by the ancients, and above all by Strabo.
The architect employed by Alexander in this undertaking was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had acquired so much reputation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The city was first rendered populous by Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander's captains, who, after the death of the Macedonian monarch, being appointed governor of Egypt, soon assumed the title of king, and took up his residence at Alexandria, about 304 years before Christ.
In the 30th year of Ptolemy Soter's reign, he took his son Ptolemy Philadelphus partner with him in the empire; and by this prince the city of Alexandria was much embellished. In the first year of his reign the famous watch-tower of Pharos was finished. It had been begun several years before by Ptolemy Soter; and, when finished, was looked upon as one of the wonders of the world. The same year, the islet of Pharos itself, originally seven furlongs distant from the peninsula, was joined to it by a causeway. This was the work of Dexiphanes, who completed it at the same time that his son put the last hand to the tower. The tower was a large square structure of white marble, on the top of which fires were kept constantly burning, for the direction of sailors. The building cost 800 talents; which, if Attic, amounted to L.165,000; if Alexandrian, to twice that sum.
The architect employed in this famous structure fell upon the following contrivance to usurp the whole glory to himself. Being ordered to engrave upon it the following inscription,—"King PTOLEMY to the Gods the Saviour, for the benefit of Sailors,"—instead of the king's name he substituted his own, and then filling up the hollow of the marble with mortar, wrote upon it the above-mentioned inscription. In process of time, the mortar being worn off, the following inscription appeared: "SOSTRATUS the CNIDIAN, the son of DEXIPHANES, to the Gods the Saviour, for the benefit of Sailors."
This year also was remarkable for the bringing of the
image of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It was set up in one of the suburbs of the city, called Rhacotis, where a temple was afterwards erected to his honour, suitable to the greatness of that stately metropolis, and called, from the god worshipped there, Serapeum. This structure, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, surpassed in beauty and magnificence all others in the world, except the Capitol at Rome. Within the verge of this temple was the famous Alexandrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use of an academy he instituted in this city; and, by continual additions by his successors, became at last the finest library in the world, containing no fewer than 700,000 volumes. The method followed in collecting books for this library was to seize all those which were brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners. The books were transcribed in the museum by persons appointed for that purpose: the copies were then delivered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed from the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and Æschylus, returned them only the copies, which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible; presenting the Athenians at the same time with fifteen talents (upwards of £30,000 sterling) for the exchange.
As the museum was at first in that quarter of the city called Bruchion, near the royal palace, the library was placed there likewise; but when it came to contain 400,000 volumes, another library, within the Serapeum, was erected by way of supplement to it, and on that account called the daughter of the former. In this second library 300,000 volumes, in process of time, were deposited; and the two together contained the 700,000 volumes already mentioned. In the war carried on by Julius Cæsar against the inhabitants of this city, the library in the Bruchion, with the 400,000 volumes it contained, was reduced to ashes. The library in the Serapeum, however, still remained; and here Cleopatra deposited 200,000 volumes of the Pergamean library, which Mark Antony presented her with. These, and others added from time to time, rendered the new library at Alexandria more numerous and considerable than the former; and though it was often plundered during the revolutions and troubles of the Roman empire, yet it was again and again repaired, and filled with the same number of books. For 293 years, Alexandria was held in subjection by the Ptolemies.
This city, as we have already observed, soon became extremely populous, and was embellished both by its own princes and the Romans; but, like most other noted cities of antiquity, it has been the seat of terrible massacres. About 141 years before Christ it was almost totally depopulated by Ptolemy Physcon. That barbarous monster, without the least provocation, gave free liberty to his guards to plunder his metropolis, and murder the inhabitants at their pleasure. The cruelties practised on this occasion cannot be expressed, and the few who escaped were so terrified that they fled into other countries. Upon this, Physcon, that he might not reign over empty houses, invited thither strangers from the neighbouring countries; by whom the city was repopulated, and soon recovered its former splendour. On this occasion many learned men, having been obliged to fly, proved the means of reviving learning in Greece, Asia Minor, and the islands of the Archipelago and other places, where it was almost totally lost.
The new inhabitants were not treated with much more kindness by Physcon than the old ones had been; for, on their complaining of his tyrannical behaviour, he resolved on a general massacre of the young men. Accordingly,
when they were one day assembled in the gymnasium, or place of their public exercises, he ordered it to be set on fire; so that they all perished, either in the flames, or by the swords of his mercenaries, whom the tyrant had placed at all the avenues.
Though Julius Cæsar was obliged to carry on a war for some time against this city, it seems not to have suffered much damage, except the burning of the library already mentioned. Before Cæsar left Alexandria, in acknowledgement of the assistance he had received from the Jews, he confirmed all their privileges there, and even engraved his decree on a pillar of brass. This, however, did not prevent the massacre of 50,000 of them in this city, about the year of Christ 67.
The city of Alexandria seems to have fallen into decay soon after this, and to have forfeited many of its ancient privileges, though for what offence is not known; but when Adrian visited Egypt, about the year 141, it was almost totally ruined. He repaired both the public and private buildings, not only restoring the inhabitants to their ancient privileges, but heaping new favours upon them; for which they returned him their solemn thanks, and conferred upon him what honours they could while he was present; but as soon as he was gone, they published the most virulent and bitter lampoons against him.
The fickle and satirical humour of the Alexandrians was highly disliked by Adrian, though he inflicted no punishment upon them for it; but when they lampooned Caracalla, he did not let them escape so easily. That tyrant, in the year 215, when he visited their city, having become the subject of their foolish satires, ordered a general massacre by his numerous troops, who were dispersed all over the city. The inhuman order being given, all were murdered, without distinction of age or sex; so that in one night's time the whole city floated in blood, and every house was filled with carcasses. The monster who occasioned this had retired during the night to the temple of Serapis, to implore the protection of that deity; and, not yet satiated with slaughter, commanded the massacre to be continued all the next day; so that very few of the inhabitants remained. As if even this had not been sufficient, he stripped the city of all its ancient privileges; suppressed the academy; ordered all strangers who lived there to depart; and that the few who remained might not have the satisfaction of seeing one another, he cut off all communication of one street with another, by walls built for that purpose, and guarded by troops left there.
Notwithstanding this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered its former splendour, as Caracalla was murdered a short time after. It was long esteemed the first city in the world, next to Rome; and we may judge of its magnificence, and the multitude of people contained in it, from the account of Diodorus Siculus, who relates, that in his time (44 years before Christ) Alexandria had on its rolls 300,000 free inhabitants. Mannert, a learned German writer, thinks the slaves must have been at least as numerous; and thus the city, in its flourishing periods, had contained not less than 600,000 inhabitants. Towards the middle of the sixth century, Amrou Ebn al Aas, Omar's general, took it by storm, after a siege of 14 months, and with the loss of 23,000 men. Heraclius, then emperor of Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its assistance. This prince affords an example very rare in history: he had displayed some vigour in the first year of his reign, and then suffered himself to be lulled into idleness and effeminacy. Awakened suddenly from his lethargy by the noise of the conquests of Cosroes, that scourge of the East, he put himself at the head of his armies, distinguished himself as a great captain from his very first campaign,
laid waste Persia for seven years, and returned to his capital covered with laurels: he then became a theologian on the throne, lost all his energy, and amused himself the rest of his life with disputing upon monotheism, whilst the Arabs were robbing him of the finest provinces of the empire. Deaf to the cries of the unfortunate inhabitants of Alexandria, as he had been to those of the people of Jerusalem, who defended themselves for two years, he left them a sacrifice to the rising fortune of the indefatigable Amrou. All their intrepid youth perished with their arms in their hands.
The victor, astonished at his conquest, wrote to the caliph, "I have taken the city of the west. It is of an immense extent. I cannot describe to you how many wonders it contains. There are 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement."
At this time, according to the Arabian historians, Alexandria consisted of three cities, viz. Menna, or the port, which included Pharos and the neighbouring parts; Alexandria, properly so called, where the modern Scandera now stands; and Nekita, probably the Necropolis of Josephus and Strabo.
At that time John, surnamed the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being in the city, and in high favour with Amrou Ibn al Aas, the Saracen general, begged of him the royal library. Amrou replied that it was not in his power to grant such a request; but that he would write to the caliph on that head, since, without knowing his pleasure, he dared not to dispose of a single book. He accordingly wrote to Omar, who was then caliph, acquainting him with the request of his friend; to which the ignorant tyrant replied, That if those books contained the same doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use, since the Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they contained any thing contrary to that book, they ought not to be suffered; and, therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be destroyed. Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the public baths, where, for the space of six months, they served to supply the fires of those places, of which there was an incredible number in Alexandria.
After the city was taken, Amrou thought proper to pursue the Greeks who had fled farther up the country; and therefore marched out of Alexandria, leaving but a very slender garrison in the place. The Greeks, who had before fled on board their ships, being apprized of this, returned on a sudden, surprised the town, and put all the Arabs they found therein to the sword; but Amrou, receiving advice of what had happened, suddenly returned, and drove them out of it with great slaughter: after which the Greeks were so intimidated, that he had nothing further to fear from them.—A few years after, however, Amrou being deprived of his government by the caliph Othman, the Egyptians were so much displeased with his dismissal, that they inclined to a revolt; and Constantine, the Greek emperor, having received intelligence of their disaffection, began to meditate the reduction of Alexandria. For this purpose he sent one Manuel, a eunuch, and his general, with a powerful army, to retake that place; which, by the assistance of the Greeks in the city, who kept a secret correspondence with the imperial forces while at sea, and joined them as soon as they had made a descent, he effected, without any considerable effusion of Christian blood. The caliph, now perceiving his mistake, immediately restored Amrou to his former dignity. This step was very agreeable to the natives, who, having had experience of the military skill and bravery of this renowned general, and apprehending
that they should be called to an account by the Greeks for their former perfidious conduct, had petitioned Othman to send him again into Egypt.—Upon Amrou's arrival, therefore, at Alexandria, the Copts or natives, with the traitor Al-Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed to Amrou the fortress of Mesr) at their head, not only joined him, but supplied him with all kinds of provisions, exciting him to attack the Greeks without delay. This he did; and, after a most obstinate dispute, which lasted several days, drove them into the town, where, for some time, they defended themselves with great bravery, and repelled the utmost efforts of the besiegers. This so exasperated Amrou, that he swore, if God enabled him to conquer the Greeks, he would throw down the walls of the city, and make it as easy of access as the house of a prostitute. Nor did he fail to execute his threat; for, having taken the town by storm, he quite dismantled it, entirely demolishing the walls and fortifications. The lives of the citizens, however, were spared, at least as far as lay in the general's power; but many of them were put to the sword by the soldiers on their first entrance. In one quarter particularly, Amrou found them butchering the Alexandrians with unrelenting barbarity; to which, however, by his seasonable interposition, he put a stop, and on that spot erected a mosque, which he called the mosque of mercy.
From this time Alexandria never recovered its former splendour. It continued under the dominion of the caliphs till the year 924, when it was taken by the Magrebians, two years after its great church had been destroyed by fire. This church was called by the Arabs Al Kaisaria, or Casarea, and had formerly been a pagan temple, erected in honour of Saturn by the famous Queen Cleopatra.
The city was soon after abandoned by the Magrebians; but in 928 they again made themselves masters of it. Their fleet being afterwards defeated by that belonging to the caliph, Abul Kâsem the Magrebian general retired from Alexandria, leaving there only a garrison of 300 men; of which Thmaâl, the caliph's admiral, being apprized, he in a few days appeared before the town, and carried off the remainder of the inhabitants to an island of the Nile called Abukair. This was done to prevent Abul Kâsem from meeting with any entertainment at Alexandria, in case he should think proper to return. According to Eutychius, above 200,000 of the miserable inhabitants perished this year.
What contributed to raise Alexandria to the extraordinary height of splendour it enjoyed for a long time, was its being the centre of commerce between the eastern and western parts of the world. It was with the view of becoming master of this lucrative trade that Alexander built this city, after having extirpated the Tyrians, who formerly engrossed all the East India traffic. Of the immense riches which that trade afforded, we may form an idea, from considering that the Romans accounted it a point of policy to oppress the Egyptians, especially the Alexandrians; and after the defeat of Zenobia, there was a single merchant of Alexandria, who, it is said, undertook to raise and pay an army out of the profits of his trade. The Greek emperors drew enormous tributes from Egypt, and yet the caliphs found their subjects in such good circumstances that they were able to screw up their revenues to 300,000,000 of crowns.
Though the revolutions which happened in the government of Egypt after it fell into the hands of the Mahometans frequently affected this city to a very great degree, yet still the excellence of its port, and the innumerable conveniences resulting from the East India trade,
to whomsoever were masters of Egypt, preserved it from total destruction, even when in the hands of the most barbarous nations. Thus, in the 13th century, when the European nations began to acquire a taste for the elegancies of life, the old mart of Alexandria began to revive; and the port, though far from recovering its former magnificence, grew once more famous by becoming the centre of commerce: but having fallen under the dominion of the Turks, and the passage round the Cape of Good Hope being discovered by the Portuguese in 1499, a fatal blow was given to the Alexandrian commerce, and the city thenceforward declined from its ancient greatness.