BOTANY

LINNÆUS divides all natural objects into three grand classes, which he calls kingdoms; and the sciences which treat of these are zoology, botany, and mineralogy. Botany, with which we are to be occupied in this place, enables us to distinguish, arrange, and name all plants or vegetables.

Some years ago, Baron Humboldt made a calculation as to the probable number of the different species of plants existing on the face of our globe. Of late, however, owing to the many novelties that have reached us from Brazil and the East Indies, it has been supposed that his estimate is much under the truth. At least sixty or seventy thousand, described or undescribed, are scattered through different collections, and every day brings to light additional species; so that at present the probable number of vegetable productions may not be too highly estimated at nearly a hundred thousand. To obtain a knowledge of every one of these individually, and without relation to any other, would be a Herculean task, for which the utmost extension of human life might not be sufficient, and which, though procured, could not be imparted to others. The study would thus be selfish, and the labours of a lifetime useless. Valuable medicinal properties might be observed in some one vegetable; but posterity would, in all probability, find similar properties in another plant, much sooner than re-discover that formerly known. Thus many plants whose medicinal qualities were highly esteemed by our ancestors, are now entirely unknown to us as possessing such. To remedy these evils, means must be resorted to for the classifying or arranging of vegetables. If we divide them into trees, shrubs, herbaceous, biennial, and annual, we shall have five divisions; so that supposing an equal number to each, we shall have only to look into one of those sections for what we are in quest of. Again, each of these may be subdivided according to the height to which the plant grows, the colour of its flower, or its capability of bearing an esculent fruit. But this is one of the rudest systems, and, though used in the earliest state of the science, was soon found to be subject to great variation, and to want the necessary precision. Other more philosophical divisions were afterwards adopted, to which, and the steps requisite for the knowledge of them, we intend to devote this article.

The necessity of a classification being once admitted, resemblances between individuals, not before observed, could not long escape the attention. Thus the affinities inter se of the different species of pine, of the ash, of the lime, of the strawberry, or of the rose, must soon have been admitted; and in framing a system, care would be taken to place these by the side of the allied species, whether in appearance or in qualities. This is what is termed arranging plants according to their species. It would likewise be soon observed that small groups of these species had more affinity between themselves than with other groups;—a general idea would thus be attached to each of these, which would now form a genus;—and when these genera were placed one after the other according to some property or resemblance real or fancied, we should have the arrangement of plants by their genera. Whether, then, we proceed by making grand primary cuts or divisions among all the known vegetables, and then proceed to subdivide these until we arrive at genera and species; or commence by the grouping of species and genera, and mount upwards, we shall attain the means of more readily distinguishing and naming plants, and consequently of imparting to others the result of our observations on their properties and uses.

The cui bono in botany is a question that has often been

asked by those who conceive that mere classification is the ultimate object of botany; but, from what has already been said, we trust it will be seen that classification is only the necessary consequence of a wish to impart our ideas to others. It is a universal language, without which the observations of one can be of no use to another, but by which the instructed can unfold to each other, at the remotest parts of the earth, what species or genera of plants have been discovered to possess remarkable properties. "The standing objection to botany," says the eloquent author of the Natural History of Selbourne, "has always been, that it is a pursuit that amuses the fancy and exercises the memory, without improving the mind, or advancing any real knowledge; and where the science is carried no farther than a mere systematic classification, the charge is but too true. But the botanist who is desirous of wiping off this aspersion should be by no means content with a mere list of names; he should study plants philosophically,—should investigate the laws of vegetation,—should examine the powers and virtues of efficacious herbs,—should promote their cultivation, and graft the gardener, the planter, and the husbandman, on the phytologist: not that system is by any means to be thrown aside,—without system, the field of nature would be a pathless wilderness; but system should be subservient to, not the main object of, our pursuit." Nor ought an objection to be urged against the pursuit of those parts of botany from which hitherto no immediate use has been derived. From the highest organized plant to the lowest, all form a chain, in which a link lost or broken disconnects the whole, and to which the recent addition of new links, in the shape of new species, has tended much to the increase of our knowledge. What anatomist has not derived delight from the examination of the eye of a fly; and what botanist has not obtained information from the meanest weed! But it is even important to attend to the lowest class of vegetables. The lichens furnish many valuable dyes; the algae afford food or medicine; and we are all so alarmed at the poisonous effects of many fungi, that scarcely above two or three species are eaten in this country, whereas, if attention were paid to their botanical character, several far superior in flavour to the common mushrooms might be made use of with perfect safety.

The definition of botany here adopted, though easily understood and perfectly correct, is sometimes of little value to the practical man. Between mineralogy and the two other sciences of zoology and botany we believe there can be little confusion; but between zoology and botany, in the subjects belonging to both of which the living principle seems equally to exist, not only are there great points of resemblance, but instances occur in which it is nearly impossible for the eye to determine whether what we see belongs to the one or to the other kingdom.

The distinction made by Linnæus between plants and animals consisted principally in the power of motion in the latter. Many animals have, however, now been discovered, which seem to be unable to remove themselves from the spot on which they first made their appearance; and, on the other hand, there are many plants, as the duckweed (Lemna), ball-conferva (Conferva agropylo), and others, which, if they have roots, do not send them into the earth, but float about as if in search of food; and our distinguished countryman Mr Brown, whose philosophical observations all must respect, has within these few years demonstrated that the component particles or molecules

of all matter whatever, whether organized or not, when suspended in a fluid, and viewed with a suitable microscope, are found to be in motion without any visible agency. Perhaps the true differences are to be looked for in sensation and an intestinal canal in the animal kingdom, into which the food is collected; whilst plants are endowed only with irritability, and receive the food through many canals or mouths. But this, although it were universally acknowledged, is of little service, as confusion is only likely to arise in the case of the smallest and least organized, and where the correct knowledge of the anatomical structure is attended with almost insuperable difficulties. In many zoophytes, or lower tribes of marine animals, the external horny or calcareous covering so resembles a plant in its mode of ramification, as to cause doubts which are not easily removed; and there consequently exist many natural objects to this day that are claimed by both the zoologist and botanist. This similarity, combined with the motion to be observed in all molecules, has, we think, given rise to the singular delusion under which many celebrated men abroad have for some years past laboured, when they assert that the minute aquatic algae were animalcules in the first stages of their being, but which afterwards took root and became plants. A rudimentary plant may have often been mistaken for an infusory animal, and may have even been described as such; and although there be no absolute practical character of almost any use to enable us to distinguish the two, yet we consider their identity as a mere matter of speculation, that has never been proved, and which is not borne out by any analogy derived from what are more organized, and on which observations would be less subject to error.

Subservient to the actual classification and determination of plants, and consequently forming branches of the science of botany, are, 1st, Organography, or the anatomy of plants, or the knowledge of the structure of their parts or organs; 2d, Physiology, or the knowledge of the functions of these parts; 3d, Pathology, or the derangements to which these functions are exposed; 4th, Terminology or Glossology, or a knowledge of the terms employed to designate the parts or organs; 5th, Phytography, or the art of describing plants, so that every species may be distinguished and recognised; and, lastly, Taxonomy, or the art of combining all these in such a way as to produce a systematic arrangement or classification.

What are usually called medical botany, agricultural botany, and economical botany, do not belong to the science of botany, as one might at first suppose from the names, but form respectively mere connecting links between botany and materia medica, as well as agriculture and domestic economy. They exhibit the relation existing between vegetables and the arts, and point out the uses to which different plants are applied. But although they therefore must fall under other subjects in this work, a certain knowledge of their general relation must be of considerable use to the botanist, inasmuch as it may enable him to frame a classification that will bring nearer together plants of similar properties and virtues, as well as of a similar form and structure.

In the same way, botanical geography is not a branch of botany. This exhibits the relation between vegetables and the soil on which they grow, and the climate in which they delight, or, in other words, the physical causes, and the laws of their distribution over the surface of our globe. This will form a part of Physical Geography.

Horticulture or gardening, or the art of cultivating plants so as to improve their beauty or ameliorate their qualities, is dependent on vegetable pathology; but it has long been considered as separate from botany, and will be treated of as a distinct science.

The above six branches of botany are so intimately con-

nected, that it is difficult to discuss one without encroaching on the others. As, however, these are discussed in other parts of this work, we shall here confine ourselves, as much as the nature of the subject will admit, to the three latter:—Glossology, Phytography, and Taxonomy; under which last will be found a short historical sketch of the science.

I.—GLOSSOLOGY.

Glossology, or, as Linnaeus called it, Terminology, gives us, as has already been stated, the knowledge of the terms employed, or furnishes definitions of the names applied to the different parts or organs. The structure of these constitutes organography or anatomy. An account of the organs themselves belongs also, strictly speaking, to the same branch of the subject; but as a mere explanation of terms might prove useless and uninteresting, without understanding to what these terms are to be applied, we shall here exclude the elementary organs, or those which compose the others, and blend the two together; and thus, by explaining the organs and their successive developments, endeavour to lay a foundation, without which a knowledge of the natural system of classification cannot be acquired. Under VEGETABLE ANATOMY, these organs are treated of as subservient to physiology. Here we shall consider them as connected with classification. And as in this article we do not intend to insert a catalogue or description of plants, so we shall pass over many terms that are not essential to a general view of the subject.

The organs of plants not elementary have been divided by De Candolle into the fundamental and reproductive. The former are such as are essential to the nutrition of the plant, while the latter are mere modifications of these. We shall therefore first proceed to the

FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS.

These consist of roots, stems, and leaves.

Roots (Radices).

We shall suppose a seed put into the ground under favourable circumstances. The inherent vital principle common to both plants and animals begins to operate; and a development takes place downwards as well as upwards. The descending portion is termed the Root; and by it plants are fixed to the earth, and nutriment absorbed. In some aquatic plants no root whatever is perceptible. But in such apparent aberrations from what seems a general rule of nature, it may be presumed by analogy that roots do exist even when they have not been observed; in confirmation of which it may be stated, that many plants to which roots were long denied, have actually possessed them in some parts of their existence, and are capable of deriving nourishment either from the earth, water, or air, although in a few the foliaceous portions of the plant are such as almost to preclude the necessity of their having any.

There are several characters which distinguish the root from the stem. The principal are the absence of leaves, of pith even in those plants in which it is abundant in the stem, and of spiral vessels.

A root usually consists of three parts: the neck (collum), or line of separation from the stem; the body or middle portion of the root; and the attenuated fibrous portion, or little roots through which the nourishment is principally derived. Keeping this in view, a root of the simplest kind is, 1st, what is termed conical, or the principal or tap root as it is sometimes called; this tapers downwards, emitting fibres from various parts of its surface, as in the carrot (Plate CXII. fig. 1): 2d, when the conical root is attenuated

Glossology towards the neck, as well as below, it is called fusiform (fig. 2), as the radish: 3d, when swollen out extremely in the upper part, and suddenly attenuated below, it is napiform (fig. 3), as in the turnip: 4th, when the fusiform root is as it were cut off suddenly, it is termed abrupt (præmorsus) (fig. 4), as in the devil's bit scabious: 5th, fibrous when the body of the root is so reduced as not to be apparent, and nothing is seen but simple or branched fibres proceeding from the neck: 6th, when these fibres swell out slightly in the middle, the root is called fasciculated (fig. 5): 7th, when the fibrous root bears, either at its neck, or here and there attached to its fibres, one or more tubers, fleshy, and containing much starchy feculent matter, it has been often called tuberous, but ought really to be termed tuberiferous, such tubers serving for the nourishment of the plant; when two of such tubers are placed together, as in some species of orchis, they are said to be didymous (fig. 6); and when these again are divided up to the middle into diverging lobes, they are didymous palmate (fig. 7). Some give the name of tuberous roots to any root whatever that contains swellings or tubercles on some part of its length; but in neither sense ought tubers to be classed among roots. In the one they are more properly short, fleshy, subterranean stems, containing usually eyes or buds, from which new plants arise; and in the other they have a very different structure, and are generally termed, 8th, granulated roots. These exhibit a collection of small tubercles with eyes fit for the reproduction of the plant, without being enveloped by cellular tissue filled with starchy fecule, and thus differ essentially from the tuberiferous. In the same predicament with the tuberiferous is the bulbous root (fig. 8). This consists of a thin, flat tubercle, called by cultivators of hyacinths the crown, from the lower part of which proceeds a fibrous root, while above there is a bulb or peculiar kind of bud, formed of a number of scales (as in the lily), or coats (as in the onion), closely applied to each other; such may rather be termed bulbiferous roots, the bulb being equivalent to a leaf-bud, and the crown to a stem.

With regard to direction, there are only two requiring any notice. The one is contorted, when bent upwards and downwards in a zig-zag manner, as may be seen in the bistort; the other is a creeping root. The usual direction for a root is towards the centre of the earth, but it sometimes happens that one or all of its parts deviate at a right angle from this, and proceed laterally parallel to the surface. When this takes place it is said to be creeping. Roots of this kind are said to be among the greatest enemies the agriculturist has to encounter; but they are in a measure harmless, much confusion prevailing between them and subterranean branches; and we would therefore warn the young botanist not to fall into the error. Indeed the number of creeping roots is much less than has been generally thought; for in most cases these will be found to be true branches springing off from the stem above the neck of the root, but afterwards developed under ground, and even from different points throwing out radical fibres. Among these is the couchgrass (Triticum repens), and the potato, the fibrous parts of which bearing the tubers are now ascertained to be branches, as might indeed have been long ago suspected, from the care found necessary by cultivators to be paid to the heaping up of the earth on the lower part of the stem, so as to increase the number of these branches, and render the crop more abundant. In some plants, as in Vicia amphicarpa, such branches or false roots bear pods under ground.

Stems (Caules).

Reverting to the germination of a seed, that part which springs upwards is the stem: it is therefore the interme-

diate body between the root and the leaves. When the Glossology first state of germination is observed, the rising stem is surrounded by rudimentary leaves. It is thus similar to Pl. CXII those gems or leaf-buds that are afterwards observed in the axillæ of all leaves, and which afterwards become branches; and it may therefore be stated in general terms, that all stems are produced by the successive developments of leaf-buds.

When the stem of a plant arising from a seed is evident, the plant is termed caulescent; and when not apparent, or scarcely so, the plants have received the names of acaules or subacaules. These last terms, however, must not be taken in a rigorous sense; for although a stem be sometimes extremely short, or even entirely under ground, it always exists. We may refer here to Gentiana acaulis, Carduus acaulis, and many others, said to have no stem, but which really have one so surrounded by the bases of the leaves, as to be overlooked until they be planted in a more genial soil, when the stem becomes more visible. We have already stated that the crown of what is called a bulbous root is the real stem;—and in the genus Cyclamen, what is usually considered a tuber is an actual stem, from the base of which fibrous roots are protruded, and from the top, leaves and flowers.

It often happens that the stem, instead of ascending, stretches, either wholly or in part, under ground or on the surface, emitting here and there roots from below, and branches or leaves which rise upwards. Such a stem is called a rhizoma (fig. 9), or, if it do not emit fibres, a cor-mus. Most of what Linnæus improperly described as creeping roots are of the former description: of these each rising branch may easily be separated, and becomes a new individual. The jointed roots or scaly roots of botanists are also subterranean stems; for the knots and scales are the rudiments of buds and leaves, which no true root possesses. Sometimes a plant pushes out horizontally long stems of a peculiar nature, emitting only from the extremity roots and leaf-buds, as in the strawberry. Such stems are termed stolones or runners.

Branches as well as stems arise from leaf-buds. Every leaf or modification of a leaf possesses these in their axillæ, or the angle formed by the leaf and the branch; and therefore all leafy stems must likewise be branched, and without any limit to the ramification, unless the leaf-bud has met with injury, or in peculiar circumstances has not been called into action. As leaf-buds are axillary, so branches are not elongated, strictly speaking, by means of leaf-buds, but by a prolongation of the axis of the original leaf-bud from which it arose. This distinction is, however, very subtle and unnecessary; for the terminal scaly bud, though only the undeveloped portion of a leaf-bud, is so similar to regular leaf-buds in the external as well as internal structure, that they cannot be distinguished but by their position. De Candolle indeed calls them all leaf-buds, and we ourselves feel inclined to admit the idea of a terminal leaf-bud; but, while we do so, we must add, that from the terminal being really only a portion of an axillary one, it must be viewed as a modification of the axillary; and therefore, although appearances be sometimes against us, we must again repeat that all leaf-buds are axillary. Spurious leaf-buds, or gemmæ as they are called, sometimes capable of producing branches and leaves, or even new individuals, are frequently scattered irregularly on the stem or branches, as, for example, on the elm, where they are abundant; but these must not be confounded with true leaf-buds. The leaf-buds, the development of which depends on the rise of the sap, have the outer or lower scales or leaves first expanded; and this same law ought to hold with regard also to their successive development. And such is the case in some trees. But the extremities of the branches

Glossology. being almost always more herbaceous than below, and more liable to be acted upon by atmospheric heat, the buds towards the summits are usually first evolved, and then, proceeding gradually downwards, those below them, so that the lowest buds are the last expanded.

The summit of branches or stems is usually green, soft, and herbaceous; and when the primary stems do not rise above the surface, but only the tender branches, that plant is termed herbaceous, in opposition to those with a perennial stem. An herbaceous stem generally dies down to the ground every year. A perennial stem may be succulent or fleshy, woody, shrubby, or somewhat shrubby; but these terms bear their own meaning. Linnaeus devised for expressing the duration of plants four very simple marks, which have been adopted by nearly all botanists. These are, $\backslash odot$, to denote annual; $\backslash delta$, biennial; and $\backslash gamma$, perennial; while $\backslash mathcal\{H\}$ indicates a shrub or tree. De Candolle, however, has somewhat changed these and added others. He adopts four principal signs, $\backslash odot$, $\backslash gamma$, $\backslash delta$, and $\backslash omega$. The first relates to a plant called monocarpic, or which flowers and fructifies only once; the second denotes a rhizocarpic plant, which has herbaceous stems that die down to the ground every year; the third applies to a caulocarpic one, whose stems are straight and perennial; and the last marks a climbing plant. The first, third, and fourth of these, being indefinite, are divisible into several others: Thus, $\backslash odot$, shows the life of the plant is only for one year; $\backslash odot$, for two years; $\backslash odot$, that it is many years before it flowers, but after which it dies. Again, $\backslash delta$, indicates a suffruticose plant, or one that though shrubby does not elevate itself more than a foot or two; $\backslash delta$, denotes a shrub of from two to ten feet high, in which the branches arise from the base of the stem; $\backslash delta$, marks a small tree of from ten to twenty-five feet high, and whose trunk is without branches at the base; and $\backslash delta$, is a decided tree upwards of twenty-five feet. As to the symbol for climbing, $\backslash mathcal\{C\}$ marks a plant that climbs to the right, and $\backslash mathcal\{D\}$ one that climbs to the left. To these the same botanist has added $\backslash Delta$, to point out an evergreen.¹

On examining the trunk or branch of an ash or oak tree, we perceive in the centre a mass of spongy cellular tissue,² called pith. Around this, and inside of the wood, are placed a series of spiral vessels and ducts, constituting the medullary sheath. This communicates on the one side with the pith, and on the other with the medullary rays, leaf-buds, and veins of the leaves. Next we find the wood, consisting of concentric layers, one of which is formed every year. These layers are composed of cellular tissue, woody fibre, and ducts, and are traversed by the medullary rays composed of cellular tissue, and connecting the centre with the circumference. The fully formed or central layers are called the heart-wood, and the exterior the alburnum. The bark surrounds the wood. This may be seen to have the same number of concentric layers as the wood, but of these the hardest or most fully formed is exterior, and the youngest interior. The liber is that portion of the bark which is successively formed next the wood. Each concentric layer, whether of wood or bark, consists of two strata, the one of woody fibre and ducts, the other

of cellular tissue, of which the latter in the wood is interior, and in the bark exterior; so that wood and bark may be viewed as similarly constituted of woody fibre and pith; which last, however, in the bark, is on the outside. Betwixt the liber and alburnum is formed in spring a viscid secretion called cambium. The matter which causes such plants to increase in diameter has been found by experiment to descend; but the investigation of this subject belongs more to vegetable anatomy and physiology. Suffice it to say, that such an appearance as we have above described takes place in a very great proportion of vegetables; and from the circumstance of their receiving the annual increase between the outside of the old wood and inside of the old bark, some botanists have termed such plants Exogenous (Exogena). There are other plants, however, in which no such distinctions exist, and where the stem is formed of bundles of ducts and spiral vessels interspersed through a cellular tissue; and this is surrounded by a stratum of cellular tissue and woody fibre, different from bark, inasmuch as it cannot be separated from the stem itself. Such plants have their diameter increased by the addition of central vascular tissue and ducts, and are therefore called Endogenous (Endogena). Both Exogena and Endogena containing spiral vessels, are called vascular, in opposition to another division of vegetables, the cellular (cellulares), in which they do not exist; but as these plants do not spring from seeds, we shall pass them over at present.

Occasionally, projections from the medullary sheath reach the circumference of the stem and branches, forming what are called nodi, to which are attached leaves and leaf-buds; and the spaces between these nodi are called internodia. The tuber of the potato seems to be a collection of these nodi and leaf-buds (there called eyes), the leaves being abortive from the tubers being formed under ground.

The stem peculiar to the grasses and other allied tribes is termed a culm (culmus). This is simple, or rarely branched, generally hollow within or fistulose, and separated at intervals by knots or partitions, from which issue the leaves.

The stem may be simple or branched, and with the branches may be cylindrical or conical; round (teres) or angled; smooth (lavis), furrowed, glabrous (free from any processes), or rough, or pubescent, or hairy. These terms, bearing the same signification in botany as in common language, need no definition. Among Endogenous plants, from the abortion of leaf-buds, the stems are usually cylindrical and unbranched; while, from the leaf-buds being almost always developed in the Exogena, the stems are generally branched and conical.

Belonging to the stem we may take notice of two processes. The one is a spine (spina), which always arises from what was a leaf-bud; it is therefore a kind of branch, and must not be confounded with the other process, or prickle (aculeus), which does not spring from leaf-buds, and is a mere dilatation of the cellular portion of the bark.

Leaves (Folia).

Leaves are those expansions which issue laterally from the stem and branches of plants. They take their origin

¹ The Linnaean character $\backslash delta$ has been employed by De Candolle to mark a flower or a plant that bears stamens and no pistils; and, to correspond with it, he has recommended the adoption of $\backslash mathcal\{F\}$ for a plant with pistilla and no stamens; $\backslash mathcal\{M\}$, according to him, designates a plant which has flowers containing both.

² To save our readers the trouble of referring at every step to the article on VEGETABLE ANATOMY, we shall give here an explanation of the principal elementary organs:

1. 1. Cellular tissue, or parenchyma, is composed of transparent vesicles, variously cohering with each other.
2. 2. Woody fibre is a tissue consisting of elongated tubes, similar to the vesicles of cellular tissue, and is therefore often also called elongated cellular tissue.
3. 3. Spiral vessels are formed of elastic tissue, twisted spirally into the form of a cylinder, and capable of being unrolled. To these alone the name vessels (vasa) ought to be given; and hence they are always to be found in the vascular tissue of plants properly so called.
4. 4. Ducts are elongated, transparent tubes, composed of a tissue that is not capable of unrolling.

Glossology.—from the bark, and are always to be observed, either in a rudimentary or perfect state, immediately below the leaf-buds. They are originally continuous with the stem and nodi, but afterwards, from a cause that does not appear to be yet well understood, an articulation more or less complete takes place, when the leaf falls off. Very few instances occur where there are no leaves on the stem, as in the genera Orobanche, Lathraea, and Cuscuta, and even then there are rudimentary leaves in the shape of scales or tubercles.

Position of the leaves.—The first thing we have to attend to is the position of the leaves. Those situated near the root are often larger, and of a different shape, from those higher up the stem; and the former are termed radical, the latter cauline leaves. We usually observe, that as these approach the extremity of the branches which bear the flower, they decrease much in size, assume a different form and colour, and are termed floral leaves or bractes. Of these we shall afterwards have occasion to speak, when we come to the inflorescence of plants.

When the stem or branch is cut through, several leaves are sometimes found in the same horizontal plane. When only two are observed, and these opposite to each other, they are usually said to be opposite. It has, however, been lately proposed to term opposite those only, the bases of whose petioles are connected either by stipules or otherwise, reserving to the others the appellation of pseudo-opposite; but this distinction has been hitherto adopted by almost no systematic writer. When more than two are in the same plane, they are said to be in whorls, or verticillate; but, strictly speaking, such are of very rare occurrence; Hippuris and Myriophyllum may however serve as examples. But it is improper to apply this term to the leaves of the genus Galium, in which the two opposite leaves alone bear axillary leaf-buds, the others being mere foliaceous stipules.

When the branch is cut through horizontally, and only one leaf appears in the section, the leaves were said by Linnaeus to be scattered (sparsa), or alternate, with little discrimination. More modern botanists have, however, observed that these are primarily arranged regularly; but afterwards so many disturbing causes occur as to render their true disposition scarcely perceptible. By true alternate leaves ought to be understood those only which are placed on two sides of the branch, in such a way that the third leaf is under the first, and the fourth under the second; and when such are close together they are said to be distichous. But leaves are usually placed in simple spirals, in such a way that the sixth is under the first, the seventh under the second, and so on. There are also instances where the spiral is formed of more than five leaves, and hence there may be double, triple, quintuple, or sextuple spirals. The practice, however, still prevails of calling all such alternate in which the spiral is not very evident.

Of these two systems the type of the verticillate is the opposite, while that of the spiral is the alternate; and cases even happen where the one of these seems almost to pass into the other. Thus, in Exogenous plants, although the leaves may be opposite to each other on the lower part of the plant, they often assume the spiral direction above; and, in the Endogenæ, although the lower leaves be in a spiral, the upper ones are sometimes verticillate. This induced Desfontaines to institute a close analysis, by which he discovered a remarkable relation between the structure of the stem, the number of cotyledons, and the disposition of the leaves, from which we are now enabled to derive a general law, that in all Dicotyledonous or Exogenous vegetables, the leaves are primarily opposite, or verticillate, but may become alternate, or form a spiral, according to the mode of growth of the plant; and that in all the Monocotyledonous, or Endogenæ, the reverse happens, the

leaves being primarily alternate, or in a spiral, but afterwards subject to be more or less exactly opposite. Thus, in the position of the leaves we have an auxiliary to enable us to determine to which of these two great classes of vegetables a plant belongs.

Some botanists add to the above fascicled leaves (folia fasciculata); but these are combinations of which both systems are susceptible. Thus, in Aspalathus, where the three leaflets appear to arise from one point, this is a deception caused by the shortness of the petiole. Another case commonly quoted is, when the leaf becomes abortive at the same time that a very short branch furnished with leaves appears from the leaf-bud. Thus, in the barberry, the thorn is the rudiment of the real leaf; and what we call leaves are new leaves placed close together on a very short branch, and belonging to the leaf-bud. In the pine tribe the sheath is the rudiment of the leaf; while the two, three, or five leaves within it are the first leaves of an abortive branch. The cedar exhibits and explains this very easily; for in the early part of spring, the leaves are fasciculated; but in summer, when the leaf-buds or axillary branches have time to elongate, the leaves become alternate.

A leaf consists of the petiole, the lamina or limb, and a pair of stipules; but sometimes only one of these three parts can be observed. The petiole is that which connects the lamina with the stem, and through it the bundles of ducts and spiral vessels pass before they branch out in the limb. Its form is usually cylindrical or slightly channelled above; but it sometimes happens that it is flattened, and presents on each side a foliaceous appendage, when it is said to be margined, as in Dionaea muscipula (fig. 41, b). This margin is frequently contracted at regular intervals; and from each contraction in a compound leaf springs a leaflet. We often find, however, that the leaflets are abortive, in which case the petiole may easily be mistaken for the lamina; and this is indeed what is called by some a lomentaceous leaf. But more commonly a terminal leaflet remains, although the others be abortive, as we see in the orange tree; and to distinguish the two kinds we must be much guided by analogy. This confusion is however of little consequence; for as we may regard the longitudinal nerve of the leaf as a prolongation of the petiole, the limb or lamina itself may be viewed as a margined petiole.

The fibres that pass through the petiole, and which in Exogenous plants arise from the medullary sheath, and in the Endogenous from the bundles of vascular tissue, sometimes in the former class, instead of being united from the base into a compact bundle, as more commonly happens, spring side by side from various points more or less round the branch. The base of the petiole is thus plane, and is amplexicaul or semi-amplexicaul, or perhaps even sheathing (exiginans). Before the fibres enter the lamina, however, they tend to one point, so that the upper portion does not differ from a common petiole with a rounded base. This expansion of the base of the petiole is to be seen in a remarkable manner in the upper leaves of Bupleurum perfoliatum and some others, where it has all the appearance of a foliaceous limb.

Towards the summit of the stems of the Umbellifera, the lamina and the cylindrical part of the petiole frequently disappear, nothing remaining but the sheathing base. In Lathyrus Nissolia this happens to all the leaves, and there the sheathing base becomes more dilated than usual. The affinity derived from other considerations between Pyrola and Monotropa shows that the scales of the latter are petiolar sheaths, and in the Orobanche tribe they must be viewed in the same manner.

It happens sometimes, especially when the lamina is not developed, that the petiole, without being sheathing

Glossology. at the base, expands throughout its whole length, and takes a state intermediate between foliaceous and petiolate. Pl. CXII. This has received the name of phyllodium; as in many species of Acacia from New Holland, some of which when young present a slender petiole and a bipinnate leaf, but afterwards lose their leaflets by the dilatation of the petiole.

Sometimes the petiole is elongated beyond the lamina, or perhaps in compound leaves the terminal leaflet may have no lamina but only the midrib, while the petiole or midrib retains its usual cylindrical figure, becomes very long, twists spirally, and then constitutes a tendril (cirrhus) (fig. 37, a). In others, though rarely, the leaves are abortive, and the petiole remains straight and cylindrical. In some plants with compound leaves, as in Astragalus Tragacantha, the terminal leaflet becomes abortive or is changed into a spine, when the petiole is said to be spinescent.

Lamina. The lamina of the leaf next claims our attention. This is an expansion of the parenchyma of the petiole, and commences where the bundles of vascular tissue that traverse the petiole begin to diverge from each other and form what are called the veins of the leaf. The divergence of these fibres, says De Candolle, is in two different ways. They either separate, making with the base or its prolongation an angle properly so called, and most frequently an acute one, when the leaves may be said to be angulinerved; or they form on the base or its prolongation a curvature, when the leaves may be termed curvinerved. The former structure is essential to the Exogenous, the latter to the Endogenous. Among those, the nerves of which form an angle, there are four forms.

1. Leaves penninerved (fig. 14), where the petiole is prolonged into one longitudinal nerve, which on both sides sets out lateral nerves, as in the Spanish chestnut. In a linear leaf these lateral nerves must be all equal in length; in an elliptic, oval; or orbicular leaf, those about the middle must be longer than those at the base or summit of the leaf; in an ovate one, the longer nerves are below the middle; in an obovate leaf, above the middle. When the lower pair or two lower pairs of nerves are much larger than the others, and almost the size of the midrib, as in the Jerusalem artichoke, the leaves are said to be tripinnerved or quintuplinerved.

2. Leaves palminerved (fig. 10), where several nerves diverge all at once from the base of the leaf.

3. Leaves peltinerved (fig. 11), where several nerves radiate from the apex of the petiole in a plane different from the direction of the petiole. It results from this disposition that the lamina does not appear at first to be a prolongation of the petiole, but rather a disc placed at its summit. It is evident, when the point of attachment is near the margin of the lamina, that we should have almost a palminerved leaf; indeed in some plants these two forms occur promiscuously.

4. Leaves pedalinerved, where the central nerve is very short, but setting off on both sides two strong diverging lateral nerves, which, instead of being branched alike on both sides, present almost no lateral nerves on the outer side; whilst, in the inside, secondary nerves spring out almost parallel to each other. This form is of rare occurrence, but may be seen in some passion-flowers.

The curvinerved leaves may either have their nerves converging or diverging; but these require little illustration.

In Exogenous plants the veins branch in various directions, anastomosing, and forming a kind of net-work. In Endogenous plants they are nearly parallel to each other, being connected by single transverse unbranched veins.

To this the Conifera and Cycadea form perhaps the only exceptions: these have the stems of the Exogenous, but the same arrangement of the veins as in the Endogenous. Pl. CXII.

The veins of some leaves are capable of producing from their extremities gemmæ similar to those we have described as occurring on the stem and branches. These gemmæ usually arise from the margin; but as the vein must be open, or have a stoma, as it is anatomically called, at the point of insertion; and as such stomata, though frequent on the under side, have been rarely observed on the upper surface; so the gemmæ are seldom or never produced on the upper side.

A leaf is either simple or compound. It is simple when its lamina is entire (folium integrum), or when, if separated into several divisions, these segments are not articulated with the petiole. The position and ramification of the nerves have great influence in determining the shape of the leaf. Of those that are entire, the simplest of all forms is the linear (fig. 12), where the margins are parallel. By the central position of such a one being slightly dilated, we have an oblong; when more dilated, an elliptical leaf (fig. 13); and when much so, an orbicular one. When the dilatation is below the middle, we have an ovate (fig. 14); when above the middle, an obovate leaf (fig. 15). When the oblong tapers gradually into a point at the apex, it becomes lanceolate (fig. 16). If a leaf be very narrow, and taper upwards from its base, it is subulate (fig. 17); and when long, narrow, stiff, and sharp, it is said to be acicular or setaceous (fig. 18); when narrow and very slender, it is filiform. When an elliptical leaf tapers much below, so as to be narrow at the base, and broad and rounded at the summit, it becomes spathulate (fig. 19); and when narrow at the base, and truncated or somewhat squared off at the top, it is cuneiform. Such are the principal forms. When almost any of these are produced at the base, so as to have two lobes on each side of the petiole, they are said to be cordate or heart-shaped (fig. 20 and 21) when the lobes are rounded; sagittate (fig. 22) when acute and scarcely diverging; and hastate (fig. 23) when acute and diverging much outwards. When an orbicular leaf becomes cordate at the base, it is called reniform (fig. 24).

Leaves, or rather the lamina of leaves, are either sharp-pointed or acute, pungent, mucronate, or acuminated, or they are blunt (folia obtusa), (fig. 15, 24); when such a leaf has a small sinus at the apex, it is retuse (fig. 25); when the sinus is deeper, as if a piece had been cut out, it is emarginate (fig. 26); and when still more so, obcordate; till by degrees we have bifid, two-lobed (folia biloba) (fig. 27), and bipartite. What is called the appendage (fig. 41, a) in Dionaea muscipula is a two-lobed lamina. From the gradual transition of one form into another, botanists might long ago have learned the little importance to be attached to any individual shape; unhappily, however, for science, species have too often been multiplied on such weak grounds. In studying the phytographical department, we would recommend, that either in describing, or endeavouring to understand a description, each form should be taken with a considerable latitude of meaning, and as subject to vary into the others on either side.

A divided leaf may be clef (folia trifida, quadrifida, &c.), or, if the divisions be deeper, it is lobed (folia triloba, &c.), and, when deeply cut, partite (folia tripartita, &c.); but when the divisions are deep and unequal, the leaf is laciniated (fig. 28). When a leaf is rounded at both extremities, but contracted in the middle, it is panduriform (fig. 29) or violin-shaped; and when there are more than

The terms ovate and obovate, although generally adopted, are incorrect; they ought to be oval and oboval. A truly ovate leaf refers to thickness as well as surface. It has indeed the shape of an egg, and oval is the longitudinal section of such.

Glossology. one contraction on each side, as in the oak, it is sinuated (fig. 30). When a leaf is divided laterally into lobes more or less deep, it is pinnatifid (fig. 31); when these lobes are very narrow and nearly parallel, it is pectinate; when the lateral lobes are acute and recurved, it is runcinate (fig. 32); when the terminal lobe of a pinnatifid leaf is round and larger than the others, the leaf is lyrate (fig. 33); when a leaf is so deeply divided laterally that the lobes are only connected at their base, it is pinnatipartite; and when the lobes are completely isolated, it is pinnatisect (fig. 34). Linnaeus, as well as many modern botanists of eminence, called the last pinnate, and referred it to a compound leaf; but the transition from the entire leaf to the pinnatisect shows distinctly that the latter is but a simple leaf, of which all the parenchyma has not been developed.

A divided leaf may have its lobes again divided, when it is said to be bi or tri-pinnatifid, &c.

A compound leaf is when the lamina is articulated with the petiole. It is either digitate or pinnate. Leaves are digitate (fig. 35) when all the leaflets start from the same point at the apex of the petiole, as in the lupines; in the orange there is but one leaflet; in other plants three, four, or more. Leaves are pinnate when the leaflets spring out laterally from the common petiole, and are oppositely (fig. 36) or alternately pinnate, according as these leaflets are opposite to or alternate with each other; and are imparipinnate (fig. 36) or paripinnate when there is, or is not, a terminal leaflet. When there is but one, two, or three pairs of leaflets, the leaf is said to be unijugate (folium unijugum), bijugate, trijugate (fig. 37), &c. A decompound leaf is where the common petiole is divided into secondary petioles, each of which bears a foliole or leaflet. Of these, when the secondary petioles all spring from the apex of the common petiole, the leaf is digitato-pinnate; or when there are only two secondary petioles, conjugato-pinnate (fig. 38). When each of the secondary petioles bears only one pair of leaflets, the leaf is bigeminate (fig. 39); and when the secondary petioles spring out as leaflets do in a pinnate leaf, but are themselves pinnate, the leaf is bipinnate (fig. 40). Decomposed leaves may be again divided, when they are called supradecomposed (folia supradecomposita).

The margin of the divisions of a simple or compound leaf is variously modified. It may be very entire (integerrimum) or crenulate, when furnished with little projecting points; or dentated, when the margin presents small radiating acute teeth, that neither incline to the bottom nor to the apex of the leaf (fig. 21); or serrated (fig. 14), when the teeth are inclined; or thorny, when the teeth are narrow, stiff, and sharp (as in the holly); or ciliated, when there is a series of hairs along the edge, like a person's eye-lashes.

With regard to the expansion, surface, pubescence, consistence, form (we do not mean by this the superficial shape, but the shape as a mass, of which the other is but a section), and colour, it is unnecessary to say any thing, having restricted ourselves to a more general view of the subject.

Leaves unite very easily either with each other or with the stem. When two have their margins close together at the time of their development, they often unite quite accidentally; but there are some plants in which such a union is not accidental, but constant. In the honeysuckle a transition may be observed from the leaves perfectly distinct, to those that are joined by their bases. The genus Bauhinia presents many instances of leaves being united by their edges: a palmnerved leaf may thus be viewed as composed of several penninerved leaves soldered partly together. When leaves unite to the stem they are termed decurrent; and this may be either caused by the middle

nerve coalescing with the stem, as in the floral leaves of Glossology the lime tree, or by the adherence merely of a prolongation of the parenchyma of the leaf. PL. CXII.

Some botanists speak of an appendiculate leaf, in which there ought to be an extraneous body attached to it; but the more the structure of the different parts is studied, the fewer instances are to be recorded. Thus a cirrhous or tendril is usually an abortive leaflet, or petiole, or stipule. The supposed appendage of Dionaea muscipula (fig. 41, a) is the real lamina of the leaf, while the supposed leaf is the petiole (fig. 41, b). The pitcher of Nepenthes (fig. 42, a) is also now regarded as the leaf; and the lower portion (fig. 42, c) the petiole, which is partly margined. This plant, however, is scarcely yet completely understood; probably the lid (fig. 42, b) to the pitcher alone is the limb of the leaf; while the petiole at first consisting (as in the lower leaves (fig. 43, 44) that arise from the plumule on germination) of a mere pitcher, afterwards elongates (fig. 42, c, a) into a margined portion, a cirrhous, and a pitcher. In Sarracenia, said also to have a pitcher-shaped leaf, the petiole forms a hollow sheath with the lamina or lid at its apex.

Stipules (fig. 37, b) are those small foliaceous organs sometimes situated on each side at the base of the petiole. They never occur in the Endogenous, nor in any Exogenous plants that have sheathing petioles, and are rarely found in genera with opposite leaves. Their presence or absence seems to be eminently connected with the general symmetry of plants, for they exist or are wanting in all of the same family. They have frequently the same structure, and are often transformed into leaves; even leaf-buds have been observed in the axils of some of them, so that they may be viewed as rudimentary leaves. Stipules sometimes change into spines; but the spines in Acacia are not stipules, but prolongations of a swelling of the stem under the leaf, which serves it as a kind of support. This is evident from there being frequently real stipules independent of the spines; but usually, when the spines are formed, the stipules above them are abortive. Stipules seem occasionally to change into tendrils, and this is the most probable explanation of the lateral tendrils of the gourd and cucumber tribe. They are in general smaller than the leaves; but in Lathyrus aphaca they are remarkably large, while the leaves are entirely abortive. Those at the base of the same petiole are not always alike; one of them even in some plants becoming abortive, while the other persists. Stipules that are situated between the petiole and the branch are intrapetiolar; and, in the case of opposite leaves, when they are between the two opposite petioles, they are interpetiolar, or intrafoliaceous. Stipules sometimes unite together, and when so, if they form a sheath round the stem, they are called ochrea; and if the union take place between the petiole and the stem they are termed intra-axillary. They also often adhere to the petiole by their margins, and then one must use the greatest caution not to confound with them the cellular appendages of the petiole itself.

Leaves arise on the young shoots, or already exist more or less developed when the shoot begins to appear. At this period the external leaves frequently take the appearance of scales, and serve as a protection to the others. The compact mode in which the young leaves are arranged before expansion is called the vernation or gemmation, and is determined by different causes, viz. their position on the stem and mode of adherence, the disposition of the principal nerves, and the different degrees of separation or union of the parts. All the appearances resulting from these may be reduced to three classes: 1st, They are folded or rolled longitudinally on the midrib, which remains straight; or, 2d, they are folded or curved,

Glossology, so that the summit touches the base; or, 3d, they are neither curved nor folded in a sensible degree.

PL. CXII. The usual state of Exogenous plants is to have the leaves so folded that the two parts of the lamina on each side the midrib are applied to each other by their upper surface; but this is much modified by other circumstances. Thus, when two penninerved leaves are strictly opposite, and another pair at right angles to these, they are only half folded, in such a way as to inclose the inner pair; and such a vernation is termed opposite (fig. 45). When less decidedly opposite, one of the sides of each leaf is exterior and the other interior (fig. 46), and then the vernation is half-equitant (semiamplexa); and when the leaves are alternate or spiral, they are each of them folded by themselves, and placed side by side, when it is called conduplicate (fig. 47.) Palminerved leaves being considered as composed of several penninerved ones united by their margins for some part of their length, each of the divisions has a tendency to be folded, exhibiting a plicate vernation (fig. 48). The leaflets of palmate leaves present of course the same disposition. Some penninerved leaves, although folded together, have the margins rolled outwards, as in the rosemary, and the vernation is revolute (fig. 49); or they may be rolled in, as in the water-lily, and it is involute (fig. 50). These latter peculiarities are very rare among the Exogenæ, but common among the Endogenæ. When the young leaves are so narrow that they are not folded, but cover each other without any apparent order, they are said to be imbricated. Such plants as have a petiole that embraces the stem for some length (which chiefly happens among the Endogenæ) present a slightly different disposition. Here most of the leaves are reduced to a dilated petiole, and are simply curved and imbricated the one over the other, as in the coats of what are erroneously called bulbous roots (fig. 8); but there are other plants with a sheathing petiole, that show an inclination to a longitudinally-folded leaf (as in the Iris) as much as if they had a midrib, and the vernation is equitant (fig. 51); so called because, as they are alternate, each of them rides upon or embraces by its two margins the two margins of the leaf that follows it. Another disposition, but almost peculiar to the Endogenæ, is the convolute (fig. 52), as in the scitamineæ, where the limb is rolled round one of its margins on an axis. The vernation is termed replicate when the leaf is so folded that the upper part is applied to the lower, as in the aconite; and careinal when, instead of being folded, it is rolled in such a way that the apex serves as an axis; which last curious structure may be observed in the genus Drosera, and in the Cycadeæ.

CELLULAR PLANTS.

The observations hitherto made relate almost exclusively to Vascular plants, the terms relating to the external forms of which alone can be applied also to the Cellular vegetables; so that, before proceeding to the reproductive organs, we may devote a few lines to such as come under the latter denomination. And here we must draw a line between such as are furnished with ducts in addition to mere cellular tissue, and those in which we find an entire homogeneousness of structure; and, for the sake of distinction, we shall call the former ductulose, and the latter educutulose.

Ductulose.

All belonging to this section, on account of the presence of ducts, and in some instances apparently of stems, more than one author of eminence has classed with vascular plants; but there are no spiral vessels present, and although it is often difficult to distinguish between spiral

vessels and ducts, we prefer to make the characters of the Glossology. two great classes of vegetables depend on the presence or absence of the former, rather than of the latter; the more so because we feel convinced, that, with the aid of spiral vessels, and not without them, can true seeds be produced. As ducts are always to be observed in roots, even in the most fibrous, so there is a presumption that true roots exist in all the ductulose. As, however, no spiral vessels occur above the root, there can be no collum or line of separation between stem and root, and therefore the whole plant may be viewed as one uniform body, every section presenting the same structure. On account of the appearance of stems, the ductulose may be said to have an axis.

1. The Equisetaceæ must first be noticed. These have Equisetite little or no resemblance to the other ductulose, and almost as little to the vascular plants. Their nearest affinity is perhaps with the genus Casuarina (one of the Exogenæ). Their vernation is straight. They have no true leaves, but a furrowed fistular stem, in which, under the cuticle or external membranous coating, so much silex is deposited as to render some of the species of great use in polishing furniture and other household utensils. The stem is moreover articulated, separating at the joints, each articulation being surrounded by a prolongation of the joint below it in the shape of a membranous toothed sheath; the number of the teeth, if not combined, corresponding with the number of the furrows on the stem. The stem is either simple, or has branches articulated like the stem, placed in whorls at their articulations, each whorl consisting of as many branches as there are teeth to the sheath.

2. The Filices or ferns seem to approach very closely to Filices. some of the Endogenæ, particularly to the palms, in general habit, and also slightly to the Cycadeæ, which form part of the Exogenæ; but if our ideas be correct, the affinities that have been traced between them have been much exaggerated.

In our estimation, an entire fern corresponds only to a leaf among the vascular plants; and that part which has been called a stem or rhizoma under ground, or a stipes or caudex when erect and above ground, as in the tree ferns, is, we think, analogous to a mere petiole. Each leafy expansion has been termed a frond, without sufficient attention having been paid to its origin. But a frond whose stipes pushes out radicular fibres from its base, is, we think, similar to a simple leaf; while those species whose frond is attached to a rhizoma or caudex resembles a pinnate leaf. Thus the ferns do not resemble vascular plants, but only a portion of one. The vernation of all, with the exception of Ophioglossum and its allies, is circinate like the Cycadeæ; but instead of being rolled inwards, it is rolled outwards, unlike any vascular plant that we remember. As, however, the views here announced have not hitherto been adopted by any botanist, we may, in reference to the terms more generally in use, mention, that every leafy portion which rises above ground is termed a frond, and its stalk or support a stipes. The creeping part under ground or on the surface is termed a rhizoma, and when erect and like the trunk of a tree, a caudex. The stipes is flattish or concave on the side corresponding with the upper surface of the frond, and convex on the other. It is glabrous, or rough, or prickly, or scaly (paleaceus), or dorony (pubescens), as in vascular plants. The frond is said to be simple, or lobed, or pinnatifid, or pinnatipartite, as in a true leaf. It is even called pinnate when there is no membranous connection between the divisions, although there be no articulation at the base of each. In substance also it may vary from rigid and coriaceous to thin and membranous.

3. Marsiliaceæ. These are either creeping or floating Marsiliaceæ.

Glossology. plants; the former have petioles to what are called their leaves, with a circinate vernation like the ferns. The supposed leaves are of a coriaceous texture, and either consist of three or more wedge-shaped divisions, and are conduplicate when young; or they are entirely abortive, leaving nothing but the petiole, as in Pilularia. Those, again, which float have the leaves closely imbricated and sessile, and resemble the Hepaticæ, and appear to be involute, or folded together in vernation.

4. Lycopodiaceæ are seemingly intermediate between the ferns and mosses with which they were formerly confounded. They have either creeping stems or a cormus, with erect branches, which are either round or angled, and provided with leaves. The leaves vary from scutaceous to ovate, are acute, undivided (with only one exception), smooth, and of a thick texture, resembling often in a slight degree those of the pine tribe. In several, however, they are plain and foliaceous; sometimes they are closely imbricated round the stem, or they appear distichous, with generally two other rows of smaller ones, that are appressed, and may be taken for stipules. They have either a middle nerve or none at all. In one genus, the leaves are reduced to mere scattered teeth, and in another they are all radical, long, subulate, channelled above, and convex below. Their vernation is straight. They are usually found on mossy ground, sometimes on trees, rarely in or under water.

Eductulose.

These are entirely composed of cellular tissue, so that here we find as much uniformity in their internal structure as diversity in the other classes of vegetables; but, by a strange compensation, their external forms are even more varied than in the higher organised plants.

The entire mass of these vegetables appears to be composed of one substance, which takes different shapes, destined to fill different functions, without actually constituting distinct organs. Persoon, in speaking of the mushroom, has named the whole portion that does not serve for the reproduction of the species a peridium; Acharius has called it a thallus in the lichens; and Lamaroux, frons or front in the algae. De Candolle, again, is disposed to apply the term thallus generically to all the nutritive organs combined in the true cellular plants, at least to those of the algae, fungi, lichens, and hepaticæ; and it would be well if botanists, who have made these tribes their study, had agreed to drop entirely the terms leaves, stem, or roots, which have no real affinity with those of vascular plants, and can be only applied metaphorically. But as they are generally retained in some of these orders, we will continue also to employ them.

5. The Musci or mosses have most affinity with the ductulose, and approach very closely indeed to some of the lycopodiaceæ. What are called their roots consist of slender fibres of a brownish colour, more or less branched and jointed, which spring either from the base of the stem, as in Phascum, or along it, as in several species of Bryum, in which great part of the stem is sometimes covered with these radicular fibres. The stem is cylindrical, but is said to be compressed, plane, or tetragonal, according to the disposition of the leaves. It is often very short and simple, especially when the plant is annual, but is sometimes branched, either by pushing out roots near the base, or by emitting lateral or terminal branches, each of which denotes usually a year's growth, and they are thus called by Hedwig innovations. The leaves arise from the stems, being sometimes collected together at the base, sometimes

at the apex, and sometimes alternate or in a spiral: they Glossology. are sessile, and embrace the stem at their base; and they have the appearance of oval or elongated scales, rarely obtuse, generally pointed or acuminate, and the point is not unfrequently prolonged into a long hair, or twisted like a cirrhus or tendril. Only one instance is yet known where the hair-like point is branched. They are usually entire, but in Diphyseum and Buxbaumia they are laciniate. Some leaves are deprived of all appearance of a nerve, and are entirely formed of a homogeneous cellular tissue; others present in the middle a nerve variable in length; others again two nerves; and these nerves are formed of cells, which by their union imitate the nerves of vascular leaves. The margin is either entire, crenated, toothed, or serrated; and the serratures are sometimes so fine as to cause it to be called ciliated; but these appearances are not occasioned, as in vascular plants, by (as it were) an incision into the leaf, but arise from a mere contraction of the marginal cells, more or less evident in the same species, and even specimen, in different states of its growth. The leaves, as we have said, embrace the stem, but sometimes in so very oblique a manner as to form two opposite vertical rows, and thus appear distichous, as in Schistostega pennata. But this must not be confounded with the structure in that section of Dicranum called Fissidens, in which the leaf is slightly folded, and the upper portion on each side of the nerve soldered closely together, while the nerve itself is prolonged at the back into an appendage equal to the half of the leaf. Some botanists seem inclined to suppose that these leaves, resembling those of an Iris, may be formed by the partial soldering of two closely approximated and obliquely placed leaves; but we are borne out in our view by an examination of the young leaves, either at the very base of the stems, or at the perichætum, in which they are as in other mosses, the nerve not being yet provided with its appendage.¹

6. The Hepaticæ resemble much the mosses, and most Hepaticæ. of all the genus Jungermannia. But here there is no trace of nerves; and at the base of the leaves are often to be found leafy appendages or accessory leaves, falsely called stipules, sometimes united by the side to the leaf, and sometimes distinct from it. There are some species of this genus without these appendages, having the leaves vertical, scarcely at all embracing the stem, but having their margins prolonged down its side, so that the stem resembles a petiole furnished with distichous segments. When these segments are united by the edges on each side, we have a foliaceous limb, and such species are called frondose, the midrib corresponding to what is termed the stem in the others. Sometimes this midrib is obscure, as in Jung. epiphylla; in Jung. pinguia it cannot be traced, so that we may pass to the genera Anthoceras, Marchantia, and Riccia, in which we see only a nerveless foliaceous disc, representing both stem and leaves; pushing out from below, the roots; and from above, the organs of fructification. From the supposed existence of a stem and leaves, both musci and hepaticæ are said to have an axis.

7. The Algae are principally found in water, and consist of expansions, sometimes filiform, sometimes foliaceous, or a mixture of these. Their perfect homogeneousness has been acknowledged by all who have studied them, and thus the appellations of frond or thallus has been given to the whole mass of the plant. They present different degrees of consistence; some being coriaceous and of an olive colour, others cartilaginous and of a rose colour; some membranaceous, and others gelatinous. The

¹ Arnott, Nouv. Disp. des Mousses, p. 27.

Glossology. large species, in particular, so subject to be tossed about by the violent motion of the waves of the sea, are furnished with a small flat base called a callous disc, by which they are fixed to the rocks; and others are provided for the same purpose with short, blunt, and often thick, root-like processes. The foliaceous part of the algae is often traversed with veins similar in appearance to the nerves in true leaves; but these are merely composed of elongated cellular tissue; while other species are entirely destitute of them. The cells of this tribe are variously approximated in the same plant; and hence we have frequently a sort of bark, distinct as it were from the central portion: sometimes they are arranged so that one cell constitutes the whole thickness of the frond, which thus becomes very thin and membranous; in other cases they are placed end to end, forming threads, as in the Conferva. These threads are moreover usually furnished with dissepiments or partitions at nearly equal distances, bearing a pretty constant proportion to the diameter of the thread. The genus Hydrodictyon presents a remarkable structure: the frond is composed of numerous pentagons, each of the five sides of which are confervoid threads, that in maturity separate from each other, and give rise to plants similar to that of which they formed a part. Chara is supposed to have an axis, the other algae none; but some species of the fuci and confervoid tribes present as much an axis as the other.

Lichens. 8. Among the Lichens the variety of form is still greater. Some present plane foliaceous expansions, as in the hepaticæ; others are of a substance quite gelatinous, as in some Algae. Some have cylindrical stems, more or less branched, of which several are provided with small, plane, leaf-like processes; in other species all these different forms are reduced to so small dimensions that the whole thallus, or nutritive organs of the plant, consists of a mere crust, composed either of foliaceous scales, of small stems compactly placed together, or of a granular or pulverulent matter. The surface presents also much variation: sometimes it is quite smooth; sometimes provided with hairs or ciliae of different kinds; and sometimes it pushes out fibres, which serve to fix the plant. In many species the thallus, without the intervention of any fibres or roots, is so cemented to the rock or tree on which it grows, that it cannot be detached. In the flat species the two surfaces are very dissimilar, both in colour and structure. But lichens even appear to consist of two distinct layers of tissue. Of these the interior, which Eschweiller has termed the living or medullary portion of the thallus, is imperfectly cellular or filamentous; while the other, the cortical or exterior, seems to be merely formed of the dead cells of the former, and to serve as a protection to it.

Fungi. 9. The Fungi present cells, sometimes round and sometimes elongated, in the form of hollow threads, which are either placed closely together or irregularly separated. Their consistence is variable, being soft or hard, fibrous or gelatinous, fleshy or coriaceous. They never grow in water. Their colours are variable, often vivid, but never truly green. There is scarcely anything that can be termed a frond or thallus; but instead of it there is often a peridium or sporangium, that covers the fructiferous organs; indeed, the whole plant may be viewed generally as a mass of reproductive matter. In the agarics and other allied genera there is a stipes, metaphorically called a stem, which arises from a membranous integument, termed a velea or wrapper, that in the young state envelopes the whole. The upper horizontal part of these plants is called a cap or pileus, which is provided on its under side with thin radiating expansions, termed gills or lamellæ, or with fine tubes. Some have a delicate fringe or veil (velum), that connects the margin of the pileus at a certain age

with the stem: in a few this veil has the appearance of a Glossology. ring round the stipes, and is then called an annulus.

We now come to the reproductive organs, or those organs essential to the reproduction of the plant; and under this denomination we comprehend all those parts that are situated beyond the leaves. Linnaeus first made the observation, that the parts of a flower were metamorphosed leaves; and this will appear very evident from considering the facility with which any one part changes into another. Thus, leaves gradually pass into bractæa, and the latter have often so much the appearance of true leaves as to be only distinguished from them by their position. Between bractæa and bractæolæ there is scarcely a limit; and either of these, when immediately under the flower, is often liable to be confounded with the calyx, or supplies the place of a calyx. Again, between a calyx and corolla there is the closest resemblance; so much so, that when one only was present, it has been a matter of dispute by what name it ought then to be described:—Jussieu and his followers calling it uniformly by that of calyx, but Linnaeus pronouncing it a calyx only if green, and a corolla if coloured; whilst more modern botanists, to avoid a discussion attended with little good, have adopted instead of it the ambiguous term perianth. But horticulture shows this affinity in a still more striking degree; many of the primrose tribe in cultivation having the calyx changed into a corolla placed under the true corolla, and in every respect similar to it. In a double flower, all are aware, the stamens change into petals; and in the water-lily (Nymphaea) it is no easy matter to draw the respective lines of demarcation between stamens, corolla, and calyx. It is more difficult to admit at first the connection between the fruit and the others, instances of the metamorphosis being more rare. Thus, in half double flowers, the fruit, or parts of the fruit, or carpella as they are called, remain often unchanged, as in the peony; but in many truly double flowers, as among the pinks and carnations, every portion of the fruit is actually transformed into petals. On the other hand, in Magnolia fuscata, the stamens actually change into carpels; and we have specimens before us, exhibiting the same change in the Salix Croceana. In some species of Ononis, and the other genera of leguminous plants, in which there is usually one perfect carpel, we have seen it transformed into a leafy process, demonstrating that the carpel is nothing but a folded leaf.

The parts belonging to the flower, though thus primarily alike, yet differ much afterwards, particularly in their physiology. The more foliaceous parts, as the bractæa, calyx, and corolla, serve for the nutriment or protection of the others, which are more immediately called the sexual organs. In several parts of the flower we may distinguish the portions of the leaves of which they are composed, so as to detect more or less clearly the petiole and the lamina. Thus, in a calyx the sepals are usually formed by dilated petioles, although in the roses the lamina also makes its appearance. Of the corollas, the petals represent in general a dilated petiole; but sometimes an unguis or claw may be noticed, as well as a limb, conformable to the petiole and lamina of a leaf. Among stamens, the filament is the petiole, while the anther is produced by each side of the lamina being rolled inwards, and forming two loculi or bags. The carpels are formed by the folding of the lamina of a leaf, the ovules arising from the extremities of the lateral nerves. Here the petiole is often wanting, though in several genera of Leguminosa, in the caper plants, and others, it is very distinct.

From what we have now said, it may be laid down as an

Glossology. axiom, that a flower is an assemblage of several whorls of foliaceous origin, arranged above or within each other, so closely that the internodia, or distance between each series, is not distinguishable. But this will be better understood when we come to the definition of the particular parts.

Inflorescence.

Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of a plant intended for its reproduction; or, in other words, it is the mode in which the flowers of a plant are distributed. The organs peculiar to it are peduncles, pedicels, bractææ, and bracteolæ or the accessory envelopes to the flowers.

As leaves are lateral, so must also be the parts of the flower, hence we might naturally expect the floral stem or branch to be prolonged beyond it; and this indeed often happens in monstrosities, as in some roses and pear trees; but otherwise the flower absorbs all the nutriment from the branch destined to that purpose. Thus we may state as a general law, that a flower is terminal on the little branch that supports it; and this branch is termed a peduncle or pedicel. The pedicel with the flower being thus precisely similar to a branch and its leaves, the flower-bud which gives rise to such must be analogous to leaf-buds; and the great difference between them is, that the latter elongate indefinitely in the form of branches, while the former do not elongate beyond the flower.

Flower-buds always, therefore, like leaf-buds, are terminal, or arise from the axils of leaves, which leaves are called bractææ or floral leaves; and those leaves which appear on the pedicel, between the bractææ and calyx, are called bracteolæ. These are often confounded, but are nevertheless essentially distinct; the former belonging more to the stem, the latter to the flower-bud. Bractææ and bracteolæ are often beautifully coloured, the more so, usually, the nearer they are to the flower. When a single one is rolled together, highly developed and coloured, and is placed at the base of the form of inflorescence called a spadix (fig. 53, b), it is named a spatha (fig. 53, a); and the upper ones, arising among the flowers themselves, are termed spathella. When several are verticillate, or densely imbricated around the base of the form of inflorescence called an umbel or capitulum, they are termed an involucre; and those at the base of each partial umbel are called involucella. In the grasses there are usually two at the base of the spikelets, which receive the name of glumes; while the small ones surrounding each floret in the spikelet, called glumella or paleæ, may be viewed as involucella. Small imbricated bractææ are often called scales, as in the thistle and artichoke. On dissecting the capitulum of flowers of many of the Compositæ, small colourless bractææ may be perceived at the base of the florets;—these have received the name of paleæ, but they appear to be a mere continuation or modification of the scales of the involucre.

With regard to the axis of inflorescence and its bractææ, sometimes the axis itself, but more usually the branch which springs from it, is termed a peduncle. These peduncles often bear bractææ, from the axils of which arise secondary peduncles. The same may again happen, and the ultimate support to the flower is then termed a pedicel. A pedicel may be clothed with bractææ: but these have no flower-buds in their axils, and therefore each can only, strictly speaking, bear but one flower. In the honeysuckles there appear to be two flowers and two fruits to each stalk, but this is caused by the combination or union of the two pedicels that terminate the axis. When two or more pedicels spring near to each other from the axis of inflorescence, the axis is termed a rachis. Those axes that spring out of the earth, and bear no true leaves, are denominated scapes. Pe-

duncles are usually cylindrical or slightly compressed; in Glossology. Xylophyllum it is said to be flat or foliaceous, but this appearance originates rather from the expansion of the Pl. CXII. axis or rachis than of the peduncle itself. In the case of an umbel, the axis tends to dilate at the apex, and this dilatation seems to depend on two causes: it is either in proportion to the number of flowers that ought to be on the summit, or it becomes the larger the more sessile the flowers are on the horizontal expansion. That kind of umbel found in thistles and other compound flowers is a remarkable illustration of this: the expansion on which the flowers are situated here bears the name of receptacle; some few botanists calling it also, in particular cases phoranth or elinanth. These receptacles are sometimes quite flat, sometimes conical or cylindrical, and sometimes concave; and in the fig the margins of the receptacle are so approximated as to represent a bag, on the interior surface of which all the flowers are seated. By many botanists the axis of inflorescence is termed the peduncle, and the peduncles pedicels. But it is impossible here to lay down any certain rules by which these may be understood, the same author at different times using the same terms with a different meaning.

The inflorescence of plants is very various, and depends entirely on the power of developing the flower-buds in the axils of the bractææ. Two points are, however, common to all the forms: all must be axillary, or a modification of that, and have the flowers terminal on the peduncles or pedicels. They may be reduced to two classes: simple, when it is formed by the development of one bud and one branch; or compound, when it is formed by the development of several buds or branches.

Simple inflorescence.—When a flower-bud gives rise to only one flower, terminal on its peduncle, and the axis of the plant does not elongate beyond the bud, the flower is commonly called terminal and solitary. When, however, the axis continues to elongate, and the bractææ retains the form and size of a leaf, the flower is called axillary and solitary. But if the buds, instead of giving rise to one terminal flower, have the axis elongated, bearing several flowers, and each flower on a peduncle, a raceme is produced; and when each flower is sessile, or placed in the axil of the bractææ, without a peduncle, a spike is formed. The difference between these two is very slight, or, more properly speaking, a spike is a mere conventional term, to imply those cases where the peduncle is scarcely perceptible; and, by the aid of horticulture, the one is frequently made to pass into the other. When the bractææ are nearly equal in size and closely imbricated, and the spike articulated with the stem, it is termed an amentum or catkin; but this articulation is often not to be detected; thus, in some willows, the male catkins fall off, while the female are permanent. The real spikes of the grasses are commonly termed spikelets or locustæ; and when we there speak of the flowers being in spikes or panicles, we actually mean that the spikelets are arranged in spikes or panicles. The spadix (fig. 53, b) is a sort of spike, in which the flowers are closely packed together upon a succulent axis, which is enveloped in a coloured convoluted bractææ or spatha: the spadix is usually simple, but in some palms it is branched. A raceme differs, as we have said, from a spike by having the pedicels that issue from the bractææ more elongated. When a raceme has its peduncles spreading, elongated, and bearing bractææ, and pedicels again arising from these bractææ, a panicle is formed. Usually in these two the lower peduncles are only slightly longer than the others; but when they are very long, and the upper ones very short, it is commonly termed a corymb. But this appellation was given before the subject of inflorescence was properly studied, and with De-

Glossology. Candolle we feel inclined to adopt here the terms corymbose raceme, or corymbose panicle. When the axis of a raceme is so very short that all the peduncles issue from one point at its apex, we have a simple umbel; and when the same happens to a panicle and to its branches, a compound umbel is formed. In these frequently the bracts fall off early, or are abortive. A capitulum may be either a spike, raceme, or umbel, in which all the flowers are placed together in a globular head. Capitula also differ from each other by the form of the axis, many kinds of which may be seen among the Compositæ. Now, as all these different kinds of inflorescence spring from a solitary flower-bud,—and as a flower-bud is quite analogous to a leaf-bud,—and as in a leaf-bud the outer or lower part is first developed;—so in a spike, a raceme, a panicle, an umbel, or a capitulum, the lower flowers are first expanded, and this mode of flowering or order of expansion is called centripetal.

Compound inflorescence, or when the inflorescence is the result of the expansion of several buds or branches.—The most perfect instance of this is a true corymbus. Here the axis of the plant assumes the appearance of an axis of inflorescence, developing flower-buds which follow the centripetal order of expansion; but as it is a continuation of the axis of the branch, and as we have already observed that those leaf-buds nearest to the summit are first developed, so, in a compound inflorescence, the flower-buds towards the extremity of the axis are first evolved, and the lower ones last. In a corymbus, then, each particular branch follows the centripetal law, while the whole mass of inflorescence proceeds in an inverted order. Although we have only referred to the corymb generally as a mode of inflorescence, individually it resembles a raceme, of which the lower flowers have long, and the upper ones short pedicels. The Achillea millefolium will well illustrate the corymb; each of what is commonly called the flowers of such a plant being a capitulum. Now, let us suppose that the capitulum of such an inflorescence is by some means reduced to a solitary floret,—and approximations to this are to be observed in many Compositæ,—we shall then have a cyme, in which the solitary central flower is first developed, and, lastly, the lower ones. This kind of expansion is called the centrifugal. Viewing, with De Candolle and Roep, the terminal bud by which a branch is prolonged, as similar in all respects to a true leaf-bud, and supposing in the same way the existence of a terminal flower-bud, this kind of inflorescence has received the name of terminal or definite, because the flower being supposed to occupy the extremity of the branch, no more can be formed beyond it; while the centripetal inflorescence has been termed indefinite or axillary, because the axis being never terminated by a flower-bud, it may be elongated until there be no more juices left for the further development of the flower-buds. The term cyme is usually applied to those cases in which the primary branches issue from the same point, while the smaller branches are unequal, starting from different points, but elevating the flowers so that they may be nearly all in one horizontal plane, as in the elder or dogwood. But this is not always the case: the central portion may be elongated; and then, when the peduncles and pedicels are relatively opposite to each other, as in Erythraea, we have what are called diachotomous cymes. A fasciculus, on the other hand, is a contracted cyme, in which the lateral branches are very short, and the flowers are clustered together, as in many of the pink tribe. A glomerulus is when the cyme is so contracted, and the ramification is so little apparent, that it has been usually confounded with a true capitulum. This disposition is of rare occurrence, but is to be observed in some Compositæ. The last form of inflorescence we

shall notice is a thyrsus; and this may be conceived to be composed of cymes, arising from the axils of the leaves of a branch as it is successively developed. Thus the sage, the thyme, and the labiate plants, exhibit a thyrsus. The stem or branch is prolonged indefinitely, of which the lower flowers first make their appearance; but the inflorescence that proceeds from the axil of each leaf is a true cyme, in which the terminal flowers are first expanded.

If we be correct in what we have stated, the centrifugal mode of expansion is a reduced form of the centripetal, combined with the mode of development of branches. It ought, therefore, to be scarcely distinguished from the other; and cases do occur only referable by analogy. Roep and De Candolle, who admit the existence of terminal flower-buds, observe that the terminal mode has two opposite bracts, while the axillary has but one; and they apply this test with great ingenuity to the case of a solitary peduncle and flowers, in order that it may be referred to one or the other of the two classes.

Torus.

The torus, or the proper receptacle of the flowers, is an expansion of the pedicel, from which spring the petals and stamens, and seems to be formed by an abortion or partial development of one or both of these parts. Although, therefore, not properly by itself an organ, it is of great importance in the structure of flowers; for not only do the stamens and petals arise from it in the state in which they usually appear to us, but even when these are transformed into nectariferous glands, or into those doubtful bodies sometimes confounded with stamens and sometimes with petals. These appearances may therefore be met with either outside of the petals, or inside of the stamens, or between these. Usually, however, the torus is inconspicuous, and is reduced to a narrow circular space between the calyx and the pistil. When this zone is under the ovary the petals and stamens are said to be hypogynous, and the plants are termed thalamifloræ. But frequently the external part of the torus extends itself along the bottom or the interior of the calyx, and the stamens and petals are said to be perigynous, and the plants are called calycifloræ. When the inner portion of the torus expands along the pistil in a greater or less degree, the stamens and petals then seem to arise from the pistil, and are denominated epigynous. But there is still another case, when the torus extends both along the calyx and the pistil at the same time; and a necessary consequence of this is, that the tube of the calyx adheres to the pistil. The petals and stamens thus spring from a zone round the apex of the fruit, and between it and the calyx, and seem to be seated on the fruit itself; an appearance which has induced botanists to apply to it also the term epigynous. But if these two kinds of epigynous insertion were to be considered as but one, so ought in the same way what is called perigynous to be viewed as a modification of the hypogynous; for in the perigynous the torus, though connected with the calyx, was distinct from the fruit, and as much under it as in the true hypogynous; and, strictly speaking, both the perigynous and second kind of hypogynous may be regarded as combinations of the other two. Most modern botanists have, however, considerably altered the signification of some of these terms, especially when speaking of the insertion of the stamens. According to them, when the stamens contract no adhesion with either the calyx or the pistil, they are hypogynous; when they do arise from the calyx, but are free from the pistil, they are said to be perigynous, and such does not differ from the view we have taken above; but when the stamens contract an union with both the surface of the calyx and the pistil, they are

Glossology. termed epigynous, while the true epigynous insertion, or
where the stamens are united to the style, but free from
Pl. CXII. the calyx, receives the name of gynandrous. We think it
right to state here, that it is in the altered sense that epi-
gynous is now usually adopted in systematic works. When
the torus is conspicuous, and of a fleshy nature, it is often
known by the name of disc. To those bodies between
the calyx and pistil, unlike either the stamens or petals, of
the nature of which Linnæus was uncertain, he gave the
general name of nectary.

Floral Envelopes.

These immediately surround the sexual organs, and are
formed of one or more whorls of variously modified leaves.
When there are two whorls, the plants are termed dichlamy-
dea, and the outer is called a calyx, the interior a corolla.

Calyx.

The calyx is usually of a green colour, and foliaceous;
each segment is termed a sepal; those like leaves are
sometimes articulated at their base, when they are either
quite distinct from each other, or cohere in the form of a
lid (as in Eschscholzia) during the flowering of the plant.
But they are often continuous with the peduncle, and conse-
quently persistent. In such cases they are either distinct,
or are united together by their margins. When the
sepals are distinct, the calyx is said to be bi-, tri-, or poly-
sepalous, according as there are two, three, or many leaves;
and when soldered, it is called gamosepalous, or, by the strict
followers of the Linnean nomenclature, monophyllous;
when only slightly united at the base, it is partite (bi-, tri-,
quadripartitus, &c.); when united to the middle, it is
termed divided (bi-, trifidus, &c.); and when soldered till
near the apex, it is called toothed (bi-, tridentatus, &c.). If
no teeth be perceptible, it is then entire; and in that case
the number of parts must be determined analogically, or by
other means. The cohering portion is termed the tube.
Some sepals in the same calyx may cohere together in a
greater degree than the others, and this gives rise to a
bilabiate calyx. In a few genera with articulated sepals,
the divisions cohere together, but separate from the tube
in the form of a lid or operculum. Sometimes the calyx
is reduced to a mere ring round the base of the corolla.
In the Valerians this ring is afterwards developed into a
pappus, formed of numerous long and fine radiating seg-
ments. In many Compositæ the margin of the calyx also
constitutes a pappus, appearing either in the form of a
ring, or bristles, or scales, or rough hairs (pilosus), or
feathery hairs (plumosus). The calyx may be free from,
or unattached to, the fruit; or the tube may be closely
incorporated with it, or adherent (calyx adherens).

Corolla.

The corolla is for the most part more or less coloured;
and it exists in the greater part of the Exogenous plants.
Sometimes it is very small, and reduced to the appearance
of mere scales, and even in some genera is quite abortive;
and when this happens, we must proceed with the greatest
caution, and depend much on analogy, so as not to con-
found those groups of plants in which it ought to be pre-
sent with those furnished with a perianth, in which a true
corolla is always supposed to be absent. The divisions of
the corolla are called petals. They are almost always ar-
ticulated at the base, and consequently fall off; and when
this happens at a very early stage, they are said to be cadu-
cous. When the petals have no articulation, as in Campanu-
lula, they either remain for a long time, or are persistent;
or are marcescent, when they wither away without falling
off. When the petals are quite distinct from each other,
the corolla is polypetalous; or, when more or less united by

their margins from the base upwards, monopetalous, an in-Glossology.
correct term, which ought to be exchanged for gamopeta-
lous; and then it may be partite, divided, toothed, or entire, Pl. CXIII.
in the same way as in the calyx. But petals may also unite
in their upper parts, though distinct below. The vine, and
the keel (carina) of a peablossom, or other papilionaceous
flowers, exhibit this structure. When the lower part
of a petal, as the petiole of leaves, is narrow, and consists
of the union of all the vessels that expand and ramify in
the upper portion, the contracted part is the claw or un-
guis; the dilated, the limb or lamina. If the unguis be
long, straight, and closely approached to each other, even
though distinct, a kind of tube is formed; but, properly
speaking, it is only a tube when the claws are united. The
orifice of the tube is termed the throat or faux; and this
may be naked (nuda), or furnished with little scales or ap-
pendages, called sometimes a crown. The shape of the
corolla is frequently of importance in distinguishing natural
groups of plants. When all the petals are equal, it is said
to be regular: when a monopetalous regular corolla has no
tube, but swells out gradually from the base to the sum-
mit, it is bell-shaped or campanulate (fig. 54); and urceolate
if it is swollen at the base, and contracted at the top:
when there is a tube, and when it is narrow below, but
dilates upwards, so that the limb is campanulate, the cor-
olla is infundibuliform, or funnel-shaped (fig. 55): it is
rotate (fig. 56) or wheel-shaped if the tube be very short,
and the limb spreading and nearly plain; hypocrateriform,
(fig. 57) when the tube is long, narrow, and cylindrical,
and the limb spreading like a star; and tubular, when it is
almost entirely composed of a narrow elongated tube,
slightly dilated upwards; but this may be viewed as a very
slender state of the infundibuliform. When the petals
are unequal in size, or cohere unequally, the corolla is irre-
gular; and if such petals unite, we shall have an irregular
monopetalous corolla, which is said to be labiate or bilabiate
(fig. 58) when the tube is more or less elongated, the
throat open and dilated, the limb divided transversely into
two parts or lips (labia), the one superior, the other in-
ferior, which lips are subject to various modifications, one
of the most curious being where the upper lip is so slight-
ly developed as to appear to be absent, as in Teneritum.
A personate (fig. 59, 60) or mask-like corolla is when the
tube is more or less elongated, the throat very dilated, but
closed up by the approximation of the limb, which has two
unequal lips, as in the snapdragon; but it is often very
difficult to distinguish between personate and labiate
flowers. When the upper part of the tube of the corolla is
split down on one side, and becomes flat, it is what is called
ligulate (fig. 61), as in the hawkweeds, or exterior flowers
of the daisy. A regular polypetalous corolla is said to be
rosaceous (Plate CXIII. fig. 62) when composed of three,
four, or five, rarely more petals (fig. 62, a), of which the
claw is very short, and the lamina diverging from each
other, as in the rose. When there are five petals, the
unguis of which are elongated, forming a false tube, and
concealed within the calyx, the corolla is carophyllate,
as in the pinks; and when there are only four petals, with
long straight claws (fig. 63, a), and patent lamina, form-
ing as it were a cross, the corolla is cruciform (fig. 63), as
in the wallflower; but it is not essential to this last, that
the petals be perfectly alike and equal to each other.
Of irregular polypetalous corollas, the only one that has
received any particular designation is the papilionaceous
(fig. 64). Here there are five petals; the upper one is
usually larger than the others, and covers them before
the flowers expand, and is called the vexillum or standard
(fig. 64, a), from its resemblance to a flag; the two lateral
ones, like the wings of a butterfly, are the ale or wings
(fig. 64, b); and the two lower ones, usually more or less

Glossology, united together by their lower margins, representing the keel of a ship, have been called the keel or carina (fig. 64, PL. CXIII. c). Such a corolla belongs only to the Leguminosae. In the case of an irregular corolla, whether monopetalous or polypetalous, one of the petals is sometimes provided with a tubular projection, when it is said to be spurred (corolla calcarata, fig. 60).

The perianth, called also perigonium, as we have already stated, is that ambiguous form of envelope which partakes somewhat of the appearance of a calyx, somewhat of a corolla. The Exogenous plants which possess this are called monochlamydeae; and it exists in all the Endogenous. One must not confound with these the plants in which the calyx and corolla is either deciduous or abortive. The parts of a perianth are strictly termed tepals. A corolla being never incorporated with the fruit, as many perianths are, there is a presumption that the latter are more of the nature of a calyx; and an anatomical examination of their external surface confirms this supposition. The internal and often coloured surface, however, is different, and is probably either the torus, or a petaloid expansion of the torus. Not only are the petals often absent, but even in some cases there is scarcely a rudiment of a perigonium, as in the genus Euphorbia.

As any law by which sepals and petals are disposed must obviously be very intimately connected with their estivation, or primitive arrangement in the flower-bud, so the estivation, or prefloration as it is sometimes called, though long neglected, has of late years been made to bear an important part in the classification of plants. The principal modifications are the valvular estivation (fig. 65), when the parts of an envelope are either plane or slightly convex, and merely touch one another by their margins, without the one covering any part of the contiguous one. When the parts are each closely folded together, and unite one to another by their margins into a monopetalous corolla, as in campanula, it is sometimes said to be plicate (fig. 66); but this is only a modification of the valvular. When they are slightly concave, and a margin of one slightly covering the margin of another, while its other margin is usually in its turn covered, the estivation is imbricated (fig. 67, a); but of this there are several variations. When an imbricated estivation is spirally twisted, which seldom happens, except when the parts are more or less respectively soldered together, it receives the name of twisted (fig. 67, b) or contorted (estivatio torsiva, or contorta). In some plants the petals are folded irregularly, or crumpled, when their estivation is said to be corrugated (estivatio corrugata), as in the poppy; but this last ought rather to be considered as merely arising from an extraordinary development of the petals. Thus the petals of the Cistus, independent of being corrugated, are also twisted. When there are more than one series of parts of the same envelope, as in the water-lily, where there are several rows of petals, these alternate with those of the adjoining rows; each row or series may have its own mode of estivation, while, as a whole, it is termed alternative (estivatio alternata); in the spider-wort (Tradescantia) the outer row of the perigonium has a valvular, and the inner a corrugated and imbricated estivation. Again, when the same envelope may have two kinds, it will be readily allowed that the calyx may have one and the corolla another. Thus, in the mallow tribe, the calyx is valvular and the corolla twisted; in the flax and gum-cistus, both parts are twisted, but the corolla is twisted in an opposite direction to that of the calyx.

Many of the ancient philosophers were well aware that there was a difference of sexes in plants as well as in animals; and Theophrastus even states, that the fruit of the female palm will not germinate, unless the pollen of the male be shaken over the spatha of the female when both of them are in flower; but it was not till the time of Grew that any thing certain was understood on the subject. He was the first who regarded the stamens as the male, and the pistilla as the female organs. Linnaeus afterwards improved on Grew's ideas, and has adduced so many proofs from theory, and, what is of greater importance, from experiments of a tedious and delicate nature, that none now can experience the smallest doubt. An account of his arguments and experiments, and others of a late date, with the mode in which fecundation is supposed to be accomplished, forms one of the most interesting parts of vegetable physiology.

Each male organ is a stamen; but the whole taken collectively forms the androcaum, a term that bears the same relation to stamens as a corolla does to petals. These are situated between the petals and pistilla. Although a calyx and corolla be usually present in flowers, yet we have seen that they are not essentially necessary; but no plant can produce seed without the assistance of stamens and pistils, or their modifications. When stamens and pistils occur in the same flower, it is termed perfect or hermaphrodite; but, as sometimes happens by abortion or other causes, the stamens appear in one blossom and the pistilla in another. Again, according as these are on one or on different individuals, the flowers are called monoecious or dioecious; and, generally speaking, the flowers are imperfect or diclinous (flores diclines).

The number of stamens is variable, five or ten being the usual number among the Exogenous, and three or six among the Endogenous; but, on the one hand, these are subject to abortions, and on the other to multiplication. When the last takes place, it is by the addition of one or more rows similar to the first; so that although apparently indeterminate, they are actually a certain multiple of the primitive number.

A stamen consists of a filament (fig. 68, a) and an anther (fig. 68, b). The former is the body, which arises from the torus, and is sometimes cylindrical, or awl-shaped, or prismatical, and is even at times expanded, as if into a scale or petal. It is either articulated or contiguous with the torus. Part of it is often united with the petal, particularly when the petals themselves cohere; and the stamen is then called epipetalous. Its length is generally proportioned to the style, but it is sometimes wholly wanting, presenting a sessile anther. In the same flower the filaments are generally equal in length, and such are called isostemones, but in many they are unequal. In Geranium and Oxalis, where there are ten stamens, five are larger than the other five, and alternate with them. When there are six stamens, of which four are larger than the other two, as in the cabbage, mustard, and the other Cruciferae, they are called tetradynamous; and where there are four, of which two are longer than the other two, they are didymous, but here there is usually the rudiment of a fifth stamen, dissimilar from all the others. The direction of the filaments is usually straight, but they are in some plants bent inwards, in others outwards. In Parietaria (the pellitory of the wall) they are reflexed; for here the filament is bent backwards in such a way that the upper half lies along the lower, and between it and the perigonium. When the filament is too slender and weak to support the

Glossology. weight of the anther, and hangs down, it is pendent; when it bends towards the lower part of the flower, it is decumbent or declinate; and when to the upper part, ascendent. The filaments are usually free, or isolated from each other; but they are sometimes united more or less upwards from their base into a column or androphone. When there is one androphore or bundle of filaments, the stamens are monadelphous; when two androphores, diadelphous; and when several androphores, polyadelphous.

Anther. The anther is a kind of bag borne by the filament, and corresponds to the lamina of a leaf. It is either sessile, when there happens to be no filament, or it is placed at the top of the filament in three ways: it may be attached by the middle of its back to the slender apex of the filament, and is then oscillating or versatile (fig. 73); or it is attached by its base to the top of the filament, with which it then seems continuous, and is then erect (fig. 69); or it adheres to the filament by its back, and is then adnate or adherent, in which case the filament is often prolonged into an appendage. When adherent to the inside of the filament, it is said to be intorse, and to the outside extorse. Each bag or cell of the anther is called a lobe; and the solid substance that connects them, and which in fact corresponds to the midrib of the leaf, is the connectivum (fig. 69, a). Usually the connectivum is very small and inconspicuous, but in some plants it is prolonged into an appendage, that may be confounded with an elongation of the filament; in others it is prolonged below, as in some heaths, into an awn or crest; in a few it is so broad that the bags of the anther are at a considerable distance from each other (fig. 70). Usually each anther has two lobes; but in a few plants there is only one, and this may happen either from some natural conformation of the plant (and only when the anther is erect), but more generally from the accidental abortion of one of the lobes (and then particularly when the lobes are distant), or by the filament happening to be split, each half bearing a lobe, and representing a distinct stamen. The reverse also happens, so that each anther may appear to consist of four lobes; but this arises either from each lobe being divided into two cells, by the back of the lobe being folded inwards; or it has really four, six, or more lobes (as in some willows), caused by the adhesion of two, three, or more stamens into one. The lobes or cells of the anthers open in different ways, by what is termed the line of dehiscence. This usually indicates the margins of the lamina of the leaf out of which the anther is formed, and therefore the most frequent position of this line is longitudinally along the middle of each lobe (fig. 71), in which case the anthers are bilocular or biramous. When this line does not open during its whole length, but only above or below, exhibiting two pores, as in the heaths, the anther is styled biporose (fig. 68); or when there is only one lobe, it is called one-pored (poro simplici). Very rarely, as in the lavender, the anther dehisces transversely; but the most singular case is when it opens by valves, as in the barberry and the laurels (fig. 72), that are free below, and hinged as it were by their upper edge. The anther has various shapes; the principal are globular when the two lobes form one globe, didymous when each of the two lobes are globose; the terms linear, sagittate, cordate, reniform, &c., are also to be applied to it in the same way as to leaves of plants. When the filaments are united, the anthers may be so likewise, as in salix monandra; or they may be free. But although the filaments may be free, the anthers may be united to each other by the margins, as in the Compositae, and such are then called syngenesious. In Stapelia, where the loculi or cells of the anther are at a distance from each other, each coheres with the loculus of the neighbouring anther.

Pollen. An anther contains and frequently emits a matter called

pollen, the use of which is to give life to the ovule or young seed. The grains of pollen seem to arise from the extremities of the veins which are found in the leaf that constitutes the anther, and are probably formed from the spiral vessels. When the grains of pollen burst, they again discharge a multitude of very minute particles, called molecules or granules. When the grains of pollen easily detach from each other, they are said to be pulverulent, and then they may be either perfectly smooth without any viscous coating, or they may be viscous. Sometimes the viscosity is not at once perceptible, but may be traced by means of papillae or small eminences on the surface, which are in fact secretory organs, giving rise to the viscous surface. The nature of these grains of pollen seems constant in each family of plants; and even the shape of these grains is sometimes of consequence in distinguishing natural tribes. In the Asclepiadæ and Orchidæ the grains are not pulverulent. Instead of separating readily, all the pollen contained in one cell or bag coheres into what is then termed a pollen-mass; or when each of those are divided into two or four portions, each is sometimes called a masse. When in the Orchidæ these pollen masses are formed of grains united together by means of an elastic tissue, they are said to be sectile (as in Orchis); but in Epipactis and others they are granulose or farinaceous; and in Corallorrhiza and Malaxis, &c., they are of a solid compact substance.

Pistils or Female Organs.

The whole female organs in a flower, taken collectively, have been named gynæceum. This may consist of one or more pistilla, or distinct portions. Thus, in the primrose there is truly one, in Ranunculus many pistilla. The female parts being, like the stamens, petals, and sepals, formed of modified leaves, each pistillum may arise either from one such leaf or from the combination of several. These component parts are called carpels, and are placed in the centre of the flower. They may be arranged, 1st, round a real axis or column, which is the abortive prolongation of the pedicel, and are united to it by their inner angle: this is evident in Malva and Lavatera, and in Euphorbia. 2d, They may be verticillate round the central column, but hanging from its summit, and consequently only attached to it by the apex of the inner angle, as in Geraniaceæ. 3d, They may be verticillate round the summit of the axis, but erect, and only adhering by their inner angle at its base; and then the axis may be extremely short, as in Sedum or Aconitum, or it may be slightly prolonged, as in some rutaceæ. 4th, The carpels may be placed in a spike round the central column, as in the magnolias and tulip-tree, and some ranunculussæ. 5th, But if the column be very short and round, the carpels, instead of forming a spike, will form a head round the column, as in the strawberry, where the column is fleshy. 6th, If the exterior portion of the axis be prolonged along the inner surface of the calyx, while the central part is not, we shall have a hollow cup, in the interior of which the carpels are seated, as in the genus Rosa or rose; and here the expansion of the axis is united to the tube of the calyx by means of the torus. All plants in their primitive state seem to have several carpels in each flower, but they may be reduced to a solitary one by abortion.

Each carpel (fig. 74) may be viewed as a folded leaf, of which the petiole seldom appears; but when it does it is called a thecophore, or support to the fruit. The ovules or young seeds arise from the extremities of the veins, and therefore are usually attached near to the margins of the leaf, or, as it is folded, to both sides of the inner angle of the carpel; and the parts to which they are fixed are called the placenta. The ovules, like the pollen of an anther

Glossology cannot probably be formed without the assistance of spiral vessels, and therefore are not to be looked for in the ferns, which are destitute of these elementary organs. The portion above the theca, containing the ovules, is the ovarium (fig. 74, a). But the summits of the placenta are prolonged into two thread-like bodies, sometimes long, and sometimes very short. These are usually combined into one, which is then named the style (fig. 74, b); and its glandular apex, fitted for the absorption of the vivifying part of the pollen, is the stigma (fig. 74, c).

The carpels show a still greater tendency to unite with each other than even the exterior parts of the flower, though often this union seems to take place in a very slight degree. In Stapelia they appear to cohere only by the stigmas; in Asclepias by the stigmas and styles; in some by the ovaries alone, in others by the ovaries and styles; but the most complete is by the ovaries, styles, and stigmas. When the styles are united there is usually said to be but one, although the pistil ought more properly to be then called gamostyle; and in the same way, when the ovaries are united, there is still said to be one ovary, called by Linnæus a germen, consisting of a number of cells (loculi), although each of the cells is in fact an ovary.

The number of stigmas is determined by that of the carpels and styles, or their divisions; so that in a compound ovary, when we speak of one stigma, we actually mean several united into one mass (fig. 75, c), as in the primrose. It is sessile when there is no apparent style, terminal when placed on the top of the style or ovary, and lateral when attached to the sides of these organs. In substance it may be fleshy, glandular, or membranaceous, and even petaloid when it resembles a petal, as in the iris. Its form needs no illustration further than, when several are only partially combined, they are said to be bifid, trifid, or multifid, as if there were actually a simple one variously divided. Its surface is either smooth or pubescent; in some plants it is penciliform (fig. 76), or of hairs forming a small tuft; in others, as in Anemone, Clematis, and many grasses, it is plumose (fig. 77), or furnished with hairs arranged in a line on both sides, like the vanes of a feather; and is aspergilliform (fig. 78) when the hairs are placed in many whirls around the stigma, like a bottle-brush. In a few orders, as Goodeniaceæ, Scavoleæ, and Bromoniaceæ, the stigma is enveloped in a peculiar membranous appendage, called an indusium.

The style is in common language said to be simple (simplex), or single (unicum), either when it is the style to one carpel (fig. 74, b), or is formed by the union of several into one body (fig. 75, b), and is divided when the component parts are more or less adherent. But a style in its simplest state, being actually formed by the prolongation of the two placentæ of a carpel, is even then a compound body. What are said to be two styles in the grasses (fig. 78) is thus in reality but one divided style. The two stigmas in Compositeæ indicate the same structure, as well as those of many Euphorbiaceæ, where the divisions of the style and stigmas are double those of the carpels. The style may be included within the flower (inclusus), or protruded beyond it (exsertus). It is usually terminal in a compound ovary; and lateral, or basilar (from the base), in a simple one. In some plants with a deeply lobed ovary, the individual ovaries are attached to each other almost only by their bases; and hence the united style, springing from the point of union, forms as it were a continuation of the axis. The style is of various

shapes, but the most singular is when it is petaloid, as in Glossology. It may be straight, or declinate, or ascending.

When no union takes place among the carpels, the ovarium is termed apocarpous, as in Ranunculus; and when there is an adherence, so that a compound ovary is formed, it is called syncarpous (fig. 75). In the former case there may be one or more pistilla, according to the number of carpella; in the latter only one. The ovary being formed of the lamina of the leaf, the edges of which may be sometimes rolled inwards, it is evident that we may have each carpel of two cells, as in Astragalus; but the division is very seldom perfect. When the ovaries are united into a compound or syncarpous ovary, the sides of the component leaves or ovary (which sides are then termed dissepiments) may be evanescent, in which case we have a unilocular ovary with a central placenta (fig. 79); and when the leaves forming the ovary are scarcely folded, but nearly plane, the placentiferous margins touching respectively the margins of the next ovary, an unilocular syncarpous ovary is produced (fig. 80), having the placenta parietal, or exhibiting longitudinal lines on the interior surface. In a compound ovary, when the margin of the folded carpel is rolled inwards a little way, so that each ovary is almost bilocular, it is evident that the placentas must be situated nearly in the centre of each division of the fruit, in which case the two placentæ in each cell may either unite closely together, as in Kalmia or Rhododendrum (fig. 81); or may diverge from each other (fig. 82), as in the gourds.¹ An apocarpous ovary may be known from a syncarpous one, when there is no abortion, by the number and position of the placentæ. Although in every plant a carpel is present, yet in Cycadeæ and Coniferaæ, where there is neither style nor stigma, the apocarpous ovary is plane or spread open like a scale, leaving the naked ovule, on its inner surface, exposed without any covering to the pollen; and even, though very rarely, the carpel may be so modified that the ovary is abortive, and nothing is visible but the naked ovule.

The ovary is free or superior when it contracts no adherence with the calyx; or inferior, and then it is syncarpous, and the tube of the calyx adheres with it. But the individual ovary may be placed inside the tube of the calyx without being united with a syncarpous ovary, as in the roses, when they are said to be parietal. Between an inferior ovary and ovaries parietal it is sometimes difficult to draw a distinction; for when there is only one series of the latter, they may project so far towards the axis of the fruit as nearly to meet each other, and thus resemble a syncarpous ovary. But the difficulty is diminished by considering that, in a true inferior ovary, each carpel must so touch the calyx as to represent a syncarpous ovary seated within the tube. Each carpel must therefore unite laterally with its contiguous one, and at the same time all must be united at the axis of the ovary, so that there must result from the union one compound pistil. A compound pistil ought thus to indicate an inferior ovary. On the contrary, a separation of pistilla will always be accompanied with parietal ovaries (as in the rose and apple); and to these rules there is, we believe, no deviation. An apparent one is in that section of the genus Rosa called systyleæ, as in the Ayrshire rose, and another in Crataegus monogyna, in both of which the styles unite into one; but even here a slight dissection of the ovary will show that the individual carpels are not strictly united at their inner margins, and consequently that the ovary are

¹ In this tribe the sides of the carpel or leaf connecting the exterior with the centre of the compound ovary are extremely thin and inconspicuous, while the inflexed margins are remarkably well defined; hence Seringe and De Candolle have been erroneously induced to suppose that here the midrib of the constituent leaf is, by some inexplicable means, placed in the centre of the ovary.

Glossology. parietal, and the compound ovary apocarpous, or of more than one pistillum.

PL CXIII. The partially adherent calyx of many saxifrages has led some botanists to say of them that the ovary is half inferior (semi-superum); but from their being two pistilla, it is apocarpous. In Umbelliferae there is but one pistil, although two styles; and the ovary is syncarpous and inferior. To avoid confusion, it might be better to adopt the terms of syncarpous and apocarpous ovaria, and adherent or free calyx; and a combination of these will indicate the structure of the fruit.

Each simple ovary is more or less compressed; but the usual shape of a syncarpous one is ovoid. It is, however, sometimes elongated. In most plants it is entire, but in the borage tribe and labiate plants it is deeply lobed (Pl. CXIV. fig. 118).

Ovulum. The ovulum, as we have already explained, is the body borne by the placenta, and is destined to become a seed after impregnation. The position of the ovula is of great importance in determining natural affinities. When it is fixed by its base to the bottom of one of the cells of the ovary, of which it takes the direction, it is said to be erect, or if it hangs from the summit of the cell it is inverted; but if the ovulum is attached to the middle portion of the placenta, it may have an upright direction, and is called ascendant, or point downwards, and is then suspended (appensum); or if it appears attached by its middle, so that one half points upwards and the other half towards the base of the cell, it is called peritropal. By most botanists, however, the erect and ascendant ovula are confounded under one name, and the inverted and suspended are known by the term pendulous. Either of these may at times resemble the other by an accidental inversion, when the ovule is said to be resupinate. The ovulum is either sessile, or on a stalk called a funiculus or podosperm (fig. 83, a), and in either case the point by which the connection is formed is usually termed the base of the ovulum, and its other extremity the apex. The ovulum consists of a nucleus and two external coats; the outer of which (fig. 83, 84, and 85, each at the letter b) is called the testa or primine sac; and the inner, the internal membrane, or secundine sac, or the tegmen (fig. ecd. c.) The base of the nucleus (fig. ecd. d) is always incorporated with the base of the internal membrane, and their common base is attached at some points to

the testa. The junction of the three forms the chalaza. The chalaza is sometimes at the base of the testa, but is more frequently at the apex of that external covering, so that the apices of the nucleus and tegmen, though in some plants pointing to the apex of the testa, are more usually directed to its base. Close to the apex of the nucleus, and consequently at the opposite extremity from the chalaza, a small aperture or foramen (fig. ecd. e) is to be observed in both the primine and secundine sacs. This foramen (called by Mirbel exostome in the primine, and endostome in the secundine) must always be found near the base of the ovulum when the apex of the nucleus points towards that base, and at the summit of the ovulum when the apex of the nucleus points to that part; and consequently the situation of this foramen will at once indicate the internal structure of the ovulum.¹ And this is of the greatest importance, as the future embryo is now well ascertained to be so placed in the nucleus that the radicle points directly to these orifices, as do the cotyledons to the chalaza; and a means is thus given of discovering even in the ovulum the future internal arrangement of the seed. In what we have said, we have presumed the testa, tegmen, and nucleus, to be straight; but in some plants all or some of these are more or less bent or curved, in which case we may have the apex of the nucleus directed towards its base, as in the Cruciferae and Chenopodiaceae, and even the grasses; or towards the side of the testa, as in the Leguminosae.²

The testa is usually entire, except at the foramen, but in two known genera, Banksia and Dryandra, it opens longitudinally, leaving the tegmen exposed. The surfaces of the testas of the two collateral ovules in these plants then unite, putting on the appearance of the dissepiment of a capsule; and the two cohering ovula seem to be as one bilocular ovulum. By this means the internal membrane or tegmen becomes the external envelope of the seed.

When the apex of the nucleus is contiguous to the base of the ovulum, a connection takes place between the base of the ovulum and the base of the nucleus, by a bundle of vessels (fig. 85, f) called a raphe. This raphe is almost always on the side of the ovule next the placenta, and even the apparent exceptions to this rule tend to confirm it. Thus in the tribe to which Euonymus belongs, the ovules are erect, yet in some species of that genus they

¹ Brown and Mirbel term the chalaza the base, and the foramen the apex of the ovule, without regard to the point of attachment of the ovule to the placenta, which must be attended to in studying their works.

² Mirbel, as we have already stated, considers the base of the ovulum and seed as at the chalaza, and he divides seeds into orthotropous, anastropous, and campulitropous. The first are attached to the ovary by their base, having a perfectly regular form, and the axis is rectilinear. The campulitropous are also fixed to the ovary by their base, but their form is irregular, and their axis is curved, so that the two extremities meet. The anastropous, like the orthotropous, have a rectilinear axis, but they are resupinate on their funiculus, to which they adhere longitudinally, and by means of which they are attached to the ovary at a point near their apex. These variations are explained by Mirbel, by what he denominates the states of development, or the force of expansion, or of inertness, or of contraction of the different parts of the ovulum; and he has endeavoured to show how these causes, acting either together or independently, alter or preserve the regularity of the primitive shape. Every ovulum, according to him, has at first a regular form, and the chalaza close to the hilum or funiculus; so that if the force of development be equal at all points, the regularity of shape must be preserved, but if it be greater on one side than on the other, an irregularity must ensue. In this way an equilibrium of forces must have taken place in an orthotropous seed, but not in the anastropous or campulitropous ones. When an ovulum tends to become anastropous, the chalaza or the inner extremity of the funiculus is pushed forward in a slightly oblique direction, and inverts the ovulum, so that its base is placed where its summit formerly was, and vice versa; a kind of resupination which is stated by Mirbel to take place in a very short time,—but notwithstanding he appears to have followed the successive changes. By this inversion the vessels of the funiculus become elongated in proportion to the length of the axis of the ovulum; and such prolongation, united laterally to the primine sac, and extending from the exostome to the chalaza, is what is termed the raphe. Three characters distinguish the ovule destined to become in maturity a campulitropous seed: the indissoluble union of the hilum and the chalaza; the great force of development of one of the sides of the ovule; and the inertness or even contraction of the opposite side, which remains stationary, or even diminishes, while the other elongates. Had this last side been free in its development, it would have elongated in a straight line; but it is constrained by the inertness or contraction of the opposite one, and can therefore only increase by turning round the other as a centre. From this arises that annular form which most of the campulitropous seeds possess; and hence also, in all curved seeds, the chalaza ought to be constantly opposite to the hilum, and the foramen at the opposite extremity. Although all seeds may be reduced to these three types, yet by their development being stopped before the ovulum attains to the perfection of the type, and from similar results arising sometimes from different causes, many anomalies may be expected. Several have been pointed out by Mirbel himself. Thus, in the pea, the young ovule exhibits the anastropous form; but afterwards the raphe remains stationary, while the opposite side expands, and the seed appears campulitropous, but with a raphe.

Glossology appear suspended, and then have the raphe turned away from the placenta; but if we consider a moment, we shall see, that such may arise not only from their naturally hanging down, but by an erect ovule being as it were pushed over by some peculiar formation of the plant, and thus become resupinate. But a naturally erect ovule become resupinate, must have the part that was formerly next the placenta now turned away from it; and in the same way a naturally pendulous ovule must also, when resupinate, have its raphe turned away from the placenta; and thus we may conclude, when such is the position of the raphe, that the ovule is resupinate, and that the opposite apparent direction is the true one, whether erect or pendulous. This may readily be seen in the genus Penaea.

It was till lately generally supposed that the aura pollinaris, molecules of pollen, or by whatever other name the vivifying influence might be called, after being absorbed by the stigma and transmitted through the style, entered the ovulum at its base, either directly or by means of the funiculus. The discoveries of Brown and others have however now proved satisfactorily that the entrance takes place by the foramen; and Brongniart has ascertained, that in many, if not in all plants, at the moment of impregnation, a slender tube or filament is protruded through the orifices from the apex of the nucleus, for the more ready absorption of the pollen granules, but which, after having served the intended purpose, withers away, leaving only a small projection or papilla, which nearly closes up the foramen. Until, therefore, it was decided that the pollen had not access to the nucleus by the funiculus, but by the foramen, the idea of a naked ovule was inadmissible, and many ingenious but erroneous hypotheses were made to explain the fruit of the pine, &c. in which an exposed ovulum exists.

But the nucleus is itself a compound body, and consists of two parts. The one is a parenchymatous or loose cellular substance, called by Malpighi the chorion (fig. 85, g); and this again includes a little vesicle or cellular bag (fig. 85, h) termed by the same author the amnios, originally filled with a mucilaginous fluid, called the liquor amnios. It is in the interior of this bag that the embryo is formed. As the phrases chorion and amnios, having reference to animals, are objectionable, the former has now been termed the parenchyma of the nucleus, and the latter the embryonic sac. In some plants this parenchyma occupies the great part of the nucleus, but in others it is reduced to a thin transparent membrane, under which the sac lies.¹

To complete our account of the ovulum, of which we have been obliged to explain the anatomical structure, in order to lay the foundation of a correct knowledge of the parts of the seed, we have further to say, that in many, but not in all plants, a tubular prolongation (fig. 85, h) of the embryonic sac takes place about the time of impregnation, from that extremity of it which is next the base of the nucleus, extending to that base, and connecting it with the sac. This is very conspicuous in the almond and yellow water-lily. Malpighi named it the ras umbilicale; and Guettner viewed it as a continuation of the vessels of the umbilicus, but erroneously, as it is extremely doubtful if in any case its connection with the base of the nucleus is completed until the embryo, after fecundation, requires a considerable degree of nourishment.

Fecundation having taken place, the floral envelopes usually fade away, the stamens disappear, and the pistillum begins to increase in size and become the fruit. Although the style and stigma, having fulfilled their functions, are now nearly obliterated, the fruit ought always to show some traces of them on its surface, whenever they were seen on the ovary. In Cycadea and Conifera, where the ovulum is exposed to the immediate action of the pollen, there is neither style nor stigma upon the scale or open ovary, so neither is there on the fruit, indicating the existence of naked seeds; but the grains of corn and wheat and other grasses, having the remains of a style, are true fruits; the supposed naked seeds of the borage tribe and labiatae are for the same reason parts of a fruit. As the pistillum advances towards maturity, many alterations take place, in consequence of abortion, non-development, obliteration, or even union of parts. Thus a compound pistil having a compound or syncarpous ovary, may have a fruit of but one cell, as the hazel-nut; or a solitary pistil may, by the involution and divarication of its placentas, change into a fruit with several cells; or the placenta itself may expand horizontally, dividing one true cell into several spurious ones. In all cases, however, the contrasting the structure of the pistil with that of the fruit will materially aid us in our investigations.

The base of the fruit (fig. 86, a) is the part where it is joined to the peduncle. The apex (fig. 86, b) is where the remains of the style are found.

The portion of the pistil called the ovary is in the ripe fruit termed the pericarp; it is sometimes extremely thin, as in the grasses, the borage tribe, the Compositae, &c. but is often extremely thick, and even fleshy. As the leaf of a plant has an upper and under surface, and an intermediate parenchyma in which the nerves are placed, so the pericarp consists likewise of three portions: the outer coating, which often determines the form of the fruit, called the epicarp (fig. 87, b); the inner lining or the endocarp (fig. 87, d); and the parenchymatous or fleshy substance between these (fig. 87, c), termed the sarcocarp or mesocarp. When the ovary is inferior, or united with the tube of the calyx, as in the apple, the epicarp becomes confounded with the tube (fig. 87, a), and then the sarcocarp may be readily taken for the parenchyma of the calyx; but in peaches and other fleshy fruits not adherent to the calyx, it is the sarcocarp that constitutes the flesh. The endocarp is usually a mere membrane, but it sometimes is incorporated with a portion of the sarcocarp; and when this portion becomes hard and osseous, it constitutes what is called a putamen (when it contains but one seed), or nucules nucular (when they contain several seeds). As an ovary may be apocarpous or syncarpous, so also may be the pericarp. It is therefore said to be unilocular (fig. 104 and 105) when there is one cell, and bi-, tri- (fig. 88), or multilocular, according to the number of cells. These loculi or cells are separated from each other by dissepiments. By reverting to what has been said about the ovary, we shall easily perceive that true dissepiments can only be formed in one way. Two contiguous portions of the endocarp are projected into the interior of the pericarp, and are agglutinated together by the parenchyma of the primary leaf, now the sarcocarp.

¹ Mirbel takes rather a different view of the subject: he considers the nucleus as a mere envelope, terms it the ferceis, and states that it includes two others—the quartine, which appears to be attached to the summit of the cavity, and that containing the gustules, or embryonic sac, the last envelope, and adhering at both extremities to the quartine. But each of these parts, if they do exist, has not been seen in every ovule; and in those in which they have been observed, they are not all visible at one time, but in succession: when the first is most evident, the last are merely rudimentary; and when the latter are developed, the former are scarcely distinguishable. Mirbel even points out five distinct periods of development.

Glossology. The dissepiment is thus always of two membranes, which must contain between them vessels and nerves; and these again will point out the former junction of the two membranes, even although, by the sarcocarp drying up, they should have lost their adherence, and have separated from each other. Dissepiments may be complete when they extend from the base of the epicarp to its apex, and incomplete when they permit two contiguous cells to communicate with each other. In the thorn-apple (Datura stramonium) there appears at first sight to be four dissepiments, two complete and two incomplete; but in reality in this plant there are only two, curiously modified.

The axis of the fruit is that round which the constituting carpels are placed. It is sometimes not apparent. When it actually exists it is usually termed a columnella, as in Euphorbia, Lavatera, &c.; but when two mericarps are united together it is called the commissura (fig. 92).

As seeds are inclosed in the pericarp, it is essentially necessary that they, after maturity, have the means of escaping. Sometimes, however, the pericarp does not open naturally, but is either split by the process of germination, or rots away by the action of the soil or of the atmosphere. It is then said to be indehiscent, as in the grasses, Compositæ, &c. But usually it splits open, and is then dehiscent; and the pieces into which it divides are termed valves. In some the dehiscence is incomplete, as in Antirrhinum (fig. 89), where it is indicated by two pores at the apex, and in many Caryophyllæ (fig. 90), where the valves only separate at the apex into teeth. The pericarp is said to be uni-, bi-, or multivalved, as there are one, two, or many valves. When a fruit is in its simplest state, or formed by the transformation of one carpellary leaf (Plate CXIV. fig. 104), there may be two sutures or lines by which it may open. The one is (a) where the margins of the leaf or the placentæ meet, and this is called the ventral suture; the other, or the dorsal suture (b), is at the part corresponding to the midrib of the leaf. But, in a compound fruit, an opening may also take place at the junction of any two carpels; and from these considerations the various kinds of dehiscence may be explained. If the line of opening corresponds with the junction of the carpels, the dehiscence is septicidal (fig. 91); so that where there are dissepiments, these are divided each into their two constituent membranes, and the cells remain closed at the back; or the valves were formerly said to be alternate with the dissepiments, or to have their margins turned inwards. If the opening is by the dorsal suture of each carpel, the dehiscence is loculicidal (fig. 86 and 88); so that here the dissepiments do not divide into two portions, but the cells are opened at the back, or the dissepiments were said to be opposite to the valves, or the valves to bear septa in their middle. In some plants the cells remain closed, and separate in that state from the axis, which is then an extension of the peduncle (fig. 92). In others the placentæ separate from the dissepiments and adhere to the axis, while the cells open, and, with the dissepiments, separate from it (fig. 93). When the dissepiments adhere to the axis, but separate from the back of the valves or carpels, the dehiscence is said to be septifrage (fig. 94). When a dehiscence, instead of being vertical or longitudinal, takes place across the cells, it is called transverse (fig. 95), as Anagallis.

The shape of the pericarp may be spherical, or ovate, or lenticular (like a lens), or prismatical, which terms are easily understood. It may be acute, or obtuse, or lobed. When the fruit is inferior it is often crowned by the teeth of the calyx; and these teeth in many Compositæ, as we have already explained, are represented by a series of hairs called a pappus, which is either (fig. 96) pileose, when each hair is simple, or plumose (fig. 97), when each hair presents on each side

a series of finer hairs, arranged like the wings of a feather. Glossology. In Valeriana (fig. 98) the limb of the calyx is at first rolled up so as to form a circular ring on the top of the ovary, but afterwards (fig. 99) expands and elongates, and constitutes a true plumose pappus. When the tube of the calyx is filled by the seed, the pappus is said to be sessile (fig. 97); but when it is much attenuated at the apex beyond the seed, a kind of stalk or stipes is formed to the pappus, and it is termed stipitate (fig. 96), but between these there are some states that tend to weaken these as characters.

Fruits have been classified in several ways, and have received various designations. From what we have already said of the ovary, we trust the following division may be easily understood. A fruit is either simple, multiple, compound, or aggregated.

It is simple when it is the maturation of a single carpellary leaf. Fruits of this class may be either indehiscent or dehiscent. Of the former is, 1. the caryopsis, where the pericarp is very thin and membranous, and so closely united to the solitary seed as not to be distinguished as a separate body, as in the wheat and barley (Plate CXIII. fig. 100); 2. an utricle is similar to the caryopsis, the pericarp being membranous, but it has no adherence with the seed; 3. an achenium is also one-seeded, but here (fig. 101) the pericarp is hard and bony, as well as distinct from the proper covering of the seed, as in the Compositæ (these three are often confounded); 4. a samara (fig. 102) is a coriaceous, membranous, very compressed, few-seeded, indehiscent fruit, that is often prolonged laterally or at the apex into wings or appendages, but this kind does not perhaps exist in nature in an uncombined state; 5. a drupe is a fleshy nut inclosing a putamen, as the cherry and peach; 6. a nut (nux), in its strictest sense, as now adopted by Richard and De Candolle, differs slightly from a drupe; it contains a putamen, but the sarcocarp (then called nucum) is coriaceous instead of being fleshy. The dry dehiscent fruits are, 7. the follicle (fig. 103), or a carpel dehiscing by the ventral, and having no dorsal suture; 8. the legume (fig. 104), having both ventral and dorsal sutures, by either of which, or by both or neither, it may dehisce; rarely the sides fall off, leaving nothing but the sutures, which then form a kind of frame called replum. The legume is, strictly speaking, unilocular, but in some plants appears bilocular, from an inflexion of the ventral suture (fig. 105). In some instances it is separated into several parts by horizontal partitions (fig. 106) arising out of the placentæ, or by contractions of the legume itself, as in Hippocrepis or Scorpiurus (fig. 107), at which it falls into pieces, when it is said to be lomentaceous.

A fruit is multiple when the ovary is apocarpous. It has more than one style, and is formed of more than one carpellary leaf in the same flower. The carpels may be either at a distance from each other or slightly connected, but the endocarp does not separate from the epicarp to form dissepiments. Few individual names have been given to this kind, botanists having usually contented themselves with saying that it is composed of achenia, drupes, &c. according to the structure of each individual carpel. When these are arranged upon or round a real or imaginary axis, the fruit has been by some called, 9. claxon; the strawberry (fig. 108), bramble, ranunculus, anona, and peony, are examples. 10. The pomum or melonida also belongs to this class; here the fruit is crowned by the teeth of the calyx, and is formed of several parietal carpella attached to the interior of the tube by the intervention of a usually thick and fleshy expansion of the torus. Of this there are three varieties. 1st. When the numerous achenia are attached to the slightly fleshy calyx, the fruit is a hip or cynorrhodon (fig. 109), as the rose. 2d. When the calyx of the hip does not become

Glossology. fleshy, as in the agrimony, the fruit is called amalthea. The third variety is the apple or pomum (Plate CXIII. fig. 87), in which there is but one longitudinal series of carpels attached to a very fleshy calyx, and so enlarged as to appear to meet in the axis of the fruit. A pomum, then, at first sight seems to be the maturation of one inferior plurilocular, instead of several parietal ovaria.

A compound fruit is derived from a syncarpous ovary, and is formed by the union of several carpellary leaves. In Ranunculus, and other plants with apocarpous ovaries, more than one series of carpella are often matured. This, however, happens rarely among the syncarpous, but it sometimes occurs; thus, in Nicotiana multivaleis, where the fruit is a capsule, two rows of carpellary leaves are united into one pistillum. 11. A capsule (Plate CXIII. fig. 89 and 90) is a dry, dehiscent pericarp, usually many-celled; but may, by the placentae being parietal, or by the disappearance of the disseptiments, be occasionally one-celled. 12. When a capsule opens transversely, it is called a pyzidium (fig. 95). 13. When a capsule bursts into achenia, it is termed a di-, tri-, or polakenium. 14. When the tube of the calyx adheres to one of this last kind, the fruit is called cremocarpium (fig. 92), as in the Umbelliferae; and each of the two constituent parts (a) a mericarpium. 15. When a capsule is composed of cocci, or cells that open elastically by a membranous spring placed at the bottom, it sometimes has got the name of claterium or regma, as in Euphorbia. 16. A silqua when long and narrow (fig. 110), and silicula when so short as to be almost as broad as long (fig. 111), is a dry pericarp formed of four carpels, the placentae of which are parietal; moreover, the stigmas and placentae of an opposite pair of these carpels are abortive, so that the carpels themselves represent valves, while the two other intermediate carpels are contracted, and project, from the inner side of each placenta, a membrane, which unites at the centre of the fruit to the corresponding opposite membrane, the four membranes being ultimately united into one dissepimental membranous expansion.¹ In common language, then, a silqua or silicula may be defined to be a dry, dehiscent, two-valved fruit, in which the seeds are attached to placentae situated at the sutures of the valves, and which is usually divided into two loculi or cells by a false dissepiment or prolongation of the placentae, that is parallel to the valves. After the valves have fallen, the placentae often remain, with or without the dissepiment or septum, in the form of a replum. 17. When two samara are applied to each other so closely that there appears but one (fig. 115), as in the ash and elm (the compound nature of the fruit, however, being still evident from the double stigma even when one of the cells is abortive), the fruit is still commonly called a samara; but in Acer, where the constituent parts are readily distinguished, the fruit is said to consist of two samaroid carpels. 18. A carcerulus (fig. 116) is dry and indehiscent, with several cells and seeds, as the lime tree. 19. A gland is a dry, bony, indehiscent, one-celled and one-seeded fruit, but always the result of an ovary with several cells and several seeds. The pericarp unites closely to the seed, and is inclosed more or less in a sort of involucre. This term is sometimes restricted to the case where the involucre or cup is coriaceous and scaly, as in the acorn; and when it is foliaceous, as in the hazel, it is called a nucula. Many botanists apply to both of these the name nut or nux. When the involucre is entirely wanting, and

the fruit is borne on a fleshy support, it has been termed Glossology. a zylodium (fig. 117), as in the cashew-nut. 20. A microbasis (fig. 118) applies to the fruit of the Labiatae and Borraginaceae. Here it is tetraspermous or four-sided, and appears to be quadrilocular; and each division, resembling a distinct achenium, is placed around the slender base of the style; in reality, however, it is a bilocular fruit, each cell being divided by a spurious dissepiment into two, each one seeded, that in general easily separate from each other. 21. In a sarcobase (fig. 119) the ovary is syncarpous, or of one pistillum; but all the carpels appear distinct, and are borne on the fleshy base of the compound style, as in the Ochnaceae. 22. A nuculanum is a fleshy fruit, not adherent to the tube of the calyx, and including several distinct putamens or nucules. 23. An ostocarpium is a superior fleshy fruit, with several cells, the sarcocarp being bony. 24. The balanista is a somewhat coriaceous, plurilocular, polyspermous, inferior fruit, adherent with the calyx and crowned with its teeth, as in the pomegranate and myrtle. 25. A berry (bacca) is a succulent fruit, with a membranous pericarp, the seeds of which lose their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in pulp, as the gooseberry or grape (fig. 120). 26. The orange or hesperidium is a multilocular succulent fruit, similar to a berry, but having the epicarp, sarcocarp, and endocarp well defined, and forming a leathery pericarp. The loculi or cells are filled with pulpy bags or vesicles, which are mere cellular extensions of the sides of the carpella. 27. A pepo or peponida is a fleshy inferior fruit, either indehiscent or bursting irregularly, and consisting of about three carpels, each of which is divided into two loculi by its placentiferous margin (Plate CXIII. fig. 82) being so introflexed as to reach the dorsal suture. The sides of the carpel, and even sometimes the introflexed portion, usually disappear in the ripe fruit; so that at first sight it would be said to be, and has been so described, a one-celled, fleshy, indehiscent fruit, with parietal placentae that send out sometimes false dissepiments towards the axis (fig. 121), as the cucumber and gourd. We do not agree with Richard in calling the fruit of the Nymphaea or Nuphar a peponida. In these there is in fact an apocarpous ovary (fig. 122), each carpel being merely attached by its back to an expansion of the torus, which soon decays, leaving the carpels distinct from each other. The torus also surrounding the styles and the stigmas, makes the whole assume the false appearance of one pistillum; and that part of each carpel which is directed towards the axis of the fruit is the placenta, and not a dissepiment. There is, therefore, little or no difference between the Nymphaeaceae and Nelumbo-naceae, except that the carpels of the latter are monospermous. The fruit of Hydrocharidea resembles in some degree a peponida; it is one-celled, and the placentae are truly parietal, but project from the false dissepiments towards the axis, appearing sometimes as if a many-celled fruit.

Aggregated fruits are formed out of several flowers. 28. An amentum or cathin exists in those plants to which there is no floral envelope; but in place of it there is a membranous bractea situated below each pistillum, as in the Salix or willow. 29. When the bractea of an amentum becomes extremely small, and the carpellary leaf is a large indurated scale, open at all periods of its growth, and containing naked seeds, we have a cone or strobilus (fig. 123), as in the pine tribe; and when this is much re-

¹ If a', a, a', a, in fig. 112, be four carpels with parietal placentae and ovules (v', v, b, b, v', v, b, b), and if c', c, c', c, be the stigmas to each, then if c', c', v', v', b, b, v', v', be abortive or disappear, we shall have the appearance in fig. 113; and if, in addition, the placentae b, b, b, b project each a membrane into the centre of the fruit, when these membranes unite we shall have the section of a silqua or silicula, as in fig. 114.

Glossology. duced in size, and the scales firmly cohere, it is called a galbulum (fig. 124), as in Thuja. The term cone is also often applied to the fruit of some Proteaceæ; but in these there is a perianth, and the indurated scales are real bracts, and it may be sufficient to say of their flowers that they are aggregated. 30. The sorus (fig. 125) is when several fruits (b) are united together into one body by the intervention and combination of their respective fleshy and highly developed floral envelopes (a), as in the mulberry and pine-apple. 31. The zyconus or fig is when the fruit is composed of many small drupes or achenia, collected on the interior of a fleshy and succulent receptacle formed by the hollow dilated apex of the peduncle. Each of the achenia belongs to a distinct floret, and therefore, when the fig is expanded into a nearly flat disc, as in Dorstenia, it resembles the receptacle of the Compositeæ, and is therefore scarcely entitled to be considered as a peculiar fruit.

Placenta.

Having thus given a rapid sketch of the different kinds of fruits, we must now revert to the carpel, of which they are composed; and we would again recall to the recollection of our readers, that this is a modification of a folded leaf, towards the margins of which, arising from the extremity of the nerves, are placed the seeds. The parts to which these are attached must therefore always be two (however closely they may be approximated) in each carpel; they are immediately connected with the style, and usually of a different texture from the rest of the cell; and, as has been explained while describing the ovary, they are generally called placentæ, though by some denominated trophosperms. In a solitary carpel the placenta is usually at the ventral suture, but, by the margins being occasionally infloxed, may be either in the centre of the fruit, or even at the dorsal suture; and therefore, in a plurilocular pericarp, it may be either at the axis of the fruit, or in the middle of each cell, or, when each cell is spuriously bilocular, may be even at the dorsal sutures; a one-celled pericarp, that is formed from a syncarpous ovary, must however have the placentas strictly parietal, and placed at the margins of each carpel. A plurilocular pericarp may present an anomalous appearance by abortion. Thus there may be a central placenta by the disappearance of the sides of the carpels, or the placenta may be parietal (or rather at the dorsal suture), by the abortion of the sides and infloxed margins. On the other hand, an unilocular fruit may appear bi- or multilocular, by the placenta projecting membranous expansions or spurious dissepiments, all which must be carefully studied while pronouncing on the affinities of different plants.

Sometimes the placenta presents small prolongations, to which the seeds are fixed, and which are termed funiculi or podosperms (fig. 127, a). They are very evident in leguminous plants (fig. 104), in Cruciferae (fig. 110), and many others. In some they are very short and thick, but are in others slender and filiform. When the placenta or the funiculus expands at its point of attachment to the seed into a cup-shaped body of greater or less dimensions, this is termed an arillus. In the nutmeg (fig. 126) this arillus is red and fleshy, and cut unequally, and is called a mace. In Euonymus it covers the seed nearly all round (fig. 127); in Polygala it constitutes a little crown scarcely visible, at the base of the seed. But arillæ must not be confounded with integument of the seed. Thus the apparent appendage of the seed in Nepenthes (fig. 128), and the fleshy covering in the jasmine, are actually portions of the testa. An arillus is never developed till after the impregnation of the ovulum.

Seed.

The fruit is formed of two parts, the pericarp and the seed. What we have already gone over belongs to the former; we now proceed to the latter.

The seed is that part of a perfect fruit which is found in the internal part of the pericarp, attached to the placenta, or to its process, the funiculus. Every seed arises from a fecundated ovule, and therefore a naked seed can only be said to exist in those rare cases in which we have found a naked ovulum. Its essential character is to include an organized body, which, under favourable circumstances, is developed, and becomes a plant similar to that from which the seed was obtained. This body is called the embryo.

The position of the seed is of equal importance with that of the ovule; but as the terms are the same, we will not here repeat them.

In the ripe seed, what was the base of the ovulum becomes the base of the seed, and is called the hilum or umbilicus; the expansion of the raphe at the base of the nucleus becomes the chalaza; and the foramen is then called the micropyle (fig. 129, a). The testa (fig. 130, a) or primate sac sometimes disappears, and in others becomes thick; the tegmen (fig. 130, b) becomes usually incorporated with the testa, although it also in some plants disappears, and the two are generally known under the name of episperm. De Candolle has, without considering the ovule, but only regarding the ripe seed, followed Richard, and viewed the episperm as but one coat, the outer surface of which he has termed the spermoderm, the inner, the endopleura, and the intermediate portion, chiefly constituted by the spreading vessels of the raphe, the mesosperm. But the terms testa, tegmen, and raphe, are much less exceptionable, as they exhibit a relation to the structure of the ovulum. In some plants, as we have already said, the testa is fleshy; in others it is attenuated (fig. 128) into a long process, both of which may be mistaken for an arillus if proper attention be not paid. In the cotton-plant the whole surface is covered with hair-like expansions, when the seed is said to be wrapped in wool; or such hairs may be merely placed at one or both ends, when they constitute a coma. In some plants there are tumours on the testa, near the hilum, or at its opposite end, called strophiloæ or carunculae (fig. 131), the precise nature of which is unknown; but in some instances they appear to be dilatations of the chalaza, and in other cases they seem caused by a diseased state of the lips of the foramen or micropyle.

After impregnation, the nucleus undergoes great changes. The embryonic sac increases rapidly in every way, and often pushes back the cellular tissue or parenchyma of the nucleus, until this latter is reduced to a thin pellicle or membrane, and is ultimately filled with nothing but the embryo; in which case the membrane or sac itself either disappears entirely, or becomes incorporated with the parenchyma of the nucleus; and such plants are said to be destitute of albumen. In others, however, numerous globules are deposited on the inside of the sac, and these by their agglomeration constitute the endosperm (fig. 130, c), inclosed in which is the embryo (fig. 130, d). But the almost complete destruction of the parenchyma of the nucleus, and great development of the embryonic sac, does not always take place: for in some plants the sac is only enlarged sufficiently to contain the embryo, and the parenchyma is to be observed (fig. 130, e) in the ripe seed filled with globules of a starchy substance, and is thus converted into a body similar to the endosperm; but, from its different situation and mode of formation, is called by another name in order to distinguish it, viz. the perisperm. In a few plants both the endosperm and perisperm may be traced, as in the water-

Glossology. We adopt these terms in conformity with Brongniart; but we must observe that systematic writers use these words, as well as albumen, promiscuously. In common language these are applied to that body which is to be sometimes found between the embryo and the coats of the seed, and whose cellular substance is totally different from the organized embryo; but when botanists discovered, as in the water-lily, in the Scitaminea, Piperaceae, and some other tribes (fig. 132), not only the albumen, but a second body more immediately surrounding the embryo, they gave this the name of vitellus (Brown), or sac to the embryo (Lindley). Brown, however, afterwards showed that the vitellus was a kind of albumen, and that two kinds might exist in the same plant; and more lately Brongniart has suggested the propriety of employing expressions for each. Perhaps, on the whole, the term albumen, so generally adopted, might be used promiscuously for whichever is developed, and when it is necessary to distinguish both, to employ the terms endosperm and perisperm. We object to the use of the phrases vitellus, and sac to the embryo, because in many instances the albumen is entirely formed of this supposed sac or vitellus, and that if these words are to be adopted, they ought to be so constantly, and not in those cases only where both parts of the albumen are visible.¹

Albumen. The nature of the albumen is of great importance: it is farinaceous in the grasses; coriaceous and almost cartilaginous in many umbelliferæ; ruminated when it is wrinkled by reason of prolongations of the coat of the seed into the folds of the albumen, as in the Annonaceae; fleshy in most of the Euphorbiaceae; horny, as in the coffee-bean; or thin and membranous, as in many Labiatae.

Embryo. The embryo, as we have already said, is that organized body existing in the perfect seed after fecundation, which is destined to become a plant similar in all respects to the parent. It may either have or be without an albumen. When the albumen is present, and the embryo is applied to a point on its surface, it is said to be external (exterior); or if rolled round it, is peripheric. If shut up within the albumen, it is said to be inclosed (inclusus), and then may be either in the centre of the albumen (centralis), or not in the centre (eccentricus). Usually there is but one embryo in each seed; but plants occur in which there are more than one, as the Allium fragrans, mistletoe (fig. 133), &c.

As the embryo is already organized in the seed, and becomes a plant by mere development, so all the parts of the future plant must exist in it, although in a mere rudimentary state. It must, therefore, contain the rudiments of the root, of the stem, and of the leaves.

Radicle. This is the rudiment of the root (fig. 134, a), and by germination becomes a root. Such may either happen by the mere elongation of the exposed radicle, or by its bursting through a peculiar envelope, and protruding the root from within. Plants which have this cover to the radicle are termed endorhiza (fig. 135, a), and those which

have none exorhiza. Moreover, with very few exceptions, Glossology. and which are generally attended with other peculiarities, all exogenous plants are Exorhizae, and the endogenous, Pl. CXIV. Endorhizae; so that the radicle indicates the future structure of the stem. The radicle is usually quite distinct from the albumen; but in Cycadea and Conifera there is an organic connection between them. Hence Richard has raised these orders to a distinct class, and called them synorhiza.

The neck or collum is the line of separation between the radicle and the portion above it.

The Plumule (fig. 134, c), is what is destined to become the stem, and is therefore a rudimentary leaf-bud. It is by some divided into the cauliculus, or the portion between the radicle and the cotyledons, and the gemmule, or that which is situated above the cotyledons. If, however, our idea of the plumule be correct, the cauliculus corresponds to the neck or collum, while the gemmule is all that constitutes the true plumule. The plumule is often undistinguishable from the cotyledons, as in most of the exogenous plants that have albumen; while it is pretty evident in all exogenous without albumen. Among the endogenous the plumule is frequently rolled up in the cotyledon, and is not observable till after germination.

The cotyledons (fig. 134, b) are the primordial leaves of the plant; and as the plumule corresponds to a leaf-bud, so the cotyledons must be lateral, and situated at its base. We have already observed that in exogenous the leaves towards the bottom of the plant have a tendency to be opposite, and in endogenous alternate. In the embryo, then, where there can be but few leaves, we may naturally expect this disposition to be exact; and in fact it is so, exogenous having opposite or verticillate cotyledons, and endogenous alternate. In the former case they are usually two in number, whence exogenous plants are also called dicotyledonous; but sometimes there are more than two, as in the pine. These, however, being in a whorl, are mere modifications of the opposite cotyledons; and it has not been thought necessary to distinguish them from the dicotyledonous. When the cotyledons alternate, it is obvious that one only can be present at the base of the plumule; hence endogenous plants are called monocotyledonous. In some of these the first leaf of the plumule is at the same time slightly developed, whence botanists have supposed that some endogenous have two cotyledons. Their alternating with each other will, however, completely distinguish them from the dicotyledonous plants. Sometimes the two cotyledons of the exogenous are consolidated into one piece, as in Lecythus; in other plants, in which the leaves are reduced to mere scales, the cotyledons are also in a reduced state, and scarcely perceptible; but we have no right to infer, as some have done, that the embryo has none at all, or is acotyledonous. The cotyledons are erect, and placed close to each other, containing between them the plumule; they may be fleshy or foliaceous, narrow and semicylindrical, or broad and

¹ We have already stated Mirbel's view of the structure of the ovulum, and said that he has pointed out five distinct periods of development. In the first, the ovulum is scarcely perceptible, being a small pulpy conical substance, without a foramen. In the second, the exostome and endostome open, and they are to be perceived dilating insensibly until they have attained their maximum. The primine and secundine are manifest, as is also the tertia; but this only puts on the appearance of a round or conical cellular mass, of which the apex protrudes beyond the secundine. In the third period the primine and secundine, united together, increase much in size, have their double orifice closed, and consequently conceal the tertia, which becomes a membranous bag. In the fourth period the quartine arises from the internal surface of the nucleus, and the quintine is elongated into a narrow utricle attached by the one extremity to the point corresponding to the chalaza, and by the other to that near to the endostome. This is the period in which the ovule passes into the state of a seed. In the fifth period the quintine expands, the embryo exhibits the cotyledons as well as the radicle, and reaches its full size; and the substance of the albumen is formed either in the cells of the quintine, or in those of the quartine or tertia, when it is no longer possible to recognise the different envelopes of the ovule. These considerations of Mirbel, though apparently different, are in reality much the same as those of Brongniart, the quartine corresponding to the parenchyma of the embryo, and the quintine to the embryonic sac.

Glossology. flat; they may be plane, or plicate, or conduplicate (fig. 136), as in the cabbage, or convolute (fig. 139) or wrinkled; they may be entire, or lobed, or divided. They are said to be hypogeous when they remain under ground during germination; or epigeous, when, by an elongation of the collum, they rise out of the ground during that process, as in the bean.

Having thus explained these parts, we have to notice the direction of the embryo. It may be straight or curved. The radicle is the base of the embryo, and the summit of the cotyledon the apex. Now, as the hilum is the base of the seed, so, when the radicle points towards the hilum, the embryo has the same direction as the seed, and is said to be homotropous, and if at the same time it be straight, orthotropous; and when the cotyledons point to the hilum, it is inverted, or is called antitropous. When it assumes a horizontal direction, or lies across the seed, and has not the same direction with it, it is heterotropous. And, lastly, in a curved seed, both extremities of the embryo may be turned towards the hilum, and it has been then termed amphitropous (fig. 140); but this is a modification of the antitropous. It has been now discovered that the radicle, or base of the embryo, is always situated at the foramen of the ovule or micropyle of the seed, and that the other or cotyledonary extremity as invariably is directed towards the chalaza. If, then, the nucleus of the ovule have a contrary direction to the ovule itself, or if the micropyle be near the hilum, the embryo is homotropous; but if the nucleus be erect, or the micropyle be at the apex of the seed, it is antitropous; and if the micropyle be at the side of the seed, it is heterotropous. In a curved seed, where the micropyle and chalaza are brought nearly into contact, we have the amphitropous embryo.¹

The position of the hilum in regard to the radicle, or, as one may say, the direction of the embryo with respect to the seed, is called the spermic direction of the embryo, and is usually of great importance in defining most natural groups. Thus, in the horse-chestnut, where there are two seeds in each cell, of which the one is erect and the other inverted, or rather resupinate, the spermic direction of the embryo is the same in each. But in some tribes, as the Proteaceæ, the situation of the hilum on the seed appears to be variable; in which case we must resort to the pericarpic direction of the embryo, or its direction relatively to the fruit; and then, when it has the same direction as the fruit, it is erect, or the radicle is said to be inferior; and when it has an opposite direction, it is inverted, or the radicle is superior.

In a curved embryo, the relative position of the radicle and cotyledons is of great importance. Upon this De Candolle has founded his divisions of the cruciferæ. When the radicle is so bent that it touches the back of one of the cotyledons, it is said to be dorsal, or the cotyledons incumbent (fig. 137). When it is applied to the edge or cleft of the cotyledons it is lateral, or the cotyledons are adeumbent (fig. 138). The same terms are analogically applied, even when the radicle is very slightly bent, but where, by a continuation of the bend, it might touch the back or edge of the cotyledons, as in the genus Polygonum.

Arrangement of the Organs of Reproduction.

All the organs of reproduction being modified leaves,

it might be expected that their relative position must follow the same law; but whatever be the causes of aberration, we know that such is seldom the case. Although the number of the parts of each verticil, as the calyx, corolla, &c. be usually the same as that of the leaves of the plant, yet every sixth real leaf is placed under the first in a quinary spiral, while in the flower the general rule is, that the sixth, or the first petal, is placed between the first and the second leaf of the spiral, or, in other words, the petals usually alternate with the sepals. In the same way the stamens alternate with the petals, or are opposite to the divisions of the calyx; and, lastly, the carpels alternate with the stamens, and are opposite to the petals. Such is the general disposition when the parts of the flower are definite and present; and even although at times there be a multiplicity of stamens and styles, these arise from two or more rows of the staminal and carpellary leaves being developed, and can scarcely be said to affect the rule; and hence this is called the normal arrangement, and the symmetrical number. But exceptions nevertheless do occur. Thus petals have been found placed before sepals, stamens before the petals, or carpels before the stamens, as well as various combinations of the opposite with the alternating system; but no plant is, we believe, known in which all the parts are opposite. One of the most remarkable states is where the calyx and corolla do alternate, while the carpels are placed opposite to the sepals, and alternate with the petals. Brown, upon whom no irregularity of structure, even the most trivial, is lost, has, from these anomalies, suggested that the full or complete number of parts in both the stamens and the carpels is equal to that of the divisions of the calyx and corolla taken conjointly. In the monocotyledonous plants the complete number is the most prevalent, while it is rare among the dicotyledonous. The full number may, however, be seen in decandrous and octandrous plants. Most of the leguminosæ exhibit the complete number of stamens, but all the pistilla are abortive but one. Many of the genera that have the symmetrical number exhibit sometimes glands, and sometimes imperfect stamens between the perfect ones, which tend to show the extreme accuracy of Mr Brown's suggestion. In distinguishing genera, or even orders, it is often of importance to examine whether the arrangement be normal or not.

But there is another point worthy of consideration, and that is the relative position of the parts of the calyx to the axis of inflorescence, or to the subtending bractea. That part which is next the bractea is said to be anterior or inferior, while the opposite portion is superior or posterior. Now, one of the segments of the calyx is usually posterior, and a petal anterior; but in a very few groups of plants this position is reversed. When the symmetrical arrangement takes place, one of the sepals is, we believe, always superior, and it is evident that one of the carpels must be therefore anterior; and when the complete number is to be observed, one carpel must be also anterior, whatever be the situation of the sepals. But what is remarkable is, that though all the carpels be reduced by abortion to unity, the solitary simple pistillum that is left is the one which was inferior; so that in every possible case where the pistils are reduced to one carpel, that one is situated next the bractea, and consequently has its placentiferous margin, which is next the axis of the flower, superior.

¹ Mirbel takes notice of an anomaly in the Primulaceæ and Plantaginæ, arising from the unequal development of the parts of the ovule. Here the primine sac or testa, in consequence of an extraordinary increase on the extensible side of the ovule, and a gradual contraction of the opposite one, has by degrees the exostome turned towards the chalaza, so that at last, as in other curved seeds, the two extremities coalesce; but the extensible side of the secundine, and even of the terecine or nucleus, soon ceases to increase with the corresponding side of the primine; so that the embryo, of which the radicle remained close to the summit of the internal envelopes, becomes stationary with the endostome, whilst the exostome has pursued its course and does not stop till it reaches the base of the ovule.

Glossology. The examination, then, of a simple solitary pistillum will thus, although we may have before us no more than a flower without the bractea, determine the anterior and posterior situation of the lobes of the calyx or sepals. In the same way, when the division of the flower is quinary, and the carpels are reduced to two, the one is usually anterior, and the other posterior; or the solitary carpel being anterior, the addition to it is posterior. The only exception to this with which Mr Brown (who first laid any stress upon it) appears to be acquainted, was in some genera of Dilleniaceæ. Martius, and following him Lindley, have distinguished Gentianæ from their allies by the two carpels being placed right and left, and not anterior and posterior; but perhaps these able naturalists have not taken into due consideration the nature of the inflorescence and the consequent position of the bractea. At present, therefore, we do not consider that tribe as an exception. In Dilleniaceæ even, if we understand rightly the structure of the order, the apparent exceptions are caused by peculiarities upon which it were improper here to enter, nay even imprudent, for no one in Europe has had the same opportunities of studying the group as the distinguished naturalist to whom we have alluded.

With regard to the number of parts in each whorl of the flowers, the symmetrical number is five among the dicotyledonous, or sometimes four, while in the monocotyledonous it is three. When, however, we consider that, on the one hand, there may be a reduction of parts, by the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels, being much subject to abortion and union, and, on the other, an excess, either by multiplication, by more series than one of the same kind being developed, or by the combination of several flowers into one, we may easily conceive how few plants belong either to pentandria pentagynia, or to pentandria monogynia with a five-celled fruit.

Some botanists have supposed that the calyx and corolla form only one envelope; but this question seemed put to rest till the complete number of stamens and styles were found each equal to the conjunct number of both the floral coverings, when we have seen it revived. But we would suggest to those who may be inclined to adopt such an opinion, the difficulty of the case when petals are placed before the sepals. If these formed one envelope, then we must suppose the alternating petals abortive, and the apparent one a transformed stamen; and this supposition might be true if we never found a real stamen also opposite to the sepal and petal; but the Berberidæ form at once an exception. We are aware that such a difficulty might be partly overcome by viewing the calyx of the Berberidæ as a series of bracteolæ, so that we should have but one floral covering, and thus approach them to the Laurinæ; for, by the abortion of some stamens, there is nothing to prevent the others being opposite to the petal,

provided the petals were not also opposite to the sepals. Glossology. But we do not recollect that any one has placed the Berberidæ among the monochlamydeæ; and as for the theory in general, it has been permitted by common consent to be now almost forgotten.¹

Having now at length explained the reproductive organs of vascular plants, we cannot pass over the cellular. In all these, as we have already said, there are no spiral vessels; and if, as we imagine, such are essential to the formation of a fecundating pollen, and of an embryo, we shall have no difficulty of denying to the whole class a real seed. Some botanists have insisted on the presence of male and female flowers; but if these do exist, they are in so very modified a state, so small, and so obscure, that all cellular plants have been invariably termed cryptogamous or agamous, in opposition to vascular plants, or those with spiral vessels in which there are flowers, and hence called phanerogamous or phanogamous, from their sexes being evident and well formed. From the imperfection of the pollen and ovula (allowing such to exist) no embryo is formed, and thus cellulars are by some called arhizæ (without a radicle), and by others acotyledonous (without cotyledons); both of these terms, however, from their allusion to an embryo, are, in our opinion, subject to criticism, so that those at one time adopted by Richard, of embryonata (with sexes, seeds, and embryo), and exembryonata (without sexes, without seeds, and without an embryo), for the two grand divisions of vegetables, are more strictly correct. But if cellular plants have no seeds, how are they reproduced? Linnaeus has laid down the rule omne vivum ex ovo; but at that time the anatomical structure and physiology of the ovum was not so well understood; and there does not seem to be any doubt in the present day, that where spiral vessels are not present, a new individual may be formed by mere dilatation of some portion of the parent plant suited to the purpose, remotely similar to the multiplication of polypi in the animal kingdom, or even to spurious leaf-buds among vegetables. The portions thus capable of expansion have been by some termed seeds, from a general resemblance to true seeds, but are strictly called sporules. These sporules appear to give rise to a plant, in many cases, by elongating at some one point that seems to be only determined by contingent circumstances. In the ductile cellular plants (we allude chiefly to those ferns with a rhizoma, for these alone have been examined with sufficient care) the sporule elongates into what at first has the appearance of a short club-shaped body (fig. 141) with two or three transverse darker coloured streaks. This, then, by degrees expands into a flat cellular and somewhat folia-

¹ Since the above was written, we have received a work by M. Dunal of Montpellier on the floral organs. This distinguished botanist considers that all the parts of a flower in its perfect state may be referred to three systems, which are respectively composed of several verticils or series in the following order, the divisions of each verticil constantly alternating with those of the preceding verticil. I. Calyceal system, and always sterile. Of this there are three verticils, the first being sometimes called exterior sepals; the second is often termed by botanists an outer calyx; the third is the calyx of authors, and within its segments, and opposite to them, and often adhering with them, are an equal number of scales or lepalæ analogous to those in the next system, but which form only a part of this the third verticil; and these scales cover the whole inside of the calyx in many achlamydeæ. II. Male reproductive system, or androecium. This is formed of two ranks, an exterior and interior. Of the former, the first verticil furnishes the petals, in the axils of which are found scales or lepalæ, but both only form one series; the second verticil is of an equal number of parts, and alternate with them. The inner androecium has also two verticils. III. Female reproductive system, or gynoecium, consists likewise of two verticils, the first of which usually constitutes the fruit, and consequently has its divisions opposite to those of the calyx or third verticil of the calyceal system. Thus, the whole parts of the flower consist of nine series or verticils. The lepalæ or stamens found in the axils of the petals or first verticil of the exterior androecium, as well as the real stamens, are often separated into several, or, as Dunal terms them, choristæ, as in the almond. The fleshy discoid torus found in some plants he supposes to arise from the abortion of the inner androecium; a perigynous ring or disc, as in the Saxifragæ, he supposes to be formed by the union of the lepalæ and filaments of the outer androecium. We shall not here enter into a discussion on the merits of this theory, which it is difficult to understand without a reference to M. Dunal's figures; but shall merely observe that it is exceedingly ingenious, and, if properly substantiated, may explain several anomalies in the structure of flowers hitherto involved in considerable obscurity.

Glossology. ceous substance (fig. 142), setting out radicular fibres from its margin; and these being now capable of deriving immediate nourishment from the earth, the body of the sporule disappears. This flat substance appears by elongation to become the rhizoma; for soon after it is fixed to the ground, it emits, from a point on its upper surface (fig. 143), a thread, which is afterwards the stipes and the leafy part of the plant. Mosses germinate nearly in the same way; the clavate, and as if articulated, body arises from the sporule, and then elongates, branches, and forms the radicular portion, from some part of which the stem (as it is called) is projected, bearing the leaves (See Phascum serratum, fig. 144). Many Hepaticæ germinate as the mosses. Conferve (part of the Algae) arise like the roots of mosses, and these fibres afterwards more or less unite together. Most lichens germinate like the ferns, the dilated filament becoming the frond. The Fungi have not been well observed in this respect; but it seems probable that, in the greater number, the whole mass is formed by the mere expansion of the sporule. How in all these orders the sporules are formed from the cells of the parent plant, and how they are endowed with the power of expansion, is a difficulty not easily solved; but this, as well as the investigation of the vivifying principle of the pollen on the embryo in vascular vegetables, is a subject purely physiological, and does not fall within our limits. We shall, however, merely state the only analogy, and it is a distant one, we can trace between these. Sporules are brought into life by coming into contact with external moisture, while the granules of pollen may be viewed as sporules that require to be fully shaped and fostered by the juices in the interior of the embryonic sac.

Equisetaceæ. 1. Equisetaceæ.—The stems, and often the principal branches, of this tribe, are terminated by an ovate or conical spike, or rather raceme (fig. 145), composed of several verticillated scales (fig. 146), which are pedicellate, peltate, and angular. From the under side of these scales several wedge-shaped involucre or indusia project downwards, and burst longitudinally on the side next the pedicel, and discharge a multitude of globules. These globules (fig. 147), when seen under the microscope, consist of a central green compact spherical body, furnished at its base with four elongated clavate filaments, slightly united by pairs of an elastic nature, so that when moist they twist spirally round the central portion, but when dry unroll and expand themselves, bearing on them many minute granules. The use of these parts is unknown. Hedwig supposed the central body to be a pistillum, and that each pair of elastic filaments formed one stamen, whose pollen was the granules. Brongniart, tracing in these plants a general resemblance to Coniferae and Cycadeæ, presumes that the central body is a naked ovulum, and the filaments four grains of pollen united in pairs to its base. But although we admit either of these theories, we cannot regard the male organs as perfect; and the uniform structure of the supposed pistil or ovule militates against both hypotheses. Perhaps the central body may be viewed as a short seta or receptacle, analogous to that found in Ferns; the clavate filaments would then supply the place of a theca and annulus, while the minute granules would be sporules. This view is probable, if we consider each globe with the filaments as the result of a transformed frond.

Filices. 2. Filices.—The organs of reproduction, commonly called the fructification, of ferns, arise from veins either on the under surface of the frond, or at its margin. In some genera the frond, or a part of it, becomes deformed, and seems entirely covered by these organs. Each cluster of organs is called a sorus (fig. 148 and 149), and is sometimes protected by a membrane termed an involucre or

indusium (as in fig. 148), which is always attached to the Glossolæ veins. This indusium is said to be plane when it lies flat upon the sorus; or peltate when more or less circular, but depressed in its centre so as to form a kind of small pillar in the middle of the sorus; or reniform when it is the half of a peltate involucre, and thus resembling a half circle, attached by its centre on the one side of the sorus. It is squamiform or scale-like when it has the appearance of the scales of the frond. It may be continuous when the involucre of several sori are united into one uninterrupted line, and is single or double according as it extends from the vein on one or on both sides of the sorus. Thus a peltate involucre is double, and consists of two reniform ones. An involucre is usually superior, but is sometimes inferior, or placed under the sorus, and surrounds it. It may either open outward (exterius dehiscens) in an opposite direction to the midrib, or inwards (interius dehiscens) towards the midrib; and when it is inferior, may burst from the apex into laciniæ or into two valvæ, or the upper part may disappear, leaving the lower cup-shaped (involucrum pateriforme). Sometimes the part of the vein to which the reproductive organs are attached is projected from the frond into the sorus, and is then called a receptacle. The sori may be fixed to the middle of a vein, or at its bifurcation, or at its extremity. They are round, or linear, or reniform, distinct or confluent, or continuous. They consist of groups of capsules; these, called more properly thecæ (fig. 149), are either pedicellate, with the stalk passing round them in the form of an elastic ring or annulus, or are sessile, and usually destitute of such a ring; the former are called annulatae, the latter exannulatae. These thecæ either burst open irregularly, or into two valves, or on the opposite side from the ring (fig. 150) when it is present. The sporules seem arranged without order in the interior. The sori may be considered as a group of fronds, the stalk of the theca as a modified stipe, the annulus as the midrib or rachis, and the theca itself as the transformed frondose portion. This highly probable view was first, we believe, suggested by Mr Lindley. Hedwig and others, who have wished to discover sexual organs among ferns, have been much puzzled, each having a different opinion, though none seems as yet worthy of notice.

3. Marsiliaceæ.—The fructification is situated at or Marsiliaceæ. very near the root or rhizoma; in one plant along the petiole of the frond or leaf. It consists of a somewhat globular involucre (fig. 151 and 152), of a leathery or membranous texture. This, unlike the ferns, does not open, and is probably composed of a transformed frond, the veins of which give rise to one or more partitions; hence the involucre appears to have sometimes several cells. Attached to the veins or partitions are small bodies, apparently of two different kinds. Of these, in Marsilea (fig. 152), the one (fig. 153, a) is an oval-stalked theca, containing corpuscles, some large and roundish, others minute and angular. The other kind are very small bags filled with minute granules, and attached (fig. 153, b), several together, to the stalk of the theca. The theca, by the sexualists, has been considered a pistillum, and the bags as anthers. In Pilularia the structure is much the same, only the supposed anthers occupy the upper portion of the involucre, and the thecæ the lower. In Satvinia the anthers consist of grains, attached by long threads to a central column; in Azolla they are angular, and inserted upon a central body that occupies the upper half of the involucre, while the lower half is filled with a turbid fluid, and the thecæ are placed within a different involucre.

4. Lycopodiaceæ.—Here the organs of reproduction are Lycopodiaceæ. axillary or in spikes, and are composed of roundish cap-

Glossology. sules or thecæ, that are from one to three celled, and one to three valved, or indehiscent; the thecæ are usually of two kinds, the one (fig. 154) containing a minute pulverulent matter (fig. 155, and magnified, fig. 156), and placed towards the upper ends of the shoots; the other (fig. 157) containing granules or corpuscles (fig. 157, a), of a much larger size, and situated on the lower parts of the shoots. In Isoetes, where the leaves are all radical, the outer leaves contain in their axils the granular, the inner the pulverulent organs. The pulverulent have been called by some anthers; the granular, pistilla. The latter certainly do germinate, but Willdenow asserts that the former do so likewise. Gaertner also supposes both to contain seeds or spores, and that there is no difference of sex.

5. Musci. Here the organs are likewise of two kinds; the one, termed by Hedwig and many of his followers anthers, being cylindrical or fusiform stalked bags (fig. 158), that contain a pulverulent matter mixed with others that are empty and jointed; the other, capsules or thecæ (fig. 159, 160, 161, 162). These latter, when young, are seated on a receptacle, which, from its being occasionally provided at the base with several small leaves, called a perichætum, may be viewed as a deformed termination of the stem or branch. This theca is protected by a more or less membranous substance, called a calyptra (fig. 160 a, 163 b), loose from the theca, but attached around its base to the receptacle (fig. 161 a); the calyptra has by some been considered a style. The capsule or theca, at first green and small, soon begins to swell, and becomes attenuated at the base (fig. 160 b, 163 c), into a pedicel, called a seta, which is often of considerable length; but in two genera, Sphagnum (fig. 168) and Andraea (fig. 161), is entirely wanting. By this attenuation of the theca, and formation of a seta, and by the increasing magnitude of the theca itself, the calyptra is torn from its attachment to the receptacle, and may be soon perceived resting on the upper part of the theca (fig. 160). When this in maturity is split up on the one side (fig. 160), it is said to be dimidiate, and if entire, or with several short clefts (fig. 164), mitiform; in some, as in Sphagnum and its affinities, it remains entire for a considerable period, but afterwards splits and appears dimidiate, when it is difficult to say under which it ought to be arranged; but, notwithstanding, the nature of the calyptra is now acknowledged by all to be a good natural generic distinction. The surface of the calyptra may be smooth, or striated, or sulcate (furrowed), and may be glabrous, or clothed with hairs. In some polytricha there is in addition an outer hairy calyptra, but this is formed of abortive leaves entangled together, and scarcely attached to the inner and true one. Upon the removal or fall of the calyptra, the theca presents itself, sometimes globose, or ovate, or oblong. In some it is straight; in others, the one side is longer than the other, so that the theca inclines to one side, and is drooping or cernuous, which must not be confounded with a pendulous theca, caused by a curvature of the extremity of the seta. In a cernuous theca, the shorter or under side, instead of being uniformly contracted and smooth like the upper, has sometimes the contraction at one point at its base, and the protuberance thus caused is then called a struma. In all but Andraea, which has four valves (fig. 161), the theca is entire. Between the seta and the theca is often a fleshy expansion called apophysis (fig. 159 a), this always containing, at least when young, a pulpy mass, but no spores, and being a mere dilatation of the top of the seta. The theca usually opens (fig. 162) horizontally near its apex; the upper part is called an operculum or

lid (fig. 162 a): in some genera, however, this lid does not separate from the theca (fig. 161 b), and does not even show any indication of the suture. The operculum is of various shapes, but the terms applied are common to other plants. "The stoma, or mouth of the theca, is either naked, as in Gymnostomum and Hedwigia (fig. 162); or generally furnished with a series of cilia called teeth (dentes), which may be either in a single series, as in Sphagnum, Grimmia, and Dicranum (fig. 165); or in a compound or double series (fig. 166), as in Hookeria, Hypnum, and Bryum. In all mosses which possess a peristomium, it arises from the surface of the stoma, or springs from it within the margin and a little below the summit of the theca. In the latter case the teeth are generally more or less connected by a membrane, which not unfrequently rises to a level with the stoma, or even above it. Sometimes all vestiges of the teeth then disappear, thus presenting the aspect of a truly membranaceous peristome, as is seen in Diphyseum (fig. 167) and Leprostomum; and in such as have a double peristome of regular teeth, the inner one is formed by this membrane, split into a fixed number of attenuated segments. Sometimes, though rarely, the stoma is furnished with a dense horizontal epiphragma, not accompanied with teeth (as is the case with the epiphragma of Polytrichum), an instance of which occurs in Lyellia; or, what is still more curious, is supplied with a pencil of fine capillary cilia, as is exemplified in Dawsonia.¹ The number of teeth is always some multiple of four. Outside of the teeth, and between the edge of the theca and the operculum, is to be observed in some plants an elastic ring or annulus (fig. 165 a), the presence or absence of which, however, does not appear to be of great importance. "Within the theca (fig. 168 and 169), and attached to its sides and base by a cellular pulp intermingled with very slender filaments, is placed a membrane which forms a complete lining. Proceeding from the stoma or mouth downwards, it is continued to the base, when it is reflected upwards, forming a central column, till on a level with the mouth of the theca. This part has been generally denominated a columella (fig. 161, c), and is very different from the placentæ in cotyledonous plants, to which it has been sometimes compared. A bag is thus formed between the columella, and that part of the same organ which lines the theca, in which the spores are situated. The whole is closed by a very subtle membranous expansion, stretching between the summit of the lining and the columella, which (although in Gymnostomum it is often of a stronger texture), by the maturing of the theca, and separation of the operculum, lacerates, and in most instances becomes evanescent. On the open apex of the columella is fixed another membrane, more or less of a conical form, and of a somewhat different texture and colour, which by age often shrinks to the appearance of a mere lid to its orifice. Sometimes it is more rigid (as in Sphagnum, Tayloria, and Gymnostomum Donianum), and is then not unfrequently called an exerted columella. It also in some cases adheres closely to the summit of the interior of the operculum (as in Gymnostomum Heinii, and Hypnum dendroides), which it raises or depresses according to the degree of dryness or humidity to which it is exposed. It is this part which we conceive to be the stigma of Palisot de Beauvois, but which we propose to designate by the more appropriate name of opercular membrane.² Mr Lindley has with great ingenuity lately suggested, that the calyptra may be understood as a convolute leaf, the operculum another, the peristome one or more whorls of

¹ Arn. and Grev. in Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iv. p. 121.

² Ibid. vol. iv. p. 114.

Glossology. minute flat leaves, and the theca itself to be the excavated distended apex of the stalk, with which we agree; but he, in addition, supposes that the cellular substance of this dilated apex separates in the form of sporules, an hypothesis started by Richard,¹ and agreed in by Brown and Hooker. To this, however, there are, we conceive, many grand objections. As to the supposed anthers, whether the contained powder be imperfect pollen, or, as others say, a second kind of sporules, too little is yet known to render them even of use for the characters of genera. Meese asserts he saw them germinate like sporules; and Dr Roth presumes them to be analogous to the gemmæ, or buds of other plants formed by a superabundance of juices.

Hepaticæ. 6. Hepaticæ.—The reproductive organs are here of several kinds, but bear the strongest resemblance to those of the mosses. The theca is, however, destitute of an operculum. In Jungermannia (fig. 170) it splits into four longitudinal valves, and is supported by a delicate membranous peduncle or seta (a) arising from the frond; the whole, when very young, is moreover protected by a delicate calyptra (b); but this does not loosen its attachment to the receptacle or portion of the frond, but splits at the apex to permit the elongation of the seta. This calyptra is placed within another (fig. c) either single or double cover, less delicate, and more of the texture of the frond, which may be termed a rolea, but is generally, though very improperly, called a calyx; and this, which is of different forms, however insufficient for a generic distinction, is admirably suited for specific characters. When the theca bursts, the sporules are found to be intermixed with elastic spiral filaments or clateres (fig. 170, d). But besides the theca, minute spherical cellular bodies have been discovered in many species; and these are supported by short stalks, and have been by some termed anthers. Monoclea (fig. 171) bears a very great resemblance to jungermannia; the rolea is however less distinct, but the calyptra (corolla of some) is considerably elongated (a), and tubular. The theca is borne by a seta (b); it does not burst into four valves, but splits up on one side (c), and presents a central filiform body (d), called a columella, about which are the sporules, mixed with clateres (fig. 172). In Targionia, the rolea arises from the under side of the frond, and of a texture between membranous and coriaceous, marked by a vertical prominent line, by which it separates into two valves: within this are several slender bodies, supposed by some to be anthers; and one spherical, covered by a calyptra, which bursts vertically. Within this, again, is the theca, upon so very short a stalk as not to be, when mature, protruded beyond the volva. The theca appears to burst irregularly, has no columella, and the sporules are mixed with clateres. In Marchantia (fig. 173), the volva (here called usually a common receptacle) is peltate (a) and on a stalk; it is either flat or conical, and bears on its under surface, not one calyptra, as in the other genera we have noticed, but several, each of which (fig. 174, a), bursting at its apex, that is, the point nearest the frond, discloses a theca (b), which opens by eight short teeth or valves, united below, and contains sporules and clateres. Other peltate volvas or receptacles, however, occur, having merely oblong bodies imbedded vertically in the disk, and conjectured to be anthers; and besides these there are sometimes little open cups, sessile on the upper surface of the frond, that contain minute gemmæ. Fimbraria differs so very slightly from Marchantia, that we may pass it over. In Anthoceros (fig. 175) there appears to be no volva; the calyptra (often called a calyx) arises (a) from the frond, and is tu-

bular; the theca, supported by a stalk or seta, is linear, Glossolo and splits (b) into two valves exhibiting a central columella (c), to which the sporules are attached by means of very short straight filaments (fig. 176). There are no clateres. The structure of Spharocarpus is involved in some doubt. We have never had the opportunity of analysing good specimens, but the following seems, from a comparison of the different results of other botanists, to approach nearly to the truth. The whole upper surface of the frond is covered with ellipsoidal volvas (called in this genus follicles or calyces). These are truncated and perforated at the apex; they are said by some to split into two valves, but this arises from such botanists having only looked at Micheli's figure, in which they are represented cut open by the knife. The volva contains at the bottom a very few linear bodies, the supposed anthers, and one other, the theca, which becomes swollen and spherical, and filled with sporules, destitute of clateres, according to Micheli, though others of less note state that they are present; the calyptra, if present, is closely attached to the theca, and only indicated by a small point at its extremity. Riccia (fig. 177) has small excavations in the frond (fig. 178), in which the volva, often scarcely perceptible, rests, containing the theca and calyptra, similar to that of Spharocarpus: the sporules are unmixed with clateres. There is thus among the Hepaticæ such a variety among the organs of reproduction, that no common character is almost to be derived. The most remarkable point of structure in these plants is the spiral filament, as it is called, lying among the sporules within the theca. This consists of a single fibre, or of two, twisted spirally in opposite directions, so as to cross each other, and contained within a very delicate transparent perishable tube. They have a strong elastic force, and have been supposed to be destined to aid in the dispersion of the sporules; a most inadequate end for so curious and unusual an apparatus.²

7. In the Algae, the sporules, sometimes named granules, Algae are variously situated. In some they are contained in distinct capsules or thecæ (fig. 179); in others, in what are termed tubercles or conceptacula (fig. 180), which are either free or imbedded in the frond, or in a leafy process arising from it; or a multitude of these may be collected close together, into what is then called a common receptacle (fig. 181); and these receptacles in some assume the form of a pod (siliqua). The sporules or granules are also often naked, and immersed in the frond (fig. 182); or very rarely external, and surrounded by an open involucre (fig. 183). Sporules with and without a covering (theca or tubercle) frequently exist in the same species, but usually in different individuals. Some genera are tubular, and have the sporular matter scattered or arranged in some determinate manner in their interior (fig. 184); others are gelatinous (fig. 185), either wholly or portions of them, containing naked sporules, which are sometimes mixed with pellucid filaments, and sometimes arranged so as to form moniliform or beaded threads (fig. 186). We, along with Agardh, unite to the Algae the Characeæ of authors; and in these there are two kinds of organs (fig. 187). The one (fig. 188) is a nucule, capsule, or theca, sessile, oval, solitary, and unilocular, of two membranes, of which the outer is remarkably thin and transparent, and is terminated by five teeth. The inner one is opaque, and of a thicker texture, and is formed of five narrow valves twisted spirally; the interior is filled with minute granules, but whether these be distinct sporules, or only parts of one large disintegrated sporule, is not yet determined; but each nucleus, on germinating, has been observed to give

Glossology. rise to only one plant. The second kind of organs has been termed globules. Of these the external tunic is very pellucid and indehiscent; the inner seems formed of thin triangular scales, composed of radiating tubes, enclosing a coloured, spherical, pulverulent matter, and the interior of the globule is filled with a multitude of long, simple, crowded filaments, that are diaphonous, and marked with transverse striae, as in Oscillatoria and Lynngbya. These filaments appear to be attached to the central portion of the inside of each scale. Smith has arranged Chara in monandria monogynia, conceiving the globule to be an anther, and the tubercle a germ, and the five teeth a five-lobed stigma; but the filaments of the supposed anther show the absurdity of such an hypothesis. Walroth asserts that the globules germinate.

Lichens. 8. Lichens.—The organs of reproduction (see fig. 189 and 190) are chiefly of one kind, termed apothecia or shields, or partial receptacles. These are formed by nuclei of the medullary substance usually bursting through the cortical portion, which is often raised up, and forms a cup or border round the nucleus; the spores or gonyles are contained in thecae or small membranous tubes, either simple, or composed of several placed end to end: these thecae in some lie free in the nucleus, but in others are previously collected into other cases, termed asci. The portion of the nucleus in which the thecae are inserted, by exposure to the air becomes usually harder, and of a somewhat cartilaginous nature, and then often separates from the apothecia. It is called nucleus proliferus if the whole of the nucleus becomes so, but lamina prolifera (fig. 191) is applied when only the upper stratum contains the thecae. The apothecia are either sessile on the thallus, or connected with it by a narrow neck or stalk called podetium. The podetia are in some species cup-shaped at the apex, and, instead of one, bear several apothecia on the margin. This cup is then termed a scypha, and the lichens scyphiferous (fig. 192). When the apothecia are long and linear, they are by some called lirellae; and even a round apothecium may be formed by the plaiting or convolution of a lirella. In a few genera the nucleus proliferus is not protruded beyond the thallus, but is contained within it, merely presenting a small opening or ostiole (fig. 193, 194). Independent of the apothecium, there are other parts which appear to have the power of reproduction. These are called soredia when they contain a mass of free pulverulent bodies, usually of a whitish colour, that are scattered over various portions of the thallus; and puleinuli when they resemble spongy or amorphous excrescences.

Fungi. 9. Fungi.—This tribe borders on the lichens so very closely, as that part of both have been separated into a distinct order called Hypoxyla, for which, however, there does not seem to be any necessity. Indeed Agardh remarks of many fungi, that if they had a thallus, they would be lichens. We have already said of them, that the whole plant may be considered as a mass of reproductive matter; and we shall therefore give as short a sketch of them as possible; but, on account of their diversity of structure, we shall be obliged to take them by groups. Brongniart regards the fungi as a class, and divides them into orders; but we are rather inclined to view them as one order, and will take Brongniart's sections, with a slight change of names, as sub-orders.

1. The first of these, and most nearly related to the lichens, are the Hypoxyla. Here the spores are immersed in a hard and ligneous receptacle or peridium, which opens more or less regularly. Of these there are three tribes. 1. In the Sphaeriaceae (fig. 195) there is a terminal pore or cleft, by which the thecae escape in the form of a mucilage (fig. 196): 2. In Phacidiaceae (fig. 197 and 198)

there are several clefts or valves, and the thecae remain fixed: 3. In Cytisporaceae their orifice is round, but the spores appear naked, and to have no thecae.

2. Agaricoideae. Here the whole plant is somewhat fleshy or corky, and called a receptacle. It is partly covered by a membrane that bears the spores, which are rarely naked, and scattered on it, but usually inclosed in membranous thecae, and inserted in it. There are three distinct tribes. 1. The Agaricaceae (fig. 199) have the membrane distinct, and limited to a particular part of the plant, with the spores almost always inclosed in thecae, a sub-tribe of which, Clavariaceae, has straight, club-shaped, simple, or branched receptacles, with the membrane covering nearly the whole; another, the Agaricaceae, have a pileus, the lower surface of which contains the sporuliferous membrane constituting lamellae or gills in Agaricus, and tubes in Boletus; and the Helvellaceae have a pileus, with the membrane on its upper surface. 2. The Tremellaceae are soft and gelatinous, and of an irregular shape; they have no thecae, and the spores are either scattered on the surface of the membrane, or issue from below it. 3. In the Clethrineae (fig. 200) the spores are mixed with a mucilaginous substance (the sporuliferous membrane), either inclosed in the cells, or on the surface of the plant which arises from a volva.

3. Lycoperdaceae. Here the naked spores, at least when young, are inclosed in firm, or vesicular, or filamentous thecae, that are again included in the interior of a peridium of a fleshy or membranous nature. 1. Sclerotineae (fig. 201 and 202). This tribe has the peridium indehiscent, and filled with a compact cellular substance or agglutinated thecae, in which are the spores very indistinct. 2. Angiogastris (fig. 203 and 204). Here the peridium, which opens sometimes by means of an operculum, incloses one or more secondary peridia or peridiola (or thecae, but by no means of a membranous nature, as in many other fungi) filled with spores. 3. Lycoperdineae (fig. 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211), where the peridium is usually pedicellated and of a determinate shape, opening regularly, and inclosing the spores, which soon burst from the thecae, having the appearance of numerous filaments mixed with the spores. 4. Fuligineae (fig. 212, 213), in which the peridium is sessile, irregular, readily decaying or crumbling into dust. The thecae are filamentous, few in number, and, as in the last, soon losing their spores, which appear mixed with them.

4. Mucedineae. In these there is no peridium, while the spores are naked, and supported by filaments more or less branched and interwoven, in which it is probable they had been at some period contained in all the species. There are five tribes. 1. Isarieae (fig. 214 and 215), where the filaments are united one with another in a regular and constant manner, and have the spores scattered on their surface. 2. Byssaceae (fig. 216, 217, 218), where the filaments are distinct, though often entangled, opaque, without joints, and exhibiting the spores on their exterior; or jointed, the joints breaking off and forming thecae containing spores. In some genera of this tribe no spores have been yet discovered, which has induced some distinguished botanists to suspect several of them to be imperfect states of other plants. 3. Mucedineae (fig. 219, 220, 221). Here the filaments are distinct or loosely entangled, transparent, fugacious, and often articulated; and the spores are included in the ultimate joints of the filaments, or in small lateral branches, which afterwards separate, or even in the interior of the filaments, without joints, from which they quickly escape, and appear scattered on their surface. 4. Mucorineae (Plate CXVI. fig. 222, 223). The filaments here are transparent, jointed, fugacious, and inflated at their extremity into a mem-

Glossology. branous vesicle, enclosing the sporules. 5. Phyllerineæ (224). Here the filaments are simple, without joints, and contain sporules which do not readily escape; they form tufts on the surface of living leaves, and not dead ones, as in most fungi.

5. Uredaceæ. In these the thecæ or sporidia are formed of short, continuous, or articulated filaments, which are either free, or supported on a very short and simple stalk, thus scarcely exhibiting the least trace of the filaments observable in the last sub-order. These sporidia spring from under the epidermis or its surface, of either living or dead plants, and are frequently surrounded by a false peridium, formed by the development of the epidermis, or supported on a fleshy or fibrous base, produced by the thickening of the parenchyma of the plant, upon which it is a parasite. There are four tribes. 1. Stilbosporineæ (fig. 225), where the sporidia are articulated, and arise from dead plants. 2. Bactrideæ. Here the sporidia are simple or unicellular, opaque, fixed or scattered, enclosing numerous extremely slender sporules, which escape towards maturity. This tribe, however, is scarcely either well understood or defined, and perhaps belongs to some other sub-order. 3. Fusideæ (fig. 226, 227), in which the sporidia are not jointed, are indehiscent, and spring from the epidermis of dead vegetables. 4. Uredineæ (fig. 228), where the sporidia are developed under the surface of the epidermis of living plants.

We have not given the above as a defined arrangement of fungi, but with the view of exhibiting the structure of each of the tribes into which it seems advisable, with some slight alterations, that this extensive order be divided. Much difficulty is often created to the student of these plants, by the diversity of terms to apparently the same thing. Thus, sporidia and thecæ each mean sporule cases; and, on the other hand, sporidia and sporules seem confounded. Hence in one tribe it is said, "though they are called sporidia, it rarely happens that the microscope is able to detect the included sporules; the student therefore must expect the sporidia to appear without sporules."¹ But we ourselves are by no means sure that in any instance do the sporules exist without thecæ. They may be at one time included in filaments, which serve them for thecæ, and must be viewed as filamentous thecæ more or less united to each other end to end; or they may be contained in the cells of the plant, the cells thus being thecæ; or the thecæ may be so collected as to form a membrane;—but we do not conceive the apparently naked sporules of some species to be any proof of the original absence in them of sporule cases. In this way we think, also, the whole order may be considered in two ways, either as elementary or as compound bodies; the former including such as have no receptacle, and the whole plant constituted of filamentous thecæ; and the latter with a receptacle, in which light the peridium of the Hypoxyla and Lycopodiaceæ must be regarded. In studying the epiphyllous tribes with the intention of describing them, much attention ought to be paid, although almost entirely hitherto neglected, to the structure of the vegetable upon which the parasite grows; for colours, of great importance in discriminating the larger fungi, may be much influenced by the action of the juices of the plant on which it is formed, and can be here of little use; and even the shape of the peridium, and sorus or cluster of plants, must depend on the texture of the leaf from under the epidermis of which it springs, and through which it bursts. Parasitical fungi may thus, by growing on different plants, assume very different aspects both in colour and form;

and one cannot too much reprobate the manner in which at present many eminent mycologists describe as distinct species every different appearance that presents itself, without previously making themselves masters of the numerous laws by which cryptogamic plants are caused to vary.

We thus close what we had to say on Glossology. We have been more particular than we at first intended, in this department of botany; but it was absolutely necessary to give a lengthened view of the formation of the different parts, as well as the names applied respectively to each. For the Linnæan or artificial system such was not requisite; but the great difficulty as well as beauty of the natural system is to view plants analogically,—to consider them, not in their modified, but in their primitive state,—not in the imperfect state in which they appear to our eyes, but in that in which we should see them if fully developed; thus enabling us to exert our minds, and to trace affinities, of which the mere practical botanist can have no conception.

II.—PHYTOGRAPHY.

Under the head of Phytography, the first thing we have to notice is the

Nomenclature.

The necessity of some universally received name to each plant, and of some laws on the subject, has been acknowledged by every one who has made botany a study. Without such, every country would give a peculiar name, and the pursuit would thus become extremely intricate. This alone gives zoology and botany great advantages over mineralogy, in which not only is there no classification of genera and species according to the Linnæan rules, but every species receives a name according to the fancy of the describer, whether or not it has already received one from others.

To obviate such inconveniences, it was at first in use to give to a plant the common name by which it was known in Greece and Italy; but as the knowledge of vegetables extended, this was found to be almost impracticable, both because new plants unknown to the ancients were discovered, and because, from the prodigious number, no person could recollect them all. When, therefore, some resemblance between each other was observed, botanists began to say that one was a second genus or kind of such a plant, as kali alterum genus, or that it was a smaller, or a yellow flowered kind, as circumstances might be; and as the number of species augmented, these distinguishing phrases were of necessity made longer, so that, as we find sometimes in Plukenet, a name might consist of twenty words. The inability of the memory to recollect them struck Linnæus forcibly, till at length he proposed that the name of every plant should consist of two words; the one analogous to the name of a family among mankind, the other to the baptismal name of an individual; the former he called the generic, the last the specific. This ingenious method has been termed the Linnæan nomenclature, and has been admitted by almost all botanists ever since it was first published in 1753. By it, not only is the memory aided, and enabled to retain the names of many thousands of plants; but, by the same generic name being applied to such as have a certain affinity with each other, that name must suggest to the mind a relationship of which we could not otherwise have an idea. Two inconveniences, no doubt, attend this method; first, it holds out,

¹ Grev. Flor. Ed. p. xxv.

Phyto-graphy. from its simplicity, a temptation to a young botanist to acquire merely the names of plants, without knowing any thing of their character; secondly, from every botanist not viewing the affinity of a plant in the same way, it often happens that the same individual has been placed in different genera, and consequently may have possibly received four or five different generic names. Various plans have been proposed to remove these difficulties; but they have been each, one after another, abandoned.

Species. With regard to what is a species or genus, an order or a class, perhaps no two botanists of the present day are at one; and our limits do not permit us to investigate this point with the attention that some may think it merits. All that nature presents to our eyes consists of individuals; but when we assert that one individual is the same, or so similar to another that we think them the same, we give way to our own thoughts, for others may form a different opinion. At the same time many resemblances are so striking as to be obvious to almost all; and when these are confirmed by their seed producing others bearing the same resemblance, we have the idea of what is termed a species. A species, therefore, is a collection of all those individuals which have a greater resemblance between themselves than to other plants, and which may by fecundation, one by another, produce fertile individuals, which in their turn reproduce others; and by reversing this procedure, we may infer that all these have arisen at one time from one individual. Varieties, again, are departures from the common appearance of the species, and may arise from the seed growing in different climates, subjected to greater or less humidity or heat; or various other causes may be assigned, some of which seem even to produce a permanent effect on the plant, so that after several generations scarcely one seed will reproduce the type of the species. Some botanists most unadvisedly have amused themselves of late years by raising these to the rank of species; but "this eternal splitting of hairs is the bane of natural history, is unworthy of science, and its advocates will one day have to lament that they stood sponsors to such a spurious and equivocal offspring. One tenth of the sagacity they discover in the infinitesimal division of species, directed to other points, would pile up a mountain of knowledge for future use, and immortalize their own names, which, under this present puerile system, will perish with the ephemeral names they are imposing upon undistinguishable things."¹

For long it was considered that a hybrid, or cross between two species, could not reproduce a plant, or rather, we ought to say, perfect a seed capable of vegetation; and this test was considered of importance as to the limit of species. But it is now supposed to be of little or no use; the hybrid Pelargoniums, or cape-geraniums, perfecting seed, and multiplying as easily as the parent plants. These plants ought never to be acknowledged by botanical writers. They are contrary to nature, and ought not to be received into any system of nature. They are only fit to amuse the eye and taste of the vulgar and uninitiated. And even if a florist wishes to gain any credit, it were well that he sedulously observed from what the hybrid was obtained; and instead of giving to it an absurd name, as is too often the case, or even a name as if it were a species, he ought to give one that is compounded of those of the two parents. Linnaeus, however, laid it down as a maxim, that no hybrid produced perfect seed; and he supported this by many proofs. Those naturalists, therefore, who still adhere to this law, are forced to draw the conclusion, that the supposed hybrid Pelargoniums and

heaths are mere cross variations of varieties of one species; but whichever be the true theory (and we ourselves, if our physiological ideas on the subject be correct, can see no cause why a perfecting hybrid may not be formed between any two plants which have the same anatomical structure of anthers and pistilla), whether these be hybrids or variations, no one has any right to expect space to be occupied by them in a botanical treatise. In so far only as they tend to improve our knowledge of anatomy and physiology, the man of science has to do with them.

Having formed some conception of a species, we may define a genus to be a collection of those species which have among themselves a more striking resemblance in their organs, than they have to the organs of others; it therefore bears the same relation towards species as a species does towards individuals. But as it is impossible for all the species of a genus to agree in every organ, so a selection must be made from those that may be considered of more importance than others. But no certain rule can be laid down, farther than that the organs of reproduction being found least liable to variation, are those alone admitted into a generic character. In some genera the stamens, in others the petals, calyx, pistilla, or the fruit, are found to be most convenient for the character; but upon the relative value of these, even in the same genus, different opinions are frequently entertained. A genus may therefore be limited by one in a different way from that adopted by another; and hence we cannot be surprised to find that one botanist places a species in one genus, others in another, according as each thinks it suits best with the collective character. A genus may be also divided into sections, according to some difference of structure in its organs; so that when this difference has been thought of importance, other botanists have raised each of the sections to be a new genus. Thus every day we find that plants, though still retaining their specific names, being married, as it were, into another house, receive new generic appellations. Such is no doubt of great disadvantage to the science, but is unavoidable, from the increasing number of known plants. Nor does it appear that the number of genera is increased in proportion to the discovery of new species. Thus Linnaeus, by distributing 7540 species in 1260 genera, ranked on an average only six to each; but, notwithstanding the modern subdivisions in the catalogue of Persoon in 1807, there are about ten to each, and this only contains the phanerogamous vegetables; and in Steudel's Nomenclator Botaniceus, published in 1821-24, there are of the phanerogamous 3376 genera, and 39,684 species, or about eleven to each; and if we add to these 557 genera, and 10,965 species of cryptogamia, we shall have an average of upwards of thirteen to each genus.

What has been said of genera is applicable to natural Orders, families or orders, these containing such genera as have a great resemblance to each other, and are either so closely connected that they cannot be removed, or are separated into groups only for the greater convenience of study. When, however, two or more of these orders bear a closer affinity respectively to each other than to the others to which they are also allied, it has been found useful to term them tribes of one order; but it is then difficult to distinguish between a compound order of this kind and a class. The number of genera in each order is of no importance. There may be hundreds, and there may be but one, solitary but forming a connection between other orders. In general, however, from the consideration that nature forms one continuous chain, we may ex-

¹ Lond. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 65.

Phytography. Pect that links remain to be discovered between such isolated genera and the others; and indeed, if the whole of nature were laid open to us, we might infer, notwithstanding all our present labours, that the machinery of orders and genera will be found entirely artificial, and existing only in our own conceptions. Not that it is of no value; for it is of the greatest use, to enable us to bring together in our mind plants resembling each other; and therefore that system must be preferred which tends most to this end.

Classes. When several natural orders are collected together, having many similarities of structure and appearance, they form what are called classes. But very little has hitherto been done as to giving us a knowledge of these. The Geraniaceæ (as defined by S. Hilaire), Rutaceæ (as collected by Ad. Jussieu), Tiliaceæ, and some others, may be adduced as examples. But in botanical systems, where the order must be placed in a linear series, and cannot be described, each at their several points of connection, classes, unless in one or two instances, have been disregarded, and merely the constituent orders themselves introduced.

Language. As it is essential to natural history that the nomenclature be universal, so it is indispensable that the names be written in some language adopted by all nations. The Greek has been rejected for many reasons, but particularly that the letters are so very different from those now used in the civilized world. To the Latin there are no objections; on the contrary, until within these very few years, it was the general language among scientific and learned men. The names, therefore, as well as the terms of the science of botany, are written in that language; and when such names and terms are translated to give them a more modern appearance, it appears advisable to adhere as much as possible to the Latin words by giving them an English termination. This however is often, but improperly, departed from. In framing names there is a maxim that is deservedly recognized, that they ought to be according to the rules of general grammar. Thus, if the name denotes a property, as thorny-fruited, it is not permitted to derive half of it from the Greek, while the other is Latin; aculeatocarpa cannot therefore be retained, but may be changed into acanthocarpa.

Priority of name. Priority of names must be strictly attended to, or, if names be changed, this must not be done in an arbitrary manner, and without good reasons. But while all agree to this, a difficulty is sometimes started as to what ought to give priority. And here we ought to observe that no manuscript one need be adopted. Farther, no mere name, though published, is of any consequence, unless accompanied by a sufficient character by which the plant may be recognized by others. Names, therefore, in a gardener's catalogue, are of no more importance than manuscript names, although, when made known to botanists by a distribution of specimens, politeness sometimes admits them; but the mere circulation of living plants among horticulturists and florists, not botanists, is not even entitled to this courtesy. Printed names, accompanying collections of dried plants, are always adopted by those who receive them; but it seems doubtful how far such might claim priority, if they were to be first described by others who had not an opportunity of seeing them. It has been argued that plates, without written characters, whether of genera or species, are sufficient to give a priority of name. But this cannot be admitted by the rules of common sense. In those few cases in which the figures of the plant are accompanied with admirably exact and minute dissections, this is sometimes permitted; but it even then

appears questionable, plates not being intended to characterize a species, but as auxiliaries to the character. A character may be sufficient without a plate, but a plate is of no use without a character.

Generic names. Giving the idea of a group, have been by all permitted to stand first, and then the specific name. For the same reason they ought to be substantives; Mirabilis, Gloriosa, and some others, being adjectives, may therefore be changed. No name ought to be allowed that gives a false idea of the character of the genus; but, on the other hand, such names are always to be preferred as express this character in a precise way; and as it is extremely difficult to express the whole character, the most remarkable points ought to be chosen as contrasted with other allied genera; care being taken that they apply to all the species of the genus. No generic name ought to be derived from the names of places; a few such, however, though faulty, have been admitted. Metaphorical names, derived from ancient history and mythology, have been sometimes bestowed on plants; but great care must then be taken that the allusion is perfect. Linnaeus has succeeded very happily in one or two instances, particularly in that of Andromeda, his reasons for so naming which we shall give in the author's own words, from the Flora Lapponica. Comparing her with the plant in question, he says, "virgo hæc lectissima pulcherrimaque collo superbit alto et vividissimo (pedunculus), ejus facies roseis suis labellis (corolla) vel optimum veneris fucum longe superat; juncea hæc in genua projecta pedibus alligata (caulis inferior incumbens), aqua (vernali) cincta, rupi (monticulo) adfixa, horribus draconibus (amphibis) exposita, terram versus inclinat meastam faciem (florem), innocentissimaque brachia (ramos) cælum versus erigit, meliori sede fatoque dignissima, donec gratissimus Perseus (æstus) monstris devictis, eam ex aqua eduxit e virgine factam fecundam matrem, que tum faciem (fructum) erectam extollit. Si Ovidio fabulam de Andromeda conscribenti hæc ante oculos posita fuisset planta, vix melius quadrarent attributa, qui more poetico ex humili tumulo produxisset Olympum."¹

The ancients were in the habit of giving plants the names of persons, and this custom has been retained; but care must be taken to select those celebrated in the science, or as having paid great attention to some branch of it. Thus their names will be engraved on our memory so long as the plants are known; and this honour has been therefore considered as one of the greatest that can be conferred on a naturalist. But this is liable to abuse, particularly when princes and others of rank are concerned; plants being often named after persons, who never in any way contributed to the advance of the study. To one person no more than one genus must be dedicated, however great be their services, for if this were to be allowed confusion would soon prevail; thus Lessertia and Deleseria cannot both remain. As a similarity of sound between two generic names is attended with bad effects, so it ought not to be tolerated, even in the case where we wish to honour a friend. Thus Bellis cannot be suffered, there being a Bellis; nor Cryphaea, on account of a previous Cryphia; so neither can Eschscholtzia, nor Koniga, there being already an Elsholtzia, and Koenigia. When a person has different names, that must be preferred which is best known; but when such is pre-occupied, another may be selected. Great care ought to be taken to preserve rigidly the spelling of names, whatever be the pronunciation. Thus Czackia ought not to be written Tschatskia, nor Grahamia, Gramia; nor even Brunonia strictly admissible, although this alteration was made because there

¹ Linn. Fl. Lapp. 2d edit. p. 131. See also Linnaeus's Lapland Tour, vol. i. p. 163.

was another Browne, to whom was dedicated the genus Brownea. Though by following this rule names be often given not entirely according with the genius of the Latin tongue; yet the end being to perpetuate a particular individual, if the proper orthography were not kept up, a pretext would soon be given for changing the name.

When it is found necessary to divide a genus into two or more, the old name ought to be retained for the group which includes the greater number of species, or to that for which the genus was originally constituted. The last is preferable, but Erica and Ixia both form exceptions, on account of the great inconvenience of changing the names of so many, when only one would remain unaltered.

As to generic names derived from the vernacular appellations of plants, botanists are not yet agreed. Linnaeus, and others after him, wish to refuse all such, although they admit that they may be employed specifically: yet having laid down the rule, the genera Thea, Coffea, Ginco, &c. are almost universally admitted by them; and therefore, in the present day, these and similar ones are generally adopted if their sound be not too barbarous. Schreber, following the maxims of Linnaeus, altered nearly all Aublet's names for the Guiana plants, which De Candolle and others now restore. However little desirable it may be to give these names, yet when once given and recognized, it can serve no good purpose, but lead to confusion, to change them.

The older botanists were in the practice of marking allied genera by analogous names, but with a change of termination; thus Valeriana, Valerianella; Limonium, Limonastrum; Bellis, Bellidoides: all so similar were rejected by Linnaeus, who allowed of comparative terms among species alone. As to the termination oides, it ought undoubtedly to be laid aside, being an adjective; but the same reason does not apply with equal force to the two other instances; and although we would prefer not to employ them in framing a name, we would hesitate about making a change if already given by others. An anagram, or transposition of the letters of an existing name, is quite contemptible and undignified, and can on no account be permitted. Hence Galpinia, made by Cavanilles, and derived from Malpighia, is quite unsuitable: in the same way Cassini has amused himself, to the detriment of the science, by splitting Filago into as many genera as he could form anagrams of that word, Filago, Gifola, Iffoga, Loafia, and Ofliga, than which nothing can be more absurd.

Specific names are less difficult to establish than the generic, because they are meant to apply to an individual, and not collectively; and the chief consideration is not to give one already applied in the genus, or one that has no relation to the plant itself. Almost no change ought therefore to be tolerated, unless when one of these rules be broken through. Thus Astragalus Monopessulanus, though found not at Montpellier alone, but throughout all the south of Europe, and even in the western parts of Asia, cannot be altered, because it is actually found at Montpellier; and the name even tends to record the fact of its having been first observed there. But Potentilla Monspeliaca is a manifest absurdity, being a native of North America, and merits a change; thus also Scilla Peruviana is inadmissible, being a native of Portugal. Lunaria annua may also in the same way be changed to L. biennis, the plant being not annual, but biennial. There are some botanists, however, who even dislike a change for these reasons; contending, that while in the human race the name George, or Γιωργος, is not applied only to one who is a husbandman, so neither among plants ought we to care what be the name, provided it suffice to distinguish the species; but this is inept, for the above is not

a specific name, nor even that of a variety or variation, but the appellative of an individual.

In general the names derived from countries ought to be given with great circumspection; and from want of due consideration on that point, we have accordingly many absurdities. Thus Linum Gallicum is actually found in all the four quarters of the globe. Ajuga Genevensis, Circea Lutetiana, are not found at Geneva or at Paris alone, but throughout the rest of Europe; still they cannot be now altered. Agave Americana is not the only Agave found wild in America, for many inhabit also that country. Names taken from stations of plants, as maritimum or palustre, are frequently good; but such as campestre, alpestre, or montanum, being very indefinite, ought to be avoided as much as possible.

Specific names may be either substantives or adjectives. The former has been usually given when the plant had received a peculiar appellation from old botanists, as Doria, Jacobaea, Farfara; and then the initial letter must be a capital. A substantive is often used in the genitive case when a reference is made to some other genus, as Pomme-reullia cornucopiae, and then the initial letter is small; or when it is named after some person, as Ranunculus Gouani, and then the letter is large. As to adjectives, they must agree in gender with the generic names, and ought to indicate something remarkable in the species. They ought always to commence by a small letter, but of late years botanists have got into a habit of employing a capital when the adjective is derived from the name of a place or person. Adjectives of colour ought to be used sparingly, because the colour of flowers is of very little importance to the species, the same often exhibiting two or more colours. Adjectives of size and qualities are preferable, although these are gradually rendered less applicable by the discovery of new species. Those taken from the agreeable aspect of certain flowers, as pulcher, formosus, or amænus, are quite absurd, and ought never to be used. Names after botanists may either be substantives in the genitive case, or have an adjective termination. Lycopodium Hookeri is an example of the one, Tulipa Celsiana of the other.

Specific names may be taken from either Greek or Latin, but they ought to form one word; whence pes-capra, noli-tangere, and still worse noli-me-tangere, ought never to have been given; and though some of these from courtesy may be permitted to stand, they are not to be imitated.

Varieties are usually indicated by the letters of the Names of Greek alphabet; but when they prove more than usually important, a name is attached to them similar to a specific name, as Crataegus Aria longifolia. Care ought, however, to be taken never to give such, unless the varieties be nearly as permanent as the species itself. Of late, however, by cultivation, so many varieties have been made, and each offering subvarieties or variations, that it were more dignified for botanical writers to omit them altogether, and hand them over for the amusement of florists and horticulturists.

By those who study the natural system, the names of families, or orders and tribes, must be also attended to. The former have been subjected at different times to different principles. Linnaeus and others, seeking general and characteristical features, as in the Umbellifera, Crucifera, Leguminosa, and Labiata; and these, if they could be always obtained with accuracy, are preferable to any others. But even to the few that are admitted, exceptions are found; thus, in some Umbellifera the umbel is so reduced as to appear no longer an umbel; and in some Leguminosa the fruit resembles a nut. Jussieu and Adanson have therefore usually selected some genus, which is the type of the family, and derived the name from it, as Rosacea.

from the genus Rosa; and this method is now generally adopted. Care, however, must be taken that the genus be not only one of the best known and most numerous in species, but one which is to give an idea of the general aspect and structure. Thus Bixinea is almost inadmissible, being derived from Bixa, a genus that rather forms a connecting link between the above order and the Tiliaceæ, and consequently improperly taken as the type. When once the genus is chosen, we must attend to the terminating syllables, for it would not do to adopt simply the plural, as Rosæ, without some change. The common way is to form an adjective ending in æa, or ineæ, as Tiliaceæ, Ericineæ; those in oidæ, meaning a family analogous to, and not a family including, are obviously to be rejected. Sometimes, when a difficulty is experienced in transforming the generic names into an adjective, some old well known name of the principal genus may be taken, as Thymeleæ, Salicariæ, and then the termination may be the mere plural of the substantive.

When a family is divided into several remarkable groups, these also receive names in the same way as the orders themselves. But a difficulty is often experienced in bestowing names so as not to interfere with that of the family, and therefore a rule has of late been laid down, that the names of orders or families be made adjectives by prolonging the generic name one syllable, as Ranunculus, Ranuncula-ææ, but that the names of tribes be formed of an adjective without prolongation, as Ranunculus, Ranunculeæ; and this law is now generally followed.

Synonyms.

If nomenclature be indispensable for communicating our ideas to others, synonyms, or a list of synonyms, are no less necessary for recognizing the name that ought to be preferred to every other, and for reading the works of older writers, or of those who lived before a systematic nomenclature was adopted. By this means we are enabled to have recourse at once to the different authors whom we ought to consult, and from whom we may derive instruction; and without such help we might spend days or weeks in seeking for the information we require, and, after all our labour, would not be able to impart it to others. The number of synonyms quoted must vary much, according to the size of the work. When there is sufficient room, not one ought to be omitted; but if, on the other hand, it be an elementary work within a narrow compass, only the principal synonyms need be brought forward; and under these we of course allude to the fullest descriptions, and best figures, that can be most readily consulted by the readers. A reference to the original describer of the species ought in almost no case to be omitted: thus, Linnaeus, Bieberstien, Gunner, and Pallas, have each of them made a Gentiana ciliata; and it is important to the reader to know of whom the G. ciliata is. In quoting synonyms, very little attention is paid to accuracy; and the consequence is that more confusion is created than if all had been omitted. None indeed ought to be cited, unless the writer has the strongest reason for thinking himself correct, otherwise the reference must be made with doubt (?). De Candolle has recommended, and with great propriety, that, in every one which the author has had it in his power to verify by the inspection of an authentic specimen in an herbarium, the sign (!) be placed after the synonym, indicating that such are most worthy of attention, the others being supposed to be taken from descriptions, which, however good, are not to be always confided in. Old figures, being usually executed by artists not botanists, are of little use except to give a very general idea of the plant; and even among modern figures, when there is a difference, as often happens, between them and the description, greater reliance is to be placed on the latter than on the former.

Botanical style is the art of characterizing and describing plants, so that they may be ascertained by others. Before Linnaeus there were no fixed rules, each person adopting what to himself seemed best; but in reforming other points, that distinguished naturalist directed his attention also to this; and although, by following his views, one was restricted to a peculiar form of words, yet the advantages were very readily perceived, inasmuch as his plan put a stop at once to the many vague and insignificant descriptions which were too often indulged in by those of a flowery or poetical genius.

A character in natural history is that peculiar mark by which one being, or one collection of beings, may be distinguished from all others. When this is employed to distinguish a species, it is said to be specific; when belonging to a genus, generic; to an order, ordinal; and so on. The principal merit of characters is to bring together what can be most easily compared, and therefore such as are found in one and not in another are the best.

The characters of classes and orders are very different, Of classes according as an artificial or a natural arrangement has been adopted. In the former case they are very simple; in the latter, each being as it were one great genus, they must be still more extended than the character of a genus. Adanson and Linnaeus, therefore, thought it impossible to give characters to a natural order; but they erred in seeking one by itself, and not a combination of several. Jussieu made the attempt, and the example or method which he set to others is still called the Jussieuan system, in opposition to the strictly artificial one founded by Linnaeus. It is strange that the latter botanist, when he discovered that natural genera could not be defined in few words, did not apply the same train of thought to natural orders. Had he made the attempt, he must have succeeded, and another wreath would have been added to his crown, which has shed immortal honour on that of another. The characters of orders, when complete, must embrace a full description of all the organs of reproduction found in them; but as this is too long for common use, they are usually presented in a much abridged form. But even an abridged character may often be much shortened, and it is then called by Mr Lindley a diagnosis, comprehending only the distinctive characters of the orders, reduced to their briefest form, and without reference to the anomalies or exceptions which are often met with. For a character in full we may refer to Crucifera in De Candolle's Systema Regni Vegetabilis, vol. ii. p. 139, which it is unnecessary here to cite. The abridged characters we shall have occasion ourselves to use.

The characters of genera vary also according to whether Of Genera the artificial or the natural system be adopted. Linnaeus, following the former, found the necessity of giving two kinds of character. The one, which he named the essential, contained no more than what was needful to distinguish the genus from others in the same order. The other, which he termed the natural, contained a short description of all the parts connected with the flower, and was necessary for the complete understanding of the genus; for without it one could not have the slightest idea of its true form, nature, appearance, or relations; and indeed his Genera Plantarum, written soon after his return from a visit to Jussieu at Paris, and containing natural characters, seems written in an entirely different spirit from that in which he had executed his Species. We do not mean that any improper inference should be drawn from this, but merely mention it as a very striking circumstance. In the natural system there is no occasion for these double characters; most of the lengthened character, as given by Linnaeus, being contained in that of the order which in-

Phyto-graphy. cludes the genus. But, on the other hand, if a genus have a number of peculiar characters, every one must be mentioned; so that here the generic characters, though not so long as the natural ones of Linnaeus, must almost always be a little longer than his essential characters. To the generic character ought to be added a short account of the fundamental organs, remarks on its natural affinities when necessary, or any of its peculiarities, and the derivation of the name.

Species. Specific characters ought to be the same, whatever be the system; but in general, those who adopt the artificial content themselves with making them, as Linnaeus prescribed, so very short as to contain only the distinctive marks, and on no account to exceed twelve words. Many of those who follow the natural method introduce as many of the peculiarities of the species as they can, so that it may exhibit a very short description. But, perhaps, without limiting ourselves to any particular number of words, it may always be preferable to make the specific characters, or phrases as they are called, as abridged as possible, without being indistinct, and then, when necessary, to add what may be denominated the natural character or description of the species. In this way it is advisable, as was recommended by Linnaeus, that in the phrase, all that follows the name, when in Latin, should be in the ablative case; that it ought to be strictly comparative, and the more contradictory terms employed in two species the better; that the characters derived from the different organs should follow each other in a certain order, beginning with those that apply to most species of the genus, and ending with such as may be nearly peculiar to itself. There can therefore be no such phrase when there is but one species of a genus. Descriptions may be either abridged or complete. In the latter case they may contain an account of the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, &c. in the order we have followed under Glossology. When in Latin, the nominative case is to be employed; after a substantive comes the epithets in adjectives or participles; but, for brevity, no connecting verbs are allowed, unless in very peculiar cases, where they cannot be dispensed with without creating great ambiguity. M. de St Hilaire, in a late report given in to the French Institute, on a work by M. Moquin on the family of Chenopodiaceæ, seems to think that when the characters of the genus have been given with care, specific descriptions are quite unnecessary. "Après avoir indiqué les caractères de cette tribu, M. Moquin décrit en termes techniques les plantes qui la composent. Il trace avec détail les caractères des genres et se borne pour les espèces à de simples phrases. Nous ne pouvons qu'applaudir à cette méthode. Les descriptions spécifiques complètes sont fort utiles, sans doute, dans plusieurs circonstances; mais lorsqu'un genre se compose de plantes régulières, — lorsque, dans des dissertations générales, on a soumis leurs organes à un examen scrupuleux, — nous pensons, avec un de nos savans confrères (M. de Cassini), qu'il est superflu de redire à peu près autant de fois les mêmes choses qu'on a des espèces à faire connaître." To this we subscribe in the case of a monograph, or of a system of plants, because then we have the opportunity of reforming the generic character to our own ideas; but in giving an account of a new or isolated species, we do not see that, for the satisfaction of other writers, a detailed description can be uniformly dispensed with.

With regard to species, the order usually followed is, first the name, then the specific character or phrase, next the

synonyms, then the locality or habitat, the duration of the plant, the time of flowering, &c.; after which the description may be given, with the culture and use; and, lastly, any critical observations that may present themselves.

We shall here give the following, as illustrations of the plates, and in some degree of what we have said.

Calyx of two persistent, concave, nearly equal sepals. Petals 3-5, hypogynous, equal. Stamens 4-15, inserted on the base of the calyx or petals; filaments free; anthers bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovarium superior or unilocular; ovules many, attached to the bottom of the ovary by linear pedosperms. Style 1. Stigma clavato-capitate, tripartite. Capsule oblongo-elliptical, covered by the persistent calyx, unilocular, three-valved, many-seeded. Seeds lenticular; testa crustaceous, brittle; tegmen thin and membranaceous; embryo surrounding a farinaceous albumen. — Herbs succulent; leaves very entire, alternate in those with stems; peduncles one-flowered, axillary or opposite to the leaves, without bractea; in those without a stem bibracteate.

1. C. pilosiuscula; stem nearly erect angled, and the leaves linear spathulate, slightly hairy; peduncles axillary, somewhat united to the bractea, constituting a terminal raceme; stamens 10-15.¹

C. pilosiuscula. De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 359; Hook. and Arn. in Botany of Beechey's Voyage, p. 21. — Talinum ciliatum. — Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 82 (not Ruiz. and Pav.) — Tutuca. Feuille. Chil. vol. iii. t. 41.

Hab. Chili. ♂. Flowers during the whole of summer.

DESCR. Stem about a foot or a foot and a half high, erect or decumbent, weak, angular, reddish, and branched below, above greenish, scarcely, and only here and there pilose. Leaves scattered, from one and a half to three inches long, linear, frequently inclining to spathulate, acute, more or less patent, the extremities often recurved, the upper surface channelled, the lower subcarinate, especially near the base, the margin distinctly ciliated. Flowers at first in terminal leafy corymbs, at length racemose, of a bright purplish red colour, pedicellated. Pedicels about half an inch long, thickened upwards, subpilose at their base, which is decurrent, having a large leaf-like bractea, and near that generally another much smaller and appressed one. Calyx of two triangular, thickish, green, subpilose, wavy leaflets, with their margins more or less incurved, which are erect in the bud, somewhat spread in the flower, and which at length persist, enlarge, and inclose the fruit. Corolla of five broadly ovate and slightly notched petals. Stamens from ten to fifteen in number. Filaments subulate, purplish, hairy, shorter than the petals. Anthers extorse, ovate, bilocular, pale purplish. Pollen yellow. Pistil almost entirely surrounded and concealed by the stamens. Ovarium roundish, green, glabrous. Style capitate, with three or four deep purple, velvety, obtuse, spreading rays or stigmas. Capsule ovate, inclosed in the calyx, opening with three obtuse valves. Seeds numerous, ovato-lenticular, dotted, black, shining, collected into the centre, and fixed to the base by as many distinct filaments, incrassated upwards, as there are seeds. Embryo cylindrical, curved, and inclosing the mealy albumen in its centre.

No particular culture is required for this plant. It is quite a hardy annual, and, like others of the same kind, may be sown in spring as soon as there is little probability

¹ In Latin, C. pilosiuscula; caule subrecto angulato, foliisque lineari-spathulatis pilosiusculis, pedicellis axillaribus folio floral sub-
adnatis racemum terminalem constituentibus, staminibus 10-15.

of the germination being injured by the frost. It has been hitherto applied to no use either in medicine or the arts.

The genus belongs to Dodecandria monogynia of Linnaeus, and, like many others referred to it, has no certain number of stamens. This is even more exceptionable than some others, for the stamens are in several species as few as four or five, and, therefore, the artificial system entirely fails. In the natural method its place is obviously among the Portulaceæ, and next to Talinum, with which some botanists unite it; but from that genus it is distinguished by the persistent petals (in Talinum deciduous), and ovules attached to the bottom of the ovary by long filiform funiculi (in Talinum fixed to a central placenta). As a species its nearest affinity is with Talinum ciliatum, Ruiz. and Pav., another species of Calandrinia, but there the stamens do not exceed five in number. The Tal. ascendens, Hort. Berol., seems identical, and even Cal. compressa is a variety with fewer stamens.

Plate CXVI. Calandrinia pilosiuscula. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Petal. Fig. 3, Calyx and stamens. Fig. 4, Stamen magnified. Fig. 5, Calyx and capsule. Fig. 6, Germen, style, stigma, and detached pollen, magnified. Fig. 7, Capsule burst open. Fig. 8, Cluster of seeds on their podosperms. Fig. 9, Seed and podosperm magnified. Fig. 10, Seed cut open longitudinally, exhibiting the embryo and albumen.

Sepals five, auricled at their base. Petals unequal, the lower one spurred. Stamens five, approximated; filaments distinct; anthers connate; the two lower ones with processes at their back. Capsule one-celled, three-valved, opening elastically.—Herbs for the most part perennial, very rarely annual, some with a very short stem, others caulescent, and even suffruticose; leaves alternate; peduncles solitary, axillary, one-flowered, bibracteolate; flowers cernuous.

Stigma resembling a proboscis, with a minute foramen at the apex; style flexuose.

1. V. hederacea; stem short, stoloniferous; leaves fasciculate, reniform, slightly toothed, on long petioles; stipules subulate; sepals scarcely produced at the base; lower petal, oval, bifid, gibbous at the base beneath.

V. hederacea. La Bill. Fl. Nov. Holl. vol. i. p. 66, t. 91; De Cand. Prod. vol. i. p. 305; Hook. Exot. Flor. t. 225.

Hab. New Holland. Fl. Flowers in May in the greenhouse.

DESCR. Glabrous. Stem, or point from which the leaves spring, scarcely any, and apparently constituted by the united bases of the petioles throwing out long filiform stolones, which again produce clusters of leaves at various distances, and always at the base of each cluster send forth a rather strong fibrous branching root. Leaves fasciculate, from 3-6 in a cluster, an inch broad, when young almost cuneate and their sides rolled inwards, afterwards reniform and plane, or even convex on the upper surface, obscurely nerved, the margin denticulate, placed upon slender grooved petioles from two to four inches long. Peduncles or scapes from the axils of the leaves erect, longer than the leaves, with an indistinct groove, and two subulate bracts near the middle. Calyx shorter than the corolla, cut into five spreading, ovato-lanceolate segments, scarcely at all produced at the base. Flowers scentless, purple, marked with deeper stains, white at the tips. Two upper petals reflexed; two lateral ones obliquely twisted, gibbous or bulging near the base, and pubescent; lower petal oval, bifid, striated, the base

gibbous only on the under side, convex on the upper, green, with a white margin. Stamens five; anthers nearly sessile, large, yellow-brown, appendaged at the extremity. Ovarium obovate. Style one, bent at the base, filiform. Stigma white, tapering from the style, acute. Capsule oval, three-valved, loculicid; placenta parietal. Seeds numerous, with a raphe conspicuous from without. Albumen fleshy, white. Embryo in the axis of the albumen, straight, orthotropal, or with the radicle pointing to the base of the seed.

This plant succeeds well in the green-house. Its use is unknown.

Although placed in the genus Viola, this species differs from the others by the scarcely auricled bases of the sepals, as well as by the absence of a decided spur. Viola belongs to Pentandria monogynia, and is the type of the order Violaceæ.

Plate CXVII. Viola hederacea. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Back view of the calyx. Fig. 3, Lower petal. Fig. 4, One of the upper petals. Fig. 5, One of the side petals. Fig. 6, Side view of the lower petal. Fig. 7, Back view of a stamen. Fig. 8, Front view of the same. Fig. 9, Stipule. Fig. 10, Flower, the petals being removed. Fig. 11, Pistil. Fig. 12, Capsule, natural size. Fig. 13, Capsule burst open, magnified. Fig. 14, Seed, magnified. Fig. 15, Seed cut open to show the embryo and albumen.

Calyx tube adhering with the ovarium, the limb persistent, 5-parted, equal. Petals 5, alternating with the calycine lobes, shortly unguiculate, concave. Scales 5, petaloid, alternate with the petals, 2-3-lobed, converging into a cone, and furnished within at the base with two sterile filaments. Stamens numerous, the 10 exterior sterile, the rest arranged in bundles, 10 to 17 together, each androphore opposite a petal. Anthers erect, bilocular. Style trifid at the apex. Capsule turbinato-oblong, 1-celled, 3-valved at the apex, and crowned with the calyx, the valves bearing the placentas at their margins. Seeds oval, very numerous, reticulated.—Herbaceous, branched, sometimes twining, for the most part covered with sharp stinging hairs; leaves alternate or opposite, toothed or lobed; peduncles opposite to the leaves, axillary or terminal, one-flowered; petals yellow, rarely white.

1. L. nitida; hispid; leaves opposite, cordate at the base, 5-7-lobed, lobes angled and toothed, upper ones sessile; peduncles axillary; lobes of the calyx oblong, acuminate, entire, equal in length to the petals.

L. nitida. Lam. Diet. vol. iii. p. 581; Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. ii. p. 1177; Juss. in Ann. du Mus. vol. v. p. 25, t. 2, f. 2; Tratt. Tabul. i. t. 23; Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 83; Bot. Mag. t. 2372; De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 341; Pers. Syn. Pl. vol. ii. p. 71.

Hab. Chili. ☉

DESCR. Stem straggling, weak, succulent, and fragile, two or three feet high, branched in a dichotomous manner, and, as well as the whole plant, clothed with longish hairs (which appear, when seen under a microscope, to be jointed, and to have short reflexed bristles), and still larger hairs or stings, seated upon a swollen sac or bag of poison, similar to what is seen in the stings of the common nettle. Leaves all opposite, somewhat five or seven lobed, with the lobes angular and toothed; the lower ones much the largest, placed on long foot-stalks; the upper ones sessile, smaller, and less distinctly lobed. Flowers axillary, generally solitary, pedunculated. Peduncles at first erect, after flowering bent down, swelling upwards into the pyriform ovary. Calyx cut into five, rarely four, deep segments, lanceolate, acute, green, hispid, at first

patent, afterwards reflexed. Corolla of five, bright yellow, subunguiculate, concavo-ventricose petals, reddish at the base, waved at the margin, at first spreading, then bent back. Crown of five broadly ovate scales, red below, white upwards, where there are two slight depressions, and bidentate, somewhat pubescent at the base, where there are three (one on each side and one in the middle) subtriangular, toothed, red, fleshy appendages, each at its upper margin furnished with a yellowish brown, clavate filament. On the posterior side the margins of these scales are seen to be curved in, and to contain two filamentous bodies, curved and slightly pubescent at the base, about equal in length to the scale, and bearing on one side a purplish filament, which exceeds the scale in height. Stamens, about ten in each androphore or bundle; at first bent down at an angle, and concealed within the concave petals of the corolla, at length gradually springing upwards, and lying against the style and stigma, between the scales of the nectary. Filaments purplish. Anthers yellow, ovate. Pollen oblong when dry, spherical when moist, and always marked with a central line. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, above which it rises and forms an hemispherical hairy head. Capsule, with the persistent calyx, opening into three valves in the superior extremity. Receptacles corresponding with the sutures, rather large, fleshy. Seeds, several on each receptacle, longish, oblong, attached on one side, wrinkled, brown. Albumen white, between waxy and horny, and inclosing in its centre a cylindrical straight embryo, slightly thickened upwards.

This belongs to Polyadelphia polyandria of Linnæus, although by some erroneously placed in Polyandria monogyna, and forms the type of the natural order Loosea.

Plate CXVIII. Loosea nitida. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, A Leaf. Fig. 3, A Flower. Fig. 4, Calyx, most of the petals, stamens, and scales, being removed. Fig. 5, Back view of the scale of the nectary. Fig. 6, Front view of the same. Fig. 7, One of the filaments from within the scale. Fig. 8, Stamen. Fig. 9, Pollen. Fig. 10, Stigma. Fig. 11, Hair, with its joints and bristles. Fig. 12, Ovarium cut through transversely. Fig. 13, Seed. Fig. 14, Section of the seed, showing the albumen and embryo. Fig. 15, Embryo removed from the seed.

Monœcious. MALES. Perianth usually of four unequal tepals. Stamens eight or more. FEM. Perianth, the tube adherent with the ovary, the limb divided to the base into 4-9 segments, usually unequal. Styles three, each with a two-horned stigma; or nine, dichotomously 3-4 cleft, with simple stigmas. Capsule triangular, three-winged, three-celled. Seeds very minute and numerous.

1. B. picta; stem short, pubescent; leaves cordate, acute, wrinkled, doubly-serrated, spotted, hispid; male flowers of four, the female of 4-5 divisions, the two inner the narrowest; capsule with the wings unequal and pubescent.

B. picta. Smith, Ex. Bot. t. 101; Hook, Ex. Fl. t. 89; Bot. Mag. t. 2962; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 571.—B. hirta. Wallich.

Hab. Nipal. 2. Flowers, in September, in the stoves of our gardens.

DESCR. Root perennial, of two small, roundish tubers, together with a few thick, fleshy, simple fibres, mixed with others which are more slender and branched. Stem short, slightly branched, thick, succulent, green, more or less tinged with purple, hairy. Leaves three or four inches in length, few in number, cordate, more or less inequilateral, with a deep sinus at the base, and two large rounded lobes, more or less acute, sometimes acuminate, the mar-

gins unequally and doubly serrated, rugose, waved, hispid above, downy, and prominently veined beneath, green at the margins, and axils of the veins stained with dark purple. Petioles long, terete, hairy, with a pair of broadly ovate stipules at the base. Peduncles from the axils of the leaves, and longer than them, reddish below, green above, bearing one or several flowers, often in a trichotomous umbel. Flowers large, rose-coloured, drooping before and after expansion, especially the female. MALE FLOWER of four spreading tepals, two large, roundish, cordate, hispid, with short red hairs at the back, two inner ones obovate. Stamens numerous, and in reality monadelphous, the filaments often forked, yellow. FEMALE FLOWERS of four or five divisions; the outer ones rotundato-ovate, hispid at the back; the inner rather smaller, and obovate. Ovarium large, cohering with the tube of the perianth, turbinate, thickly pubescent, with branched or rather laciniated, white, reticulated processes, trigueous, the angles extended into ala or wings, of which one is larger than the others. Styles 3, yellow. Stigma bifid, each segment twisted something like the shell of a snail.

We have given a short generic character to this plant, as Begonia is the only genus of the natural order to which it belongs, and the description of the order will be given afterwards. In the Linnæan system it is usually placed in Monœcia polyandria.

Plate CXVIII. Begonia picta. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Style and stigma. Fig. 3*, One of the processes of the ovary which forms the pubescence. Fig. 4*, Ovarium cut transversely.

Calyx 4-5-cleft. Corolla urceolate or campanulate, the limb 4-5-cleft, with as many scales (sometimes very minute) inside at the base. Stamens 4-5. Ovarium bilocular, each cell two-seeded. Stigmas two. Capsule opening transversely. Cotyledons inconspicuous.—Parasitical, climbing, leafless plants with filiform stems.

1. C. verrucosa; flowers pedicellate; corolla campanulate, five-toothed, segments reflexed, scales fimbriated; stamens five; stigmas nearly sessile, diverging, elongated, subulate; peduncles and calyx verrucose.

C. verrucosa. Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. t. 6.—C. reflexa, var. verrucosa. Hook, Exot. Fl. t. 150.

Hab. East India. 2. Flowers in November in cultivation at Edinburgh.

DESCR. Stem of great length, filiform, branched, leafless, succulent, climbing from right to left (contrary to the motion of the sun), shining, glabrous, greenish-white, spotted and dashed with purple, adhering parasitically by means of small, fleshy, discoid radicles. From various parts of the stems and branches proceed racemes or compact panicles, formed of a considerable number of large, pure white, waxy, and slightly pellucid fragrant flowers, the smell of which resembles that of the primrose. Peduncles and pedicels sprinkled with many elevated shining dots or warts, of a deep purple colour. Bracts, two or three on the pedicels, or at the base of the calyx, small ovate. Calyx of five fleshy, white or pale rose coloured, ovate, obtuse, appressed, warty segments, persistent. Corolla deciduous, campanulate, or very slightly contracted at the mouth, five-toothed, the teeth reflexed; at the base of the corolla, on the inside, alternating with its teeth, are five short fringed scales. Anthers five, sessile on the corolla, just within its mouth, and alternating with the segments, oblong, yellow. Filament incorporated with the corolla, forming an elevated line between the anthers and the back of each scale. Ovarium roundish-ovate, superior, and not at all adherent with the calyx, bilocular; each cell

with two ovules, tipped with the two, nearly sessile, subulate, white stigmata. Capsule the size of a pea, terminated with the style and stigmas, spherical, membranaceous, opening transversely near the base, imperfectly two-celled; the dissepiment membranaceous, free, each cell two-seeded; one or sometimes both seeds in a cell not unfrequently abortive. Seeds attached to the base of the cells, erect, roundish, compressed. Albumen copious, between fleshy and corneous. Embryo filiform, long, spirally rolled up, and immersed in the albumen, as in fig. 8, where only portions of it are visible.

This grows with great luxuriance when plunged in the tan-pit. It is of no use.

This genus has been usually described as having no cotyledons; but, however inconspicuous they be, we are not warranted by analogy to draw such a conclusion: both bractea and a calyx are perceptible, and these we know to be modified leaves. Although, therefore, leaves and cotyledons do not appear perfect, we may infer that they exist in a rudimentary state. It belongs to Pentandria digynia, and Nat. Order, Convolvulaceæ. As a species, it coincides perhaps too closely with the C. reflexa of Dr Roxburgh, but that species has smaller flowers, and the calyx and peduncle have not been observed to possess the remarkable warts of that before us.

Plate CXIX. Cuscuta verrucosa. Fig. 1, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Corolla cut open, showing the stamens and scales at the base, magnified. Fig. 3, Calyx and pistil, magnified. Fig. 4, Capsule opening. Fig. 5, Dissepiment and two seeds, the upper part of the capsule being removed. Fig. 6, Ovarium cut transversely. Fig. 7, Seed. Fig. 8, Seed cut longitudinally, showing the albumen, and the embryo rolled up and immersed in it.

Dicæous. MALES. Perianth campanulate, trifid. Filament columnar. Anthers 3-12, connate. FEM. Perianth campanulate, trifid, deciduous. Style 0. Stigmas two. Drupe with a nut covered by an arillus, one-seeded.

1. M. officinalis; leaves oblong-elliptical, subacuminate, glabrous, paler beneath, nerves simple; peduncles few-flowered; perianth urceolate.

M. officinalis. Linn. Suppl. p. 265; Gaert. de Fruct. vol. i. p. 194, t. 41; Smith in Rees' Cycl.; Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 155, 156; Bot. Mag. t. 2756, 2757.—M. moschata. Thunb. in Act. Holm. 1782, p. 45; Wood's Med. Bot. t. 134; Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. iv. p. 869; Ait. Hort. Kew ed. 2. vol. v. p. 419; Spreng. Syst. Veg. vol. iii. p. 64; Flora Med. vol. ii. p. 74.—M. aromatica. Lam. Act. Par. 1788, p. 155, t. 5, 6, 7; Lam. Dict. vol. iv. p. 385, and Ill. t. 832; Roxb. Pl. of Corom. vol. iii. t. 267.—Nux myristica seu Pala, Rumph. Herb. Amb. vol. iii. p. 14, t. 4.—Nux moschata, fructu rotundo. Pluk. Phyt. t. 219.

Hab. Islands of Banda, a group of the Molucca isles. 5.

DESCR. Trunk from twenty-five to thirty feet, much branched, with a greyish brown, tolerably smooth bark, that abounds in a yellow juice. Leaves 3-6 inches long sub-bifarious, penninerved, oblong, or nearly elliptical, somewhat obtuse at the base, acuminate at the apex, quite entire, glabrous, dark green, and somewhat shining above, beneath much paler, but neither pulverulent nor pubescent; lateral nerves parallel, simple, prominent. Petioles $\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$-$\backslash frac\{3\}\{4\}$ of an inch in length, plane above. Flowers in axillary subumbellate ra-

ces, sometimes forked or compound, males and females on different trees. Peduncles and pedicels subclavate, glabrous, the latter having a quickly deciduous bracteole at its summit, often appressed to the flower. MALE FLOWERS from three to five, or more, on a peduncle. Perianth urceolate, thick and fleshy, of a dingy pale yellowish colour, clothed with a very indistinct reddish pubescence, cut into three, or by luxuriance, and rarely, into four, somewhat erect teeth. Filaments of the stamens united and incorporated so as to form a thickened, whitish, cylindrical body, about as long as the perianth, of which the top is rounded, and the upper half covered by about eleven longitudinal, linear oblong, two-celled anthers, free at their base, opening longitudinally, and emitting a yellow pollen. FEM. FL., similar to the male, except that the pedicel is very frequently solitary on the peduncle. Perianth deciduous. Pistil solitary, shorter than the perianth, broadly ovate, a little tapering upwards into a short style, and bearing a two-lobed persistent stigma. Fruit a nearly spherical, pendent drupe, of the size and nearly of the shape of a small pear; flesh of a yellowish colour, almost white within, one-third to one-half an inch in thickness, opening into two nearly equal valves, exhibiting the nut and mace, which soon drop out, and the flesh then withers. Arillus thick, somewhat horny or fleshy, laciniated, folded and anastomosing towards the extremity, closely enveloping the nut, of a brilliant scarlet colour. Nut broadly oval; shell very hard, rugged, dark brown, glossy, about half a line thick, pale and smooth within. Seed oval, pale brown, quite smooth (when first deprived of the shell, but soon becoming shrivelled as it is sold in our shops). Testa and tegmen thin. Albumen firm, fleshy, whitish traversed with reddish-brown oleiferous veins. Embryo fleshy, yellowish white, imbedded in a cavity at the base of the albumen. Radicle short, rounded, pointing to the hilum. Cotyledons two, large, foliaceous, plicate.

The use both of the mace and nutmeg are well known, whether in a medicinal or economical point of view; an essential oil is prepared from them by distillation and expression. The flesh contains a bitter principle, which may be much removed by repeated washings, when the fruit is preserved in sugar.

Myristica belongs to Dicæa monadelphia of Linnaeus, and to the natural order Myristaceæ. It was referred by Jussieu to the Laurineæ, but differs in many important characters.¹

Plate CXX. Myristica officinalis. Fig. 1, Male plant, natural size. Fig. 2, Perianth cut open to show the stamens. Fig. 3, Anther. Fig. 4, Female flower cut open. Fig. 5, Young fruit. Fig. 6, Ripe fruit in the act of bursting and showing the male. Fig. 7, Section of ripe fruit. Fig. 8, The Nut. Fig. 9, Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut vertically. Fig. 11, Nut cut through vertically. Fig. 12 and 13, Embryo.

Flowers monoecious in the same involucre: the female solitary and central; the males several, surrounding the female. Involucre either regular, or more frequently irregular and cleft on one side, campanulato-turbinata, 4-5 cleft; the segments entire, or fimbriated, or multipartite, and erect or inflected; alternating with which are as many (or rarely fewer) exterior appendages, fleshy, glandulose,

¹ We have been indebted for the above descriptions, and the accompanying plates, to the works of Professor Hooker, the most elegant botanical writer and draughtsman of the present day. All the plates which follow, with the exception of Plate CXXIII., are also copied from those done after drawings made by the same distinguished botanist; they were originally published principally in the Botanical Magazine, a work that contains now considerably upwards of 3000 coloured plates, and than which none can better merit the patronage of the public.

or petaloid, entire or two-horned, or (rarely) many cleft, patent, and reflexed. MALES consisting of several pedicels, each articulated with a filament bearing one anther, usually distinct below, with intervening paleaceous or squamiform bractea. FEM. Pistil long-pedicellate, naked below, or (rarely) with an entire or trifid minute perianth. Styles three bifid, rarely united into one trifid at the apex. Stigmas six, rarely three and two-lobed. Ovarium, three-celled; the cells each with one ovule. Fruit capsular, sitting on the elongated pedicel, and nodding by it being deflexed, smooth or warty, glabrous or pilose, tricoccous, the cocci bursting elastically into two valves, and deciduous.—Milky plants, herbaceous or shrubby, erect or creeping, of various appearances.

1. E. hypericifolia, erect, herbaceous, smooth. Leaves opposite oblique, and half heart-shaped at the base, oblong, somewhat obtuse, serrulate; petioles very short, with stipules at the base; corymbs of flowers dense, axillary, or terminal.

E. hypericifolia. Linn. Aman. Acad. vol. iii. p. 113; Hook, Exot. Fl. t. xxxvi.

Hab. West Indies. ♂ or ♀. (Humb.)

Of this and the following we do not give either detailed characters, or a long list of synonyms, but exhibit longer generic characters, that the plates may serve to illustrate some of the natural orders.

Plate CXXI. Euphorbia hypericifolia. Fig. 1, Plant natural size. Fig. 2, Involucre with petaloid appendages. Fig. 3, Involucre cut open to show the insertion of the numerous naked monandrous male flowers, and the single naked female flower, all pedicellate. Fig. 4, Involucre deprived of the petaloid appendages. Fig. 5, Involucre with ripe fruit. Fig. 6, Stipule. Fig. 7, Stamens and anther burst open. Fig. 8, Fruit, with one of the cocci separating from the columella, and bursting to discharge the seed. Fig. 9, Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut open longitudinally, showing the fleshy albumen and inverted embryo.

Calyx ovato-conical, membranaceous, mitiform, very soon falling off entire. Petals four, their claws short, inserted on the expanded hollow apex of the peduncle. Stamens partly inserted with the petals, and partly attached to their claws, numerous, 6-8 opposite to each petal. Anthers terminal, linear, two-celled, the cells bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, elongated. Stigmas sessile, four, two of which are longer than the other two, which are abortive. Capsule siliquiform, cylindrical, marked with ten ribs and ten striae, two-valved. Placentus marginal. Seeds small, globose, externally reticulated. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, immersed in the albumen near the base of the seed, the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Stem abounding in a yellowish juice; leaves alternate, multifid; peduncles opposite to the leaves, and one-flowered, expanding at their apex into a hollow receptacle.

1. E. Californica.
E. Californica. Cham. in Hor. Phys. Berol. p. 74, t. 15; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2887; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 1168; Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. t. 265. This genus belongs undoubtedly to the Papaveraceæ of Jussieu, and Polyandria tetragynia of Linnæus. We have already said (p. 60), that the name ought scarcely to be retained. It was named by Chamisso in honour of Dr Eschscholtz, an excellent botanist and entomologist, who accompanied him as a fellow naturalist in the voyage round the world under the command of Kotzebue. It is not, perhaps, generally known that this gentleman is a descendant of John Sigismund Elsholz, a Prussian botanist, author of a Flora Marchica, and after whom Willdenow named the Elshol-

zia cristata. The Russians, into whose service the present Elsholz went, wrote his name Eschscholtz by mistake. The genus is now so well established, that the alteration to another generic name might create unnecessary confusion.—Hook.

Plate CXXII. Eschscholtzia Californica. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Base of one of the petals, to which some of the stamens are attached. Fig. 3*, Pistil inserted in the cup-shaped receptacle, or hollowed extremity of the peduncle. Fig. 4*, Section of the ovary. Fig. 5*, Ripe capsule, natural size. Fig. 6*, Seed. Fig. 7*, Section of the same. Fig. 8*, Embryo.

Flowers monococious. Perianth campanulate, 5-partite. Estivation convolute. MALES. Stamens ten, distinct, inserted on the fleshy discoid torus, five of them alternate with the others, and shorter. FEM. Style short. Stigmas three, of several lobes; the lobes, as if united into one mass, marked with sinuose furrows. Ovarium seated on the fleshy torus, three-celled, the cells each with one ovule. Capsule ovate, somewhat acute at the apex, tricoccous, the cocci two-valved.—Trees or milky shrubs; leaves alternate, palmate; flowers racemoso-panicled, axillary or terminal; root of some of the species tubercular and esculent.

1. J. Manihot; leaves palmate, 5-7-partite, glabrous, glaucous beneath, the segments lanceolate and very entire; flowers racemose.

J. Manihot. Humb. and Kunth, Nor. Gen. vol. ii. p. 108; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 3071.—Manihot utilisima. Pohl, Pl. Bras. Icon. vol. i. t. 24.—Iatropha Manihot. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1428.—Physic-nut, bitter cassada, manioc, or tapioca, of English writers.

Hab. Brazil. ♀. Flowers in July and August in our collections.

“Two kinds are especially cultivated in the colonies, the Sweet Cassada of Browne’s Jamaica (p. 350), and Lunan’s Hort. Jam. (vol. i. p. 163), Manihot Aipi, Pohl; whose root is of a white colour, and free from deleterious qualities; and the Bitter Cassada, whose root is yellowish, and abounds in a poisonous juice. We shall confine our observations to the latter kind, which is the one here figured and described. They seem not to differ in botanical character.

“When it is considered that the Manioc belongs to a tribe of plants, the Euphorbiaceæ, which is essentially distinguished by its acrid and poisonous qualities, and that the root of the plant itself abounds in a juice of this peculiar character, it cannot fail to excite astonishment in the minds of those who are not already aware of the fact, that it nevertheless yields an abundant flour, rendered innocent indeed by the art of man, and thus most extensively employed in lieu of bread throughout a very large portion of South America; and that even to our country it is largely imported, and served up at table, under the name of Tapioca.

“Such is the poisonous nature of the expressed juice of the Manioc, that it has been known to occasion death in a few minutes. By means of it the Indians destroyed many of their Spanish persecutors. M. Fernier, a physician at Surinam, administered a moderate dose to dogs and cats, who died in a space of twenty-five minutes, passed in great torments. Their stomachs, on being opened, exhibited no symptoms of inflammation, nor affection of the viscera, nor was the blood coagulated, whence it appeared, that the poison acted on the nervous system; an idea that was confirmed by thirty-six drops being afterwards administered to a criminal. These had scarcely reached

the stomach, when the man writhed and screamed with the agonies under which he suffered, and fell into convulsions, in which he expired in six minutes. Three hours afterwards the body was opened, but no alteration was found, except that the stomach was shrunk to less than half its natural size; so that it would appear that the fatal principle resides in a volatile substance, which may be dissipated by heat; as, indeed, is satisfactorily proved by the mode of preparing the root for food.

"By various processes, by bruising between stones, by a coarse rasp, or by a mill, the root of the Manioc is broken into small pieces, then put into a sack, and subjected to a heavy pressure, by which all the juice is expressed. What remains is Cassada or Cassava, which, if properly dried, is capable of being preserved for a great length of time.

"In French Guiana, according to Aublet, cassada flour is made by toasting the grated root over the fire, in which state, if kept from humidity, it will continue good for twenty years.

"Cassava-cake, or cassava-root, is the meal, or the grated, expressed, and dried root of the Manioc, pounded in a mortar, passed through a coarse sieve, and baked on flat circular iron plates fixed in a stove. The particles of meal are united by the heat, and when thoroughly baked in this manner, form cakes, which are sold at the markets, and universally esteemed as a wholesome kind of bread. The Spaniards, when they first discovered the West Indies, found this in general use among the native Indians, who called it Cazabbi, and by whom it was preferred to every other kind of bread, on account of its easy digestion, the facility with which it was cultivated, and its prodigious increase. Again, in Guiana, Cipipa is another preparation from this plant, and is the name given to a very fine and white fecula, which, according to Aublet, is derived from the expressed juice of the roots, which is decanted off, and suffered to rest some time, when it deposits an amylaceous substance, which requires repeated washing. I know not whether this is exactly analogous to our Tapioca. The juice, says Sloane, evaporated over the fire, gives the Tapioca meal. But Lunan tells us, that, from the roots of the Sweet Cassada, Tapioca is made in Jamaica, in every respect similar to that imported, which is done by grating them, washing them, and infusing them in water, and evaporating the liquor so as to obtain a sediment like starch, which must be well dried in the sun.

"The root of the Manioc is also the basis of several kinds of fermented liquors; and an excellent condiment for seasoning meats, called Cabou, or Capou, is prepared from the juice, and said to sharpen the appetite. The leaves beaten and boiled are eaten after the manner of Spinach, and the fresh root is employed in healing ulcers.

"From what has been above stated, it will appear that the expression of the juice from the root deprives the latter of its deleterious properties; and that the application of heat to these juices renders the residue also wholesome and nourishing. And whilst cassava-bread is, as Sloane says, in the most general demand of any provision all over the West Indies, and is employed to victual ships, the use of Tapioca is still more extended, and throughout Europe is largely employed for the same purpose as sago and arrow-root." (Hook. in Bot. Mag.)

Plate CXXII. Jampha manihot. Fig. 1, Branch of a plant, natural size, with female flowers. Fig. 2, Panicle, with mostly male flowers. Fig. 3, Pistil. Fig. 4, Stamens, and discoid fleshy torus. Fig. 5, Anther. Fig. 6, Seed.

Flowers polygamous. Calyx 5-partite, regular, decidu-

ous, the segments erect. Estivation imbricated. Petals five, inserted on the calyx, sessile, longer than the calyx, equal, patent above. Stamens ten, inserted with the petals, included, one (between two of the petals) twice as long and stout as the others. Filaments connate at their base. Anthers two-celled, ovato-elliptical, bifid at the base, attached by the back, longitudinally dehiscing on the inside. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled, terminating in the style; minute in the male flowers. Ovule one, ascending, situated at the bottom of the cell. Style subulate, protruded. Stigma capitellate. Discoid torus wanting. Fruit reniform, cartilagino-coriaceous, one-seeded, indehiscent, seated on the enlarged pyriform fleshy extremity of the pedicel. Seed reniform. Integument simple, coriaceous, adhering. Embryo of the same shape as the seed, without albumen. Cotyledons half-lunate, fleshy, plano-convex. Radicle hooked, rising upwards from the base of the cotyledons.—Trees bearing gum; leaves alternate, simple, entire and very entire, the primary veins transverse and somewhat parallel; stipules none; panicles terminal, corymbose, branched, diffuse, bracteate; flowers fascicled; pericarp cellular within, abounding in a caustic oil.

A. occidentale. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 548; Jacq. Amer. i. t. 181. f. 35.—Acajuba occidentalis. Gaert. Fruct. i. p. 192. t. 40.—Cassuvium pomiferum. Lam. Dict. i. p. 22. Ill. t. 322.

Hab. West Indies, Mexico, South America, East India islands. This yields the well-known cashew-nut. It belongs to the Terebinthaceæ.

Plate CXXIII. Anacardium occidentale. Fig. 1, Branch with flowers and fruit, somewhat reduced. Fig. 2, Flowers not expanded. Fig. 3, Flower spread open. Fig. 4, Stamens and pistil in the calyx, one stamen (fertile) longer than the others. Fig. 5, Stamen. Fig. 6, Nut. Fig. 7, Nut cut open longitudinally. Fig. 8, Seed. Fig. 9, Cotyledons opened, showing the radicle (a) and plumule.

Flowers dioecious. Calyx (minute) five-toothed. MALES. Corolla infundibuliform. Stamens ten, the alternate ones shorter. FEM. Corolla deeply five-parted. Stigmas five. Fruit like a pepo, many-seeded. Seeds covered with a wrinkled membrane.

1. C. Papaya; leaves palmate, seven-parted, segments oblong acute sinuate, the intermediate one trifid; fruit oblong, furrowed.

C. Papaya. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1466; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 459; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2898 and 2899.—Papaya vulgaris, Lam. Ill. t. 821.—Papaya Carica. Gaertn. Fruct. vol. ii. p. 191, t. 122, f. 2.

This, the Papaw tree, yields a milky juice; and, as Browne mentions, if water be impregnated with it, it will make all sorts of meat washed in it very tender; but eight or ten minutes steeping will render it so soft that it will drop in pieces from the spit before it is well roasted, or turn to rags in the boiling. If old hogs and poultry be fed upon the leaves and fruit, however tough the meat they afford might otherwise be, it is thus rendered perfectly tender. Even the vapour of the tree serves this purpose; hence many people in the West Indies suspend the joints of meat, fowls, &c. in the upper part of the tree, in order to prepare them sooner for the table.

Plate CXXIV. Carica Papaya. Fig. 1, Tree, much reduced. Fig. 2, Portion of a panicle or raceme of male flowers. Fig. 3, Male flower, cut open. Fig. 4, Calyx. Fig. 5, Portion of the tube of the corolla bearing young sta-

Phytography. mens, the rest being cut away. Fig. 6 and 7, Anthers. Fig. 8, Female flowers.

Hab. East Indies. 5.
This belongs to the natural order of Cycadeæ, which, with Coniferae, is remarkable for having no pericarp farther than the spadix or its scales.

Calyx five-parted. Corolla gamopetalous, somewhat campanulate. Stamens ten. Anthers two-horned. Style one. Capsule five-celled, loculicidal, with a central five-lobed placentiferous column.

1. A. hypnoides; stem procumbent; leaves imbricated erect subulate; peduncles solitary; one-flowered, terminal; corolla campanulate five-cleft, the segments obtuse and converging; style ovato-acuminate.

A. hypnoides. Linn. Succ. p. 355; Flor. Lapp. t. 1. f. 3; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2936.

Hab. Extreme north of Europe, Asia, and north-west coast of America. 5.

We have already (p. 60) given Linnaeus's interesting account of the origin of the name Andromeda.

Plate CXXIV. Andromeda hypnoides. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural size. Fig. 2*, Flower. Fig. 3*, Back view, and Fig. 4*, Front view of a stamen. Fig. 5*, Leaf. Fig. 6*, Pistil. Fig. 7*, Section of the ovarium.

Flowers monoecious, in an amentum. MALES. Perianth simple, of one, two, or three segments. Filament solitary, as long as the perianth. FEM. Perianth of one piece, the mouth contracted. Fruit a sorosis.

1. A. incisa; leaves cuneato-ovate, lobed in a pinnatifid manner, glabrous, or nearly so, above, scabrous beneath.

A. incisa. Linn. Fil. Supp. p. 411; Lam. Ill. t. 744; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 2869, 2870, and 2871.—A communis. Forster, Gen. p. 102, t. 51.

Hab. Ladrones islands, but now cultivated throughout the tropics. 5.

Of this there are two varieties; one producing nuts, which is called the Bread-nut (that here figured); the other in which the nuts are abortive, and called the Bread-fruit. This last is well known to all who have read the interesting voyages of Dampier and Anson. This genus belongs to the Artocarpeæ, a section of Urticææ.

Plate CXXV. Artocarpus incisa. Fig. 1, Branch, reduced to one third of the natural size, with male and female flowers. Fig. 2, Section of an amentum of male flowers, natural size. Fig. 3, Male flowers. Fig. 4, Single male flower. Fig. 5, Cluster of female flowers. Fig. 6, Single female flower. Fig. 7, Ovarium. Fig. 8, Ovarium laid open to show the ovule. Fig. 9, A variety of the ovarium with two cells. Fig. 10, Transverse section of the ovarium.

Flowers dioecious. MALES in a very thick amentum: scales somewhat imbricated, inserted on the common axis, somewhat triangular, tapering from the apex to the base, terminated at the apex with a recurved point, on the under side sprinkled without order with bivalve anthers. FEM. Arranged in ensiform spadices, which are between foliaceous and carnose, and bear the flowers on both margins: flowers erect, half immersed. Fruit erect, a naked drupaceous seed.—Trees with an erect, round stipe; leaves pinnatisect, and forming a crown round the stem.

C. circinalis; segments of the leaves linear-lanceolate, plane; petioles aculeate; female spadices few-flowered, acuminate, inciso-serrate; fruit ovato-globose, glabrous.

C. circinalis. Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1658; Hook. in Bot. Mag. f. 2866 and 2867; Richard Mém. sur les Conif. p. 187, t. 24, 25, 26.

Plate CXXVI. Cycas circinalis, male. Fig. 1, Plant, reduced to one-twelfth of the natural size. Fig. 2, Male amentum, natural size. Fig. 3, Upper side of a scale. Fig. 4, Under side of the same. Fig. 5, 6, 7, Anther. Fig. 8, Pollen, magnified. Fig. 9, Small pinna from a leaf.

As to the manner in which botanical works may be got up, whether as Monographs of Orders or Genera, as Floras of particular countries or districts of a country, as a Hortus, as a Genera Plantarum, a Species Plantarum, or as a Systema Vegetabilium, or as Botanical Plates; though each be subjected to a few rules, yet much is left to the taste of the author. We shall therefore pass them over, and proceed to an

Descriptions and figures, however exact they may be esteemed by their authors, have so often been found imperfect by others, that some means must be resorted to, that every one may examine for himself the plant treated of. This in a measure may be attained by having access to gardens; but in all our gardens together, perhaps not more than one fourth of the vegetable productions of the globe are cultivated, and of these many have not been made to bear blossoms or fruit, and are therefore useless; nor can they be certainly seen in all states at the very time when we particularly desire them. In a garden, also, the cultivator is seldom an experienced botanist, and we may therefore expect many errors in nomenclature. The name, therefore, so far from assisting us to trace what an author had in view, may tend to puzzle us still more. In a garden, likewise, plants are made as showy as possible, to please the eye, and often depart very much from the type of the species as taken from its original locality. The necessity, then, was soon perceived of preserving specimens of every thing that is described, so that these may be communicated to other botanists, examined by them, and criticised; and as it was impracticable to retain for any length of time specimens in the fresh state, means were devised to extract the juices; and this being accomplished, no alteration could afterwards take place. Such is the origin of an herbarium, which is a collection more or less considerable of different plants, dried as carefully as possible, at a time when they were in leaf, in flower, and in fruit; while a separate collection of fruits alone, either dried, or, if they are fleshy, preserved in spirits or salt water, is called a granary. The mode of drying plants is very simple.

Paper of an absorbent nature (such as common gray or brown packing paper, or old newspapers) must be procured, about seventeen or eighteen inches long, and twelve broad, and a few strong deal boards of the same size. The specimens may be gathered in a large tin box, or in a basket so covered as to exclude the rays of the sun; and when one cannot soon after proceed to dry them, a little water may be occasionally sprinkled over them to keep them fresh. In order to dry them, take one of the boards and lay a few sheets of paper upon it. The quantity of paper will of course depend on its thickness, and on the nature of the specimens; for when they are full of moisture, more paper is requisite than for more tender or less juicy plants; and when they have thick or knobby stems, or large hard fruits, a still greater quantity must intervene between each layer of plants. Having taken, then, some sheets of paper, spread upon them the plants, so as not to allow the one to overlap the other; and with this precaution several may be laid on the same sheet. It

is quite useless to spread out or separate the leaves or flowers with the hand. If the specimens be at all in a fresh state, its natural appearance is best preserved by allowing it to take the position which chance may direct. Above this layer of plants place some sheets of paper, then another layer of plants, and so on till a packet be formed of a foot, or a foot and a half high. When a considerable number of woody plants is in the packet, a few thin boards may be interspersed, to prevent the more delicate plants sustaining injury; this will also flatten the coarse ones more easily. On the top of the packet another board is to be placed, and on it a large weight or dry stone when such can be procured, so as to press the plants, and make them give out their juices to the paper. The weight need scarcely be less than 50 lbs.; and if the plants have thick or woody stems, even 80 lbs. or 100 lbs. may be applied. In travelling, it is impossible to carry about large stones or weights, in which case the plants may be pressed by means of two or three leather belts passing round the packet, and pulled extremely tight. When plants have been subjected to pressure for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the weight may be taken off, and the paper will be found to have absorbed a considerable portion of moisture from the plants. It must therefore be now removed, and the specimens laid on dry paper, and subjected to the same process as before. This must be repeated until the plants are dry. It may be less troublesome were the sheets, upon which the plants immediately rest, laid down in a dry situation for a few hours with the plants on them. The moisture will quickly evaporate, and the sheet, without disturbing the plants, may be laid upon a layer of dry paper. The wet paper, when thoroughly dried, can be used as often as one chooses. When the specimens are dry, which may be easily ascertained by their stiffness, or not curling up when in a dry situation, they may be packed up (of small ones, fifty or sixty specimens on a sheet), in very little space; only one sheet of paper is then requisite between each layer of plants. Specimens must be gathered, when possible, in dry weather. They ought to be both in flower and in fruit, the latter being obviously as useful as the former to the scientific botanist; and not less than from twelve or fifteen specimens of each kind ought to be taken, one specimen proving frequently of little use. Small herbaceous plants, not more than sixteen or seventeen inches high, may be pulled up by the root, and dried entire; and some that are even longer, as grasses and ferns, may be doubled two or three times. Of larger plants, such as shrubs and trees, specimens are to be taken at least sixteen or seventeen inches long; and if the leaves on a plant vary much in shape, a corresponding number of specimens may be dried of each kind. Those plants which are of a very fleshy or succulent nature, as tulips, &c. ought to be plunged (all but the flower) for a few seconds into boiling water. This deprives them of life; and when the extraneous moisture is allowed to dry off, or wiped away with a towel, they may be dried as other plants. Lichens and fungi may be dried in the common way, although those of the latter tribe seldom make good specimens. Mosses grow frequently in tufts, and are to be a little separated by the hand before they be pressed. The larger or coarse sea-weeds ought to be plunged in boiling water, and treated as succulent plants. The smaller ones, when one is hurried, may first be partially dried in the open air, in a shady situation, and afterwards subjected to a very gentle pressure, till quite dry, when they may be packed up with the other plants; and, when our time permits, they will be restored to their original form by washing them in cold fresh water. They are then to be neatly spread out on pieces of writing paper, to which most of the species will adhere; after this they

are to be pressed, and a little attention must then be paid lest the specimens also adhere to the absorbent paper. Taxes. my.

When a packet so prepared is sent from abroad, it ought to contain at least 100 different kinds, or more than 1000 specimens. It may then be placed in a deal box, which is to be well closed, so as to prevent injury from water; and if the box be previously well rubbed or sprinkled within with oil of turpentine, or any other essential oil, the specimens will arrive safe from the depredations of insects. Small fleshy plants and pulpy fruits may be put in a jar of spirits, and forwarded in that state. In the case of fruits, a piece of wire, with a number, should be attached, so as to correspond to the dried specimen of that species.

When plants are either dried by ourselves or received in that state from others, our next care is to form the herbarium. For this the specimens are to be either glued down on single sheets of stiff white paper, all of an uniform size, or, as the glue attracts insects and prevents afterwards a perfect analysis of the specimen, others prefer attaching them by means of cross bands. Either of these modes will enable us to keep our herbarium in order; but, without assistance, so much time is spent in the fixing them down, that most botanists now keep the plants loose within sheets of paper of a softer texture. This enables us quickly to dispose of our specimens in the collection; and when turned over carefully, very little damage is afterwards sustained. No more than one species ought to occupy a sheet; but owing to receiving the same plant from different authors and different countries, we must often devote several sheets to one species. Each specimen ought to have a label indicating the locality, the name of the donor, when gathered, or any peculiarities about it; and every sheet ought to have attached to it the name of the plant. All the species of a genus may either be separated from those of another, by being placed within a sheet of strong paper marked on the outside with the name of the genus, or by a thin piece of pasteboard, according to the taste of the possessor.

As to the order in which genera are to be arranged, the alphabetical is the worst, and the Linnean system next. The best is according to some one of the variations of the natural method, it is of little importance which, provided one adheres to it so much that he can by association go to the order without having constant recourse to a catalogue.

When it is necessary to analyse a dried plant, we may expose the flower or fruit to the steam of boiling water, or those that are of a less delicate nature we may detach, and allow to remain in warm water until the parts we are to examine be so softened that we may easily dissect them under the microscope. Much practice, address, and even knowledge of the structure of plants, is however necessary, so that no appearance exhibited on dissection may fail to make some impression on us. Every thing must be observed and theorised on as we proceed. And we may here remark, that the best instrument for this purpose, at a moderate price, is Ellis's single and aquatic microscope, which is furnished by Jones (Holborn, London), with five lenses, two of which are reflectors, for three guineas.

III.—TAXONOMY.

As we have already stated, taxonomy is that branch of botany which has for its object the combination of all our observations on plants, so as to form a system or classification.

When science was in its infancy, and when few plants History were observed, they were described or treated without any particular arrangement; or if some method was adopted,

it was merely empirical, and of little use to others. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, who respectively treated of vegetables, may therefore now be justly rejected as systematists; and we may pass on to a much more modern date, when the characters began to be derived from the organization of plants; for it was only then that botany became a science. But as the organs of plants were various in number, so also were the systems, some botanists giving a preference to one, others to another; some laying chief dependence on the roots, some on the stems, others on the leaves, and others on the inflorescence. Conrad Gessner, born at Zurich in 1516, was the first who demonstrated that the characters drawn from the flowers and fruit were most to be depended on, as these were the most permanent and unchangeable parts of a plant; he also pointed out that certain groups possessed particular characters in common. His work was published in 1541. It does not appear that he gave any preference to one organ more than to another as the basis of a system. Casalpinus, born in 1519, at Arezzo in Tuscany, was a follower of Gessner, and may be said to have been the first who actually invented a system. He set out by distinguishing vegetables into trees and herbs; with the former arranging shrubs, and with the latter suffruticose plants. He next divided each of these, the first into two classes, the last into thirteen, according to the fruit and situation of the embryo (which he termed coriculum) in the seed. This system, therefore, being a primary approximation to a natural method, will render him ever memorable.

In 1680 Morison published the second volume of his Historia Plantarum. In this work a new system is offered, but some of the eighteen classes contained in the second and third volumes possess no genuine distinctive characters. His sections or secondary divisions are 108 in number, and are taken from the figure and substance of the fruit, the number of seeds, sepals, and petals, the figure of the root, the direction of the stem, the colour of the flower, the place of growth, and one from the medical virtues of some of the plants that compose it.

Ray proposed his method to the world in 1682. It was founded similarly to Morison's, and divided originally into twenty-five classes. But this he afterwards carefully corrected and improved at different times, so that the plan of arrangement which at present bears the name of that author is entirely different from what first appeared. It now was made to consist of thirty-five classes, the distinguishing marks of some of which were derived from the habit or external appearance; of others, from the greater or less degree of perfection of the plants, from their place of growth, the number of seeds, fruits, petals, or sepals to each flower, or from the nature of the fruit or inflorescence. They were as follow:—1. Herbs. 1. Submarinae or sea-plants, including Zoophytes and Corals. 2. Fungi. 3. Musci, including Hepaticæ and Lichens. 4. Capillares or ferns. 5. Apetalæ or apetalous plants, comprehending, among other anomalies, the genus Equisetum. 6. Planipetalæ, or those with semiflosculose compound flowers, corresponding to the Cichoraceæ of Jussieu. 7. Discoidæ, containing such of the Corymbiferae of Jussieu as have a pappus. 8. Capitata, corresponding principally to the Cynarocephalæ of Jussieu, but more extensive, and including all plants with tubular flowers that are collected into a scaly involucre. 9. Corymbiferae, similar to those of modern botanists, but limited to the species without a pappus. 10. Gymno-nospermæ, or such as were supposed to have one naked seed; to this belongs Valeriana and Armeria, and, by some unhappy chance, Thalictrum. 11. Umbelliferae. 12. Stellata, corresponding to one of the sections of Rubiaceæ. 13. Asperifoliae. 14. Verticillata, or the Labiate of Jussieu, and Didynamia angiosperma of Linnaeus. 15. Polyspermæ,

or those with many apparently naked seeds, as Ranunculus, Malva, Potentilla, and Alisma, a most unnatural assemblage. 16. Pomiferae, the fruit of which resembled an apple, and among these the gourds and passion-flowers. 17. Bacciferae, or every herb with a berry, whether a potato or asparagus. 18. Multisiliquæ, such as Aquilegia and Sedum, that had a fruit of apparently several pods. 19. Di-tripetalæ, containing principally Tillandsia, but seemingly not understood by Ray himself. 20. Tetrapetalæ, with either a long or a short pod, not however confined to the Cruciferae of Jussieu, but comprehending Veronica, Euphorbia, Plantago, &c. 21. Papilionaceæ or Leguminosæ, including Fumaria. 22. Pentapetalæ, as Dianthus, Cistus, Hypericum. 23. Pentapetaloidæ, or those with a monopetalous corolla, so divided as almost to resemble five petals, among which are enumerated Erythraea, Apocynum, Oxalis, &c.; but indeed the 19th, the 23d, and the present classes, are much confused by the author. 24. Bulbosæ, and their allies, including a great part of the monocotyledones, as Liliaceæ, Asphodelæ, Orchidæ, or Iridæ. 25. Graminifoliae, comprehending the Grasses, Cyperaceæ, and Juncaceæ. 26. Anomalæ, or those herbs, as Nymphaea, Piper, and Polygala, that were not reducible to any of these. II. Trees. 27. Arundinaceæ, including the palms. 28. Juliferae, called also Apetalæ, containing those in which the fruit is separated from the staminiferous flower; under which Ray ranked the Amentaceæ and Coniferae, the Elm, the Mulberry, &c. 29. Aggregateæ, or trees with the flower and fruit collected together into one mass, as the Fig. 30. Umbilicatae, with an inferior, fleshy, or pulpy fruit; a heterogeneous set. 31. Non-umbilicatae, or those where the flower adhered to the bottom of the fruit; these are again divided into Pruniferae, Bacciferae, and Pomiferae. 32. Vasculiferae, or trees with a dry fruit. 33. Siliquosæ, or trees or shrubs bearing a legume, follicle, or any of such elongated fruits. 34. Anomalæ, or such as are not referable to any of the above. Most authors only enumerate thirty-three classes, by omitting the 24th and 30th, but which nevertheless form a part of his arrangement. Ray gives, in addition, more lengthened characters of several of these, but it is quite unnecessary here to notice them. His principal division into herbs and trees is extremely faulty, and separates plants otherwise very closely allied. His method, however, being a great approximation to a natural one, deserves much praise, and we believe that it was the opinion of the late Sir J. E. Smith, who was well qualified to judge, that Ray as a botanist was eclipsed by few but Linnaeus.

To pass over several of an inferior note, we come now Tournefort to Tournefort. This distinguished individual was born at Aix in Provence in 1656. He was professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes of Paris, and was sent in 1700 by Louis XIV. to the Levant. He travelled through Greece, and surveyed the borders of the Black Sea and the islands of the Archipelago, and returned to Paris, where he published an interesting account of his expedition. But before he set out, he had already exposed his new system of arranging plants in his Institutiones Rei Herbarie, illustrated by many plates, and containing a description of 688 genera and 10,146 species; and it is difficult to say whether he deserves most honour for his new classification, or for the attempt to characterize the genera and species.

The method of Tournefort is composed of twenty-two classes, of which the characters are derived, 1st, from the consistency and size of the stem, thus dividing vegetables into herbs or suffruticose plants and shrubs, or trees; in which respect his system is subject to the same fault as that of Ray, notwithstanding Rivinus, an intervening botanist, had demonstrated the absurdity of such a division. 2d, From the presence or absence of the corolla. 3d, From

Taxonomy. the flowers being simple or solitary, or compound or united into a common involucre: 4th, From the corolla being of one (or gamopetalous) or of several petals: and, 5th, From its regularity or irregularity. His classes are:—

1. 1. Flowers monopetalous, Campaniform.
2. 2. Flowers monopetalous, Infundibuliform and Rotate.
3. 3. Flowers monopetalous, Anomalous.
4. 4. Flowers monopetalous, Labiate.
5. 5. Flowers polypetalous, Cruciform.
6. 6. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous.
7. 7. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous Umbellate.
8. 8. Flowers polypetalous, Caryophyllaceous.
9. 9. Flowers Liliaceous.
10. 10. Flowers polypetalous, Papilionaceous.
11. 11. Flowers polypetalous, Anomalous.

1. 12. Flowers Flosculose.
2. 13. Flowers Semiflosculose.
3. 14. Flowers Radiate.

1. 15. Flowers Apetalous or Stamiferous.
2. 16. Flowers absent, Seed present.
3. 17. Flowers and Fruit invisible.

1. 18. Flowers Apetalous.
2. 19. Flowers Apetalous, Amentaceous.
3. 20. Flowers Monopetalous.
4. 21. Flowers Rosaceous.
5. 22. Flowers Papilionaceous.

In the 3d class, the term anomalous means irregular, but not labiate: in the 11th, irregular but not papilionaceous. A liliaceous flower, as the 9th class, he afterwards explains to be a regular corolla of six or three petals, or even a monopetalous one with six divisions, but always having a fruit of three cells. The 16th contains the ferns; the 17th the other cryptogamia, which he says were commonly denied both flower and fruit. Such were the twenty-two classes established by Tournefort. Each of them contains sections, of which there are in all 122; and though at first sight it may appear simple and easy of reference, it still presents considerable difficulties, from many of the characters being merely negative, and others by no means decisive.

The systems we have already noticed, whether of Cæsalpinus, Morison, Ray, or Tournefort, were all of them more or less attempts at a natural classification; and such being the case, their great error was in selecting any one particular part, and not an assemblage, as the ground of division. This, indeed, is the great difference between a natural and artificial method. The latter has merely in view the knowledge of the names of plants; and its only use being, therefore, to afford an easy means of discovering the name in books, by as slight an inspection of the plant as possible, every one may have an arrangement of his own, and there can be no fixed rule, for the system is purely artificial. The natural method is not solely for the finding out

the names of plants; its grand object is to exhibit, along with the name, the relation which one plant bears to another, and to class them, as near as we can, in the order they would stand with regard to each other in the grand book of nature. To be correct, it ought to be founded on the immutable laws of nature herself, and not on the will of man. But although these two are grounded so differently, they ought not to be viewed as in opposition to each other. "No person, surely, who has published a natural system, without knowing all the plants in the world, will suppose that he has removed every present obstacle, much less anticipated every future obscurity, so that no insuperable difficulty can occur to the investigator of plants by such a system; neither can any artificial system claim such perfection: but they may combine their powers, and co-operate in instruction. The one may trace an outline, which the other may correct and fill up. The first may propose, and the second elucidate; the former may educate and improve the memory and observation for the use of the latter. When they oppose each other, their several defects and weaknesses appear; by mutual assistance they strengthen themselves."¹

"About the end of the seventeenth century, and the beginning of the eighteenth, the necessity of some botanical system, of arrangement as well as nomenclature, by which the cultivators of this pleasing science might understand each other, became every day more apparent. Nor was there any deficiency of zeal among the leaders and professors of this science. Systems, and branches of systems, sprung up over the whole of this ample field, each aspiring to eminence and distinction above its neighbours. Many of these, like the tares that fell by the way side, soon withered for want of root; others, like the herba impia of the old herbalists, strove to overtop and stifle their parents; and all armed themselves plentifully with thorns of offence, as well as defence, by which they hoped finally to prevail over their numerous competitors. This state of scientific warfare did not, in the meanwhile, much promote the actual knowledge of plants, though it prepared the way for a final distribution of the numerous acquisitions which were daily making by the more humble, though not less useful, tribe of collectors and discoverers. The success of the Linnæan artificial system is not altogether, perhaps, to be attributed to its simplicity and facility, nor even to the peculiar attention it commanded by its connection with the striking phenomenon, brought into view at the same time, of the sexes of plants. The insufficiency, or at least the nearly equal merits, of the many other similar schemes that had been proposed, began to be most strongly felt just at the time when the great progress and success of practical botany rendered the necessity of a popular system most imperious. While the cause of system was pending, some of the greatest cultivators of science were obliged to have recourse to alphabetical arrangement. This was the case with Dillenius, the man who alone, at the time when Linnæus visited England, was found by him attentive to, or capable of understanding, the sound principles of generic distinction."²

Linnæus was born in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, on the 23d May, 1707. His father wished him to study divinity, but he himself preferred the open air and the gathering of plants. His parent then thought of making him a shoemaker, and in this might have succeeded, had not Rothmann, the provincial physician at Wexiöe, interfered, and persuaded him to permit his son to study medicine; and had such not happened, Linnæus' genius

¹ Encyclopædia Britannica, Sixth Edition, Supp. vol. ii. p. 414.

² Ibid. v. 376.

might have been for ever suppressed. After experiencing many hardships, and living in great poverty, the young naturalist got into favour with Celsius, the professor of divinity at Upsal; and by his exertions, and those of Rudbeck, succeeded in obtaining permission to make a journey through Lapland at the expense of the academy. On his return he published the Flora Lapponica. In a few years his fame increased; and, having travelled into Holland and England, he was appointed professor of botany at Upsal after Rudbeck's death, and from time to time honours were showered upon him. His great merit consists in having constituted the genera on better principles, given proper generic and specific names, introduced a better glossology, described species more accurately and according to certain rules, and invented a new system, founded upon the sexes of plants, unquestionably the best and most simple of all the artificial systems attempted either before or since.

The basis of the Linnæan distribution of plants rests almost entirely on the male organs or stamens; and where no sexes could be distinguished, the proposer of it termed the plants Cryptogamous, and the class including such, the twenty-fourth of his arrangement, Cryptogamia. Among the first twenty-three classes, or phanerogamous vegetables, some have the flowers hermaphrodite or containing both sexes; others again have them separate, or are diclinous. To the former belong twenty classes, to the latter three. Again, hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers may have the stamens either free from the pistillum or united to it, and hence another division; but as only one class belongs to the last, there are nineteen to the first. These nineteen are further divisible, according as the stamens are free from each other or united together. The former may be equal or unequal in length; and those again which are equal may be either definite or indefinite in number. Upon these considerations Linnæus founded his classification, which we will presently exhibit, not indeed precisely as it was left by Linnæus, but as it is now to be found in most of our modern works. While we admit slight changes upon it, the plan or method is unaltered; and it would be as preposterous to say that what is now adopted is not the system of Linnæus, as it would be to assert that the various sketches of the natural system, whether as given by Browne, by De Candolle, by Richard, by Agardh, by Rudolphi, by Hooker, Don, or Lindley, are not variations of the method of Jussieu. All the natural classifications now in use are assuredly founded on that of Jussieu, and differ from each other in a very slight manner, either in the greater subdivisions of the orders, or in the mode of following each other, upon which no two botanists can possibly be agreed; and, in the same way, the artificial system, whether or not we adopt the changes recommended by Smith, or by Withering, or by Sprengel and others, being decidedly grounded on his principles, is that of Linnæus. It is as follows:—

§ 1. Stamens definite and equal.

1. Cl. 1. Monandria, or with one stamen.
2. 2. Diandria, or with two stamens.
3. 3. Triandria, or with three stamens.
4. 4. Tetrandria, or with four stamens.
5. 5. Pentandria, or with five stamens.
6. 6. Hexandria, or with six stamens.
7. 7. Heptandria, or with seven stamens.
8. 8. Octandria, or with eight stamens.
9. 9. Enneandria, or with nine stamens.
10. 10. Decandria, or with ten stamens.

§ 2. Stamens indefinite.

1. 11. Dodecandria; stamens from eleven to nineteen.

1. 12. Icosandria; stamens twenty and upwards, perigynous, or inserted on the calyx.
2. 13. Polyandria; stamens twenty and upwards, hypogynous, or inserted on the receptacle.

§ 3. Stamens unequal.

1. 14. Didynamia; stamens four, two longer than the others.
2. 15. Tetradyynamia; stamens six, four longer than the others.

§ 4. Filaments united.

1. 16. Monadelphia; one bundle of stamens, or androphore.
2. 17. Diadelphia; two bundles of stamens.
3. 18. Polyadelphia; several bundles of stamens.

§ 5. Anthers united.

1. 19. Syngenesia; stamens five, united by their anthers, flowers collected into a common involucre.

§ 6. Stamens united to the pistil.

1. 20. Gynandria.

§ 7. Flowers unisexual.

1. 21. Monœcia; stamens and pistils on the same individual.
2. 22. Dicœcia; stamens and pistils on different individuals.
3. 23. Polygamia; hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers, either on the same or different individuals.

§ 8. Flowers invisible.

1. 24. Cryptogamia; neither stamens nor pistils.

Although we have prefixed sections to the above, that the method may be understood more readily, yet we must remark that such a plan is liable to errors. Thus some of the fifth class have the anthers united, as in the nineteenth; and the tenth has frequently an inequality in the length of the stamens; but these are not the faults of the system, some of which will be traced out in the sequel.

In the first thirteen classes, the characters of the orders or subdivisions of the classes are derived from the number of the styles or female organs, the names Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, &c. indicating respectively one, two, three, &c. styles.

In the fourteenth class, or Didynamia, Linnæus took his ordinal characters from the structure of the fruit. When this is formed of four akenia situated at the bottom of the calyx, so as to resemble naked seeds, he called the order Gymnospermia; and when the fruit was a capsule containing several seeds, he termed the group Angiospermia. Tetradyynamia presents also two orders, the one with a silicle, the other with a siliqua; and hence they were called Siliculosæ and Siliquosæ. A third order has been added, by Sprengel, for such as have an indehiscent fruit, and De Candolle has proposed to subdivide the class according to the relative position of the cotyledons and radicle. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth classes being according to the union of the filaments, the number of stamens is made to serve as a character for the orders.

In Syngenesia, where the anthers are united, and there are almost constantly five stamens, other means were resorted to. Some florets were observed to be bisexual, others with stamens or pistils only. In reference, therefore, to the twenty-third class, Linnæus gave to each of the orders the name Polygamia, with another epithet to mark their respective peculiarities. The first he terms Polygamia æqualis, all the florets being equally fertile and bisexual; the second Polygamia superflua, where the florets of the disc are bisexual, but those of the circumference or

ray female, both producing perfect seed: the third Polygamia frustranea, having the florets of the disc bisexual and fertile, but those of the ray sterile, from either the total absence of a pistil, or the imperfection of the stigmata. In the second order the florets of the ray were only superfluous, here they are totally useless. The fourth, or Polygamia necessaria, has the florets of the disc bisexual, but sterile on account of the imperfection of the stigmas: those of the ray, however, containing only pistilla, are fertilized by the pollen of the former. They are thus necessary for the continuation of the species, and hence the name. The fifth, Polygamia segregata, has all the florets bisexual, but each of them contained an involucre peculiar to itself; the whole, as in the other orders, being collected within a common involucre. To these Linnaeus added a sixth, Polygamia monogamia, wherein the flowers were not collected in a common involucre; but this has now been transferred to Pentandria monogamia.

In Gynandria the orders are taken from the number of the stamens. Monœcia and Dicœcia, including plants that are monandrous, diandrous, monodelphous, or gynandrous, have the names of the orders, as Monandria, Decandria, Gynandria, taken from some of the preceding classes. The twenty-third class, or Polygamia, containing plants with bisexual and unisexual flowers mixed either on the same or distinct individuals, has in consequence been divided into three orders: Monœcia, in which the flowers are bisexual and unisexual on the same individual; Dicœcia, when one bears the bisexual and another the unisexual blossoms of both kinds; and Tricœcia, where one has the bisexual, another the male, and a third the female flowers.

Cryptogamia was originally divided by Linnaeus into four orders, Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, and Fungi; but so little was then known about the structure and limits of these, that it is now generally agreed to adopt nearly the same divisions as are employed in the natural method.

"Linnaeus¹ had no sooner published and explained his method of arranging plants, according to that which is generally termed the Sexual System, than it excited considerable attention. His elegant and instructive Flora Lapponica could not be perused by the philosopher or the physician, without leading its readers occasionally aside, from the immediate objects of their inquiry, into the paths of botanical speculation, and awakening in many a curiosity, hitherto dormant, on such subjects. But the scope of that limited Flora is by no means sufficient to show either the necessity or the advantages of any mode of arrangement. Linnaeus may be said to have grasped the botanical sceptre, when, in the year 1753, he published the first edition of his Species Plantarum; and the commencement of his reign must be dated from that period. The application of his system to universal practice, in this compendious distribution of all the known vegetables of the globe; his didactic precision; his concise, clear, and certain style of discrimination; his vast erudition displayed in synonyms; and, perhaps as much as any thing else, the fortunate invention of trivial or specific names, by which his nomenclature became as evidently commodious, and indeed necessarily popular, as any part of his performance; all these causes co-operated to establish his authority. An immediate impulse was given to practical botany. The vegetable productions of various countries

and districts were marshalled in due array, so as to be accessible and useful. A common language was established throughout the world of science; a common stock of knowledge and experience began to accumulate, which has ever since been increasing, and can now never be lost. Of these partial Floras to which we allude, those of Lapland and Sweden, the productions of Linnaeus himself, were the models of most of the rest, and have never, on the whole, been excelled.

"Hence arose the Linnaean school of botany, which, Linnaeus though founded in Sweden, extended itself through Hol- school.
land, Germany, and more or less perfectly in other parts of Europe, though not without impediments of which we are hereafter to speak. In Britain it was firmly established, by the influence of some of the most able pupils of Linnaeus, and strengthened at length by the acquisition of his literary remains. But these are adventitious supports. The strength of philosophical, like political, authority, is in public opinion, and the cement of its power is public good.

"As we proceed to trace the practical influence of the Linnaean system, or rather of the facility which it afforded in botanical studies, it will be useful at the same time to observe the effects of adventitious circumstances, which render botany almost a different sort of study in different parts of the habitable globe.

"In those northern ungenial climates, where the intellect Botany of
of man indeed has flourished in its highest perfection, but the Neith
where the productions of nature are comparatively sparingly bestowed, her laws have been most investigated and best understood. The appetite of her pupils was whetted by their danger of starvation, and the scantiness of her supplies trained them in habits of economy, and of the most acute observation. The more obvious natural productions of such climates are soon understood and exhausted. But this very cause led Linnaeus to so minute a scrutiny of Swedish insects, as had never been undertaken before in any country; in consequence of which a new world, as it were, opened to his contemplation; and the great Reaumur declared that Sweden was richer in this department than all the rest of the globe. Such indeed was its appearance, because it had been more carefully examined. When the ardour and acuteness of the pupils of the Linnaean school first sought matter of employment for their talents, some few had the means of visiting distant and scarcely-explored countries. But this could not be the lot of many. The greater part were confined to their native soil; and it is remarkable that those who are longest so confined have displayed in the sequel the greatest abilities, and have rendered the greatest services to science, independently of the accidents which made the labours of others imperfect or abortive. Such men as Ehrhart and Swartz were not to be satisfied with the general productions of the fields or gardens to which they had access. They had no resource but in the recondite mysteries of cryptogamic botany in the first instance. To these they directed their microscopic eyes and more discriminating minds with the happiest success. When they had derived from hence an ample harvest, Ehrhart, Ehrhart, limited in circumstances and opportunities, hindered moreover perhaps, in some degree, by a singularity and independence of character, not always favourable to worldly prosperity, opened to himself a new path. The

¹ This historical sketch, almost to the commencement of the exposition of the Jussieuan or natural method, is extracted from the article BOTANY in the Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of this Encyclopedia, which was written expressly for that work, in 1816, by the late Sir James Edward Smith. During these last fifteen years the grave has claimed for its own not only Sir James himself, but most of the distinguished individuals whom he here notices as being then alive. As it was, however, desirable to retain this sketch entire, the author of the present article has refrained from making those alterations which the lapse of time might otherwise have rendered necessary.

Taxonomy. native trees of the north, and especially the hardy shrubs and arborescent plants of the gardens, had not, as he judiciously discovered, received that correct attention, even from his master Linnæus, which was requisite to make them clearly understood. Difficulties attending the study of these plants, the various seasons in which they require to be repeatedly scrutinized, and the obscurity or minuteness of the parts on which their differences depend, were by no means calculated to deter this laborious and accurate inquirer. He submitted the supposed varieties of the shrubbery, the kitchen garden, and even of the parterre, to the same rigorous examination, and, for the most part, with the happiest success. His discoveries have not received the notice they deserve, for his communications were deformed with asperity and pedantry; and he did not always keep in mind the concise and sober principles of definition, which his preceptor had both taught and practised, and to which he owed so large a share of his well-merited fame. Ehrhart died prematurely, but his name ought to be cherished among those whose talents have advanced science, and who loved nature, for her own sake, with the most perfect disinterestedness.

Tax. "The fate of Swartz has been far more propitious to himself and to the literary world. Having thrown more light upon the cryptogamic productions of Sweden and Lapland than they had previously received, and which has only been exceeded by the more recent discoveries of the unrivalled Wahlenberg, he undertook a botanical investigation of the West Indies. Carrying with him, to this promising field of inquiry, so great a store of zeal and practical experience, his harvest was such as might well have been anticipated. Whole tribes of vegetables, which the half-learned or half-experienced botanist, or the superficial gatherer of simples or flowers, had totally overlooked, now first became known to mankind. Tropical climates were now found to be as rich as the chill forests and dells of the north, in the various beautiful tribes of mosses; and the blue mountains of Jamaica rivalled its most fertile groves and savannas in the beauty, variety, and singularity of their vegetable stores.

Thunberg. "Nor must we pass over unnoticed the discoveries of another illustrious disciple of Linnæus, the celebrated Thunberg, who has now¹ for many years filled the professional chair of his master, with credit to himself, and advantage to every branch of natural science. The rare opportunity of examining the plants of Japan, and of studying at leisure the numerous and beautiful productions of the Cape of Good Hope, as well as of some parts of India, have thrown in the way of Professor Thunberg a greater number of genera, if not species of plants, than has fallen to the lot of most learned botanists; except only those who have gone round the world, or beheld the novel scenes of New Holland. These treasures he has contemplated and illustrated with great advantage, so far as he has confined himself to practical botany. We lament that he ever stepped aside to attempt any reformation of an artificial system. It is painful to complain of the well-meant though mistaken endeavours of so amiable and candid a veteran in our favourite science; but what we conceive to be the interests of that science must form our apology. We cannot but be convinced, and the experience of others is on our side, that discarding those principles of the Linnæan system which are derived from the situation of the several organs of impregnation, and making member paramount, has the most pernicious and inconvenient effect in most respects, without being advan-

tageous in any. This measure neither renders the system more easy nor more natural, but for the most part the reverse of both. We have elsewhere observed (Introduction to Botany, 3d ed. p. 358), that the amentaceous plants are of all others most uncertain in the number of their stamens, of which Linnæus could not but be aware. "Even the species of the same genus, as well as individuals of each species, differ among themselves. How unwise and unscientific then is it, to take as a primary mark of discrimination, what nature has evidently made of less consequence here than in any other case? When such plants are, in the first place, set apart and distinguished by their monœcious or dioecious structure, which is liable to so little objection or difficulty, their uncertainty with respect to the secondary character is of little moment; their genera being few, and the orders of each class widely constructed as to number of stamens. Linnæus, doubtless, would have been glad to have preserved, if possible, the uniformity and simplicity of his plan; but if he found it impracticable, who shall correct him? Such an attempt is too like the entomological scheme of the otherwise ingenious and able Fabricius. The great preceptor having arranged the larger tribes of animals by the organs with which they take their various food, and which are therefore accommodated to their several wants, and indicative of even their mental as well as constitutional characters, Fabricius his pupil would necessarily extend this system to insects. But nothing can be more misapplied. Feeding is not the business of perfect insects. Many of them never eat at all, the business of their existence through the whole of their perfect state being the propagation of their species. Hence the organs of their mouth lead to no natural distinctions, and the characters deduced therefrom prove, moreover, so difficult, that it is notorious they could not generally be applied to practice by Fabricius himself, he having, in the common course of his studies, been chiefly regulated by the external appearance of the insects he described. This external appearance, depending on the form and texture of their wings, and the shape of their own peculiar organs, the antennæ, affords in fact the easiest, as well as the most natural, clue to their arrangement and discrimination.

"As we presume to criticise the systematic errors of great practical observers, it cannot but occur to our recollection how very few persons have excelled in both these departments. Ray, Linnæus, and perhaps Tournefort, may be allowed this distinction. We can scarcely add a fourth name to this brief catalogue. The most excellent practical botanists of the Linnæan school have been such as hardly bestowed a thought on the framing of systems. Such was the distinguished Solander, who rivalled his preceptor in acuteness of discrimination, and even in precision and elegance of definition. Such is another eminent man, more extensively conversant with plants, more accurate in distinguishing, and more ready in recollecting them, than almost any other person with whom we have associated. Yet we have heard this great botanist declare, that however he might confide in his own judgment with regard to a species, or a genus of plants, he pretended to form no opinion of classes and orders. Men of so much experience know too much, to be satisfied with their acquirements, or to draw extensive conclusions from what they think insufficient premises. Others, with a quarter of their knowledge, find no difficulty in building systems, and proceed with great alacrity, till they find themselves encumbered with their own rubbish; happy

¹ Thunberg died at Upsal, on the 8th August 1828, in the 85th year of his age, having filled the botanical chair during half a century.

if their doubts and uncertainties will afford them a tolerable screen or shelter! But we here anticipate remarks which will come with more propriety hereafter. We return from the consideration of the labours of particular botanists, to that of the diversities of nature and circumstance.

While it is remarked that, in the cold regions of the north, the skill of the deep and learned botanist is chiefly exercised on the minute and intricate cryptogamic tribes, we are not to infer that nature is not everywhere rich in beauty and variety. Mosses and lichens afford inexhaustible amusement and admiration to the curious inquirer, nor are more gorgeous productions entirely wanting. Even Lapland boasts her Pedicularis Sceptrum, never seen alive out of her limits; and Siberia offers her own beautiful crimson Cypripedium, to console for a moment the miserable banished victims of imperial caprice. Kotzebue, though ignorant of botany, did not pass this lovely plant unnoticed, even in the height of his distress. The authoress of the pleasing little novel called Elizabeth, has represented in a just light the botanic scenery of that otherwise inhospitable country; yet it must be allowed that its rarities are not numerous, except perhaps in those microscopic tribes already mentioned.

Let us in imagination traverse the globe, to a country where the very reverse is the case. From the representations or accounts that have been given of New Holland, it seems no very beautiful or picturesque country, such as is likely to form or to inspire a poet. Indeed the dregs of the community which we have poured out upon its shores, must probably subside, and purge themselves, before anything like a poet, or a disinterested lover of nature, can arise from so foul a source. There seems, however, to be no transition of seasons, in the climate itself, to excite hope, or to expand the heart and fancy; like a Siberian or Alpine spring, bursting at once from the joy fetters of a sublime though awful winter. Yet in New Holland all is new and wonderful to the botanist.¹ The most common plants there are unlike every thing known before, and those which at first sight look like old acquaintances, are found, on a near approach, to be strangers, speaking a different language from what he has been used to, and not to be trusted without a minute inquiry at every step.

The botany of the Cape of Good Hope, so well illustrated by Thunberg, and with the treasures of which he scattered a charm around the couch of the dying Linnaeus, most resembles that of New Holland. At least these countries agree in the hard, rigid, dwarfish character of their plants. But the Cape has the advantage in general beauty of flowers, as well as in a transition of seasons. After the dry time of the year, when every thing but the Aloe and Mesembryanthemum tribes are burnt up, and during which innumerable bulbs are scattered, by the winds and driving sands, over the face of the country, the succeeding showers raise up a new and most beautiful progeny from those bulbs. The families of Ixia, Gladiolus, Iris, Antholyza, Oxalis, and many others, then appear in all their splendour. Some of them, the least gaudy, scent the evening

air with an unrivalled perfume; whilst others dazzle the beholder with the most vivid scarlet or crimson hues, as they welcome the morning sun.

The lovely floras of the Alps and the Tropics contend, perhaps most powerfully, for the admiration of a botanist of taste, who is a genuine lover of nature, without which feeling, in some degree of perfection, even botany can but feebly charm. Of one of these the writer can speak from experience, of the other only by report; but he has had frequent opportunities of remarking, that the greatest enthusiasts in the science have been Alpine botanists. The expressions of Haller and Scopoli on this subject go to the heart. The air, the climate, the charms of animal existence in its highest perfection, are associated with our delight in the beauty and profusion of nature. In hot climates, the insupportable languor, the difficulty of bodily exertion, the usual ill health, and the effects of unwholesome instead of salutary fatigue, are described as sufficient to counterbalance even the pleasure which arises from the boundless variety, and infinite beauty, of the creation around. The flowery trees of a tropical forest raise themselves far above the human grasp. They must be felled before we can gather their blossoms. The insidious and mortal reptile twines among their boughs, and the venomous insect stings beneath their shade. We who enjoy the productions of these climates in peace and safety in our gardens, may well acknowledge our obligations to the labour and zeal of those who, by arduous journeys and painful researches, supply us with the riches of every country in succession. We do not indeed enjoy them in perfection, but we can study and investigate at leisure their various beauties and distinctions. We can compare them with our books, and profit by the acuteness of former observers. We can perpetuate, by the help of the pencil or the pen, whatever is novel or curious. We can preserve the plants and flowers themselves for subsequent examination, and return to them again and again in our closet, when winter has fixed his seal on all the instruction and pleasure afforded by the vegetable creation abroad. Yet let not the sedentary botanist exult in his riches, or rejoice too heedlessly in the abundance of his resources. A plant gathered in its native soil, and ascertained by methodical examination, is more impressed on the memory, as well as more dear to the imagination, than many that are acquired with ease, and named by tradition or report. The labours of its acquisition and determination enhance its value, and the accompaniments of delightful scenery, or pleasing society, are recollected, when difficulties and toils are forgotten.

The western continent is, with respect to botany, almost a world in itself. There exists, indeed, a general affinity between the plants of North America and those of Europe, and many species of the arctic regions are the same in both; but there are few common to the more temperate climates of each. A considerable number, communicated by Kalm to Linnaeus, which the latter considered as identified with certain well-known plants of our quarter of the world, prove, on more accurate examination, to be corresponding but distinct species. Instances occur in

¹ "These rare productions," speaking of palms and arborescent ferns, "of the vegetable kingdom, are, in all other countries, strictly tropical; and these 'weeds of glorious feature' have no business beyond the latitude of 23° from the equator, and yet here they are in 34°." But this is New Holland, where it is summer with us when it is winter in Europe, and vice versa; where the barometer rises before bad weather, and falls before good; where the north is the hot wind, and the south the cold; where the humblest house is fitted up with cedar (Cedrus Teona, according to Mr. Brown); where the fields are fenced with mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta), and myrtle trees (Myrtus) are burnt for firewood; where the swans are black and the eagles white; where the kangaroo, an animal between the squirrel and the deer, has five claws on its fore-paws, and three talons on its hind-legs, like a bird, and yet hops on its tail; where the mole (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) lays eggs, and has a duck's bill; where there is a bird (Meliphaga) with a broom in its mouth instead of a tongue; where there is a fish, one half belonging to the genus Reja, and the other to that of Sparus; where the pears are made of wood (Xylopleuron pyrifolium), with the stalk at the broader end; and where the cherry (Exocarpus cupressiformis) grows with the stone on the outside." (Field's New South Wales, p. 401.)

the genera of Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, as well as in the Orchis tribe, and others. These points of resemblance are found mostly among the vegetable productions of the eastern regions of North America. Mexico, and what little we know of the intermediate space, abound with different and peculiar productions. So, in South America, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, &c. have all their appropriate plants, of which we know as yet enough to excite our curiosity, rather than to satisfy it. Whatever has hitherto been given to the world respecting American botany, has had one considerable advantage. Each Flora has been founded on the knowledge and experience of some one or more persons, long resident, and in a manner naturalized, in the countries illustrated. Those regions commonly comprehended under the name of North America, have afforded materials for the Flora Boreali-Americana of Michaux, and the more complete and correct Flora America Septentrionalis of Pursh. Michaux, Wangelheim, and Marshall, have particularly illustrated the trees of those countries. But all these works have been enriched by the communications and assistance of men who had much more extensive and repeated opportunities of observation than their authors, except Mr Marshall, could have. Such are the venerable John Bartram, the Reverend Dr Muhlenberg, Messrs Clayton, Walter, Lyon, &c. The Mexican flora has received, for a long course of years, the attention of the able and learned Mutis, who long corresponded with Linnæus, and whose countrymen have prepared the sumptuous Flora Peruviana; each of the authors of which has repeatedly traversed, at various seasons, the rich and interesting regions, whose botanical treasures make so splendid and novel an appearance in those volumes. Of those treasures we have still more to learn from the unrivalled Humboldt.¹ The French botanist Aublet, after having gained considerable experience in the Mauritius, resided for many years in Cayenne and Guiana,

for the purpose of studying the plants of those countries, of which his work, in four quarto volumes, gives so ample a history and representation.

All the writers just named have been practical botanists. They have generally excelled in specific discrimination, nor have they neglected the study of generic distinctions. Any thing further they have scarcely attempted. It is remarkable that they have all followed, not only the Linnæan principles of definition and nomenclature, but the Linnæan artificial system of classification. This same system was chosen by the veteran Jacquin, in his well-known work on West Indian plants, entitled Stirpium Americanarum Historia, as well as by Browne in his History of Jamaica; not to mention Swartz, in his Flora Indica Occidentalis, who only wanders a little out of the way, to adopt some of Thunberg's alterations. We cannot but observe, that in the very department of botany in which he has most signalized himself, and with which he is most philosophically conversant, the Orchideæ, he totally rejects the ideas of Thunberg.

If we now turn our eyes to the oriental world, we shall find that the seeds of Linnæan botany, sown by Koenig, have sprung up and produced successive harvests among the pious missionaries at Tranquebar, who still continue to interweave a sprig of science, from time to time, among their amaranthine wreaths which are not of this world. India too has long possessed a practical botanist of indefatigable exertion and ardour, who has thrown more light upon its vegetable riches, with the important subject of their qualities and uses, than any one since the days of Rheedde and Rumphius. It is scarcely necessary to name Dr Roxburgh, whose recent loss we deeply lament, and whose acquisitions and learned remarks are given to the world by the munificence of the East India Company, in a style which no prince has ever rivalled.² That enthusiastic admirer of nature, Colonel Hardwicke, and the learn-

¹ Humboldt's splendid work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Americae Equinoctialis, in seven volumes, containing several hundred plates, and descriptions of some thousands of new species, was completed in 1825. Since 1816 many other works on the plants of South America have been published, particularly illustrative of the Flora of Brazil. Of these, Pohl's, Martius', and St Hilaire's, are the most eminent.

² From the period in which the East India Company saw its sovereignty established in India with some security, it undertook, both for its own interest and that of humanity, as much as it possibly could, the promotion of the study and culture of the vegetables of that vast country. It, in consequence, directed its attention to the establishment of the Botanic Garden of Calcutta; and it was in March 1768, and under the direction of Colonel R. Kydd, that this garden commenced. A correspondence with all the Europeans settled in various parts of India speedily enriched it with some very precious plants, and there were in it about three hundred species when Dr Roxburgh took the superintendence, in the autumn of 1793. This botanist obtained new and more active correspondents, and visited personally the coast of Coromandel, and some other provinces of British East India. He succeeded in collecting together 3500 species into the garden, and of this number 1500 were previously unknown, but described by him. Such at least we learn from the catalogue of the garden, printed in 1814, at Serampore, by the care of Dr Carey, the friend of Roxburgh. This catalogue appeared in a very condensed shape; it makes known the botanical name, the Indian appellation, the locality, the time of introduction, and the period of inflorescence and fructification, of each plant; it is terminated by an appendix containing a list of other Indian plants, known to the author, but not then under cultivation. Roxburgh sent from time to time to the Company a great number of drawings and descriptions, and from these a selection was made and published under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks. This splendid work, the Plants of Coromandel, gives the history and coloured figure of 300 of the most beautiful or most useful of the Indian vegetables. But the very magnificence of this work placed limits to it, and therefore Dr Roxburgh projected a Flora of the East under a more simple form; unfortunately, however, his health forced him to leave India and return home in 1814. His Indian Flora was nevertheless not lost to science; Dr Carey published two volumes of it at Serampore, and added to those described by Roxburgh, such as were more lately discovered, both by himself and by Dr Wallich, Jack, and other botanists of British India. This only contains the first five classes of Linnæus.

After the death of Roxburgh, the management of the garden of Calcutta was intrusted to Dr Wallich, whose talents and activity, under the auspices of the Company, have raised the establishment to a high degree of prosperity. More than three hundred persons are employed in the garden, so that the naturalisation of useful objects, and preservation for study of the rare productions of the different parts of India, are equally attended to. Many assistants traverse the country at the expense of the Company, and with unwearied zeal continue to enrich the garden and the herbarium. Dr Wallich himself travelled in 1820 throughout Nepal, which, situated at the foot of the great mountains of Himalaya, presents a vegetation of a very different nature from that of Bengal. Since then, notwithstanding the severe disorders brought on by fatigue and the climate, he has visited Penang, Singapore, the kingdom of Ava, and several other parts of India; in addition, he sent collectors into various districts to which he could not go in person; so that, by these different means, a very considerable number of vegetables has been amassed. Descriptions of several of these have been given in the Prodromus Floræ Nepaleensis of Don, and in other publications of a more general nature published in Europe. Wallich himself, as has been said, inserted many of his discoveries into the Flora Indica, and has besides commenced two other works for the purpose of making them better known. The one is the Testamen Floræ Nepaleensis illustrata, which presents a detailed description and a lithographic figure of the principal plants of that country. Two numbers have appeared, each of twenty-five plates; which, in addition to their botanical interest, deserve to be noticed, as being the first attempts at lithographic botanical plates in India, and executed by

ed botanist Dr Francis Buchanan, have also contributed greatly to increase our knowledge of Indian botany. The latter has enjoyed the advantage of investigating, for the first time, the remote and singular country of Nepal, so prolific in beautiful and uncommon plants, that few parts of the world can exceed it; and yet meeting, in several points, not only the floras of the lower regions and islands of India, but those of Japan, China, and even Siberia. The only systematic work on East Indian plants, is the Flora Indica of Burmann, which is classed according to the Linnæan artificial method. We cannot but wish that it were more worthy of the system or the subject; yet, as a first attempt, it deserves our thanks. In speaking of Indian botany, shall we withhold our homage from that great and sublime genius Sir William Jones, who honoured this study with his cultivation, and, like every thing else that he touched, refined, elevated, and elucidated it? No man was ever more truly sensible of the charms of this innocent and elegant pursuit; and whenever he adverted to it, all the luminous illustrations of learning, and even the magical graces of poetry, flowed from his pen.

"But we must extend our view beyond the utmost bounds of India, and, of the then discovered world, to trace the steps of those adventurous circumnavigators who sought out, not only new plants, but new countries, for botanical examination. The names of Banks and Solander have, for nearly half a century, been in every body's mouth. Their taste, their knowledge, their liberality, have diffused a charm and a popularity over all their pursuits; and those who never heard of botany before, have learned to consider it with respect and admiration, as the object to which a man of rank, riches, and talents, devoted his life and his fortune; who, while he added, every season, something of novelty and beauty to our gardens, gave the bread-fruit to the West Indies, and was ever on the watch to prompt or to further any scheme of public advantage.¹ With the recollection of such men must also be associated the names of the learned Forsters, father and son, of Sparrmann, and of Menzies, who have all accomplished the same perilous course, and enriched their beloved science. The cryptogamic acquisitions of the latter in New Zealand prove him to have attended to that branch of botany with extraordinary success, and at the same time evince the riches of that remote country. Indeed, it appears that any country proves rich, under the inspection of a sufficiently careful investigator. The labours of these botanists have all been conducted according to the principles and classification of Linnæus. Forster, under Sparrmann's auspices, has judiciously pointed out, and attempted to remedy, defects which their peculiar opportunities enabled them to discover, but with no invidious aim. They laboured, not to overthrow or undermine a system, which they found on the whole to answer the purpose of readily communicating their discoveries, but to correct and strengthen it for the advantage of those who might come after them. It is much to be lamented that,

except the Nova Genera Plantarum, we have as yet so short and compendious an account of the acquisitions made in their voyage. To the technical history of these, however, the younger Forster has commendably added whatever he could supply of practical utility, and has thus given us all the information within the compass of his means.

"Long since the voyages of these celebrated naturalists, the same remote countries have been visited, in our own days, by two learned botanists more especially; these are M. Labillardière, and Mr Brown, librarian of the Linnæan Society. The former has published an account of the plants of New Holland, in two volumes folio, with fine engravings; the latter has favoured the botanical world with one volume of a most acute and learned Prodromus of his discoveries. As his voyage was made at the public expense, we may trust that the government will consider itself as bound to enable him to publish the whole of his acquisitions, in such a manner as to be generally useful. His own accuracy of observation, illustrated by the drawings of the inimitable Bauer, cannot fail to produce such a work as, we will venture to pronounce, has never been equalled. M. Labillardière has disposed his book according to the system of Linnæus; a rare example in France, where any thing not French usually comes but ill recommended. Mr Brown, on the other hand, has written his Prodromus, at least, on the principles of classification established by the celebrated Jussieu, the great champion of a natural system of his own. On this subject we postpone our remarks for the present. Before we can enter on the subject of natural classification, it is necessary to consider the state and progress of botany, for some years past, in the schools, and among the writers, of Europe.

"Sweden has continued to maintain her long established Botanical rank in the several departments of natural science, nor has of Sweden Denmark been behind-hand with her neighbour and ancient rival. The son and successor of the great Linnæus endeavoured to follow his father's steps, and was ambitious of not being left very far in the rear; a commendable aim, which his short life, to say nothing of his talents or experience, disabled him from accomplishing. He completed and gave to the world, the unfinished materials which his father had left, for a supplement to his Species Plantarum and Mantissa; and having enriched the book with many communications of Thunberg and others, as well as a number of original remarks, he felt a strong desire, not altogether unpardonable, of being thought the principal author of the work. All uncertainty on this subject, wherever other helps fail, is removed by the original manuscript of the Supplementum Plantarum in our possession. Ehrhart superintended the printing of this work, and made some alterations in the manuscript, traces of which are perceptible in the affected Greek names given to some species of Carex, Mespilus, &c., as well as in their sesquipedalian specific characters. But he had

native draughtsmen. The other work by Dr Wallich, much more splendid than the preceding, is destined to present the history and coloured figures of the rarer plants of Asia. This, the Planta Asiatica rariorum, will form three volumes.

Besides Roxburgh and Wallich, there are others who have been patronized by the Company. Koenig, Heyne, Carey, Patrick Russel, Rottler, Klein, Wight, Jack, Finlayson, &c. have traversed different parts of India with the view of studying its vegetation. For about half a century, all the collections of dried plants have been transmitted to England, and preserved in the Company's museum; and the immensity of these materials has made the Directors perceive that they would be useless without the co-operation of many naturalists. By a decision remarkable for its liberality, the Court of Directors has, therefore, lately given instructions to Dr Wallich, at present in London, to distribute these precious collections among the principal botanists of the present day; and the East India Company has thus acquired the most honourable claims on the gratitude of the men of science of every country. But if the thanks of naturalists be due to the Company in the first place, they are scarcely less so to Dr Wallich, who superintends the operation. Far from profiting by his situation to reserve for himself the publication of so much riches, he merely wishes to distribute them among others in the manner which he conceives most useful for the progress of natural history. His time in England, which he has a right to devote to his private affairs, and his valuable notes, are wholly at the service of others.

¹ Sir Joseph died on the 19th of March 1820. See Article BANKS, SIR JOSEPH.

introduced his own new genera of Mosses; which the younger Linnæus thought so alarming an innovation, that he ordered the sheet containing these matters to be cancelled. We are possessed of a copy, which shows the genera in question to be almost all well founded, and what are now, under Hedwig's sanction, generally received, though by other names. The descriptions of Ehrhart are precise and correct, though his terminology is exceptionable, being full of innovations and crabbed expressions. Two years, almost immediately preceding the death of the younger Linnæus, were spent by the latter in visiting England, France, and Holland, and were employed to very great advantage, in augmenting his collections of natural productions, as well as his scientific skill. During this tour he attached himself strongly, through the medium of his old friend Solander, to Sir Joseph Banks; and, while in France, he almost planted, or at least greatly advanced, a Linnæan school in that kingdom. He had scarcely resumed his professorial office at home when he was unexpectedly taken off, by an acute disease, in his forty-second year. Of the talents and performances of his successor Thunberg, who still with honour fills the chair of the Rudbeckes and the Linnæi, we have already spoken. Dr Swartz is the Bergian professor of botany at Stockholm. The Transactions of the Upsal Academy, founded by the younger Rudbeck, are continued occasionally; and those of the Stockholm Academy, whose foundations were laid by Linnæus, are published regularly. Both are from time to time enriched with botanical communications worthy of the pupils of so illustrious a school. A veteran in botanical science, Professor Retzius, still presides at the university of Lund. The worthy and accurate Afzelius, well known in England, who accomplished a hazardous botanical expedition to Sierra Leone, is the coadjutor of Professor Thunberg; and the difficult subject of Lichens, under the hands of Dr Acharius, has become so vast and so diversified as to be almost a science of itself.

Den- mark, " Denmark has always possessed some acute and learned botanists, and has, more than most other countries, been supplied with dried specimens of plants, as an article of commerce, from her West or East Indian establishments. Oeder, the original author of the Flora Danica, and Müller its continuator, have distinguished themselves; but their fame is inferior to that of the late Professor Vahl, who studied under the celebrated Linnæus, and is the author of several excellent descriptive works. He undertook no less than a new Species, or, as he entitled it, Enumeratio Plantarum; an admirable performance, cut short by his death at the end of the second volume, which finishes the class and order Triandria Monogynia. It is almost superfluous to mention, that Afzelius and Retzius, as well as Vahl, in all they have given to the world, have followed the system of their great master. The Flora Danica, chiefly a collection of plates, with few synonyms and no descriptions, has come forth, from time to time, for above fifty years past, in fasciculi, without any order, and is still incomplete. It was undertaken by royal command, and, in a great measure, at the sovereign's expense, though regularly sold, except some copies presented to certain distinguished men, as Linnæus.

Russia, " After the example of Denmark, Sweden, &c. Russia has been desirous of promoting, throughout its vast dependencies, an attention to natural knowledge. Nor was any country ever more fortunate in the possession of an active and intelligent naturalist. The celebrated Pallas successfully devoted a long life to these pursuits, and to

the communication of his discoveries and observations. He prompted the Empress Catharine to offer an unlimited sum for the museum, library, and manuscripts of Linnæus; but, fortunately for their present possessor, the offer was made too late. A Flora Rossica, on the most magnificent scale, was undertaken by Pallas; his imperial mistress proposing to defray the cost of the whole undertaking, not merely for sale, but for gratuitous presentation, on the most princely scale, to all who had any taste or ability to make use of the book. This well-intended munificence was the cause of the ruin of the project. The first half volume was bestowed as the empress intended. But the second part, instead of following the destination of the first, got into the hands of interested people, who defeated the liberal designs of their sovereign, misapplied her money, and by the disgust and disappointment which ensued, prevented the continuance of the work. Those who wished to complete their sets, or to obtain the book at all, were obliged to become clandestine purchasers, buying as a favour, what they ought to have received as a gift; and were, moreover, like the writer of this, often obliged to receive imperfect copies. In like manner the intentions of the great Howard, respecting his book on prisons, were rendered ineffectual by the disgraceful avarice of certain London booksellers, who immediately bought up, and sold at a greatly advanced price, the whole edition, which its benevolent author had destined to be accessible to every body at an unusually cheap rate. These examples, amongst others, show that it is the most difficult thing in the world to employ patronage, as well as gratuitous charity of any kind, to real advantage, except under the guidance of the most rigorous discretion. 'All that men of power can do for men of genius,' says Gray, if we recollect aright, 'is to leave them at liberty, or they become like birds in a cage,' whose song is no longer that of nature and enjoyment. The great and the affluent may foster and encourage science and literature, by their countenance, their attention, and a free, not overwhelming, liberality; but when princes become publishers of books, or directors of academies, they generally do more harm than good. They descend from their station, and lose sight perhaps of their higher and more peculiar duties, which consist in promoting the general prosperity, peace, and liberty of their subjects, under the benign influence of which, every art, science, or pursuit, that can be beneficial to mankind, is sure to flourish without much gratuitous assistance.

" Several of the immediate scholars of the illustrious of Germany. Swedish naturalist were planted in different parts of Germany. Murray, to whom he intrusted the publication of that compendious volume entitled Systema Vegetabilium, and who printed two successive editions of the work, was seated as Professor at Göttingen. Giseke was established at Hamburg, and, after the death of Linnæus, gave to the world such an edition as he was able to compile, from his own notes and those of Fabricius, of the lectures of their late preceptor, on the natural orders of plants. His ideas on this subject Linnæus himself always considered as too imperfect to be published, except in the form of a sketch or index, at the end of his Genera Plantarum. The venerable patriarch, Professor Jacquin, still survives at Vienna, where he and his worthy son have enriched botany with a number of splendid and useful works. They have given to the public several labours of the excellent practical botanist Wulfen, and others, which might, but for their encouragement, have been lost. The highly va-

¹ At the present day, Sweden has to boast of Agardh and Fries, the former of whom has published many erudite works on the Algae, the latter on Fungi.

uable publication of Host on grasses is conducted on the plan of Jacquin's works. His Synopsis of Austrian plants is an excellent Flora, disposed according to the sexual system; as is the more ample Tentamen Floræ Germanicæ of the celebrated Dr Roth, one of the best practical European botanists, and more deeply versed than most others in cryptogamic lore. The best Linnæan Flora, as far as it goes, that the world has yet seen, we speak it without any exception, is the Flora Germanicæ of Professor Schrader of Göttingen, the first volume of which, comprising the first three classes of the sexual system, was published in 1806. The correct distinctions, well-digested synonyms, and complete descriptions, of this work, are altogether unrivalled. If the whole should be equally well executed, for which the longest life would be scarcely sufficient, it must ever be the standard book of European botany. Its descriptions of grasses are worthy to accompany the exquisite engravings of the same tribe from the hand of Leers, published at Herborn in 1775, which excel every botanical representation which we have yet examined. They will bear, and indeed they require, the application of a magnifying-glass, like the plants themselves. The purchaser of this little volume must however beware of the second edition, the plates of which are good for little or nothing. The name of Schrader has long been distinguished in cryptogamic botany. In this pursuit, the industrious and accurate botanists of Germany, shut out from extensive opportunities of studying exotic plants, have had full scope for their zeal and abilities. In this field the Leipsic school has distinguished itself. Here the great Schreber first began his career with some of the most perfect cryptogamic works, especially on the minute genus Phascum. Here the same author published his excellent Flora Lipsiensis, his laborious practical work on Grasses, and finally his improved edition of the Genera Plantarum of his friend Linnæus. But, above all, Leipsic is famous for being the residence of Hedwig, whose discoveries relative to the fructification and generic characters of Mosses form an era in botanic science. Under the hands of such an observer, that elegant tribe displays itself with a degree of beauty, variety, and singularity, which vies with the most admired herbs and flowers, and confirms the Linnæan doctrine of impregnation, which the more obvious organs of the latter had originally taught. Nor must we, in speaking of cryptogamic plants, neglect here to record the names of Weiss, Weber, Mohr, Schmidt, Esper, and especially Hoffmann; the plates of the latter, illustrating the Lichen tribe, are models of beauty and correctness. His Flora Germanicæ is a most convenient and compendious manual, after the Linnæan system. Fungi have been studied in Germany with peculiar care and minuteness. The leading systematic author in this obscure tribe, Persoon, was indeed born of Dutch parents, at the Cape of Good Hope; but he studied and published at Göttingen. Two writers of the name of Albertini and Schweiniz have published the most minute and accurate exemplification of this natural order, in an octavo volume, at Leipsic, in the year 1805, comprising the Fungi of the district of Niski in Upper Lausatia. If their figures are less exquisitely finished than Persoon's, or less elaborately detailed than Schrader's, their descriptions make ample amends.

"The German school of botany has for a long period been almost completely Linnæan. This however was not always the case; for, in the earlier part of his career, the learned Swede was attacked more repeatedly and severely from this quarter of the world than from any other; his ridiculous critic Siegesbeck of Petersburg excepted, who would not admit the doctrine of the sexes of plants, because the pollen of one flower may fly upon another,

and his purity could not bear the idea of such adultery in nature. Numerous methods of arrangement appeared in Germany, from the pens of Heister, Ludwig, Haller, and others, and even Schreber adopted a system like some of these in his Flora above mentioned. It would be to no purpose now to criticise these attempts. They cannot rank as natural systems, nor have they the convenience of artificial ones. Part of their principles are derived from Linnæus, others from Rivinus. Their authors were not extensively conversant with plants, nor trained in any sound principles of generic discrimination or combination. They set off with alacrity, but were soon entangled in their own difficulties, and were left by Linnæus to answer themselves or each other. We here mention these learned systematics; for learned they were thought by themselves and their pupils, merely because they will scarcely require animation when we come to canvass the great question of natural and artificial classification, they having had no distinct ideas of a difference between the two. Hedwig used frequently to lament that his preceptor Ludwig had never perfected his system of arrangement; but from what he has given to the world, we see no great room to suppose that he had any thing very excellent in reserve. Unexecuted projects are magnified in the mists of uncertainty. We have ventured elsewhere, in a biographical account of Hedwig, to remark, that even that ingenious man 'did not imbibe, under Ludwig, anything of the true philosophical principles of arrangement, the talents for which are granted to very few, and are scarcely ever of German growth. We mean no invidious reflections on any nation or people. Each has its appropriate merits, and all are useful together in science, like different characters on the theatre of human life.'

"Germany may well dispense with any laurels obtained by the very secondary merit of speculative schemes of classification, when she can claim the honour of having produced such a practical observer as Gærtner. This indefatigable botanist devoted himself to the investigation of the fruits and seeds of plants. Being eminently skilled in the use of the pencil, he has, like Hedwig, faithfully recorded what he no less acutely detected. The path he struck out for himself, of delineating and describing in detail, with magnified dissections, every part of the seed and seed-vessel of each genus within his reach, had never been explored before in so regular and methodical a manner. Botanists of the Linnæan school are justly censurable for having paid too little attention to the structure of these important parts, in their generic characters. Indeed it may be said, that if they were able to establish good genera without them, and, after the example of their leader, merely preferred the more obvious and distinct organs, when sufficient for their purpose, their conduct was justifiable. If generic principles be natural and certain, it matters not on what parts of the fructification they are founded; nor is the inflorescence, or even the herb or root, rejected by sound philosophers, but because they are found to lead only to unnatural and uncertain characters. It is therefore extremely to the honour of Linnæus, Gærtner, and Jussieu, that their conceptions of genera are almost entirely the same. They meet in almost every point, however different the paths by which they pursue their inquiries. Their labours illustrate and confirm each other. Even Tournefort, who conceived so well, on the whole, the distinctions of genera, which he could but ill define, receives new strength from their knowledge, which does not overturn his imperfect performances, but improve them. The accurate student of natural genera cannot fail to perceive, that where Gærtner differs from Linnæus, which is but in a very few material instances, such as his numerous subdivision of the genus Fumaria, and his dis-

Taxonom. tribution of the compound flowers, it arises from his too intent and exclusive consideration of one part of the fructification, instead of an enlarged and comprehensive view of the whole. In other words, he neglects the Linnæan maxim, that 'the genus should give the character, not the character the genus.' Such at least appears to us the case in Fumaria.¹ In the syngenesious family, being so very natural in itself, the discrimination of natural genera becomes in consequence so difficult, that Gærtner and Linnæus may well be excused if they do not entirely agree; and they perhaps may both be satisfied with the honour of having collected materials, and disposed them in different points of view, for the use of some future systematist, who may decide between them. However exact Gærtner may have been in discriminating the parts of seeds, we believe him to have been mistaken in distinguishing the vitellus as a separate organ, distinct in functions from the cotyledons. His readers will also do well, while they profit by his generally excellent principles, not to admit any of his rules as absolute. They may serve as a clue to the intricacies of nature, but they must not overrule her laws. Still less is our great carpologist to be implicitly followed in physiological doctrines or reasonings; witness his feeble and incorrect attack on Hedwig's opinions, or rather demonstrations, respecting the impregnation of Mosses. His criticisms of Linnæus are not always marked with that candour which becomes a disinterested lover of truth and nature; nor can we applaud in general his changes of nomenclature or of terminology, especially when he unphilosophically calls the germen of Linnæus the ovarium, a word long ago rejected, as erroneous when applied to plants.² These however are slight blemishes in a reputation which will last as long as scientific botany is cultivated at all. Botanists can now no longer neglect, except at their own peril, the parts which Gærtner has called into notice, and to the scrutiny of which, directed by his faithful guidance, the physiologist and the systematist must often in future recur.

Prussia. "We shall close this part of our subject with the mention of the Berlin school, where Gleditsch, who, in 1740, repelled the attacks of Siegesbeck on Linnæus, was professor, and published a botanical system, founded on the situation, or insertion, of the stamens; the subordinate divisions being taken from the number of the same parts; so that it is, in the latter respect, a sort of inversion of the Linnæan method. In the former, or the outline of its plan, the system of Gleditsch is in some measure an anticipation of that of Jussieu. Berlin has of late been much distinguished for the study of natural history, and possesses a society of its own, devoted to that pursuit. Its greatest ornament was the late Professor Willdenow, who, if he fell under the lash of the more accurate Afzelius, is entitled to the gratitude of his fellow-labourers, not for theoretical speculations, but for the useful and arduous undertaking of a Species Plantarum, on the Linnæan plan, being indeed an edition of the same work of Linnæus, enriched with recent discoveries. This book, left unfinished at the end of the first order of the Cryptogamia, by the death of the editor, wants only a general index to render it sufficiently complete. The Musci, Lichenes, and Fungi, are systematically treated in the separate works of writers devoted to those particular, and now very extensive, subjects, from whom Willdenow could only have been a compiler. With the Filices, which he lived to publish, he was practically conversant. His inser-

tion of the essential generic characters, throughout these volumes, is a useful addition, and has now become necessary in every similar undertaking.

Taxonom. Little can be said of Holland in this review of the botanical state of Europe for a few years past. The Leyden garden has always been kept up, especially during the life of the late Professor David Van Royen, with due care and attention: we know little of its fate in the subsequent convulsed state of the country. Botany has long been on the decline at Amsterdam, though we are indebted to that garden for having first received, and afterwards communicated to other countries, such acquisitions of Thunberg in Japan as escaped the perils of importation.

The botany of Switzerland may, most commodiously, be considered in the next place. Here, in his native land, country, the great Haller, after a long residence at Göttingen, was finally established. Its rich and charming Flora has been illustrated by his classical pen, with peculiar success. Every body is conversant with the second edition of his work, published in 1768, in three volumes folio, and entitled Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Helvetiae, with its inimitable engravings, of the Orchis tribe more particularly. But few persons who have not laboured with some attention at the botany of Switzerland, are aware of the superior value, in point of accuracy, of the original edition of the same work, published in 1742, under the title of Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Helvetiae Indigenarum. This edition is indispensable to those who wish fully to understand the subject, or to appreciate Haller's transcendent knowledge and abilities. These works are classed after a system of his own, intended to be more consonant with nature than the Linnæan sexual method. We can scarcely say that it is so, on the whole; nor is it, on the other hand, constructed according to any uniformity of plan. The number of the stamens, compared with that of the segments of the corolla, or its petals, regulate the characters of several classes, and these are artificial. Others are assumed as natural, and are for the most part really so; but their characters are frequently taken from Linnæus, even from his artificial system, as the Cruciatæ and the Apetales. Lord Bute has well said, that Haller was a Linnæan in disguise. His classification, however, was merely intended to answer his own purpose with respect to the Swiss plants; for he was not a general botanist, nor had he a sufficiently comprehensive view of the subject to form a general system, or even to be aware of the difficulties of such an undertaking. He ought not therefore to be obnoxious to criticism in that view. His method has served for the use of his scholars, as the Linnæan one serves English botanists, by way of a dictionary. Some such is necessary; and those who should begin to decide on the merits of a system, before they know plants, would most assuredly be in danger of appearing more learned to themselves than to others. We cannot exculpate Haller from some degree of prejudice in rejecting real improvements of Linnæus, which are independent of classification; such as his trivial or specific names, by which every species is spoken of at once, in one word, mostly so contrived as to assist the memory, by an indication of the character, appearance, history, or use, of the plant. What did the great Swiss botanist substitute instead of this contrivance? A series of numbers, burthensome to the memory, destitute of information, accommodated to his own book only, and necessarily liable to

¹ Most modern botanists view the Linnæan genus Fumaria as a natural order, and have therefore properly adopted Gærtner's divisions as distinct genera.

² Notwithstanding the above opinion to the contrary, ovarium is now generally adopted instead of germen.

Taxonom. my. total change on the introduction of every newly-discovered species! At the same time that he rejected the luminous nomenclature of his old friend and fellow-student, who had laboured in the most ingenious terms to deprecate his jealousy, he paid a tacit homage to its merit, by contending that the honour of this invention was due to Rivinus. In this he was not less incorrect than uncandid, the short names of Rivinus being designed as specific characters, for which purpose Haller knew, as well as Linnaeus, that they were unfit. Useful specific characters he himself constructed on the plan of Linnaeus, with some little variation, not always perhaps for the better as to strictness of principle, but often strikingly expressive. Here, as in every thing connected with practical botany, he shines. The most rigid Linnaean, whose soul is not entirely shrivelled up with dry aphorisms and prejudice, must love Haller for his taste and enthusiasm, and the Flora of Switzerland as much for his sake as its own. No wonder that his pupils multiplied, and formed a band of enthusiasts, tenacious of even the imperfections of their master. The line of demarcation is now no longer distinctly drawn between them and the equally zealous scholars of the northern sages. The amiable and lamented Davall strove to profit by the labours of both. The Alpine botanists of France and Italy have served to amalgamate the Swedish and the Helvetian schools. The Flora of Dauphiné by Villars is nearly Linnaean in system; and the principles of the veteran Bellardi of Turin are entirely so, though, in some of his publications, he has been obliged to conform to the method of his preceptor, the venerable Allioni, who, in spite of all remonstrance, had the ambition of forming a system of his own. His Flora Pedemontana is disposed according to this system; an unnatural and inconvenient jumble of the ideas of Rivinus, Tournefort, and others. This work is also faulty in the neglect of specific definitions, so that its plates and occasional descriptions are alone what render it useful; nor would it, perhaps, be consulted at all, but for the uncommon abundance of rare species.¹

of Italy, "We may glance over the botany of Italy, to whose boundaries we have thus been insensibly led, as the traveller takes a bird's-eye view of its outstretched plains from the lofty summits of the Alps. We may pass from Turin to Naples without meeting with any school of distinction. The northern states are not without their professors and patrons of botany; nor are their nobles destitute of taste, in various branches of natural knowledge. The names of a Castiglione of Milan, a Durazzo and Dinegro of Genoa, and a Savi of Pisa, deserve to be mentioned with honour, for their knowledge and their zeal. The unfortunate Cyrillo, and his friend Pacifico, of Naples, were practical botanists. There is also a rising school, of great promise, at Palermo. But since the time of Scopoli, Italy has contributed little to our stock of information; nor are the latter publications of this eminent man, while he resided at Pavia, commensurate in importance or merit with those earlier ones, the Flora and the Entomologia Carniolica, which have immortalized his name. Scopoli, who at first adopted a system of his own, had the sense and liberality, in his second edition, to resign

it in favour of what his maturer experience taught him to prefer, the sexual system of Linnaeus.²

Taxonom. my. Spain and Portugal claim our attention; the former for being the channel through which the gardens of Europe have, for some years past, been enriched with many new Mexican and Peruvian plants, and likewise as the theatre of the publication of some important books relative to the botany of those countries. In speaking of American botany, we have mentioned the Flora Peruviana, the authors of which, Ruiz and Pavoni, rank deservedly high for their industry and knowledge. The late Cavanilles, resident at Madrid, has also communicated to the learned world much information, from the same source. Spain seems anxious to redeem her reputation, which suffered so much from the neglect, or rather persecution, of the truly excellent but unfortunate Dombey, who, like many other benefactors of mankind, was allowed to make all his exertions in vain, and finally perished unknown, in the diabolical hands of English slave-dealers at Montserrat.³ Portugal is most distinguished at home by the labours of a learned benedictine, Dr Felix Avellar Brotero, author of a Flora Lusitanica, disposed after the Linnaean method, reduced entirely to principles of number; and abroad by the valuable work of Father Loureiro, entitled Flora Cochinchinensis, in which the plants of Cochin-China, and of the neighbourhood of Canton, are classed and defined in the Linnaean manner, with valuable descriptions and remarks. It is undoubtedly a disgrace to the possessors of such a country as Brazil, that they have not derived from thence more benefit to the world or to themselves from its natural productions. But they are satisfied with what the bowels of the earth afford, and they neglect its more accessible, though perhaps not less valuable treasures. The jealousy and innumerable restrictions of their government render what they possess as useless to all the world as to themselves. A genius of the first rank in natural science, as well as in every thing which his capacious mind embraced, has arisen in Portugal, and has been domesticated in the schools of Paris and London, the amiable and learned Correa de Serra. What little impulse has been given to literature in Portugal, and particularly the foundation of a Royal Academy of Sciences, is owing to him; and though his name has chiefly appeared in the ranks of botanical science in an incidental manner, no one possesses more enlarged and accurate views, or more profound knowledge, of the subject.

"In the extensive, though incomplete, review which we English have undertaken of the recent history of botanical science, and the individual merits of particular writers have chiefly hitherto been detailed and compared. The most difficult part of our task perhaps still remains, namely, to contrast and appreciate the influence and the merits of two great and rival nations, in the general school of scientific botany; to consider the causes that have led to the particular line which each has taken; and to compare the success, as well as to calculate the probable future consequences, of their respective aims. England and France have, from the time of Ray and Tournefort, been competitors in botanical fame, because each was ambitious of supporting the credit of the great man she had produced. This contest,

¹ Geneva is celebrated at the present day as the residence of Professor De Candolle. This distinguished botanist, in addition to many other works of scarcely inferior merit, published, in 1818 vol. 1st, and in 1821 vol. 2d, of a Regnum Vegetabile, arranged according to the natural system. No more has yet appeared; but in 1824 he commenced a Prodromus, or abridgement of what the other was intended to be; and of this four volumes are completed. It is expected to be concluded in a few years.

² Raddi, Tenore, Viviani, and the Sicilian botanist Gussone, had scarcely, at the time when Sir J. E. Smith wrote this, gained sufficient fame to be noticed by him.

³ Had Sir James Smith lived, he would have found occasion to alter the above paragraph. At present there is not one individual deserving the name of botanist in Spain. The last of them, Lagasca, has had all his collections, including what he had amassed for years with a view to publish a Flora of Spain, entirely destroyed, and been obliged himself to take refuge in England.

however, as far as it regarded theoretical speculations, has entirely subsided on the part of Ray's champions. In practical science, likewise, the admirers of Ray and of Tournefort have shaken hands, like those of every other school. On the subject of system, the question is greatly changed; for though a phoenix has arisen from the ashes of Tournefort, its 'star-like eyes,' darting far beyond all former competition, have been met, if not dazzled, by a new light, rising in full glory from the north; a polar star, which has been hailed by all the nations of the earth.

The Linnean system of classification, with all its concomitant advantages of nomenclature, luminous technical definition, and richness of information, was planted, like a fresh and vigorous scion, in the favourable soil of England, already fertilized with accumulations of practical knowledge, about the middle of the last century. If we may pursue the metaphor, the ground was entirely cleared for its reception; for all previous systems had been of confined and local use, the alphabetical index having become the resource of even the most learned, and the pupils of Ray being held to his method of classification rather by their gratitude for his practical instruction, than any other consideration. Accordingly we have, in our own early progress, before they were all, as at present, swept off the stage, found them rather contending for his nomenclature, imperfect as it was, because they were habituated to it, than for his system, of which it was evident they had made little use. Hence the first attempt in England to reduce our plants to Linnean order, made by Hill, was chiefly a transposition of Ray's Synopsis into the Linnean classes; the original nomenclature being retained, while the specific names of the Species Plantarum were rejected.

Hill's imperfect performance was superseded by the more classical Flora Anglica of Hudson, composed under the auspices and advice of the learned and ingenious Stillingfleet, in which the botany of England assumed a most scientific aspect, and with which all the knowledge of Ray was incorporated. At the same time, the principles of theoretical botany, and the philosophical writings of the learned Swede, were studied with no ordinary powers of discrimination and judgment, in a small circle of experienced observers at Norwich. A love of flowers, and a great degree of skill in their cultivation, had been long ago imported into that ancient commercial city, with its worsted manufacture, from Flanders; and out of this taste something like the study of systematic botany had sprung. These pursuits were mostly confined to the humblest of the community, particularly among the then very numerous bodies of journeymen weavers, dyers, and other artisans of a similar description. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, several of the opulent merchants seem to have acquired, by their intimate connection with Holland, not only the above-mentioned taste for horticulture, but likewise an ambition to be distinguished by their museums of natural curiosities. The former sometimes extended itself, from the flowery parterre and the well-arranged rows of tulips, hyacinths, carnations, and auriculas, into no less formal labyrinths, or perhaps a double pattern of angular or spiral walks, between clipped hedges, exactly alike on each side of a broad gravel walk. Such was the most sublime effort of the art within the compass of our recollection. "Grove" could by no means be said to "nod at grove," for the perpendicular and well-trimmed structure was incapable of nodding; but that "each alley should have a brother" was an indispensable part of the design. Greenhouses of exotic plants, except oranges and myrtles, were at this time scarcely known; and the writer well recollects having seen, with wonder and admiration, above forty years

ago, one of the first African geraniums that ever bloomed in Norwich. If, however, the progress of natural science was slow in this angle of the kingdom, the wealthy manufacturers, become their own merchants, found it necessary to acquire a knowledge of various foreign languages, in order to carry on their wide-extended commerce. In learning French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German, they unavoidably acquired many new ideas. Their sons were sent to the continent, and it were hard, indeed, if many of them did not bring home much that was worth learning. The society of the place, aided by some concomitant circumstances, and the adventitious acquisition of two or three men of singular talents and accomplishments, became improved. A happy mixture of literature and taste for many years distinguished this city above its rivals in opulence and commercial prosperity. Such Norwich has been in our memory; and if its splendour be gone by, a taste for mental cultivation, originating in many of the before-mentioned causes, still remains, and is fostered by the novel pursuits of chemistry and natural history, on which some arts of great importance in the manufacture of the place depend for improvement. We trust the reader will pardon this digression from the subject more immediately before us, to which we shall now return.

Some of the more learned students of English plants, among the lovers of botany in Norwich, had long been conversant with the works of Ray, and even the Historia Muscorum of Dillenius. They were prepared therefore to admire, and to profit by, the philosophical writings of Linnaeus. Hence originated the Elements of Botany, published in 1775 by Mr Hugh Rose, who was aided in the undertaking by his equally learned friend, the reverend Henry Bryant, of whose acuteness and botanical skill no better proof is wanting, than his having found and determined, nine years before, the minute Tillaea mucosa, for the first time in this island. Numerous pupils were eager to improve themselves by the assistance of such masters; and, amongst others, the writer of these pages imbibed, from their ardour and friendly assistance, the first rudiments of a pursuit that has proved the happiness and the principal object of his life.

London became, of course, the focus of this science, as London, well as of every other. Of the English universities, Cambridge most fulfilled its duty, in rendering its public establishments useful to the ends for which they were founded and paid. The names of Martyn, both father and son, have long maintained a distinguished rank in botany; and the latter, for many years, has inculcated the true principles of Linnean science, from the professor's chair. A botanic garden was established by a private individual, Dr Walker, about the period of which we are speaking. A Linnean Flora Cantabrigiensis, by Mr Relhan, has renewed the celebrity of that field in which Ray had formerly laboured; and there has always existed a little community of Cambridge botanists, though fluctuating and varying, according to circumstances. At Oxford, botany, so vigorously established by Sherard and Dillenius, slept for forty years under the auspices of the elder Professor Sibthorp, at least as to the utility of its public foundations. Yet even there the science had many individual cultivators, and if others were forgotten, the name of a Banks ought to render this school for ever celebrated. The younger Professor Sibthorp well atoned for the supineness of his father and predecessor. He published a Flora Oxoniensis, and extended his inquiries into the classical scenes of Greece, finally sacrificing his life to his labours, and sealing his love of this engaging study by a posthumous foundation, which provides for the publication of a sumptuous Flora Græca, and the subsequent establishment of a professorship of rural economy. Edinburgh, under the aus-

pieces of Professor Hope, became distinguished for the cultivation of botany as a branch of medical education. The physiology of plants was there taught more assiduously than in almost any other university of Europe; and the Linnæan principles were ably enforced and illustrated, not with slavish devotion, but with enlightened discrimination. Nor must the dissenting academy at Warrington be forgotten, where the distinguished circumnavigator Forster, of whom we have already spoken, was settled. Here many young naturalists were trained. The neighbouring family of the Blackburnes, possessed even to this day of one of the oldest and richest botanic gardens in England, have steadily fostered this and other branches of natural knowledge. The same taste has spread to Manchester, Liverpool, and the country around. Westmoreland, Northumberland, and Durham, have their sequestered practical botanists in every rank of life. Scenes celebrated by the correspondents of Ray are still the favourite haunts of these lovers of nature and science, who every day add something to our information, and to the celebrity of other parts of the same neighbourhood.

"We must now concentrate our attention to the London school, which for about forty years past has maintained a rank superior to most other seats of botanical science; the more so perhaps from its being founded in total disinterestedness, both with respect to authority and emolument. Truth alone, not system, has been the leading object of this school; unbiased and gratuitous patronage its support; and a genuine love of nature and of knowledge its bond of union, among persons not less distinguished from each other by character and opinion, than by their different pursuits and various ranks of life. The illustrious Banks, from the time when, after his return from his celebrated and adventurous voyage, he devoted himself to the practical cultivation of natural science for the advantage of others, as he had long pursued it for his own pleasure and instruction, has been the head of this school. Here he fixed the amiable and learned Solander, for the remainder of his too short life. The house of this liberal Mecænas has ever since been, not only open, but in a manner at the entire command of the cultivators and admirers of this and other branches of philosophy; inasmuch as his library and museum have been devoted to their free use; and his own assistance, encouragement, and information are as much at their service as if his fortune and fame had all along depended on their favour. With such an establishment as this, aided by the perpetual resources of the numerous public and private gardens around, botany might well flourish. The liberal spirit of the leaders of this pursuit gave a tone to the whole. The owners of nurseries, though depending on pecuniary emolument for their support, rivalled each other in disinterested communication. The improvement of the science was the leading object of all. One of this latter description took his rank among the literary teachers of botany. Lee's Introduction was much approved by Linnæus, whose system and principles it ably exemplifies, and who became the friend and correspondent of its author. Travelling botanists were dispatched under the patronage of the affluent to enrich our gardens from the Alps, the Cape of Good Hope, and the various parts of America. Every new acquisition was scrutinized, and received its allotted name and distinction from the hand of the correct and classical Solander, who one day was admiring with Collinson, Fothergill, or Pitcairn, the treasures of their respective gardens, and another labouring with the distinguished Ellis,

at the more abstruse determination of the intricate family of marine productions, whether sea-weeds, corallines, or shells. His own acquisitions, and those of his friend and patron, in the fairy land of the South Sea Islands, the hazardous shores of New Holland, or the nearly fatal groves and swamps of Java, were at the same time recorded by his pen, as they were gradually perpetuating by the slow labours of the engraver. To this band of zealous naturalists the younger Linnæus was for a while associated, as well as the excellent and zealous Broussonet, who, though not unversed in botany, devoted himself most particularly to the more uncommon pursuit of scientific ichthyology.

"The Banksian school, altogether intent upon practical botany, had adopted the Linnæan system as the most commodious, while it pursued and cultivated the Linnæan principles as the only ones which, by their transcendent excellence, could support the science of botany on a stable foundation. In these Dr Solander was, of course, well trained; and, having added so wide a range of experience to his theoretical education, few botanists could vie with him, who had, as it were, caught his preceptor's mantle, and imbibed, by a sort of inspiration, a peculiar talent for concise and clear definition. Abstract principles of classification, or even such outlines of natural arrangement as Linnæus had promulgated, seem never to have attracted Solander. In following the chain of his ideas, discernible in the materials he has left behind him, one cannot but remark his singular inattention to every thing like botanical affinity, to which the artificial sexual system was, with him, entirely paramount. The genera which, for extemporaneous use, he named with the termination oides, comparing each with some well-known genus, till a proper appellation could be selected, are seldom thus compared because of any natural affinity, or even any external resemblance, but because they agree with such in their place in the artificial system, or nearly perhaps in technical characters. A great botanist, therefore, it is evident, may exist, without that vaunted erudition in a peculiar line, which some would have us consider as the only road to knowledge and to fame. We allow that this sort of erudition is now, since the attention it has received from Linnæus, Jussieu, and others, become as indispensable to a good theoretical or philosophical botanist, as is the study of carpology, in consequence of the labours of Gaertner; we only contend that it is possible to know plants extremely well without either.

"The learned Dryander, less skilled than his predecessor the coadjutor of Sir Joseph Banks, in a practical acquaintance with plants, exceeded him in theoretical lore and ingenious speculation, and far excelled every other man in bibliographic information, as well as in the most precise and fastidious exactness relative to every subject within the wide extent of his various knowledge. He furthered, upon principle, and with unwearied assiduity, every object of the noble establishment to which he was devoted; but, like Solander, he now sleeps with his fathers, and his place is supplied by a genius of British growth, who unites talents with experience, and theoretical skill, in the most eminent degree, with practical knowledge."

"Although it is almost superfluous to name the most eminent disciples of the London school of botany, it might seem negligent to pass them over without some particular mention. The ardent and ingenious Curtis has left a permanent monument behind him, in the Flora Londinensis, to say nothing of the popular Botanical Magazine, continued

¹ Since the death of Sir Joseph, his library and herbarium have been deposited in the British Museum, where Mr Brown, to whom Sir James here alludes, has still the unqualified charge of them.

by his friend Dr Sims. The Flora Scotica of Lightfoot first offered, in a pleasing and familiar garb, the botanical riches of that part of the island to its southern inhabitants. The lynx-eyed Dickson, so long and faithfully attached to his constant patron, has steadily traced, through all its windings, the obscure path of cryptogamic botany with peculiar success. No more striking instance can be pointed out, to prove how totally the most consummate practical skill, even in the most difficult part of botany, is independent of theoretical learning. Even those who profit by the certain aids supplied by the discoveries of Hedwig, can with difficulty keep pace with this veteran in their pursuits, who, with conscious independence, neglects all those aids.

Just at the time when the school, whose history we are endeavouring to trace, had most firmly established its credit and its utility, a great additional weight was given to England, in the scale of natural science, by the acquisition of the entire museum, library, and manuscripts of the great Linnaeus and his son, which came amongst us, by private purchase, in 1784, after the death of the latter. Hence our nomenclature has been corrected, and our knowledge greatly augmented. These collections have necessarily been consulted by most persons about to publish on the subject of natural history, and a reference to them, in doubtful cases, secures a general conformity of sentiment and nomenclature among the botanists of Europe, Asia, and America. We are seldom obliged to waste time in conjecturing what Linnaeus, or the botanists with whom he corresponded, meant, for we have before us their original specimens, named by their own hands. An entire London winter was devoted to the almost daily labour of comparing the Banksian herbarium throughout, with that of Linnaeus, and to a copious interchange of specimens between their respective possessors, who, with the aid of Mr Dryander alone, accomplished this interesting and instructive comparison. Hence the Hortus Kewensis of the lamented Aiton, which was at that period preparing for publication, became much more correct in its names, than it, or any other similar performance, could have been, without this advantage. It could scarcely be expected that Sweden would, unmoved, let the botanical sceptre thus pass from her; but it is much to the honour of the nation, that all her naturalists have ever preserved the most friendly intercourse with us, particularly with the person who deprived them of this treasure. They have not merely pardoned, but publicly sanctioned, the scientific zeal which prompted him to this acquisition, by associating him with all their learned establishments, without any solicitation on his part.¹

The institution of the Linnaean Society at London in 1788, especially under that name, must be considered as a triumph for Sweden in her turn. By this establishment the intercourse of science is facilitated; essays, which might otherwise have never seen the light, are given to the world; and a general taste for the pleasing study of nature is promoted. Learned and worthy people are thus made acquainted with each other, from the remotest corners of the kingdom, and their information enriches the common stock. The state has given its sanction to this rising establishment. Its publications and its members are spread over the Continent, and other similar institutions have borrowed its name, imitated its plan, and paid respect to its authority. Yet it is not in the name alone of Linnaeus, that the members of this society place their confidence; still less do they bow to that name, or to any

other, at the expense of their own right of private judgment. Their transactions are open to the pupils of every school, and the observations of every critic, that have any prospect of being useful to the world. The writer of each communication must, of course, be answerable for the particulars of his own performance, but the society is responsible for each being, on the whole, worthy to be communicated to the public. The possession of the very materials with which Linnaeus worked, his own specimens and notes, enables us very often to correct mistakes, even of that great man, many of which would be unaccountable without the means of thus tracing each to its source. At the same time, the acquisition of materials to which he never had access, tends to improve and augment the history of what he had left imperfect. His language, his definitions and characters, were, for some time, held so sacred, that they were implicitly copied, even though manifestly inapplicable, in some points, to the objects to which they were referred. Synonyms were transcribed from his works by Rose, Hudson, Curtis, and even Gaertner (we assert it on the positive proof of errors of the press, copied in the transcribing), without reference to the original books, to see whether such synonyms, or their accompanying plates, agreed with the plant under consideration. The example of Dr Solander first led the writer of this to avoid such a negligent and unfaithful mode of proceeding; yet he has ever considered as sacred the very words of Linnaeus, where they require no correction. They are become a kind of public property, the current coin of the botanical realm, which ought not, with impunity, to be falsified or adulterated. To them we hope to be pardoned if we apply the words of the poet,

The solid bullion of one sterling line,
Drawn to French wire, would through whole pages shine.

Of this it is needless to quote examples. We must be every day more and more sensible of the value of the Linnaean style, in proportion as the number of those who can attain it is evidently so very small. By the light of our master alone can the science, which he so greatly advanced and refined, be preserved from barbarism, while long and tedious, loose and feeble, ill-contrasted and barbarously-worded definitions, press upon it from various quarters. New terms are invented to express old ideas; names and characters are changed for the worse, to conceal the want of new discoveries; and students are often deterred from adopting real improvements, because they know not which guide to prefer.

From the combined effects of the various causes which we have endeavoured to trace, the study of botany in England has, for a long period, been almost entirely practical. To determine the particular species intended, in every case, by Linnaeus; to distinguish and to describe new ones; to improve scientific characters, and to correct synonyms; these have been the objects of our writers; and hence many publications of great utility, especially a number of critical and descriptive essays, in the Transactions of the Linnaean Society, not unworthy of the school which gave them birth, have enriched the general stock of knowledge. These are the sound fruits of skill and investigation, the solid advantages of real information, applied to practical use. They are independent of theoretical speculation, and will stand unshaken, amidst any possible changes of system. On such principles the Flora Britannica has been attempted, and continued as far as the present unsettled state of some of the latter orders, of the last class,

¹ It may not, perhaps, be generally known, that Sir James Smith himself was the purchaser. Since his death it has become the property of the Linnaean Society of London, along with all his private collections and library.

will allow.¹ Such impediments, which depend on the difficulties of systematic discrimination, among the Lichens especially, it is hoped will soon be removed. Meanwhile the English Botany of the same writer, illustrated by Mr Sowerby's expressive and scientific figures, has finished its course, and formed so nearly complete a body of local botany, as, we believe, no other country has produced. In this the liberal contributions of numerous skilful observers, from the Alpine heights of Scotland to the shores and circumambient ocean of the south, are preserved and recorded; evincing a degree of general inquiry and acuteness, which hardly any nation can rival. The memory of several benefactors to the science, otherwise in danger of passing away, is embalmed in this national work, which serves at once as their botanical testament, and the monument of their fame. Some of our botanists of the present day have thrown great light on several of the most obscure departments of the science; witness Mr Sowerby's work on English Fungi; the labours of the learned Bishop of Carlisle on Carices, and, in conjunction with Mr Woodward, on Fuci; of Mr Dawson Turner on the latter tribe, and on the Musci of Ireland; but especially Mr Hooker's inimitable display of the British Jungermanniae.² Nor shall the contributions of a Winch or an Abbot, a Withering, Knapp, Stackhouse, or Velley, nor the more splendid labours of the indefatigable Lambert, be forgotten. Each, in one way or other, has enlarged the bounds of science, or rendered it easier of access. We cannot, in the compass of our present undertaking, pay the tribute due to every individual, our aim being a general picture of the whole. From what we have said, the zeal with which this lovely science has been cultivated in England, will sufficiently appear. Nor have public lectures or botanic gardens been neglected, in order to render the knowledge of botany as accessible as possible, and to diffuse a taste for its pursuit. The popularity of the study has, at least, kept pace with the means of instruction. The garden and green-house, the woods, fields, and even the concealed treasures of the waters, are now the resource of the young and the elegant, who, in the enjoyment of a new sense as it were, in the retirement of the country, imbibe health, as well as knowledge and taste, at the purest of all sources.

France alone now remains to be considered, in order to finish the historical picture which we have undertaken of the state of botanical science in Europe. To do justice to this part of our subject, we must turn our attention to times long since gone by, or we shall scarcely render intelligible the state of affairs at present.

The great Tournefort, by the force of his character, his general and particular information, the charms of his pen, and the celebrity which his name gave to his country, through the popularity of his botanical system, was so firmly established, in the ideas of the French, as the Grand Monarque of botany, that they would have as soon allowed the greatness of Louis XIV. to be questioned, as that of this distinguished philosopher. So beneficial was this partiality, in some respects, that it gave an unprecedented impulse and popularity to the science; so disadvantageous was it in others, that it placed a formidable barrier in the

way of all improvement. Vaillant, the able and worthy pupil of Tournefort, has never been forgiven for speaking, on some occasions, too freely of his master's defects. Hence his own merit has been kept in the back ground. The doctrine of the sexes of plants was discountenanced as long as possible, because it was proved by Vaillant, after having been rejected by Tournefort. Nevertheless, when the good seed of science is once sown, it can hardly be totally suffocated by the impediments of prejudice and ignorant partiality. Practical zeal sprung up by the side of speculative jealousy, and the tares withered, while the profitable plants flourished. Some botanists followed the steps of Tournefort to the Levant, exploring afresh those countries which he has for ever rendered classic ground. Others visited America, which they traversed in different directions. The indefatigable Plumier performed three separate voyages to the western world; and though his discoveries have, in a great measure, suffered shipwreck from tardy and imperfect patronage, as a great part of his collections did by the accidents of nature, yet something of value remains. His Filices are enough to insure his perpetual remembrance, and his Nova Genera are the basis of our knowledge of generic differences in West Indian plants. Most of all has been distinguished, among the French botanists who succeeded the times of Tournefort and Vaillant, the family of the Jussieus. One of these Jussieus investigated the prolific regions of Peru, and discovered some things which no succeeding traveller has gathered. Other branches of this family, besides being eminent in medical science and practice, have pursued the study of botany with no ordinary success, on the most philosophical principles. Of these the most eminent are the celebrated Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of the earlier days of Linnaeus; and his nephew Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, the pride and the ruler of systematic botany at present in France. The views and the performances of these great men lead us to a new branch of our subject, which indeed we have had in our contemplation from the beginning of this essay,—the exposition of the principles of a natural scheme of botanical classification, as hinted, and imperfectly sketched, by Linnaeus, and brought to the perfection of a regular system by the Jussieus.

Previous to our entering on this detail, and the remarks to which it will give rise, we must conclude all that belongs to the former part of our undertaking, by giving some account of those botanists who have formed and maintained a Linnæan school in France. We must shelter ourselves under the broad banner of truth when we observe that these have, till very lately, been almost the only French botanists that have supplied us with any practical information; and their labours have been useful in proportion as they have commendably shaken off the prejudices of their predecessors. Of this last proposition Duhamel is a witness, though we may perhaps excite some surprise in classing him among Linnæan botanists. His preface to his Traité des Arbres sufficiently shows how fearful he was of being taken for such, and yet how he was held by vulgar prejudice alone, to the nomenclature, or rather the generical opinions of Tournefort. He tells

¹ The English Flora was published on the same plan, a short time before the death of the author. This contains none of the Cryptogamia except the Ferns, but a continuation is every day expected from Dr Hooker.

² Dr Hooker, now Professor at Glasgow, is better known throughout the world as the first muscologist of the present age. His Musci Exotici and Muscologia Britannica are excellent. In a knowledge of Ferns he is also unrivalled, upon which branch, along with Dr Greville, he has published the splendid Icones Filicum. But it is not Cryptogamia alone his pencil and pen have illustrated; he has published the Exotic Flora, at present continues the Botanical Magazine, and is engaged with a Botanical Miscellany, Flora Boreali-Americana, &c. all of which are accompanied with plates.—Among those who have contributed in this country to illustrate botany by plates, we ought not to omit to mention Mr Lindley, and also Dr Greville, whose delineations of Cryptogamic subjects, particularly of Fungi, must always render his Scottish Cryptogamic Flora a standard work. There are other botanists, likewise, who equally deserve notice, although they be not gifted with the use of the pencil: Mr David Don has contributed much to the page of botany, but who has not heard of Mr Robert Brown, "Botanicorum facile princeps?"

us, while he adopts these, that his judgment went with Linnæus, whom he follows in all new discoveries. The plan of his book, confined to hardy trees and shrubs, justifies his use of an alphabetical arrangement, in preference to any system, unless he had thought sufficiently well of Tournefort's to prefer that. But he has prefixed to his work, as a practical method of discovering scientifically what it contained, no other than a sexual classification. His practical botany was so limited, being entirely subservient to his great objects of forest planting and vegetable physiology, that he had no attention to spare for the consideration of methodical systems. Accordingly, he tells us, that some such is necessary for the use of botanists, especially of those who explore the productions of foreign countries; but whether the method of Ray, Tournefort, Boerhaave, Van-Royen, Linnæus, or Bernard de Jussieu be adopted, is of no importance. Six years before Duhamel's work came out, Dalibard had published, in 1749, his Flora Parisiensis Prodromus, according to the Linnæan system.

"It has always appeared to the writer of this, from the conversation and writings of French botanists, that the judgment of the learned Le Monnier, and the countenance of his patron the Duke d'Ayen, afterwards Marechal de Noailles, first established the reputation of Linnæus in France: not so much possibly for the sake of his system, as his discoveries, his commodious nomenclature, and his clear principles of discrimination. When Le Monnier botanized in Chili, in the company of the astronomers with whom he was associated, he soon found, like Dr Garden in South Carolina, that the classification of Tournefort was no key to the treasury of a new world. He however made his remarks and collections, and studied them subsequently under the auspices of a more comprehensive guide. The Marechal de Noailles, a great cultivator of exotic trees and shrubs, corresponded with the Swedish naturalist, and endeavoured to recommend him to the notice of the lovers of plants in France. Meantime Gerard and Gouan in the south, both introduced themselves to the illustrious Swede, and promulgated his principles and discoveries, though only the latter adopted his classification. Villars we have already noticed as the author of a Linnæan Histoire des Plantes de Dauphiné. He died lately, professor of botany at Strasbourg, where he succeeded the very able and philosophical Hermann, one of the truest Linnæans, who had imbibed all the technical style of the Swedish school, as well as its accuracy of discrimination. We may now safely announce Hermann as the real author, in conjunction perhaps with Baron Born, of that ingenious but bitter satire the monachologia, in which the several species of monks are affectedly discriminated, and their manners detailed, like the animals in the Linnæan Systema Naturæ. This ludicrous performance has long since appeared in a not very exact English translation, and was rendered into French by the late M. Brousseau. As we are led again to name this amiable man, too soon lost to his country, after experiencing every vicissitude of revolutionary peril and alarm, we cannot help distinguishing him as one most zealous in the cultivation and diffusion of Linnæan learning, a taste for which he chiefly imbibed in England. He had no indulgence for those prejudices which cramped the talents of his countrymen, and prevented their deriving knowledge from any quarter where it was to be had. He recommended the younger Linnæus to their personal acquaintance and favour; which service he also rendered, a few years after, to the person who now commemorates his worth, and who will ever remember, with affection and regret, his many virtues, his agreeable converse, and his various and extensive acquirements.

"The intimacy which subsisted between this enthusiastic naturalist and the distinguished botanist l'Heritier, confirmed, if it did not originally implant, in the mind of the latter, that strong bias which he ever showed for the Linnæan principles of botany. According to these his numerous splendid works are composed. He moreover imbibed, if we mistake not, from the same source, a peculiar preference for uncoloured engravings of plants, instead of the coloured ones which had long been in use. It cannot be denied that the merit of these last is very various, and sometimes very small. They do, nevertheless, present to the mind a more ready idea of each species, than a simple engraving can do, nor is the latter less liable to incorrectness. When plates are taken from the delineations of such exquisite artists as l'Heritier employed, they have a good chance of excellence; but the engravings of Cavanilles, done after miserable drawings, though they deceive the eye by their neat finishing, are really less exact than many a rude outline. Coloured plates, if executed with the uniformity and scientific exactness of Mr Sowerby's, or the characteristic effect of Jacquin's, speak to the eye more readily than most engravings. The art of printing in colours, practised formerly in England with small success, was revived at Paris by Bulliard, and is carried to the highest perfection in the recent publications of Redouté and Ventenat, which leave hardly any thing to be wished for, with respect to beauty or exactness. Many of the works of l'Heritier have remained imperfect, in consequence of the political convulsions of his country and his own premature death. The learned and worthy Desfontaines, who travelled in Barbary, has been more fortunate in the completion of his labours. His elegant Flora Atlantica, in 2 vols. 4to, with finely engraved uncoloured plates, is classed and modelled on the plan of the Linnæan school. Such also is the plan of the works of that distinguished botanist Labillardière, who, besides his account of New Holland plants, has published five elegant decades of new species from Syria. That scientific horticulturist M. Thouin, likewise a most excellent botanist, though he has scarcely written on the subject, is a correct pupil of the Swedish school. His general spirit of liberal communication, and his personal attachment to the younger Linnæus, led him to enrich the herbarium of the latter with the choicest specimens of Commerson's great collection, destined otherwise to have remained in almost entire oblivion. A singular fate has attended the discoveries of most of the French voyagers, such as Commerson, Sonnerat, and Dombey, that, from one cause or other, they have scarcely seen the light. So also it has happened to those of Tournefort, Sarrazin, Plumier, and others, whose acquisitions have long slept in the Parisian museums. Happily there seems to have arisen of late a commendable desire to render them useful by publication, and thus many fine plants, known merely by the slight and unscientific appellations of Tournefort, and therefore never adopted by Linnæus, have recently been clearly defined, or elegantly delineated. The journeys of Olivier and Michaux towards the east have enriched the Paris gardens, and been the means of restoring several lost Tournefortian plants. We believe however that the English nurseries have proved the most fertile source of augmentation to the French collections, as appears by the pages of all the recent descriptive writers in France.

"We dare not presume to arrange the indefatigable and very original botanist Lamarck among the Linnæan botanists of his country, but we beg leave to mention him here, as one who has thought for himself, and whose works are the better for that reason. His severe and often petulant criticisms of the Swedish teacher, made him appear more hostile than he really was, to the principles of

that great man. Being engaged in the botanical department of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, he was obliged to conform to an alphabetical arrangement; but he surely might have chosen the scientific generic names for that purpose, instead of barbarous or vernacular ones, which, to foreigners, would have made all the difference, between a commodious and an unintelligible disposition of his work. In the detail of his performance, he has great merit, both with respect to clearing up obscure species, or describing new ones; and he had the advantage of access, on many occasions, to Commerson's collection. Lamarck's Flore Française is arranged after a new analytical method of his own. This book however is valuable, independent of its system, as an assemblage of practical knowledge and observation. We have only to regret a wanton and inconvenient change of names, which too often occurs, and which is not always for the better; witness Cheiranthus hortensis, instead of the long established incanus of Linnaeus; Melampyrum violaceum, which is not correct, for nemorosum, which is strictly so, and which preserves an analogy with the rest of the species.

"We shall now undertake the consideration of the principles that have been suggested, and the attempts that have been made, respecting a

"The sexual system of Linnaeus lays no claim to the merit of being a natural arrangement. Its sole aim is to assist us in determining any described plant by analytical examination. The principles on which it is founded are the number, situation, proportion, or connection, of the stamens and pistils, or organs of impregnation. These principles are taken absolutely, with the sole exception of their not being permitted to divide the genera, that is, to place some species of a genus in one part of the system, and others in another, though such may differ in the number, situation, proportion, or connection of their stamens or pistils; those characters being possibly artificial, while the genera are supposed, or intended, according to a fundamental law independent of all systems, to be natural assemblages of species. We need not here explain the mode in which Linnaeus has provided against any inconvenience in practice, resulting from such anomalies of nature herself.

"But though this popular system of Linnaeus does not profess to be a natural method of classification it is in many points incidentally so, several of its classes or orders whose characters are founded in situation, proportion, or connection, being more or less perfectly natural assemblages; nor can it be denied that, on the whole, it usually brings together as many groups of natural genera, as occur in most systems that have been promulgated. This fact would be more evident, if the various editors of the system, those who have added new genera to the original ones of Linnaeus, or, in general, those who have any way applied his method to practice, had properly understood it. They would then have perceived that its author had always natural affinities in view; his aim, however incompletely fulfilled, according to our advanced knowledge, having constantly been, to place genera together in natural affinity or progression, as far as their relationship could be discerned. At the same time he uses an analytical method, at the head of each class in his Systema Vegetabilium, in which the genera are disposed according to their technical characters. Murray, in compiling the fourteenth edition of that work, has been inadvertent respecting this essential part of its plan. Indeed it is probable that he was not competent to judge of the affinities of the new genera, introduced from the Supplementum, or from the communication of Jacquin, Thunberg, &c. Yet

surely he might have perceived the affinity of Banksia to Protea, rather than to Ludwigia or Oldenlandia; and indeed Linnaeus himself ought to have discovered the relationship of the latter to Hedyotis, if he did not detect their identity, instead of inserting it between two such strict allies of each other as Ludwigia and Ammannia. To pursue these remarks would be endless. It is hardly necessary to indicate the natural classes or orders of the Linnaean system, such as the Tetradynamia, Didynamia, Diadelphia, Syngenesia; the Triandria Digynia, Gynandria Diandria, &c. Except the first-mentioned class, which, if Cleome be removed, is strictly natural and entire, the others are liable to much criticism. We are almost disposed to allow, what we know not that any one has yet observed, that the system in question is the more faulty in theory, for these classes being so natural as they are. Each order of the Didynamia presents itself as a natural order, though the character of that class, derived from the proportion of the stamens, serves to exclude several genera of each order, and to send them far back into the second class. If all ideas of natural affinity be discarded from our minds, there is no harm whatever in this; but if the Didynamia claims any credit, as a class founded in nature, the above anomaly is a defect. So, still more, under the same point of view, is the Diadelphia, or at least its principal order Decandria, liable to exception. This order consists entirely of the very natural family of Papilionaceae. They are characterized as having the ten stamens in two sets. Now it happens that there are many papilionaceous genera, indeed a great number of such have been discovered since Linnaeus wrote, whose ten stamens are all perfectly distinct. These therefore are necessarily referred to the class Decandria, and they come not altogether amiss there, because they meet in that class some concomitant genera, which though, like them, leguminous, are less exactly, or scarcely at all, papilionaceous. But the greatest complaint lies against some genera of the Diadelphia Decandria, for having the stamens all really combined into one set, so as in truth to answer to the technical character of the preceding class Monadelphia. There is mostly indeed some indication of a disunion upward, where they, more or less perfectly, form two sets; and some of them are so nearly diadelphous, that their complete union at the bottom may easily be overlooked; others, however, have only a fissure along the upper side of their common tube, without any traces of a separate stamen or stamens. The papilionaceous character of the corolla therefore, in such cases, is made to overrule that of the particular mode of union among the stamens, and is in itself so clear, as seldom to be attended with any difficulty; but the incorrectness of principle in the system, in the point before us, as being neither professedly natural, nor exactly artificial, cannot be concealed. Part of the objections, to which the sexual system was originally liable, have been obviated. We mean what concerns the last class but one, Polygamia. Dr Forster observed, in his voyage round the world, that this class was subject to great exception, on account of the trees of tropical climates, so many of which are constantly or occasionally polygamous; that is, each individual frequently bears some imperfect flowers, male or female, along with its perfect or united ones. Such a circumstance reduces any genus to the class Polygamia; and on this principle Mr Hudson, thinking perhaps that he made a great improvement, removed our Ilex Aquifolium, or Holly, thither, though Ilex is well placed by Linnaeus in the fourth class. The author of the present essay has ventured to propose a scheme, which is adopted in his Flora Britannica, for getting clear of this difficulty. He considers as polygamous such genera only as, besides having that charac

ter in their organs of impregnation, have a difference of structure in the other parts of their two kinds of flowers. Thus Atriplex has, in its perfect flowers, a regular spreading calyx, in five equal segments; in the attendant female ones a compressed one, of two leaves, subsequently much enlarged.

The genera thus circumstanced are so very few, as far as we have discovered, that possibly the class might, but for the uniformity of the system, be abolished. We cannot indeed tell what future discoveries may be made; and its character, on the above foundation, is sufficiently clear and permanent; for flowers of an essentially different configuration can hardly vary into each other. The orders of the last class of the Linnaean system, Cryptogamia, are natural, and preserved, all nearly the same, by every systematic projector. The original appendix to this system, the Palmae, would be a great blemish therein, as an artificial arrangement; for such an arrangement ought to be so formed as to admit every thing, on some principle or other. But this stumbling-block is now removed. The palm tribe were placed thus by themselves, merely till their fructification should be sufficiently known. Now they are found to agree well with some of the established classes and orders, where they meet with several of their natural allies.

Whatever advantages might accrue to the practical study of botany, from the convenience and facility of his artificial system, Linnaeus was from the beginning intent on the discovery of a more philosophical arrangement of plants, or, in other words, the classification of nature. This appears from the 77th aphorism of the very first edition of his Fundamenta Botanicae, published in 1736, where he mentions his design of attempting to trace out fragments of a natural method. In the corresponding section of his Philosophia Botanica, he, fifteen years afterwards, performed his promise; and the same Fragmenta, as he modestly called them, were subjoined to the sixth edition of his Genera Plantarum, the last that ever came from his own hands. The interleaved copies of these works, with his manuscript notes, evince how assiduously and constantly he laboured at this subject, as long as he lived. He was accustomed to deliver a particular course of lectures upon it, from time to time, to a small and select number of pupils, who were for this purpose domesticated under his roof. What this great botanist has himself given to the world, on the subject under consideration, is indeed nothing more than a skeleton of a system, consisting of mere names or titles of natural orders, amounting in his Philosophia to sixty-seven, besides an appendix of doubtful genera; and that number is, in the Genera Plantarum, reduced to fifty-eight.

Under the title of each order, the genera which compose it are ranged according to the author's ideas of their relationship to each other, as appears by some of his manuscript corrections; and some of the orders are subdivided into sections, or parcels of genera more akin to each other than to the rest. He ingeniously avowed, at all times, his inability to define his orders by characters. He conceived that they were more or less connected with each other by several points of affinity, so as to form a map rather than a series. The experienced botanist, who peruses the above-mentioned Fragmenta, will in most

cases readily imbibe the ideas of their author, as to the respective affinities of the genera. In some few instances, as the Dumosae, where he avows his own doubts, and the Holeraceae, where he is unusually paradoxical, it is more difficult to trace the chain of his ideas. Such, however, was all the assistance he thought himself competent to afford. His distinguished pupils, Fabricius and Giseke, fortunately took notes of his lectures on natural orders; and by the care of the latter, to whom Fabricius communicated what he had likewise preserved, their joint acquisitions have been given to the public, in an octavo volume, at Hamburg, in 1792. Nor was this done without the permission of their venerable teacher, who told Giseke by word of mouth, when they took leave of each other, that 'as he loved him, he had laboured with pleasure in his service'; adding, that 'Giseke was at liberty to publish, whenever he pleased, any thing that he had retained from his own instructions.'

Linnaeus, according to a conversation with Giseke, recorded in the preface of the volume edited by the latter, declined to the last any attempt to define in words the characters of his orders. His reason for this appears in his Classes Plantarum, where he justly remarks, that no certain principles, or key, for any such definition can be proposed, till all the orders, and consequently all the plants, in the world are known. He has, however, so far expressed his opinion, in the work last quoted, as to point out the situation of the seed itself, with respect to other parts, and the situation and direction of its vegetating point, or corculum, as most likely to lead to a scheme of natural classification. Hence the system of Cæsalpinus stood very high in his estimation. He also, in the conversation above mentioned, divides his own orders into three sections, or classes, Monocotyledones, comprising the first ten orders, with the 15th; Dicotyledones (with two or more cotyledons), the 11th to the 54th order inclusive, except the 15th; and Acotyledones, order 55th to 58th, with a hint that the last, or Fungi, ought perhaps to be altogether excluded. This distribution of plants, by the number or the absence of the cotyledons, or lobes of the seed, is the great hinge of all the professedly natural modes of arrangement that have been attempted.

Linnaeus did not consider it as absolute, for he told Giseke that he knowingly admitted into his eleventh order some plants that are monocotyledonous, with others that are dicotyledonous. The reason of this was the only secret he kept from his pupil; nor could the latter ever dive into it, though he afterwards endeavoured to learn it from the younger Linnaeus, who knew nothing, neither did he, as Giseke says, much care about the matter.¹

The want of any avowed principle of distinction precludes almost all criticism of these orders of Linnaeus as a natural system. They cannot be applied to practice, and might in the present day be passed over in silence. As, however, a very few, and amongst others the late Sir J. E. Smith, considered them as even of more importance than those of Jussieu, an opinion in which we cannot coincide, we shall trace very shortly their names, but omit entirely the notes that usually accompany them, as unphilosophical, and tending but little to benefit the reader.

¹ "Nymphæa appears to be the great secret, which the worthy professor told his pupil, that he, or some other person, might chance to find out in ten, twenty, or fifty years, and would then perceive that Linnaeus himself had been aware of it. Accordingly Goertner and Jussieu have made the same discovery, or rather, fallen into the same mistake, describing Nymphæa as monocotyledonous, and Cymus, Sm. Bot. v. l. 59 (their Nelumbo or Nelumbium), as in some measure dicotyledonous. The excellent De Candolle, in the Bulletin des Sciences, No. lvii. published in 1802, has first rightly considered both as dicotyledonous, and akin to the Papaveraceae of Jussieu, the Linnaean Rhodææ."

1. Palmae. 2. Piperita, the flowers of which are crowded into a close spike, including Arum. 3. Calamariae, or grass-like plants, not true grasses, as Carex, Typha, &c. 4. Gramina, or the true grasses. 5. Tripetaloidae, in which there were three petals (Linn.), as Juncus and Alisma. 6. Ensatæ, where the leaves are ensiform, and the corolla (Linn.) monopetalous. 7. Orchideæ, with fleshy roots, and the flowers either furnished with a spur or of a singular construction; the filaments and style are united, and the ovary inferior. 8. Scitamineæ, with herbaceous stems, very broad leaves, a triangular ovary beneath a lilaceous corolla. 9. Spathaceæ are those lilies which have the flowers issuing from a large spathe. 10. Coronariæ, or lilies without a spathe, but with a corolla of six petals. 11. Sarmentaceæ, with weak stems and lilaceous flowers.

12. Holeraceæ, "plants tender or brittle in the mouth, and easy of digestion;" the flowers of no beauty. 13. Succulentæ, with very thick fleshy leaves. 14. Gruinales, having a pentapetalous corolla, several pistils, and a long pointed capsule, as Geranium. 15. Inundatæ, which grow in or under water, with flowers of no beauty. 16. Calycifloræ: here there is only a calyx, on which the stamens are inserted; but the genera put into this were afterwards referred elsewhere by Linnæus. 17. Calycanthæ, where the calyx is seated on the germen or ovary, and the flowers are beautiful. 18. Bicornes, having the anthers provided with two long straight points or horns, as Erica, and several others having no real affinity. 19. Hesperides, with evergreen leaves, fragrant flowers, and numerous stamens. 20. Rotaceæ, having a rotate corolla. 21. Preciæ, with handsome early spring flowers, as the primrose. 22. Caryophyllæ, or those with a caryophyllaceous corolla. 24. Trihiliatæ, having a style with three stigmas, and winged or inflated capsules, as Melia, Malpighia, and Acer. 25. Corydales, flowers with a spur, or of a singular form, as in Epimedium and Pinguicula. 25. Putamineæ, bearing fruit in a hard shell, as Capparis, and others not allied to each other. 26. Multisiliquæ, with a fruit of many siliques, as Trollius. 27. Rheædeæ, with a caducous calyx, and a capsule or siliqua. 28. Luriæ, corresponding to the Solanaceæ of Jussieu. 29. Campanaceæ, with bell-shaped flowers, but otherwise an unnatural assemblage. 30. Contortæ, with a twisted corolla, as Nerium and Vinca. 31. Vepreulæ, having a monophyllous calyx, coloured like a corolla. 32. Papilionaceæ, with papilionaceous flowers. 33. Lomentaceæ, with a legume or lomentum, but not a papilionaceous flower. 34. Cucurbitaceæ, as Cucumis and Pasiflora. 35. Senticæ, comprehending many of the Rosaceæ. 36. Pomaceæ, as Amygdalus and Pyrus. 37. Columniferæ, in which the stamens, as in Malva, unite and form a long tube. 38. Tricocceæ, with a trilocular capsule, as Euphorbia. 39. Siliquosæ, corresponding to Tetradynamia in the artificial system. 40. Personatæ, the same as Didynamia angiosperma. 41. Asperifoliæ, having "four naked seeds" (Linn.), a monopetalous corolla, five stamens, one style, and rough leaves. 42. Verticillatæ, those with labiate or ringent flowers, including some of Diandra, and all Didynamia gymnosperma. 43. Dumosæ, shrubby plants, with a stem furnished with a soft pith: flowers small, the petals of four or five segments, as Sambucus, Rhamnus, &c. 44. Septariæ, shrubs, usually with a tubular corolla, and very few stamens, as Ligustrum. 45. Umbellatæ, bearing an umbel of flowers, a pentapetalous corolla, five stamens, two styles, and "two naked seeds." 46. Hederaceæ, with a quinquefid corolla, five or ten stamens, a baccate fruit, and flowers in a corymb; Hedera and Vitis were here associated.

47. Stellatæ, with a quadrifid corolla, four stamens, and two "naked seeds." 48. Aggregatæ, resembling the compound flowers, but with the anthers free. 49. Compositæ, or the compound flowers. 50. Amentaceæ, with the fruit in a catkin. 51. Coniferæ, bearing a strobilus or cone. 52. Coedunatæ, which have several berries or fruits united into one, as Amoma. 53. Scabridæ, having rough leaves, and flowers of no attraction, as Urtica, Ficus, &c. 54. Miscellaneæ, or those not referable to the preceding.

It will readily appear that many of these are very artificial, and some of the conjunctions quite improper; but, upon the whole, they exhibit a great resemblance in their external appearance, which Linnæus himself could not define in words.

We shall now advert to the French school of Botany; French and "here the learned and truly estimable Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of Linnæus in the earlier part of his career, first claims our notice. This great practical botanist, too diffident of his own knowledge, extensive as it was, to be over-anxious to stand forth as a teacher, did not promulgate any scheme of natural arrangement till the year 1759, when the royal botanic garden at Trianon was submitted to his direction. His system was published by his nephew in 1789, at the head of his own work, of which it makes the basis. It appears in the form of a simple list of genera, under the name of each order, without any definition, just like the Fragmenta of Linnæus, at the end of his Genera Plantarum.

"In 1763 a very active and zealous systematic, M. Adanson, made himself known to the world, by the publication of his Familles des Plantes. In this learned and ingenious, though whimsical and pedantic work, the great task of defining natural orders by technical characters is first attempted. His affected orthography and arbitrary nomenclature render it scarcely possible, without disgust, to trace his ideas; which, however, when developed, prove less original than they at first appear. His work is written avowedly to supersede the labours of Linnæus, against whom, after courting his correspondence, he took some personal displeasure; and yet many of his leading characters are borrowed from the sexual system. The discriminative marks of his fifty-eight families are taken from the following sources: leaves, sex of the flowers, situation of the flowers with respect to the germen, form and situation of the corolla, stamens, germens, and seeds. Every family is divided into several sections, under each of which the genera are, in like manner, synoptically arranged, and discriminated by their leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, fruit, and seeds. In the detail of his system, Adanson labours to overset the principle, so much insisted on by Linnæus and his school, and to which the great names of Conrad Gesner, and Cæsalpinus, are chiefly indebted for their botanical fame, that the genera of plants are to be characterized by the parts of fructification alone. The experienced botanist knows that this is often but a dispute of words; Linnæus having, in arranging the unbeliferous plants, resorted to the inflorescence, under the denomination of a receptacle; see his 45th natural order. But it appears to us that the characters deduced from thence are in themselves faulty, being often uncertain, and not seldom unnatural; and that the plants in question may be better discriminated by their flowers and seeds. Adanson however prefers the inflorescence, even in the Verticillatæ of Linnæus; for no reason, that we can discover, but because Linnæus has so much better defined the genera of those plants by the calyx and corol-

la. It were a needless and ungrateful task to carp at the mistakes of this or any writer on natural classification, with regard to the places allotted for difficult genera, because the human intellect must foulder in unravelling the intricate mysteries of Nature. But surely, when Plantago is placed with Buddleia in one section of the Jasminææ, and Diapensia with Callicarpa in another; when the most natural genus of Lavandula is divided and widely separated; when Cassytha is ranged with Statice, Eriocaulon, and the Proteaceæ, in one place; Geoffrea with Melia, Rhus, Sapindus, and Ruta, in another; we may be allowed to wonder, and to doubt whether we are contemplating a natural or an artificial system. It does not appear that Adanson made many proselytes. He haunted the botanical societies of Paris in our time, without associating with any; nor was his extensive knowledge turned to much practical account. Linnaeus has made but one slight remark, that we can find, in his own copy of the Familles des Plantes, nor could he study deeply what was undoubtedly very difficult for him to read. He certainly never noticed Adanson's attacks, unless the satirical sketch of the Botanophili, at the end of his Regnum Vegetabile, (see the beginning of Syst. Veg. ed. 14), be partly aimed at this author. To apply the whole of it to him would be unjust, though much is very characteristic.

academy of Sciences. "The study of Botany had never been entirely neglected in France since the days of Tournefort; because one department in the Academy of Sciences was allotted to that and other branches of natural history; and the seats in the academy being pensioned places under government, there was something to be got by an apparent attention to such pursuits. Buffon and his pupils engrossed zoology. Botany was allowed to exist, so far as not to interfere with his honours; but nothing of foreign origin, and above all, nothing Linnaean, dared to lift up its head. Something of true science, and practical knowledge, did nevertheless imperceptibly work its way. Le Monnier, and the Maréchal de Noailles, corresponded, as we have already said, with Linnaeus, and acquired plants from England, of which they dared to speak, and to write, by his names. A most able and scientific botanist and cultivator, Thouin, was established in the Jardin du Roi, who studied the Linnaean system, and even ventured, though secretly, to communicate new plants to the younger Linnaeus when at Paris. Cels, an excellent horticulturist, was unshackled by academic trammels. L'Heritier, Broussonet, and others, came forward. An original letter of Rousseau, the idol of the day, in which he paid the most flattering homage to botany and to Linnaeus, was published in the Journal de Paris, and had a wonderful effect on the public mind, and on the conversation of literary circles. In short, a Linnaean party had been, for some time, gaining ground; and every thing was done by party at Paris. The old French school was roused from its slumbers. Of the family of the Jussieus, one individual remained, who, though he venerated the names and the pursuits of his uncles, had never devoted himself to their studies any further than to sit in their professorial chair. He possessed, however, an inherent taste for botany; he had leisure, opulence, and eminent talents; and though his religious principles, and his rather strict devotional habits, might interfere, which they still do, with his credit in certain philosophical circles, and his predilection for animal magnetism might exclude him from the Royal Society of London, yet he has risen above all such obstacles, to the summit of botanical fame and authority in his own country; and his name stands conspicuous, as the leading teacher of a na-

tural classification of plants. The most indefatigable study for about five years, and the constant assistance and encouragement of numerous pupils and correspondents, enabled Professor Antoine Laurent de Jussieu to publish, in 1789, his Genera Plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita. This octavo volume was received by acclamation throughout Europe, and hailed as the most learned botanical work that had appeared since the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus.

"The whole preface of Jussieu is a concise and learned review of the physiology and distinctions of plants, more particularly explaining the progress of the author's ideas and principles of botanical classification. The main end of the whole book, besides defining the characters of all known genera, is to dispose them in a natural series, in various classes and orders, whose technical distinctions are throughout attempted to be fixed and contrasted."

The first in England who wrote a systematic work according to the natural method of Jussieu, was Mr Brown, the most able botanist of this or any former age; and no one has done so much, in any country, to throw light on its intricacies. Salisbury, Hooker, Don, and Lindley, have respectively contributed their share; but we regret to say, that hitherto, in Britain, from the simplicity of the Linnaean system for enabling one to obtain the name of a plant, and from the want of good elementary works in our language to guide the student, the natural classification, except among a few of the principal botanists, has been very little attended to. Another great desideratum has been a Species Plantarum, or work containing all the known species, arranged in this way: but this is at present attempted by Professor De Candolle of Geneva, and when his Prodromus Systematis Regni Vegetabilis is completed, we do not hesitate to state that, notwithstanding a multitude of errors, it will prove to be one of the most valuable works ever presented to the public, and will tend more to establish the method than all the books previously written on the subject.

"The advantages of such a system," says Mr Lindley, "in applying botany to useful purposes, are immense, especially to medical men, with whose profession the science has always been identified. A knowledge of the properties of one plant is a guide to the practitioner, which enables him to substitute some other with confidence which is naturally allied to it; and physicians on foreign stations may direct their inquiries, not empirically, but upon fixed principles, into the qualities of the medicinal plants which nature has provided in every region for the alleviation of the maladies peculiar to it. To horticulturists it is not less important: the propagation or cultivation of one plant is usually applicable to all its kindred; the habits of one species in an order will often be those of the rest; many a gardener might have escaped the pain of a poisoned limb, had he been acquainted with the laws of affinity; and finally, the phenomena of grafting, that curious operation, which is one of the grand features of distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and the success of which is wholly controlled by ties of blood, can only be understood by the student of the natural system."

The natural method having in view not the mere naming of plants, which can of itself be interesting to only a limited number of individuals, but the classifying them according to the groups which nature herself forms, or rather, as nature forms only species, according to the resemblance that one tribe of vegetables bears to another, we must, consequently, conform as much as possible to

¹ Sir J. E. Smith in Encycl. Brit. sixth ed. Supp. vol. ii. p. 415 and 416.

her laws; and to know these we must first obtain a precise idea of the organization of plants, studying minutely all their parts, and the functions of each. This we have already attempted to elucidate under the head of Glossology. We now come to examine into the relative importance of these organs, in order that we may derive from them a classification according to nature.

When different seeds taken from the same plant are made to germinate, we have individuals not entirely agreeing in the shape of the leaves, or the height of the stem; from which we may infer that characters derived from these are of the least importance; and consequently, when we form species, we must use such with great caution. But when we rise a step higher, and group species into genera, we find so great a variety in both the stem and leaves, that we are forced to look for characters elsewhere, and thus resort to the different parts of the flower; and all genera are therefore founded on a consideration of these. When, however, we come to examine a genus by itself, we shall find that perhaps none of these parts are sufficiently constant, some species differing from others in the number or shape of the sepals, or petals, or stamens, or pistilla, so that we are obliged to call into action not any particular one, but a combination of the whole. While doing this, it cannot escape our notice that the more external portions, as the calyx, exhibiting more of the foliaceous origin, are less constant than the petals; and these again less so than the stamens; but the stamens and pistils having least of the structure of the original leaf, are the most uniform; and hence Linnaeus, influenced principally however by these being the true sexual organs, adopted the stamens and pistils as the basis of his system. Now we have already said that, in many natural genera, plants differ from one another only specifically, although there happen to be a difference in the number of parts of the reproductive organs. Number, then, not being at all times sufficient to constitute a genus, can still less be relied on for a higher division. The structure must thus be considered; and this we not only find common to the species of a genus, but even often to different genera so allied in aspect that at first we might consider them all as one great genus; and such a great genus being in fact an order, we are led, while defining it, to place considerable dependence on the structure of the anthers, but more especially on the fruit, the ultimate metamorphosis of the primary leaf. But on comparing together two or more orders otherwise very closely allied, we often perceive very different structures of the fruit; so that, in search of something more fixed, we are compelled to dip still deeper into the economy of the plant, and examine the seed. Here, indeed, we find a great diversity in the external form; but on scrutinizing the interior, particularly the embryo, or the very rudiment of the plant, we find only two modifications; and each of these, after having opened different seeds, we perceive to be constant to a very great class of plants united together, whether by the structure of the fruit, the number of stamens, or by the flower, or by the anatomy of the stems, or by the leaves. These modifications of the embryo, resting on there being one or two cotyledons, must thus form the groundwork of a natural method: it was already foreseen by Linnaeus, but was demonstrated by Jussieu. We only here allude to those plants in which a seed and embryo exists; for the very principle we have laid down implies its existence. A primary division, then, pointed out by nature, is therefore obviously into those with flowers and those that have none, or into those which have seeds and an embryo, and such as have neither true seeds nor an embryo.

First, then, we have a division into Exembryonate and Embryonate vegetables; and, secondly, the Embryonate

divides into those with one and those with two cotyledons, which was no sooner fixed than many corresponding differences of structure became perceptible. Thus Monocotyledones show a radicle that projects the root through a covering. The divisions of the flower are ternary; the leaves are curvilinear, primarily alternate or spiral, but indicating a disposition to become opposite at the summit of the plant; the stem is cylindrical, and increasing in diameter from within by an expansion of the vascular fibre. The Dicotyledones, on the contrary, have opposite cotyledons; the radicle of the embryo becomes a root by mere development; the division of the flower is usually quinary; the leaves are angulinerved, and primarily opposite or verticillate, with a tendency to become alternate towards the inflorescence; the stem is conical, with a bark, and both increasing by concentric layers, the stem from without, the bark from within.

Having thus attained primary divisions with important and constant characters, we are next to proceed to subdivide these into orders; but in doing this we must observe, that though it be quite possible to group genera into orders, and to place these orders in one of the great divisions above given, it is almost impracticable to place them satisfactorily one after the other so as to constitute a book. Each order is not allied merely to the one that precedes and that which follows it, but approaches more or less to several others. In arranging them, then, in a linear series, all that we can attempt is to place those next each other that have common characters of most value or of greatest number; and as the value and number of these are added to or diminished by the discovery of new plants and modern analyses, we must expect daily changes to take place. In this consists the difficulty of the natural method, when compared with a purely artificial one; but these difficulties are from time to time smoothed down, so that ultimately it will be viewed as the only useful one, while the artificial system will be entirely neglected, except by those whose desires extend no farther than to make out the name of a vegetable.

Jussieu considered the whole floral envelopes of the Monocotyledones as a calyx, whether coloured or green; and observing that a portion of the Dicotyledones were also destitute of a corolla, he laid hold of this to divide them into two parts, as had been already done by Tournefort: at the same time he separated those with a corolla into one and many-petaled. These sections, however, being artificial, cannot be entirely depended on in practice, many species belonging to a polypetalous order having the corolla abortive; while again, as in the Pentapetaloidae of Ray, several of those also with a polypetalous corolla have the unguis or claws united, so that it is in reality a monopetalous one, although arranged with the other. Linnaeus had already introduced the insertion of the stamens to distinguish his class Icosandria from Polyandria; and this bringing together plants tolerably nearly allied in other respects, Jussieu extended the idea, and having observed that stamens not hypogynous were either perigynous or epigynous, he made use of these three characters to subdivide both the Monocotyledones and each of the sections of the Dicotyledonous plants. Only one of these he found necessary further to divide, in order to separate Syngensia of Linnaeus from those approximated to them in several other characters, but of a different habit or appearance, and had here recourse to the union or separation of the anthers. These ultimate subdivisions he termed classes, and to the end of them he appended one consisting of such Dicotyledones as had the flowers unisexual, and were therefore principally contained in the 21st, 22d, and 23d classes of Linnaeus. We have already seen, in treating of the parts of a flower, that the stamens and corolla have

always the same insertion, and that when a corolla is gamopetalous, or, in common language, monopetalous, the cause that unites the petals often also makes part of the filaments adhere to it. Among the monopetalous plants, then, to prevent confusion, Jussieu, instead of saying that the stamens were hypogynous or perigynous, speaks of the insertion of the corolla; and, with these remarks, we may now present the fifteen classes of Jussieu.

I.—Cotyledons none.

Cl. 1. Acotyledones.

II.—Monocotyledones.

• 2. Monohypogynæ, stamens hypogynous.
• 3. Monoperigynæ, stamens perigynous.
• 4. Monoepigynæ, stamens epigynous.

III.—Dicotyledones.

§ 1. Apetalæ.

• 5. Epistamineæ, stamens epigynous.
• 6. Peristamineæ, stamens perigynous.
• 7. Hypostamineæ, stamens hypogynous.

§ 2. Monopetalæ.

• 8. Hypocorollæ, corolla hypogynous.
• 9. Pericorollæ, corolla perigynous.
• 10. Epicorollæ synantheræ, corolla epigynous, anthers united.
• 11. Epicorollæ corisantheræ, corolla epigynous, anthers free.

§ 3. Polypetalæ.

• 12. Epipetalæ, stamens epigynous.
• 13. Peripetalæ, stamens perigynous.
• 14. Hypopetalæ, stamens hypogynous.

§ 4. Dielines.

• 15. Dielines, flowers unisexual, or without a perianth.

Such was the groundwork of the system which, though in some things artificial, was instantly perceived to bear the palm from all that preceded it; and this, without any alteration, is still adhered to in France by many of the most eminent botanists. Jussieu originally prefixed no names to his classes, and the want of this was much objected to. Those which we have given have been lately proposed by Antoine L. de Jussieu in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles; and, although not entirely according to the principles of the Greek language, may be adopted as extremely useful, each being so framed as to suggest the structure of the class. Thus the commencement Mono indicates the Monocotyledones. Epistamina, &c. having no allusion to a corolla, suggests its absence. Hypocorollæ, and the others, allude to the corolla being of one piece, and not of distinct petals, which last is pointed out by names Epipetalæ, &c. The other parts of the names, epi, peri, and hypo, need no explanation.

While engaged in the study of plants alone, it is obviously of little consequence whether we begin, as Jussieu did, by the Acotyledones, or by the Dicotyledones; but if we view botany as a science that treats of only one of the great kingdoms of nature, and wish to introduce it into a Systema Naturæ, we must bring those portions of each most closely together which are most nearly linked. So that if we commence by Zoology, we must first describe the Mammalia, and end by those of a simpler structure, and then take up the most allied of the Acotyledones, and follow the steps of Jussieu. But if we describe vegetables

in the first place, we must begin with the Dicotyledones, and finish with the Acotyledones. When, however, a Systema Vegetabilium is contemplated without reference to animals, it may perhaps smooth the way to the student if it commences by those more obvious, and, though of more complex formation, yet more simple to be comprehended. On this account De Candolle has reversed the arrangement of Jussieu.

We have said that in some respects the system of Jussieu is artificial, and therefore his orders need not necessarily follow each other precisely as he has left them. De Candolle accordingly divides the Dicotyledones into Thalamifloræ, or those whose petals are distinct and hypogynous; Calycifloræ, having the petals either distinct or united, but always inserted on the calyx; Corollifloræ, with the petals united, and hypogynous, and bearing the stamens; and Monochlamydeæ, with a simple perianth or perigonium. Moreover, he derives his characters for all these united, not from the cotyledons, but from the structure of the stem, and terms them Exogenæ; and in a similar way he calls Monocotyledones by the name of Endogenæ, with this alteration, that he supposes the ferns and allied plants, which in another part we have termed Ductulosæ, to have the same structure of a stem as the Monocotyledones, and therefore divides the Endogenæ into Phanerogamæ and Cryptogamæ. The other Acotyledones, named by him Cellulares, from their entire homogeneity of cellular tissue, conclude the system. Although he has given us an arranged catalogue of the orders in his Theorie Elementaire,¹ which, however, he has considerably altered in his Prodromus, now publishing, yet he has scarcely exhibited any subdivisions of his principal groups. It may be, however, useful to present the following sketch of his, contrasted as much as possible with that of Jussieu.

From the above it will be perceived, although some sneer at the natural system, because they do not understand it, and assert that every one has a method of his own, and quote De Candolle's as extremely distinct from that of Jussieu, that it is in fact founded on, and not differing in any essential point from, that of the Parisian botanist.

Mr Lindley, in his Introduction to the Natural System by Means of Botany, has discarded nearly all these subdivisions as empirical, and substituted in their place one derived from the ovulum, being protected by a pericarp, or exposed without any covering to the influence of the pollen. This last is of very great importance, and is worthy of being

¹ Second Edition, p. 213. (1819).

Taxonomy adopted; but any one who has glanced at his volume must have soon felt the great want of more minute divisions than he has adopted, however artificial they might be; nor do we think that he has compensated for the deficiency by a more judicious disposition of the orders.

We ourselves shall follow pretty closely that given by De Candolle, because, from his publishing a work containing all the known species arranged according to it, it is almost the only one that can be of use to a student of species. But while we do so, we shall subdivide his groups in the manner recommended by Jussieu; not that they are to be implicitly trusted, but that they may in some measure assist the reader while referring to the orders.

We must now advert to the orders themselves; and these being great natural genera, in order to obtain characters for them, we must have an intimate knowledge of the structure of the organs of the component genera and species, so as to select such as are common to all, and of the greatest importance. Botanists having seen that the embryo gave most fixed characters for a general division, have looked to it also, and to the structure of the seed, as of great influence in limiting each order individually. This view was altogether omitted by Jussieu at the time the Genera Plantarum was given to the world, but is now frequently adopted as a criterion, when other and more easily examined points fail. The structure of the fruit we have already said to be useful for defining genera, and consequently must not be passed over while circumscribing an order; nor must the position of the seed be omitted. As to the carpel, the stigma affords few good marks; but the ovary must be strictly attended to, especially as a contrast to the mature fruit, many plants having two or three cells in the ovary, and but one by abortion in the fruit. Thus the structure of the ovary is in several of greater importance than that of the fruit. The apocarpous or syncarpous nature of the ovary, upon which we have already dwelt, must be noticed. The position of the placenta and the ovules has likewise been esteemed of great value. The stamina, whether viewed relatively to their insertion, their adherence, proportional size, or number, and particularly the structure of the anther, and even the pollen, all indicate greater or less affinities in other points.

The floral envelopes must be considered in all their bearings, and even the inflorescence must not be neglected. The relative position, also, of one part of a flower to another, whether the number be symmetrical or complete, enables us often to clear up many difficulties. But it is not one of these alone in which we are to confide, but in a combination of them: two orders, differing solely by one character, being too closely allied, had better be united; a clavis analytica, therefore, such as has been given by Mr Lindley in his introduction, can convey to us almost no idea of the orders, and, besides, has the disadvantage of not exhibiting the anomalies that so frequently occur.

Having exhausted all the parts of the flower, we may then turn our attention to the leaves; and here we may take advantage of a character that is intimately connected with the habit or external aspect of the order, and is consequently truly natural; we allude to the leaves being opposite or alternate, and with or without stipules. The presence or absence of pellucid dots, exhibiting a peculiar organization in the plant, must be carefully observed. Compound or simple leaves are often of use to enable us to refer a plant to a particular order. The mere shape of leaves is too variable, but the venation, or disposition of the nerves, upon which the shape of the leaf depends, as

the fruit does upon the ovary, although hitherto not much attended to, seems in many cases of considerable importance. As to the stem, the external variations, as erect or climbing, square or round, sometimes aid us, but in most orders afford us no assistance. The root has been rarely found of any avail.

We have again and again stated that we are not to take the characters of orders from any one organ individually, but from several. Each order may thus be expected to possess some points in common with several other orders, and by the number of these, and their value, as found from experience, we are able to trace the affinity between any one, and those that ought to be arranged in its vicinity. When several very important points are nearly the same in four or five different orders, though distinct in many others, a greater approximation is visible between themselves, than any of them exhibits to other orders: this has induced Mr Brown to propose to erect orders into classes of a different kind from those of Jussieu; and he has happily succeeded in accomplishing this in several instances. Very few such classes or aggregate orders have, however, yet been formed, and therefore we shall not enter into their consideration farther than merely remark that this is, at present, greatly to be desired in the natural method, and that, when it shall be accomplished, and the whole distributed among a few great compound orders, we may be able to do away entirely with even the slight remains we now must admit into it, of an artificial or empirical arrangement.

It is now time that we proceed to enumerate and lay down the characters of the orders themselves. Jussieu constituted a hundred, and subjoined a list of many genera, either so little known, or so ill defined, that he could not refer them. By degrees, however, as light was thrown upon them, some were entered into known orders, while others exhibited the necessity of constructing additional ones. In his Théorie Élémentaire, in 1819, De Candolle enumerates 161 orders, but has since admitted many new ones in his Prodromus. Richard, in 1828, describes 162, but omits a few which he considered not well understood. Rudolphi, in 1830, gives 276; and about the same time Mr Lindley has 272. Both Rudolphi and Lindley, however, carry the system of subdivision perhaps to excess; but as our object is here to give a view of the science at the present day, we shall admit almost all of them, arranging, however, the minor ones under a general head, to which, for conciseness, we shall give no character, and which may be viewed, if one pleases, as a class. To as short a definition of the orders as possible we shall annex a few remarks, which we trust may render this department more interesting.

ARRANGEMENT AND CHARACTERS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

I. VASCULARES.

A. EXOGENE. DE CAND. (DICOTYLEDONES. JUSS.)

DIV. I.—Dichlamydeæ Thalamifloræ. D. C.

(1. Hypopetalæ.¹ JUSS.)

Order 1. Ranunculaceæ. JUSS.

Sub-order 1. Ranunculineæ. Sepals distinct, various in number, from three to fifteen, but usually five, deciduous: estivation generally imbricated, sometimes valvate.

¹ In the divisions with several petals, the petals are sometimes, though rarely, abortive; it is then difficult to decide whether the plant comes here or belongs to the monochlamydeæ.

Corolla of 5-15 petals¹ (or absent by abortion), distinct. Stamens distinct, indefinite in number: anthers adnate, extrorse. Ovaria seated on the torus, indefinite, or rarely (by abortion) solitary, usually apocarpous, and rarely somewhat syncarpous: style one to each ovary, simple: ovules solitary or several, adhering to the inner edge. Carpels various, either achenia which are sometimes baccate, or follicular with 1-2 valves. Albumen between fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed in the albumen near its base.—Herbaceous, suffrutescent, or rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, or sometimes opposite, simple but variously divided: petiole dilated and forming a sheath half-clasping the stem. Hairs, when present, simple.—Ex. Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Helleborus.

Suborder 2. Cimicifugæ. Sepals 4-5, distinct, deciduous: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, distinct. Stamens distinct, indefinite: anthers adnate, introrse. Ovaria seated on the torus, apocarpous, indefinite or rarely solitary: styles simple: ovules 2-3, or more, in each ovary, adhering to the inner margin. Carpels follicular or baccate. Seeds several or solitary, exarillate. Albumen between fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed at the base of the albumen.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent. Leaves simple, divided, alternate. Flowers racemose.—Ex. Cimicifuga, Actæa, Zanthorrhiza.

Suborder 3. Peoniæ. Sepals five, foliaceous, persistent, unequal: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sometimes 6-10 by culture, distinct, somewhat equal, destitute of claws: estivation imbricated. Stamens very numerous: anthers adnate, introrse. Torus large, fleshy, annular, surrounding the base of the ovary. Ovaria 2-5, apocarpous: style none: stigma sessile, thick, of two lamellæ: ovules numerous. Carpels follicular, tipped with the persistent stigma, opening above by a longitudinal suture. Seeds several, exarillate: umbilicus prominent. Embryo minute, straight, inclosed at the base of the fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous or shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, divided. Flowers terminal, solitary, large.—Ex. Peonia.

The first suborder is usually divided into four, Clematideæ, Anemoneæ, Ranunculæ, and Helleborineæ, distinguished by a combination of the estivation, and position of the seed; but as it appears probable that in the ovary there is always at least two ovules, so the position of the seed, whether erect or pendulous, must depend entirely on which of the ovules, the upper or lower, becomes abortive. In general terms the Ranunculaceæ may be known from other Hypopetalæ by having adnate anthers that dehisce longitudinally, by a fruit of several distinct simple carpels, by a horny albumen, exarillate seeds, and exstipulate sheathing leaves.—Acridity, causticity, and poison, are the general characters of this order.

Order 2. Dilleniæ. D. C. Sepals five, persistent. Corolla of five petals, deciduous, in a single row. Stamens numerous; filaments dilated either at the base or apex. Anthers adnate, introrse, bursting longitudinally. Ovaria definite, more or less distinct, with a terminal style and simple stigma; ovules ascending. Fruit of 2-5 distinct unilocular carpels, or of a similar number cohering together: the carpels are either capsular or baccate, and pointed by the style. Seeds several in each carpel, or only two or one by abortion, surrounded by a pulpy arillus. Testa hard. Embryo straight, minute, at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, or rarely opposite, without stipules.—Ex. Delima, Dillenia.

Known by the longitudinally dehiscing anthers, distinct simple carpels, arillate seeds, fleshy albumen, and exstipulate leaves. In some genera, however, there is but one carpel, and in a few others they partially cohere. They are trees or shrubs, or even undershrubs.—They are generally astringent; most have the leaves covered with asperities, which are sometimes so hard as to permit of their use for polishing.

Order 3. Magnoliæ. Juss. Suborder 1. Winteræ. R. Br. Sepals 2-6, deciduous or persistent. Petals 2-30 (when more than five, in several rows). Stamens indefinite, distinct: anthers adnate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovaria definite in one verticil, one-celled, ovules suspended. Stigma sessile. Fruit of distinct carpels. Embryo very small, straight in the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, transparently dotted, coriaceous, with convolute deciduous stipules.—Ex. Jilicium, Wintera.

Suborder 2. Magnoliæ. Juss. Sepals 3-6, deciduous. Petals 3-27, in several rows. Stamens indefinite, distinct: anthers adnate, long, bursting longitudinally. Ovaries numerous in several rows, one-celled: ovules ascending or suspended: styles short. Fruit of numerous carpels, which are either dehiscence or indehiscence, distinct or partially connate, sometimes samaroid. Embryo minute at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, not dotted, coriaceous, with deciduous convolute stipules.—Ex. Magnolia, Liriodendron.

These two suborders, scarcely distinguishable from each other but by their leaves, may be characterized by their longitudinally dehiscing anthers, apocarpous ovary, and stipulate leaves.—The first tribe is aromatic and stimulant; and the Drymis Winteri yields the winter's bark, well known for its resemblance to cinnamon. The second is not at all aromatic; but the flowers, which are large, are often strongly odoriferous; they have a bitter tonic taste, but the bark does not seem to possess either tannin or gallic acid. The bark of the tulip-tree has been said to equal Peruvian bark.

Order 4. Anonæ. Juss. Sepals 3-4, persistent, often partially cohering. Petals 6, in two rows, coriaceous; estivation valvular. Stamens indefinite (very rarely definite): anthers adnate, extrorse, with a large connectivum. Ovaries usually numerous, separate or sometimes cohering, rarely definite: ovules solitary or several, erect or ascending. Fruit of a number of succulent or dry carpella, that are one or many-seeded, and distinct, or concrete into a fleshy mass. Testa of the seed brittle. Embryo minute at the base of a hard fleshy ruminated albumen.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules.—Ex. Anona, Guttleria.

The apocarpous ovary, ruminated albumen, and exstipulate leaves, are the general characteristics of this order.—Almost all possess a powerful aromatic taste and smell; in some the fruit contains much sugary mucilage, and is succulent and eatable; of this kind are the custard-apples, and the celebrated Cherimolia of Peru.

Order 5. Menispermæ. Juss. Flowers usually unisexual, and very small. Sepals and petals having the same appearance, in one or several rows; three or four in each row, deciduous. Stamens monadelphous or occasionally free, sometimes opposite to the petals and equal to them in number, sometimes three or four times as many: anthers adnate, extrorse. Ovaria usually numerous, free or slightly united by their inner margin, unilocular. Drupes baccate, one-seeded, oblique,

¹ For the sake of brevity, we shall seldom state, under the respective orders, that the stamens or petals are hypogynous or perigynous, trusting that this may be inferred from the divisions Hypopetalæ, Peripetalæ, and the like, which we have already explained. When, however, there is any discrepancy, we shall notice it.

lunate, and compressed, or rarely a multilocular berry, with the cells many-seeded. Embryo curved, radicle superior. Albumen none, or in small quantity and fleshy.—Climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves and very minute flowers.—Ex. Menispermum, Cissampelos.

The stamens opposite the petals, apocarpous ovary, minute unisexual flowers, and twining shrubby stems, point out this order.—The root of several species is bitter and tonic, and of some the seeds are narcotic. A few have been used in intermittent fevers. The columbo root, so esteemed for its tonic, antiseptic, and astringent qualities, belongs to the genus Menispermum.

Order 6. Berberidæa. VENT.

Sepals 3-4-6, deciduous, in a double row, accompanied externally with petaloid scales. Petals equal to the sepals in number and opposite to them, or twice as many; often furnished in the inside with an appendage at the base. Stamens equal in number to the petals and opposite to them: anthers bilocular, the cells opening elastically with a valve from the bottom to the top. Ovary solitary, unilocular, containing 2-12 ovules, which are erect, or attached laterally to the inner margin, and forming there one or two rows: style sometimes lateral, short: stigma orbicular. Fruit baccate or capsular, indehiscent. Albumen fleshy or horny. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, without stipules.—Ex. Berberis, Leontice.

The single simple carpel, stamens opposite to the petals, and the anthers opening by valves, will readily distinguish this from the other Hypopetalæ. This kind of anther is of rare occurrence, but equally exists in the Laurinæe, Hamamelidæe, and Atherospermæe. There are no stipules, the spines being the true leaves, of which the parenchyma has disappeared, and the nerves become indurated: what are commonly called leaves are those formed by the development of the leaf-buds. All are articulated with the petiole, and hence the leaves are in reality compound, although apparently simple. The stamens of many exhibit great irritability.—The berries of some species of Berberis are acid and astringent, and form with sugar an agreeable preserve.

Order 7. Podophyllacæa. D. C.

Sepals 3-4. Petals in two or three rows, each equal in number to the sepals. Stamens 12-18, arranged in two, three, or more rows: filaments filiform: anthers terminal, introrse, opening by a double longitudinal line. Torus small. Ovary solitary: style one, short: stigma somewhat peltate. Fruit succulent or a capsule, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, attached to a lateral placenta. Embryo small, at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Plants herbaceous. Leaves broad and lobed, without stipules.—Ex. Podophyllum, Jeffersonia.

This order is allied to the Berberidæa, to the last tribe of Ranunculacæa, and to Papaveracæa, with which some botanists unite it.—The roots possess purgative properties.

Order 8. Hydropeltidæa. D. C.

Sepals 3-4. Petals 3-4, alternate with the sepals. Stamens two or more times the number of the petals: anthers linear, introrse, continuous with the filament. Torus inconspicuous. Ovaries two or more, stigmas simple. Fruit indehiscent, tipped with the indurated styles, containing one or two pendulous seeds. Embryo enclosed in the endosperm, is fungilliform, and seated at the base of a firm somewhat fleshy perisperm.—Aquatic plants, with floating leaves.—Ex. Hydropeltis, Cobomba.

The situation of this order was formerly involved in some doubt, as Richard, mistaking the endosperm, insisted that the embryo was fungilliform, or shaped like a little mushroom or a small nail, and perfectly monocotyledo-

nous. De Candolle unites it to Podophyllacæa as a section. In some points the above, and the only two genera, approach very closely to the Nymphacææ, to which Brown unites them; and Hydropeltis is somewhat related to Caltha among the Ranunculacææ.

Order 9. Nymphacæa. SALISB.

Suborder 1. Nelumbonæa. D. C. Sepals 4-5. Petals numerous in many rows. Stamens indefinite in several rows: filaments petaloid: anthers adnate, introrse, opening by a double longitudinal cleft. Torus fleshy, elevated, very large, inclosing in hollows of its substance the numerous separate ovary, which have a simple style and stigma. Nuts inserted, but loose, in the hollows of the torus, 1-2-seeded. Perisperm 0: endosperm conspicuous. Embryo large, with two fleshy cotyledons.—Aquatic herbs with peltate leaves.—Ex. Nelumbium.

Suborder 2. Nymphacæa. D. C. Sepals and petals numerous, passing into each other. Stamens indefinite, in several rows: filaments petaloid: anthers adnate, introrse, opening by two longitudinal clefts. Torus large, fleshy, surrounding more or less completely the ovary, styles, and stigmas. Ovary apocarpous, attached to the inside of the bottle-shaped, indehiscent torus, on the top of which are the radiate stigmas. Seeds very numerous in each carpel, attached to spongy placentæ that form the false dissepiments of the fruit. Endosperm fleshy, and, with the inclosed embryo, seated on the outside of the base of the farinaceous perisperm: cotyledons foliaceous.—Aquatic herbs, with peltate or cordate fleshy leaves.—Ex. Nymphaea, Nuphar.

We cannot see that these tribes can be separated, and we almost coincide with Brown, that the Hydropeltidææ may be added to this order. We have already (p. 49) sufficiently explained the structure of the fruit of Nuphar.—Their medical properties are not well understood, but they are reputed to be narcotic and sedative.

Order 10. Sarraceniæa. TURP.

Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five. Stamens indefinite: anthers adnate, bilocular, bursting internally and longitudinally. Ovary five-celled: style single: stigma persistent, much dilated, peltate, with five angles. Capsule quinque-locular, valves five, loculicidæ. Seeds very numerous, small: placentæ large at the inner angle of the cells. Albumen copious. Embryo cylindrical, lying near the base of the seed, with the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous bog plants. Leaves radical, with a hollow petiole, at the apex of which is the lamina covering the orifice of the petiole like a lid. Scapes one-flowered.—Ex. Sarracenia.

On account of the stigma this family has been usually placed near Papaveracææ. Mr Lindley suggests its affinity to Dionæa, wherever that be placed.

Order 11. Papaveracæa. JUSS.

Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four cruciate (or a multiple of four), regular, rarely wanting. Stamens eight, or some multiple of four, usually indefinite, inserted in four parcels, one of which adheres to the base of each petal: anthers bilocular, erect. Ovary solitary: style short or none: stigmas alternate with the placentæ, two or many, in which case they are stellate on the flat apex of the ovary. Fruit one-celled, either siliquæform with two, or capsular with several, parietal placentæ. Seeds numerous. Albumen between fleshy and oily, at the base of which is a minute straight embryo, with plano-convex cotyledons.—Plants herbaceous or shrubby, with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, divided. Peduncles long, one-flowered.—Ex. Papaver, Eschscholtzia (Plate CXXII.)

This order approaches to the Podophyllacææ on the one hand, and to the Cruciferae on the other. In Eschscholtzia the apex of the peduncle dilates, and bears on it the

organs of reproduction; the calyx in it is apparently of one piece, and separates like an operculum from the very base. —Narcotic properties prevail in this family, except in the seed, which is oily. The narcotic principle of opium is an alkaline substance called Morphia.

Order 12. Fumariaceæ. D. C.

Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four, cruciate, one or both of the two outer saccate at the base, the two inner callous at the apex, where they cohere and inclose the anthers and stigma. Stamens six, diadelphous, opposite the outer petals: anthers of the middle stamens of each parcel two-celled, of the outer ones one-celled. Ovary one-celled: style filiform, stigma with two or more points. Fruit a one-seeded utricle, or a two-valved, two-seeded, indehiscent capsule, or a two-valved, polyspermous stigma. Seeds with an arillus attached to narrow parietal placentæ. Albumen fleshy. Embryo nearly straight, minute, eccentric. —Herbaceous plants, with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, multifid. —Ex. Fumaria, Dielytra.

Nearly allied to the last order, but distinct in the definite diadelphous stamens and irregular corolla. The central anthers being alone bilocular, suggests that two of the others make but one, or that there is in reality here but four stamens, one before each petal. And even Mr Lindley has demonstrated that the inner petals form a corolla, while the outer ought to be viewed as sepals: the deciduous sepals above described would thus be bractæ. —The Fumariaceæ are slightly bitter, and act as diaphoretics and aperients.

Order 13. Cruciferae. Juss.

Sepals four; two corresponding to the two stigmas are anterior and posterior, and narrower than the others; two are lateral, or corresponding to the valves, broader, concave at the base, gibbous or spurred. Corolla cruciform. Petals four, alternate with the sepals, nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens six; the two opposite the lateral sepals are solitary, shorter, and occasionally toothed; four in pairs opposite the anterior and posterior sepals, longer, generally free, sometimes connate, or furnished with a tooth on the inside: anthers bilocular, introrse. Torus with several green glands between the petals and the stamens, and ovary. Ovary syncarpous, bilocular. Placentæ parietal, usually meeting in the middle, and forming a spurious dissepiment. Stigmas two, opposite the placentæ, or anterior and posterior. Fruit a siliqua or silicle, rarely one-celled and indehiscent, usually spuriously bilocular, and dehiscing by two valves separating from the placentæ; one or many-seeded. Seeds campulotropous, pendulous, attached in a single row by a funiculus to each side of the placentæ. Albumen none. Embryo with the radicle folded up on the cotyledons, which are next the placentæ. —Herbaceous plants, or very seldom suffruticose. Leaves alternate. —Ex. Draba, Lepidium, Sinapis, Bunias.

This order having six tetradynamous stamens, can scarcely be confounded with any other. We have already explained (p. 49) the structure of the fruit according as Mr Lindley and we understand it. Mr Brown gives a different explanation, upon which we have not room to enter. —The general character of the Cruciferae is to possess anti-scorbutic and stimulant qualities, with an acrid flavour. They contain much azote, and have therefore, when in a putrescent state, been occasionally used in the manufacture of Prussian blue, when the horns and hoofs of cattle could not be had in sufficient quantity.

Order 14. Capparideæ. Juss.

Sepals four. Petals four, cruciate, usually unguiculate and unequal. Stamens four, six, or indefinite, but in general some high multiple of four. Torus hemispherical or elongated, often bearing glands. Ovary stalked: style

one, filiform, or sometimes none. Fruit unilocular, siliquiform, or fleshy and indehiscent, rarely one-seeded, usually with two polyspermous placentæ at the margin of the valves or carpels. Seeds generally reniform, with a thickened tegmen. Albumen none. Embryo incurved: cotyledons foliaceous, somewhat flat. —Leaves alternate, stalked, undivided, or palmate. Stipules none, or spinous. —Ex. Cleome, Capparis.

Allied to Cruciferae: indeed Linnaeus arranged some of the genera in Tetradynamia. The stipitate ovary, and the fruit, indicates some affinity to Passifloræ. —The properties are not very dissimilar from those of the last order. The root of Cleome dodecandra is used as a vermifuge.

Order 15. Resedaceæ. D. C.

Sepals 4-6, persistent. Petals 4-6, alternate with the sepals, unequal; the upper ones with a scale-like claw and palmatipartite limb, the lateral ones 2-3-lobed, the lower smaller and entire. Stamens 10-24: filaments more or less and variously united: anthers bilocular, erect, opening longitudinally. Torus very short, or resembling a stipe, bearing under the stamens an obtuse nectariferous scale. Ovaria 3-6, each with one style, free, or united into a syncarpous ovary. Fruit of 3-6 few-seeded follicles, dehiscing internally; or a capsule, unilocular, polyspermous, 3-6-valved, indehiscent except at the apex. Placentæ parietal in the middle of the valves or follicles. Seeds somewhat pendulous, the testa crustaceous. Albumen very thin and fleshy. Embryo curved: radicle superior: cotyledons fleshy. —Herbaceous plants, with alternate leaves; stipules none, or represented by glands. —Ex. Reseda.

Most botanists agree in bringing this family near to the Capparideæ, except Mr Lindley, who conceives it to be more nearly allied to Euphorbiaceæ and Datisceæ. —Reseda luticola yields a yellow dye, and R. odorata or Mignonette is well known for its fragrant flowers.

Order 16. Flacourtiaceæ. Rich.

Sepals 4-7, cohering slightly at the base. Petals equal in number to, and alternate with, the sepals, sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number to the petals or some multiple of them, occasionally changed into nectariferous scales. Ovary roundish, sessile or slightly stalked: style none, or filiform: stigmas several, more or less distinct. Fruit unilocular, containing a thin pulp, either fleshy and indehiscent, or capsular with 4-5 valves. Placentæ parietal, branching all over the inner surface of the valves. Seeds few, thick, often enveloped in a pellicle formed by the withered pulp. Albumen fleshy, somewhat oily. Embryo straight in the axis, with the radicle turned towards the hilum: cotyledons flat, foliaceous. —Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules. Flowers sometimes unisexual. —Ex. Patrisia, Flacourtia, Kiggelaria, Erythrospermum.

The peculiar placentæ of this order occurs in no other of the Dicotyledones. In some things they resemble the Capparideæ. —The fruit of several species of Flacourtia is eaten: that of Hydnocarpus is used in Ceylon for poisoning fish, which at the same time renders them unfit for food.

Order 17. Bixineæ. Kunth.

Sepals 4-7, distinct, or cohering at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five, resembling the sepals, or none. Stamens indefinite, free, inserted on the discoid torus: anthers bilocular. Ovary sessile, one-celled: ovules attached to 2-7, narrow, parietal placentæ: style single, or 2-4 cleft. Fruit capsular or baccate, one-celled, many seeded: placentæ in the middle of the valves. Seeds enveloped in pulp. Albumen fleshy, or very thin, including the embryo, which is slightly curved: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous. —Leaves alternate, simple, with deciduous stipules. —Ex. Prockia.

From the last family this is chiefly to be distinguished

by the narrow and not ramified placenta: still Richard unites them; and we would have also done this, were it not that Mr Lindley places upwards of 120 orders between them, and does not even notice their affinity. Don suggests that the name Prockiacæe ought rather to be adopted, for that Bixa is nearly related to Sloanea and Ablania, among the Tiliaceæ. This order also bears some relation to the Cistineæ and Homalineæ.—The pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa (or the Arnotto) is purgative and stomachic.

Order 18. Cistineæ. Juss.

Sepals five, persistent, unequal; the three inner with a twisted estivation. Petals five, very caducous; estivation corrugated, and twisted in an opposite direction to that of the sepals. Stamens indefinite, free: anthers adnate. Ovarium syncarpous, one or many-celled: style single: stigma simple. Fruit capsular, 3-5-10-valved, one-celled, with parietal placentæ in the middle of the valves, or imperfectly 5-10-celled, with dissepiments proceeding from the middle of the valves, and meeting in the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite. Embryo either spiral or curved, in the midst of a mealy albumen: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite below, alternate above, with or without stipules.—Ex. Cistus, Heli-anthemum.

The inverted embryo and loculicidal dehiscence are what must be chiefly relied on in defining the limits of this order.—The balsamic substance called Labdanum, which must not be confounded, as some ignorant people have done, with Laudanum, is obtained from Cistus Creticus.

Order 19. Violariæ. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals five, usually withering, generally unequal; estivation obliquely convolute. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, or occasionally opposite to them, inserted on the hypogynous disc or torus: anthers bilocular, introrse, closely approximated, or united laterally to each other: filaments dilated, elongated beyond the anthers; two of them, in the irregular flowers, usually with an appendage at the base. Ovary one-celled, with many (rarely one) ovules: style single, usually declinate, with an oblique cucullate stigma. Capsule three-valved, loculicid, or bearing the placenta on the middle of the valves. Embryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, with persistent stipules and an involute vernation.—Ex. Viola (Plate CXVII.), Alseodæa.

The irregular flowered genera are easily distinguished from those of other orders; but those with regular flowers, constituting the section Alseodææ, are so with more difficulty. Of the latter, Pentaloba was said to have five placentæ, but that seems contradicted by Brown. The placentæ are opposite to the three outer sepals.—The roots of all the species are more or less emetic, and some of them are substituted for Ipecacuanha.

Order 20. Droseraceæ. D. C.

Suborder 1. Droseræ. Sepals five, persistent, equal; estivation imbricated. Petals five. Stamens free, withering, five and alternate with the petals, or ten: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovary one: styles 3-5, slightly connected at the base or distinct, bifid or branched. Capsule 3-5-valved, loculicid, one-celled, or spuriously three-celled, the dissepiments being formed by the placentas meeting in the axis. Seeds without an arillus; testa sometimes loose, and distinct from the tegmen. Embryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen.—Leaves alternate, furnished (except in Aldrovanda), with glandular hairs, with a circinate vernation. Stipules in the form of cilia at the base of the petioles.—Ex. Drosera, Aldrovanda.

Suborder 2. Parnassieæ. Sepals five; estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate with the sepals. Stamens 10-20, some of them often sterile: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovary solitary, unilocular: style none, and four sessile stigmas opposite the placenta, or one with a lobed stigma. Fruit a capsule, one-celled, 4-5-valved and loculicid; or indehiscent, and then the placenta is only at the base. Seeds numerous. Albumen 0. Embryo erect, or the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Bog plants. Leaves nearly all radical, without glandular hairs.—Ex. Parnassia, Dionæa.

Some botanists describe the stamens of Droseraceæ as perigynous, which, however, we do not think distinctly made out; but were that true, they would approach to the Saxifragæe. As to our second suborder, Parnassia has been referred by Lindley, as was already suggested by Brown, to the Saxifragæe, but by Don to the Hypericineæ. Richard, again, who affirms it to be a genuine Droseraceæ, places Dionæa among the Hypericineæ; while Lindley retains it, for the time, among the Droseraceæ, but pointing out an affinity with the Sarraceniaceæ. But the four stigmas opposite to the placenta in Parnassia seem to indicate that these are each composed of two half stigmas belonging to different carpels, and consequently that the styles have a tendency to become united, although bifid in their upper portion, as in Drosera. The stigma of Dionæa may be similarly explained. The syncarpous ovary is at variance with the Saxifragæe; and, in the Hypericineæ, the styles alternating with the margins of the carpels, and the sometimes capitate stigmas, demonstrate that the styles are there free and the stigmas undivided. Hence we have brought them under Droseraceæ, from which they chiefly differ by their habit and absence of albumen.—The genus Drosera is rather acid, slightly acrid, and reputed poisonous to cattle.

Order 21. Polygaleæ. Juss.

Sepals five, very irregular, distinct; three exterior, of which one is superior and two inferior; two interior, petaloid, lateral: estivation imbricated. Petals unequal, usually three, of which one is inferior, while the others alternate with the upper and lateral sepals. Sometimes there are five, the two additional ones being minute, and between the lateral and lower sepals: the lower petal (called the keel), is sometimes entire, and then naked or crested, or sometimes three-lobed without a crest. Stamens eight, unequal, ascending, combined into a tube, which is split opposite to the upper sepal: anthers one-celled, opening by a terminal pore, or very rarely by a longitudinal cleft. Ovarium bilocular, with placentæ in the axis; the cells anterior and posterior, the latter often abortive: ovules one, rarely two, pendulous: style simple, curved: stigma simple. Fruit loculicid, or sometimes indehiscent. Seeds pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum. Albumen copious, fleshy, rarely reduced to a thin gelatinous plate. Embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum.—Leaves without stipules.—Ex. Polygala, Securidæa.

The petal being inferior, and the sepal superior, distinguish this family from the Leguminosæ, to which, in some respects, they bear greater affinity than to any other. Krameria, usually referred here, has, we think, been misunderstood, and we therefore exclude it.—Bitterness is the principal property, but the roots of Polygala Senega and sanguinea are stimulant, diuretic, emetic, purgative, expectorant, sialagogue, sudorific, and emmenagogue.

Order 22. Tremandreæ. R. BROWN.

Sepals 4-5, nearly equal, slightly cohering at the base, deciduous; estivation valvate. Petals 4-5, alternate with the sepals, deciduous; in estivation involute, much larger than the sepals, and including the stamens. Stamens distinct, 8-10, two before each petal: anthers 2-4-celled,

opening by a terminal pore. Ovarium bilocular: ovules 1-3 in each cell, pendulous: style one: stigmas 1-2. Capsule two-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds pendulous, with a caruncular appendage at the apex, but with a naked hilum. Embryo cylindrical, straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Heath-like shrubs, with usually glandular hairs. Leaves alternate or verticillate, without stipules. Pedicels solitary, axillary, one-flowered.—Ex. Tetratheca, Tremandra.

Perhaps nearest allied to Polygalææ, but differing in several particulars. They are all from New Holland.

Order 23. Tamariscineæ. DESV.

Calyx 4-5-partite, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, inserted on the receptacle, marcescent: estivation imbricated. Stamens equal to the petals in number, or twice as many, free or monadelphous. Ovarium one-celled: style short: stigmas three. Capsule three-valved, one-celled, loculicid, polyspermous. Placentæ sometimes only at the base of the capsule. Seeds erect or ascending, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alternate, like small scales.—Ex. Tamarix, Myricaria.

Placed by De Candolle and most botanists among the orders with perigynous stamens; but Ehrenberg has lately shown that these organs are there hypogynous. To us also they appear hypogynous, and we have therefore inserted this order next the Frankeniaceæ. The insertion of the petals is more difficult to be traced, whether they be like the stamens, as is most probable, or, as some state, inserted into the very base of the calyx.—The bark is slightly bitter and astringent. The ashes of some species contain much sulphate of soda. The manna of Mount Sinai, consisting wholly of mucilaginous sugar, is produced by a variety of Tamarix Gallica.

Order 24. Frankeniaceæ. ST. HIL.

Sepals five, slightly cohering at the base. Petals five, alternate with the sepals. Stamens opposite to the sepals, five, eight, or indefinite: filaments usually very short, free: anthers bilocular, extorse, bursting longitudinally, or by two terminal pores. Ovarium one-celled, with three parietal placentæ: style slender, simple, or trifid. Capsule one-celled, three-valved, septicide. Seeds numerous, very minute. Embryo straight, cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves alternate or verticillate, usually furnished with stipules; but which are wanting in Frankenia.—Ex. Frankenia, Sauragesia.

The flowers are regular, except in Luxemburgia. In Lauradia there is an internal monopetalous corolla; in Sauragesia an internal pentapetalous one, between which and the true corolla are many capillary or clavate filaments: these accessory parts being abortive stamens. This family is closely allied to the Cistineæ, Violariææ, and Droseraceæ, from which it differs by the septicidal dehiscence.

Order 25. Elatineæ. CAMBESS.

Sepals 3-5, distinct, or slightly connate at the base. Petals alternate with the sepals. Stamens equal in number to, or twice as many as, the petals. Ovarium 3-5-celled: styles 3-5: stigmas capitate. Placentæ in the axis. Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous. Albumen 0. Embryo cylindrical: radicle next the hilum.—Annual marsh plants. Leaves opposite, with small inconspicuous stipules.—Ex. Elatine, Bergia.

The capitate stigmas, want of albumen, and loculicidal dehiscence, have caused this small group to be separated from the Caryophyllææ. The seeds are usually cylindrical and curved; and the embryo has the same shape, and is not straight, as some have described it.

Order 26. Caryophyllaceæ. JUSS.

Sub-order 1. Vivianieæ. Sepals five, united into a

monophyllous, campanulate, 5-toothed calyx, persistent. Petals five, unguiculate, persistent. Stamens ten: filaments filiform: anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium 3-celled: ovules two in each cell, horizontal, approximated: style short: stigmas three, linear, papillose on the inner surface. Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved, loculicid. Seeds two in each cell, attached closely together to about the middle of the axis, campulitropous. Albumen fleshy, copious. Embryo filiform, curved round the albumen.—Under shrubs. Leaves opposite, tomentose beneath.—Ex. Viviania.

Suborder 2. Caryophyllææ. Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering in a tube, persistent. Petals 4-5, unguiculate, sometimes wanting. Stamens usually double the number of the petals, or, if equal, alternate with them. Filaments subulate, sometimes cohering. Anthers erect, bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovarium one, syncarpous, often stipitate. Stigmas 2-5, sessile, filiform; papillose on their inner surface. Capsule 2-5-valved, one-celled, or imperfectly (rarely completely) 2-5-celled, opening usually by twice as many teeth as stigmas, sometimes by valves. Placenta in the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite, or rarely definite, campulitropous. Albumen mealy, round which the embryo is curved.—Leaves opposite and entire, often connate at the base, without stipules.—Ex. Dianthus, Cerastium.

After Don, we unite Viviania (Macraea, LINN., and Casarea, ST. HIL.) to this order; but perhaps its affinity is greater with Ledocarpanum, which most authors place in the great group of Geraniaceæ. The petals of Viviania are scarious. We are very doubtful if any of the true Caryophyllææ have complete dissepiments. Hymenella and Physa are little known, and most of, if not all, the genus Mollugo must be removed, the definite stamens being alternate with the sepals, as in Portulaceæ. The number of teeth at the apex of the capsule demonstrate that the dehiscence, if perfect, would have been loculicidal.—A few have sponaceous properties. They are all very insipid.

Order 27. Malvaceæ. JUSS.

Sepals five, rarely 3-4, more or less cohering at the base, often bearing an external calyx or involucre: estivation valvate. Petals equal in number to the sepals: estivation twisted. Stamens monadelphous, indefinite, or rarely as few as the petals. Anthers one-celled, reniform, bursting transversely. Ovarium formed by the union of several carpels round a common axis, either distinct or cohering. Styles as many as the carpels, united or free. Fruit capsular or baccate: carpels one or many-seeded, sometimes closely united, sometimes separate or separable. Dehiscence loculicidal or septicidal. Albumen 0, or in very small quantity. Embryo curved: cotyledons twisted and doubled up.—Leaves alternate, stipulate. Hairs stellate.—Ex. Lavatera, Hibiscus, Sida.

The affinity between Malvaceæ and Caryophyllaceæ is very obscure. De Candolle considered the Linææ as a connecting order; but that differs exceedingly from both in the structure of the seed, and, according to St. Hilaire, ought to form a part of the Geraniaceæ.—All abound in mucilage, and are destitute of unwholesome qualities. Cotton is the covering of the seed in the genus Gossypium. From the Althæa officinalis is prepared, in France, the valuable tracing paper, known by the name of papier végétal.

Order 28. Bombaceæ. KUNTH.

Calyx gamosepalous, campanulate or cylindrical, truncate or quinque-partite, with a few minute bractææ on the outside. Petals five, regular, or none: estivation twisted. Stamens five, ten, fifteen, or more: filaments cohering at the base into a tube, which is soldered to the tube of the petals, divided above into five parcels, each of

which bears one or more anthers, intermixed sometimes with barren filaments: anthers one-celled, linear. Ovarium of five (rarely ten) carpels, either strictly cohering or partly distinct: styles as many as the carpels, free, or more or less cohering. Placenta in the axis. Fruit variable, capsular, or indehiscent, usually with five valves and loculicide. Seeds often inclosed in a woolly or pulpy covering; sometimes with a fleshy albumen and flat cotyledons; sometimes exalbuminous with wrinkled or convolute cotyledons.—Leaves alternate, with stipules. Pubescence on the herbaceous parts stellate.—Ex. Bombax, Helicteres.

These were separated from Malvaceæ by Kunth and De Candolle, but again united by St. Hilaire: they chiefly differ by the calyx not being decidedly valvate in estivation, and by the polyadelphous stamens.—Like the Malvaceæ, they are mucilaginous, and possess no deleterious properties. The dried leaves of Adansonia, or the Baobab tree, have been used in cases of diarrhoea and fevers; its fruit also is frequently eaten; and the expressed juice mixed with sugar has been valued in putrid fevers. The seeds of some are covered with long hairs, as in the true cotton plant.

Order 29. Byttneriaceæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx naked, or with an involucre: sepals five, more or less united at the base: estivation valvate. Petals five or none, often saccate as the base, and variously lengthened at the apex: estivation convolute. Stamens equal to the number of the petals, or some multiple of them, more or less monadelphous, some of them often sterile: anthers bilocular, extorse. Ovarium of five (rarely three) carpels, more or less syncarpous: styles as many as the carpels, free or united: ovules ascending, 2-3 or many in each carpel. Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved. Seeds with a strophiole apex, often winged. Albumen oily or fleshy, rarely wanting. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous, flat and plaited, or rolled round the plumula; or, in the exalbuminous seeds, very thick.—Trees or shrubs. Pubescence often stellate. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate.—Ex. Sterculia, Byttneria, Lasiopetalum, Hermannia, Dombeya, Wallichia.

The six genera we have cited as examples have been made the types of as many sections, and even, by some botanists, of as many different orders. As a group, however, on the other hand, they have been united by St. Hilaire to the Malvaceæ, although differing in their bilocular anthers. They form the passage to the next order, from which they differ by their monadelphous stamens. In Sterculia and Erythropsis the carpels are distinct, and in Waltheria there is but one, four being abortive.—They abound in mucilage. The Kola of the African travellers is got from the seeds of Sterculia acuminata, and Chocolate from those of Theobroma Cacao.

Order 30. Tiliaceæ. JUSS.

Suborder 1. Tilia. Sepals 4-5: estivation valvate, rarely imbricated. Petals 4-5, rarely wanting. Stamens free, usually indefinite: anthers bilocular, dehiscing longitudinally. Torus with 4-5 glands at the base of the petals. Ovary solitary, of 4-10 carpels: style one: stigma with as many lobes as carpels. Fruit dry, multilocular, with several seeds in each cell; or by abortion unilocular and one-seeded. Embryo erect, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, stipulate. Petals entire.—Ex. Tilia, Corechorus.

Suborder 2. Elaeocarpeæ. JUSS. Sepals 4-5, without an involucre: estivation valvate. Petals 4-5: estivation imbricated. Torus large, discoid, usually with glands. Stamens 15-20: filaments short, free: anthers long, bilocular, opening at the apex by a double fissure. Ovary multilocular: style one: stigmas equal to the number of carpels, sometimes united. Fruit various, indehiscent, dry, drupaceous, or valvular and loculicide, sometimes by

abortion one-celled. Seeds two or more in each cell. Albumen fleshy. Embryo erect: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, sometimes approximated in pairs, with deciduous stipules. Petals lobed or fimbriated, sometimes entire.—Ex. Elaeocarpus, Aristolochia.

The large discoid torus, distinct stamens, and bilocular anthers, serve to distinguish this order from the Malvaceæ and others allied to them; at the same time De Candolle very properly suggests that Malvaceæ, Bombaceæ, Byttneriaceæ, and Tiliaceæ, may all form one group or class, remarkable, as he says, for the valvate estivation of the calyx; for although it be now known that Sloanea and Ablania have it imbricated, yet these have so much affinity with Bixa, that the three may be considered as intermediate between the Bixineæ (or more properly Prockineæ) and Tiliaceæ.—The Tilia are mucilaginous. The fruit of some is succulent and eatable.

Order 31. Dipterocarpeæ. BLUME.

Calyx tubular, five-lobed, unequal, naked, persistent, and afterwards enlarged: estivation imbricated. Petals sessile, slightly connected at the base: estivation twisted. Stamens indefinite: filaments dilated at the base, free or irregularly cohering: anthers erect, bilocular, subulate, opening by terminal fissures. Torus small, not discoid. Ovarium with few cells: ovules in pairs, pendulous: style and stigma simple. Fruit coriaceous, one-celled by abortion, three-valved or indehiscent, surrounded by the calyx. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons twisted and crumpled, or unequal and obliquely incumbent.—Trees abounding in resin. Leaves alternate: vernation involute. Stipules deciduous, convolute.—Ex. Dipterocarpus, Shorea.

Allied to Elaeocarpeæ, and also to the Malvaceæ, and in some few respects to Guttiferae, but easily distinguished by the enlarged foliaceous unequal segments of the calyx investing the fruit.—The camphor tree of Sumatra belongs to this order. The fruit of the Vateria indica, when boiled, yields a kind of tallow.

Order 32. Chlenaceæ. THOUARS.

Involucre 1-2-flowered, persistent. Sepals three, small. Petals 5-6, broader and sometimes cohering at the base. Stamens rarely 10, usually indefinite: filaments united at the base into a tube, or adhering to the base of the petals: anthers roundish, syngenesious or free, bilocular. Ovarium solitary, trilocular: style one, filiform: stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or by abortion one-celled. Placenta central. Seeds solitary or numerous, suspended. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy or horny albumen: cotyledons foliaceous, undulated.—Leaves alternate, with stipules.—Ex. Sarcocaulis, Leptoloma.

From this order Hugonia ought certainly to be excluded, it only differing from the Byttneriaceæ (Suborder Dombeyaceæ) by the imbricated, and not valvular, estivation of the calyx. Jussieu, from considering the union of the petals at the base, refers Chlenaceæ to the neighbourhood of the Ebenaceæ. All the species are natives of Madagascar, and very little known.

Order 33. Ternstramiaceæ. MIN.

Sepals five, concave, coriaceous, deciduous, the innermost often the largest: estivation imbricated. Petals five, often combined at the base, alternate with the sepals. Stamens indefinite: filaments often cohering at the base into one or more parcels, and united to the petals. Ovary plurilocular, usually sessile on a discoid torus: ovules two or more, pendulous at the inner angle of each cell: styles 2-5: stigmas simple. Fruit 2-5-celled, coriaceous and indehiscent, or capsular and opening by valves. Seeds large, few, sometimes arillate. Albumen 0, or in very small quantity. Embryo either straight, or bent, or folded back: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons very large,

sometimes longitudinally plaited, often containing oil.—Leaves alternate, coriaceous, exstipulate, now and then pellucid-punctate.—Ex. Ternstroemia, Gordonia, Camellia.

Cochlospermum has the dissepiments imperfect, and consequently the ovary spurious one-celled. In Camellia, from the effect of luxuriant cultivation, there are often six or seven petals, styles, and cells to the fruit. This order is allied to the Aurantiaceæ, and also to the Guttiferae; but they also osculate with the Hypericinae, Marcgraviaceæ, and Tiliaceæ.—The properties of most of the species are little understood. An excellent table oil is obtained from the seeds of Camellia oleifera. The tea of commerce is produced by several species of Thea and Camellia.

Order 34. Olacinae. Murr.

Calyx small, of one piece, entire, or toothed, often finally becoming large and fleshy: estivation imbricated. Petals 3-6, distinct, or adhering in pairs by the intervention of staminal: estivation valvate. Stamens (fertile) definite, 3-10, alternate with the petals, mixed with others that are sterile and opposite to the petals: filaments compressed: anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovary 1-3-4-celled: ovules 3-4, pendulous from the top of a central placenta: style simple: stigma 3-4-lobed. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent, often surrounded by the enlarged calyx, one-celled, one-seeded. Seed pendulous. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo small, at the base of the albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, sometimes abortive.—Ex. Olax, Ximenia.

A very distinct order, although it be somewhat difficult to discover its proper place. Brown supposes the calyx above described to be bractæ, and the petals a perianth, and consequently it would be placed near the Santalaceæ. Jussieu, again, admits the presence of both calyx and corolla, but that the last is monopetalous, and places the order near the Sapotæ.—Nothing is known of their medical properties.

Order 35. Aurantiaceæ. CORR.

Calyx urceolate or campanulate, short, 3-5-toothed, withering. Petals 3-5, broad at the base, sometimes slightly combined: estivation imbricated. Stamens equal in number to, or a multiple of, the petals: filaments flattened at the base, distinct, monadelphous, or polyadelphous: anthers erect. Torus conspicuous, discoid. Ovary multilocular: style one: stigma one, somewhat divided, thickish. Fruit a hesperidium. Seeds attached to the axis, solitary or numerous, usually pendulous: raphe and chalaza usually very distinct. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons thick, fleshy: plumula conspicuous.—Trees or shrubs, abounding in volatile oil. Leaves alternate, often compound, articulated with a usually winged petiole.—Ex. Citrus, Limonia.

The oily receptacles dispersed over the whole plant, deciduous and compound leaves (always indicated by the joint connecting them with the petiole) distinguish this family from its allies.—The pulp of the fruit is more or less acid. The oil is volatile, fragrant, bitter, and exciting. The orange, lemon, citron, and lime, belong to this order.

Order 36. Hypericinae. Juss.

Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering, unequal, persistent, with glandular dots: estivation imbricate. Petals 4-5, often dotted with black; veins oblique: estivation twisted. Stamens indefinite, polyadelphous (very rarely ten monadelphous): anthers versatile. Ovary solitary: styles several, rarely connate: stigmas simple, sometimes capitate. Placentæ in the axis. Fruit baccate or capsular, of many cells and valves, septicide. Seeds minute, indefinite, very rarely solitary. Albumen none. Embryo

straight: radicle next the hilum, inferior.—Juice resinous. Leaves dotted, usually opposite, and entire. Flowers generally yellow.—Ex. Hypericum, Vismia.

Allied on the one hand to Guttiferae, and on the other, but more distantly, to Cistinae. The juice of many species is purgative and febrifugal.

Order 37. Reaumuriæ. Ehrenb.

Calyx 5-partite, persistent, surrounded externally with imbricated bractæ. Petals five. Stamens definite and monadelphous, or indefinite and polyadelphous. Torus with or without glands. Ovary solitary: styles slender, 2-4-5. Placentæ at the base. Capsule of two, four, or five cells, and as many valves, loculicidæ. Seeds definite, erect, hairy, large. Embryo straight, in the axis of a farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves fleshy, small, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers solitary.—Ex. Reaumuria, Holachna.

The petals and stamens are hypogynous. Reaumuria has peltate anthers, and was formerly placed at the end of the Ficoideæ; Holachna was the Tamarix Songarica of Pallas.—Saline matter exists in great abundance.

Order 38. Guttiferae. Juss.

Sepals 2-6, usually persistent, round, frequently unequal, and coloured: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-10. Stamens indefinite, or rarely definite, free, or variously united at the base: filaments unequal: anthers adnate, introrse, or extrorse: sometimes very small, sometimes unilocular, and sometimes opening by a pore. Torus fleshy, occasionally five-lobed. Ovary solitary, one or many-celled: ovules solitary, erect or ascending: or numerous and attached to central placentæ: style none, or very short: stigmas peltate or radiate. Fruit capsular, or fleshy, or drupaceous, one or many-celled, one or many-seeded, valvular and septicide, or indehiscent. Seeds definite, in a pulp, apterous, often arillate: testa thin and membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle pointing to (or from?) the hilum: cotyledons usually cohering.—Trees or shrubs, sometimes parasitical: juice resinous. Leaves exstipulate, opposite, or rarely alternate, coriaceous, with a strong midrib, and many oblique lateral parallel veins. Flowers articulated with their peduncle.—Ex. Clusia, Calophyllum.

In Calophyllum the petals seem opposite to the sepals, but in the other genera they are alternate. This order approaches most to the Hypericinae, but differs in several particulars: it is also allied to the following family.—A yellow, viscid, acrid, and purgative gum-resinous juice abounds in all. The powerfully drastic and cathartic gamboge is obtained from Stalagmitis camboioides.

Order 39. Marcgraviaceæ. Juss.

Sepals 2-7, usually coriaceous and persistent: estivation imbricated. Corolla five-petaled, or sometimes monopetalous, calyptiform, entire, or torn at the point. Stamens indefinite, very rarely only five: filaments free, dilated at the base: anthers long, erect, bursting inwards. Ovary solitary, unilocular: style one or none: stigma lobed or stellate. Placentæ 4-12, parietal, prominent, and forming spurious dissepiments, more or less complete. Fruit coriaceous, indehiscent, or of several valves, separating from below, loculicidæ. Seeds indefinite, minute, in a pulp. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, almost sessile, and coriaceous.—Ex. Marcgravia, Norantea.

Some botanists describe the structure of the fruit differently, by supposing the lamellate placentæ to be imperfect, but true dissepiments; and this idea is confirmed by the ovules being only attached to the free extremity of this part. But the above is Professor Richard's hypothesis, and few have examined the tribe with such accuracy.

Arrangement and Characters. By the one view this order is allied to the Flacourtiaceæ, and by the other to the Guttiferæ, next to which it has been usually placed.—Nothing is known of their properties.

Order 40. Hippocrateaceæ. Juss.

Sepals five (rarely four or six), small, combined to their middle, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number to the stamens: estivation imbricated. Stamens three (rarely four or five): filaments united almost to their apex, forming a tube round the ovary. Ovary triangular, trilocular: ovules erect, four in each cell: style one: stigmas 1-3. Placenta in the axis. Fruit fleshy, 1-3-celled, or of three samaroid carpels. Seeds about four in each cell or carpel. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat, elliptical, oblong, somewhat fleshy, cohering (at least in the dried plant).—Shrubs arborescent or climbing. Leaves opposite, simple, somewhat coriaceous. Flowers small.—Ex. Hippocratea, Salacia.

The ternary number of the stamens, combined with the quinary number of the sepals and petals, form the grand feature of this order. By most botanists it is supposed to be principally allied to the Acerineæ and Malpighiaceæ; but Brown asserts that it is scarcely distinct from Celastrineæ, notwithstanding the hypogynous stamens.—The fruit of Tomsella pyriformis is rich and sweet flavoured; the nuts of Hippocratea comosa are also eatable.

Order 41. Erythroxyleæ. KUNT.

Sepals five, combined at the base, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five, broad, and with a small scale at the base: estivation slightly twisted. Stamens ten: filaments united at the base into a cup: anthers erect, bilocular, longitudinally and laterally dehiscing. Ovary three-celled, of which two are sometimes abortive: ovule one: styles three, distinct or united: stigmas three. Drupe one-seeded. Seed angular, pendulous. Embryo linear, straight, in the axis of a corneous albumen: radicle elongated, next the hilum: cotyledons linear, flat, foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, rarely opposite.—Ex. Erythroxylon, Sethia.

Closely allied to Malpighiaceæ by the presence of albumen, sessile petals, and general appearance.—A reddish brown dye is prepared from the bark of Erythr. suberosum.

Order 42. Malpighiaceæ. Juss.

Sepals five, slightly combined, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five, unguiculate, occasionally wanting. Stamens ten (rarely fewer): filaments distinct, or slightly monadelphous: anthers roundish. Torus usually discoid. Ovary one, usually three-lobed, consisting of three carpels, more or less combined: ovules solitary: styles three, distinct or united. Placenta in the axis. Fruit dry or fleshy, of three distinct carpels or three-celled, occasionally 1-2-celled by abortion. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen 0. Embryo curved or straight: radicle short, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous or thickish.—Small trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing. Leaves simple, opposite, or very rarely alternate, not dotted, usually with stipules. Pedicels articulated in the middle.—Ex. Malpighia, Hiptage, Banisteria.

The sepals are often furnished externally with glands at the base, on which account, and the often samaroid fruit, this order seems allied to Acerineæ. In Aspicarpa there is but one stamen.—Little is known of their properties. The Barbadoes cherry, the fruit of the Malpighia glabra, is used in Jamaica by way of dessert.

Order 43. Acerineæ. Juss.

Calyx 5-, or rarely 4-9-partite: estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number to the lobes of the calyx with which they alternate, rarely wanting. Stamens definite, usually eight, rarely five or twelve: anthers oblong. Torus

discoid. Ovary two-lobed, two-celled: ovules in pairs, attached to the inner angle: style one: stigmas two, subulate. Fruit of two samaroid carpels, of which the membranous appendage has the lower margin incrassated. Seeds solitary or in pairs, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo curved or convolute: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves opposite, simple, lobed, or pinnatisect, without stipules. Flowers often polygamous.—Ex. Acer, Negundo, Dobinea.

Sugar is extracted in abundance from the Acer saccharinum and some other species.

Order 44. Hippocastaneæ. D. C.

Calyx campanulate, five-lobed: estivation imbricated. Petals five or (by abortion) four, distinct, unequal. Stamens 7-8, distinct, unequal: anthers oval, versatile. Torus discoid. Ovary roundish, three-celled: ovules in pairs: style one, filiform, acute. Fruit coriaceous, 1-2-3-celled, 1-2-3-valved, loculicid. Seeds solitary, large: testa shining or smooth; hilum broad and pale coloured. Albumen 0. Embryo curved, inverted: radicle conical, curved, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons thick, gibbous, fleshy, cohering, hypogeous: plumula large, two-leaved.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, 5-7-palmate. Pedicels articulated.—Ex. Asculus, Pavia.

Richard, with some justice, unites this to the Malpighiaceæ: indeed they agree in almost every important point, except the habit or general appearance.—The seeds abound in starchy matter, which renders them nutritive: they also contain much potash: they are bitter. The bark of Asculus hippocastanum or Horse-chestnut is bitter, astringent, and febrifugal.

Order 45. Rhizoboleæ. D. C.

Sepals five, more or less combined: estivation imbricated. Petals five, thickish, unequal. Stamens indefinite, slightly monadelphous, in a double row, of which the inner is often abortive: anthers roundish, bursting longitudinally. Torus discoid. Ovary four-celled: ovules solitary, peritropous: styles 4: stigmas simple. Fruit of four (or by abortion fewer), indehiscent, one-celled, one-seeded nuts, with a thick, double putamen. Seed reniform, with the funiculus dilated into a spongy excrescence: albumen 0. Embryo very large: radicle constituting nearly the whole of the kernel: cauliculus long, two-edged: cotyledons small, foliaceous, lying in a furrow of the radicle.—Trees. Leaves opposite, palmately compound.—Ex. Caryocar.

Somewhat allied to Mangifera among the Terebinthaceæ, but particularly to Sapindaceæ. To Hippocastaneæ it has also some affinity.—The Souari nut, the produce of the Car. tomentosum, is well known as the most delicious of the nut tribe: other species yield a nut perhaps almost as good.

Order 46. Sapindaceæ. Juss.

Sepals 4-5, distinct or slightly cohering at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals generally 4-5, occasionally wanting, sometimes naked, sometimes villous or glandular in the middle, or sometimes with a petaloid scale. Stamens twice as many as the petals, distinct, ascending. Torus discoid, plane, lobed. Ovary roundish, trilocular: ovules usually in pairs, one above the other, ascending: styles three, more or less united at the base: stigmas three. Placenta in the axis. Fruit fleshy, vesicular, or capsular, 3- (or by abortion 1-2-) celled. Seeds solitary, erect, or resupinate. Albumen 0. Embryo: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons more or less curved on the radicle, sometimes straight.—Leaves alternate, having frequently pellucid lines or dots.—Ex. Sapindus, Paullinia, Dodonæa.

Near to Meliaceæ, and also to some of the Terebinthaceæ.—The leaves and branches are poisonous, but the fruit is eatable, and, of several, is used in desserts. The

Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan, are from the genus Euphorbia. The fruit of the soap-berry, Sapindus saponaria, is saponaceous.

Order 47. Meliaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Meliææ. Sepals 4-5, more or less united: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, conniving or cohering at the base: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, or two, three, or four times as many: filaments cohering in a long tube: anthers sessile within the orifice of the tube. Torus sometimes large and cup-shaped. Ovarium single, plurilocular: ovules suspended, solitary, or in pairs: style one: stigma free or combined. Fruit baccate, drupaceous, or capsular, many- (or by abortion one-) celled: valves when present loculicidal. Seeds apterous. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, inverted: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate or stipulate.—Ex. Melia, Trichilia.

Suborder 2. Humiriææ. AD. Juss. Calyx five-cleft: estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate with the sepals: estivation imbricated. Stamens five times as many as the petals: filaments combined into a tube: anthers two-celled, with a fleshy connectivum extended beyond the lobes. Torus annular or toothed. Ovarium five-celled: ovules suspended, solitary, or in pairs: style simple: stigma lobed. Fruit drupaceous, five- (or by abortion fewer) celled. Seed with a membranous integument. Embryo straight, oblong, lying in a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate: petiole winged.—Ex. Humiria.

Suborder 3. Cedrelææ. R. BROWN. Calyx five-cleft, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sessile: estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, combined below into a tube: anthers somewhat sessile, acuminate, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Torus cup-shaped, ten-plaited. Ovarium five-celled, each cell semibilocular by the inflection of the placentæ: style simple: stigma peltate, five-lobed. Capsule of five valves, septifragal; dissepiments obliterated, except at the base. Placentæ laminary, inflected, finally becoming loose, and having two or more seeds on each side. Seeds erect or suspended, winged at one extremity: testa coriaceous. Albumen fleshy, thin, or wanting. Embryo straight, transverse: radicle very small, distant from the hilum: cotyledons flat, very large.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Sweetenia, Cedrela.

We again unite these three orders, because we do not find any good marks between them. The albuminous seeds and slender embryo chiefly distinguish Humiriææ from Meliææ; but in Cedrelææ the seeds have albumen and want it, and in this tribe the dehiscence of the capsule is not so constant as one would wish: for in Chloroxylon (or Sweetenia chloroxylon) the fruit is loculicidal. The seeds of all, we believe, are anatropous. The medical properties of this family are little understood; and to judge by those that are known, they are very dissimilar. Thus the bark of Canella alba (or false Winter's bark) is aromatic and stimulant; that of Melia is nauseous; and of Sweetenia febrifuga, bitter and febrifuge. The fruits of some few are eatable, and delicious. Mahogany is the wood of Sweetenia Mahogoni.

Order 48. Ampelidææ. RICHT.

Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals 4-5, sometimes cohering above, and calyptiform: estivation valvate. Stamens 4-5, opposite to the petals: filaments distinct, or slightly cohering at the base: anthers ovate, versatile. Torus an annular disc, bearing the petals on its exterior, and the stamens on its surface. Ovarium two-celled: ovules in pairs, erect: style one, very short: stigma simple. Berry globose, pulpy, two- (or often by abortion, one-) celled. Seeds 1-4, erect: testa osseous. Albumen horny. Embryo erect: radicle slender: cotyledons lanceolate.—

Climbing shrubs. Leaves, lower ones opposite, upper alternate, with racemes opposite to them, which are sometimes abortive, and change into tendrils.—Ex. Cissus, Vitis.

This order approaches closely to the Meliæææ; indeed it is difficult to say to which Leea ought to be referred, or if it ought not to form a small connecting group. If in that genus we consider the torus to be cup-shaped, bearing the petals on its outside about the middle, we shall have above the insertion of the petals five sessile, adnate, extorse, anthers; by which view we should have a true member of the Ampelidææ: but then the anthers are alternate with the petals, and the plants are not climbing: from Meliæææ it differs rather more. As to Lasianthera, too little is known of it to decide upon its affinities.—The vine is so well known that we need not detail its properties.

Order 49. Geraniæææ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Geraniæææ. ST. HIL. Sepals five, persistent, more or less unequal, or sometimes spurred at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five (or, by abortion, 4, rarely 0), unguiculate: estivation twisted. Stamens monadelphous, twice or thrice as many as the petals (some occasionally abortive). Ovarium of five carpels, placed round an elongated axis: ovules pendulous, solitary: styles five, cohering round the axis. Fruit cohering round the axis: of five pieces, with a membranous, indescient pericarp and indurated style, which finally twists and carries the pericarp along with it. Seed solitary, erect: chalaza close to the hilum. Albumen 0. Embryo curved: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum, but pointing towards it: cotyledons next the hilum, foliaceous, convolute, and plaited.—Leaves simple, stipulate, opposite, or alternate, with peduncles opposite to them.—Ex. Geranium.

Suborder 2. Lineæææ. D. C. Sepals 3-4-5, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals 3-4-5, unguiculate, fugitive: estivation twisted. Stamens as many as the petals, and alternate with them (with intermediate teeth or abortive stamens), arising from an annular torus: anthers ovate, erect. Ovarium with as many, (rarely fewer) cells and styles as stamens: stigmas capitate. Capsule generally pointed with the hardened base of the styles, plurilocular: each cell spuriously bilocular, and opening by two valves at the apex. Seeds solitary in each spurious cell, compressed, pendulous. Albumen thin, fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves entire, alternate, without stipules, sometimes with two glands at the base. Flowers terminal.—Ex. Linum.

Suborder 3. Balsamineæææ. RICHT. Sepals five, irregular, deciduous, the two inner and upper connate, the lower spurred: estivation imbricated. Petals four (five, but the fifth abortive), united by pairs. Stamens five: filaments subulate: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium solitary, five-celled: ovules numerous: stigma sessile, more or less five-lobed. Fruit capsular, five-celled, five-valved, elastically septifragal. Seeds numerous, suspended. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Succulent herbaceous plants. Leaves simple, opposite or alternate, exstipulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. Impatiens.

Suborder 4. Hydroceræææ. BLUME. Sepals five, deciduous, coloured, unequal, the lowermost spurred: estivation imbricated. Petals five, unequal; the upper arched. Stamens five: filaments connate at the apex: anthers slightly connate, bilocular, bursting at the apex. Ovarium five-celled: ovules pendulous, 2-3 in each cell: stigmas five, sessile, acute. Fruit succulent, five-celled: endocarp hard and osseous. Seeds solitary. Albumen 0. Embryo: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.

—Herbaceous, with angular stems. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Hydrocera.

Suborder 5. Tropæolæa. Juss. Sepals five, the upper spurred: estivation imbricate, or rarely valvate. Petals five, unequal, irregular, the two upper sessile, the three lower stalked, or sometimes abortive. Stamens eight, free: anthers erect, bilocular. Torus discoid, almost united with the calyx. Ovarium one, triquetrous, of three carpels: ovules solitary, pendulous: style one: stigma three, acute. Fruit indehiscent, separable from the axis into three pieces (or, by abortion, of one piece). Albumen 0. Embryo large: radicle next the hilum, lying within the projections of the cotyledons, which are straight, thick, and consolidated into one body.—Herbaceous trailing or twining plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. Tropæolum.

Suborder 6. Oxalidæa. D. C. Sepals five, equal, sometimes slightly cohering at the base, persistent: estivation imbricate. Petals five, equal, unguiculate: estivation twisted. Stamens ten, more or less monadelphous; those opposite the petals longer than the others: anthers erect, bilocular. Ovarium five-angled, five-celled: styles five, filiform: stigma capitate, or slightly bifid. Placentæ in the axis. Capsules membranous, five-celled, 5-10-valved. Seeds several: testa fleshy, bursting elastically. Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy. Embryo straight, as long as the albumen: radicle long, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves compound (or by abortion simple), alternate, seldom opposite or whorled.—Ex. Oxalis, Averrhoa.

All these suborders may be either considered as parts of one order, or as orders belonging to one class. They are allied on the one hand to Caryophyllææ and Malvacææ, and on the other to Rutacææ. Rhynchotheca has no petals, but certainly belongs to the Geraniacææ, although it be difficult to say with which of the above sections it ought to be ranked: the seeds pendulous, albumen fleshy, embryo straight, stamens distinct, and two ovules in each cell, militate against it being placed in Geraniææ: and the cohering styles separate it from Lineææ and Oxalidææ. In Tropæolææ the stamens may almost be called perigynous.—Geraniææ possess an astringent principle, and an aromatic and resinous flavour. The mucilaginous diuretic seeds of Lineææ, and the purgative leaves of L. catharticum, are well known. The fleshy fruit of Tropæolææ is acidic, and used as a cress. The Oxalidææ are acid, and supply the place of sorrel. The leaves of Ox. acetosella contain pure oxalic acid.

Order 50. Pittosporæa. R. BROWN.

Sepals five, deciduous, distinct, or partially cohering: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sometimes slightly cohering: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, distinct, alternate with the petals. Ovary solitary, 1-2-5-celled: style one: stigma 2-5, equal in number to the placentas. Fruit capsular or baccate, cells polyspermous, sometimes incomplete, loculicid. Seeds often covered with a glutinous or resinous pulp. Embryo minute, contained in a fleshy albumen near the hilum: radicle long: cotyledons very short.—Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers sometimes polygamous.—Ex. Pittosporum, Billardiera.

De Candolle arranges this next Polygalææ, probably on account of the tendency of the fruit to become unilocular, with parietal placentæ. We, however, agree with Richard, that its place ought to be at no great distance from the Rutacææ.—The berries of Billardiera are eatable, but nothing further is known of the properties of the order.

Order 51. Brexiacæa. LINDL.

Sepals five, small, persistent, cohering at the base: estivation imbricated. Petals five: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, arising from a

narrow cup, which is toothed between each stamen: anthers introrse, two-celled, opening longitudinally. Ovarium five-celled: ovules numerous: placentæ in the axis: style one: stigma simple. Fruit a five-celled drupe. Seeds indefinite: testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle cylindrical, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons ovate, obtuse.—Trees. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, with small deciduous stipules.—Ex. Brexia.

The solitary genus of this order appears to be the same with the Venana of Lamarck, which name ought perhaps to be adopted. Du Petit Thouars describes a fleshy albumen.

Order 52. Rutacæa. Juss.

Suborder 1. Zygophyllæa. R. BROWN. Flowers bisexual, regular. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation convolute. Petals alternate with the sepals: estivation usually convolute. Stamens twice as many as the petals: filaments distinct, dilated at the base, and usually arising from scales. Ovarium simple, 4-5-celled: ovules in pairs or more, pendulous, or rarely erect: style simple, 4-5-furrowed: stigma simple, or 4-5-lobed. Fruit capsular, or rarely fleshy, with 4-5 angles or wings, 4-5-valved and loculicidal, or indehiscent: endocarp and sarcocarp combined. Seeds usually fewer than the ovules. Albumen between fleshy and horny, rarely 0. Embryo green: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves opposite, stipulate, not dotted, rarely simple.—Ex. Zygophyllum, Tribulus.

Suborder 2. Rutæa. Juss. Flowers bisexual, regular. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals alternate with the sepals: estivation between twisted and convolute. Stamens twice or thrice as many as the petals. Torus sometimes discoid. Ovarium 3-5-lobed, 3-5-celled: ovules in each cell two, or 4-20, pendulous or adnate to the placentæ: styles several, combined upwards: stigma 3-5-angled, or furrowed. Capsule either three-valved and loculicid, or 4-5-lobed, opening internally at the apex: sarcocarp and endocarp combined. Seeds often fewer than the ovules. Embryo lying within the fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Leaves (with one exception), exstipulate, alternate, usually with pellucid dots.—Ex. Ruta, Peganum.

Suborder 3. Diosmæa. R. BROWN. Flowers bisexual. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals (rarely wanting), as many as the sepals, distinct, or combined below into a spurious monopetalous corolla: estivation twisted-convolute, or rarely valvate. Stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals (or fewer by abortion), hypogynous, or rarely perigynous. Torus discoid or urceolate, surrounding the base of the pistillum, free or attached to the calyx, often wanting. Ovaria as many or fewer than the petals, syncarpous, or more or less apocarpous: ovules two, rarely four or one in each, peritropal: styles combined above: stigma simple or dilated. Fruit of 1-5 capsules, cohering, or somewhat distinct: endocarp two-valved, dehiscing at the base, separating from the two-valved sarcocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs. Albumen 0. Radicle superior.—Leaves exstipulate, opposite or alternate, covered with resinous dots.—Ex. Dictamnus, Diosma, Correa, Exodia, Monnieria.

Suborder 4. Zanthoxylæa. AD. JUSS. Flowers unisexual, regular. Calyx 3-4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals equal in number (rarely none) to the sepals: estivation usually twisted-convolute. Stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals. Ovaria as many (or fewer) as petals, syncarpous, or partially apocarpous. Ovules, in each two, or rarely four: styles more or less combined. Fruit either baccate or membranous, sometimes of 2-5 cells, sometimes of several drupes or two-

valved capsules, of which the fleshy sarcocarp is partly separable from the endocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs, pendulous. Embryo lying within a fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons ovate, flat.—Leaves exstipulate, alternate or opposite, with pellucid dots.—Ex. Zanthoxylum, Brucea, Ptelea.

Suborder 5. Simaroubeæ. RICH. Flowers usually bisexual. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals as many as the sepals, spreading, or connivent into a kind of tube: estivation twisted. Stamens twice as numerous: filaments arising from scales: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium stipitate, 4-5-lobed, 4-5-celled: ovules solitary: style simple: stigma 4-5-lobed. Fruit of 4-5 indehiscent drupes arranged round a common receptacle. Seeds pendulous: testa membranous. Albumen none. Radicle superior, short, drawn back within the thick cotyledons.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, without dots.—Ex. Quassia, Simarouba.

These five may, if one pleases, be viewed as orders belonging to one class. The last of them is the most distinct, and is closely allied to the Ochnaceæ. Some few Diosmææ have the stamens perigynous, but the great passage to the Peripetalæ is through the Zanthoxylææ, many of which are very closely allied to the Terebinthaceæ.—Of the Zygomphyllææ some are anthelmintic: others are acrid and bitter, and are employed as sudorifics, diaphoretics, or alteratives. Of the Rutææ the common rue is sudorific, anthelmintic, and emmenagogue. The Diosmææ of the Cape are considered antispasmodics: of America, febrifuge: and the root of Dictamnus was formerly used as a sudorific and vermifuge. Almost all the Zanthoxylææ are aromatic and pungent: some are powerful sudorifics and diaphoretics: of others the bark is bitter. Brucea contains a poisonous principle called Brucia. The Simaroubeæ are all intensely bitter.

Order 53. Ochnaceæ. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals equal to or rarely twice as many as the sepals, deciduous, spreading: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, or ten, or indefinite: filaments persistent: anthers two-celled, erect, opening by pores. Torus discoid. Carpels as many as petals, seated upon an enlarged tumid gynobase: ovules erect: styles combined into one. Fruit (a sarcobase) of several indehiscent drupaceous carpella, articulated with the gynobase. Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons thick.—Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate. Pedicels articulated in the middle.—Ex. Ochna, Gompia.

Very closely allied to the Rutaceæ, but differing by the erect ovule, and the anthers opening by pores. Walkera is usually referred here, although the ovules be pendulous and the radicle superior: but perhaps in this order more attention must be paid to the spermic direction of the embryo: for in Ochnaceæ and Walkera, as well as in Rutaceæ, the radicle points to the hilum.—The root and leaves of Walkera serrata are bitter, and a decoction tonic, stomachic, and anti-emetic.

Order 54. Coriariæ. D. C.

Calyx campanulate, five-parted: estivation imbricate. Petals five, alternate with the lobes of the calyx, very small, fleshy, carinate internally. Stamens ten (in the female flowers barren): filaments filiform, distinct: anthers oblong, two-celled. Ovarium seated on a thickened torus, five-angled, five-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: style none: stigmas five, opposite the segments of the calyx, long, filiform, glandular. Fruit (in the male flowers abortive) a crustaceous pentachenium, surrounded by the enlarged fleshy petals. Seeds pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo slightly curved: radicle superior: cotyledons

plano-convex.—Shrubs with square branches. Leaves opposite, simple, three-nerved. Buds scaly. Flowers racemose, unisexual: the males with abortive pistilla, the females with abortive stamens.—Ex. Coriaria.

Jussieu has pointed out the affinity of this tribe with the Malpighiaceæ: with Rhamnææ it is also allied; but we think it would be no difficult matter to demonstrate its close relation to Euphorbiaceæ. The petals are in a very reduced state, and scarcely differ from what we find in several Euphorbiaceæ.—The fruit of Coriaria myrtifolia is poisonous.

Div. II.—Dichlamydeæ Calycifloræ. D. C.

(2. Peripetalæ. Juss.)

Order 55. Stachhouiseæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-cleft, equal, with an inflated tube. Petals five, equal, inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx, unguiculate: claws combined into a tube: limb narrow, spreading. Stamens five, unequal, arising from the throat of the calyx. Ovarium superior, 3-5-lobed: lobes distinct: ovules solitary, erect: styles 3-5, sometimes united at the base: stigmas simple. Fruit of 3-5, indehiscent, winged or apterous pieces, attached to a central persistent column. Embryo erect in the axis of, and about as long as, the fleshy albumen.—Leaves simple, entire, alternate, with lateral minute stipules.—Ex. Stachhouisia.

Related to the Celastrineæ, and also to the Euphorbiaceæ; on which last account we have placed it after Coriariææ.

Order 56. Celestrineæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Euonymæ. D. C. Sepals 4-5: estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5 (rarely none), with a broad base: estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals: anthers erect. Torus large, expanded, flat. Ovarium superior, immersed in the torus and adhering to it, 3-4-celled: ovules one or many in each cell, attached by a short funiculus to the axis, ascending. Fruit superior, a capsule 3-4-celled, 3-4-valved and loculicidal, or a dry drupe with a 1-2-celled nut. Seeds one or many in each cell, ascending or resupinate, sometimes arillate. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons flat and thick.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, or opposite. Ex. Euonymus, Celestrus.

Suborder 2. Staphyleæ. D. C. Sepals five, connected at the base, coloured: estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alternate with the petals. Torus a large urceolate disc. Ovarium 2-3-celled, superior: ovules erect: styles 2-3, cohering at the base. Fruit membranous or fleshy, indehiscent, or opening internally, partly abortive. Seeds ascending, roundish, truncate at the hilum: testa bony: hilum large, truncate. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle small, inferior: cotyledons thick.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, pinnate, with common and partial stipules.—Ex. Staphylea, Turpinia.

Allied to Hippocrateaceæ, to Euphorbiaceæ, and to Rhamnææ. Hicineæ has been now removed from this to the Hypocorollææ near to Ebenaceæ.—Their medical properties are unknown. The young shoots of Euonymus Europæus, termed bois carré, when charred, are used as pencils in some kinds of drawings.

Order 57. Rhamnææ. Juss.

Calyx 4-5-cleft: estivation valvate. Petals distinct, cucullate, or convolute, inserted into the throat of the calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, opposite the petals. Torus a large, flat, or urceolate disc. Ovarium superior or half superior, 2-3-4-celled: ovules solitary, erect. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, or dry, and separating in three parts. Seeds erect. Albumen fleshy, rarely none. Embryo about as long as the seed: radicle short,

Arrangement and Characters inferior: cotyledons large, flat.—Trees or shrubs often thorny. Leaves simple, alternate (or rarely opposite), minutely stipulate.—Ex. Rhamnus, Physica.

Allied to Celestrineæ, to Euphorbiaceæ, to Rosaceæ, and to Byttneriaceæ. The berries of several species of Rhamnus are violent purgatives. The fruit of Zizyphus, however, is destitute of these qualities, and is both wholesome and pleasant to eat: the Jujube is a species of this genus, as also the Lotus of the classics.

Τὸν δ' ἴσεν ἄριστον φάγην μιλῶντα χάρεσσι,
ὅθεν τ' ἀπογγύλαι παλὰ στίλη, ἰδὲ μύλαι.
ἀλλ' ἄριστον βόσκησιν μιν' ἀνέκατ' ἄριστον
ἄριστον ἱπποκρίτου μύρισιν, ἵπποτον τὸ ἰδὲ στίλη.

Order 58. Terebinthaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Anacardiæ. R. BR. Flowers usually unisexual. Calyx usually small, persistent, 5- (sometimes 3-4-7-) divided. Petals equal in number to the sepals (sometimes wanting), perigynous: estivation imbricate. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate, or twice as many or more: filaments distinct or cohering at the base, perigynous (or very rarely hypogynous.) Torus fleshy, annular, or cup-shaped, or inconspicuous. Ovarium single (or rarely 5-6), free or rarely adhering to the calyx, 1-celled: ovulum solitary, attached by the funiculus to the base or side of the cell: styles one or three, occasionally four: stigmas as many. Fruit indehiscent, usually drupaceous. Seed ascending, or more frequently pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior or inferior, next the hilum (very rarely at the opposite extremity), sometimes curved suddenly back: cotyledons thick and fleshy, or leafy.—Trees or shrubs: juice resinous, gummy, caustic, or milky. Leaves alternate, not dotted.—Ex. Anacardium (Plate CXIII.), Mangifera, Rhus.

Suborder 2. Spondiaceæ. KUNTII. Flowers sometimes unisexual. Calyx 5-cleft, regular. Petals 5: estivation between valvate and imbricate. Stamens ten, perigynous. Torus large, discoid, or annular. Ovarium superior, sessile, 2-5-celled: ovules solitary, ascending or pendulous: styles five, short: stigmas obtuse. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, not dotted, exstipulate.—Ex. Spondias.

Suborder 3. Burseraceæ. KUNTII. Flowers usually bisexual. Calyx persistent, somewhat regular, 2-5-divided. Petals 3-5: estivation usually valvate. Stamens two or four times as many as petals, perigynous. Torus orbicular or annular. Ovarium 2-5-celled, superior, sessile: ovules in pairs, collateral, suspended: style one or none: stigma simple or lobed. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled, its outer portion often splitting into valves. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle straight, superior, next the hilum: cotyledons fleshy, or wrinkled and plaited.—Trees or shrubs abounding in balsam, gum, or resin. Leaves alternate, usually not dotted, generally with stipules.—Ex. Bursera, Icea.

Suborder 4. Amyridæ. KUNTII. Calyx small, regular, persistent, four-divided. Petals four, inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous, KUNTII), equal, narrow at the base: estivation imbricated. Stamens twice as many as the petals, and inserted with them, distinct. Torus thin, discoid, covering the base of the calyx. Ovarium superior, sessile, one-celled: ovules two, pendulous: stigma sessile, capitate. Fruit somewhat drupaceous, indehiscent, glandular. Seed one. Albumen none. Radicle superior, next the hilum, very short: cotyledons fleshy.—Resinous trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, compound, dotted.—Ex. Amyris.

We look on these suborders as parts of one order, and ge-

nera occur which show their affinity. Thus the old genus Amyris is now split, and placed in the first, third, and fourth of the above. Poupartia lies doubtfully between the second and third. Sorindeja is placed by Kunth in the first, by Brown and De Candolle in the third; while Spondias Mangifera, which probably does not differ, is in the second. As a whole, this order has the seed anatropous: to this there is perhaps one exception in Schinus, where Kunth describes the ovule suspended, and the radicle inferior; but this, from its great resemblance to Durania, requires to be re-examined. If in Amyridæ the stamens be truly hypogynous, they may be perhaps removed to the vicinity of the Aurantiacææ.—The Anacardiææ have an acrid, highly poisonous juice. The varnish of Sylhet, and of Martaban, are obtained from species belonging to them. These varnishes are at first white, but afterwards become black, and are dangerous to some constitutions. Mastich is the produce of species of Pistacia. The fruit of some kinds, as the Mango, the Cashew-nut, and the Pistacia-nut, are eaten. The fruit of some species of Spondiaceæ, called Hog-plums, are eatable. Burseraceæ have a fragrant juice, that is neither acrid nor staining. Several balsams are obtained from them. The Amyridæ also produce balsams, but the Amyris is said to be poisonous.

Order 59. Connaraceæ. R. BROWN.

Flowers bi-(rarely uni-)sexual. Calyx 5-partite, regular, persistent: estivation imbricate or valvular. Petals 5, equal, inserted at the base of the calyx. Stamens twice as many as the petals, inserted with the petals, or somewhat hypogynous: filaments usually arising from a glandular or annular torus (formed by the union of their glandular bases). Ovaria apocarpous, solitary, or several: ovules in pairs, collateral, ascending: styles terminal: stigmas obtuse, usually dilated. Capsules 1-5, dehiscing longitudinally at the ventral suture. Seeds solitary, erect, sometimes with an arillus. Albumen none, or fleshy. Radicle superior, at the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons thick when there is no albumen, foliaceous in those with it.—Trees or shrubs, without resinous juices. Leaves compound, alternate, not dotted, exstipulate.—Ex. Connarus, Omphalobium, Cnestis.

This order seems to form the passage from the Terebinthaceæ to the Leguminosæ: to the last it is so closely allied as scarcely to be sometimes distinguishable from it, except by the radicle being at the opposite end from the hilum. When there is but one capsule, as in Connarus (to which may be united the first section of Omphalobium of De Candolle), it is opposite the anterior segment of the calyx, as in Leguminosæ: when several, as in Cnestis, they alternate. Brown thinks the insertion ought to be described as hypogynous.

Order 60. Leguminosæ. Juss.

Calyx five-parted, or toothed, or cleft, with the odd segment anterior: segments often unequal and variously combined. Petals five (or, by abortion, four, three, two, one, or wanting), inserted into the base of the calyx, usually unequal, sometimes variously combined: the odd petal superior. Stamens definite or indefinite, inserted with the petals or sometimes hypogynous, distinct, or monadelphous, or diadelphous, or rarely triadelphous: anthers bilocular, versatile. Ovaria superior, one-celled, solitary (or very rarely 2-5): ovules one or many: style simple, proceeding from the upper or ventral suture: stigma simple. Fruit a legume or drupe. Seeds solitary or several, sometimes with an arillus. Albumen none. Embryo straight, or with the radicle bent upon the edge of the cotyledons.—

¹ Homer's Odyssey, ix. line 94.

Leaves alternate, with usually two stipules at the base of the petiole, and two at the base of each leaflet in the pinnate leaves. Pedicels usually articulated.—Ex. Pisum, Citrus, Mimosa, Sicaria, Cassia.

This order touches upon many others, but it is particularly allied to the almond tribe among the Rosaceæ, from which, till lately that Mr Brown pointed it out in the relative positions of the calyx and pistillum, no good character had been discovered to separate them.—This family is among the most important to man, whether as affording objects of beauty, of utility, or of nutriment. The bean, the pea, the vetch, and the clover tribe belong to it; as do the logwood, the laburnum, indigo, the tamarind, senna, and the acacias. Its general property is to be wholesome; but there are several exceptions. Thus, the seeds of Laburnum and the juice of Coronilla varia are poisonous. Senna, obtained from several species of Cassia, is purgative; several other plants are also purgative. The pericarp of some contains much tannin. Several kinds of gums and balsams are got from them. But it would consume pages to enumerate all the uses to which this, one of the most extensive orders in the vegetable kingdom, has been applied.

Order 61. Moringæe. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-partite: estivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, nearly equal, the upper one ascending. Stamens ten, perigynous: filaments slightly petaloid, callous, and hairy at the base: anthers simple, one-celled, with a thick convex connectivum. Torus fleshy, lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, stipitate, one-celled: style filiform, terminal, not obliquely inserted, stigma simple. Placentæ three, parietal. Fruit a pod-like capsule, one-celled, three-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous, half-buried in the fungous substance of the valves. Albumen none. Radicle straight, small: cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex.—Leaves twice or thrice pinnate, with an odd leaflet.—Ex. Moringa.

Formerly considered as part of Leguminosæ, but now separated by Mr Brown. It seems, however, to have more affinity with these than with any others; nor do we see in the fruit very grave objections for such a supposition, as the flowers of Gleditschia have occasionally two carpels united in the same manner as the three of Moringa. The root of Moringa pterigosperma, or horse-radish tree, has a warm, biting, and slightly aromatic taste, and is used as a stimulant in paralytic affections and intermittent fevers.

Order 62. Rosaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Chrysobalançæ. R. BROWN. Calyx five-lobed, the fifth lobe superior, sometimes bracteolate at the base. Petals five, or wanting, more or less irregular. Stamens definite or indefinite, usually irregular. Ovarium superior, solitary, 1-2-celled, stipitate, the stalk cohering more or less on one side with the calyx: ovules in pairs, erect: style single, arising from the base of the ovary: stigma simple. Drupe 1-2-celled. Seeds usually solitary, erect. Albumen none, or rarely fleshy. Radicle inferior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, without glands.—Ex. Chrysobalanus, Hirtella.

Suborder 2. Amygdalæe. Juss. Calyx five-toothed, the odd lobe superior. Petals five. Stamens about twenty, in estivation curved inwards: anthers erect, two-celled. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, solitary, simple, one-celled: ovules two, suspended: styles terminal, with a groove on each side: stigma reniform. Fruit a drupe. Seeds usually solitary, suspended from the funiculus, which arises from the base of the cavity, but coheres with its side. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons thick.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Prunus, Amygdalus.

Suborder 3. Neillieæ. Calyx campanulate, five-cleft, the odd segment superior. Petals five, sessile. Stamens indefinite, unequal: filaments smooth: anthers erect, bilocular, dehiscing on the outside longitudinally. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, simple, one-celled: ovules several, ascending: style round, terminal, persistent: stigma simple, obtuse. Capsule one-celled, dehiscing at the inner or ventral suture. Seeds several. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo in the axis of the albumen: radicle next the hilum, thick, short: cotyledons plano-convex.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Neillia.

Suborder 4. Spirææ. Juss. Calyx 4-5-lobed, fifth lobe superior: estivation imbricated. Petals five, equal. Stamens indefinite, in estivation curved inwards: anthers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus thin or fleshy, lining the whole tube of the calyx, or free in its upper part. Ovaria superior, one or several, apocarpous, or rarely cohering: ovules 1-6 in each carpel, suspended: styles lateral, but near the apex: stigmas simple, emarginate. Fruit usually of distinct follicles, very rarely capsular. Seeds 1-6, apterous, or rarely winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, stipulate, or rarely without stipules, simple, or rarely trifoliate.—Ex. Spiræa, Gillenia.

Suborder 5. Quillajæe. DON. Calyx five-cleft: estivation valvate. Petals five, alternate with the segments of the calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens two or three times as many as the segments of the calyx, perigynous: anthers two-celled. Ovaria five, connate at the base, one-celled: ovules indefinite, ascending: styles five: stigmas five, lateral, papillose. Fruit of five follicles, connate at their base. Seeds numerous, ascending, winged at the apex. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle cylindrical, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, convolute, longer than the radicle.—Trees. Leaves alternate, entire. Stipules minute, caducous. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Quillaja, Kagenochia.

Suborder 6. Sanguisorbæe. Juss. Calyx 3-4-5-lobed, with a thickened, afterwards indurated, tube: estivation valvate. Petals none. Stamens definite, alternating with the segments of the calyx (though sometimes fewer than them by abortion), rarely indefinite: anthers erect, two-celled and bursting longitudinally, or one-celled and bursting transversely. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium 1-4, with a lateral style proceeding from the apex or base: ovule solitary, attached to the ovary, close to the base of the style: stigma simple, penicilliform, or bearded, or rarely capitate. Nuts 1-4. Seed solitary, suspended, or ascending. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons large, plano-convex.—Leaves alternate, stipulate, simple, lobed, or compound. Flowers often unisexual.—Ex. Sanguisorba, Acæna.

Suborder 7. Potentilleæ. Juss. Calyx 4-5- (or more-) divided: estivation valvate. Petals as many as the lobes of the calyx, and alternating. Stamens indefinite, sometimes 10-15-20, rarely five, and then alternate with the petals: anthers bilocular. Torus lining the tube of the calyx, sometimes becoming very fleshy: ovary distinct, indefinite, or rarely definite (2-5): ovules suspended, erect, or ascending, solitary, or rarely in pairs, one above the other: style lateral, attached near the apex: stigma simple or plumose. Fruit of small nuts or achene. Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, often compound, stipulate.—Ex. Potentilla, Dryas, Fragaria.

Suborder 8. Rosæe. Juss. Calyx five-divided, segments often pinnatisect: tube contracted at the mouth, at length fleshy: estivation spirally imbricated. Petals five. Stamens indefinite: anthers two-celled. Torus

thick, lining the tube of the calyx, bearing at its margin the stamens and petals, and on its surface the carpels. Ovaries superior, indefinite, concealed within the tube of the calyx: ovules in pairs, one above the other, suspended: styles persistent, lateral, attached near the apex of the ovary, protruded beyond the tube of the calyx, and their upper portions free or rarely concrete. Achenia numerous, hairy. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Shrubs. Leaves pinnate, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Rosa.

Suborder 9. Pomaceæ. Juss. Calyx five-toothed, the odd segment superior: tube more or less globose, extremely fleshy and juicy. Petals five, unguiculate. Stamens indefinite. Torus thin, lining the tube of the calyx, bearing the petals and stamens on its margin. Ovaria 1-5, adhering to the side of the calyx: ovules ascending, two collateral, or rarely solitary: styles 1-5: stigmas simple. Fruit a pomum, 1-5-celled, or spuriously 10-celled: endocarp cartilaginous, spongy, or bony. Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Radicle short, next the hilum: cotyledons flat, or rarely convolute.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Pyrus, Crataegus.

These nine suborders we do not hesitate in thinking portions of one: nor are genuine marks to be found between them. The most distinct is the Chrysobalanæ: the Neillieæ form a passage to the Homalinæ: but as for the others, we do not see how they are to be limited inter se. The true Sanguisorbæ have no petals, few stamens, and definite ovaria; while the Potentilleæ ought to have petals, numerous stamens, and numerous carpels: but Cercocarpus having no petals, has many stamens; Sibbaldia has petals, with five stamens and carpels; Arenonia has petals, definite stamens, and two carpels; thus leaving between the two suborders no character but in the presence or absence of the petals. Nor is Rosæ scarcely distinct on the one hand from Potentilleæ, and on the other from Pomaceæ. Neuradæ we have referred to the Ficoideæ.—As to properties, the fruit of some of the Chrysobalanæ is eaten under the name of the cocoaplum. Amygdalæ, including the Plum, Cherry, Almond, Peach, &c. are well known: the leaves and kernel contain hydrocyanic acid, and are usually poisonous. The other suborders are in general wholesome: they contain an astringent principle, on account of which some are used as febrifuges: the roots of a few are emetic.

Order 63. Calycanthæ. LINDL.

Sepals and petals confounded, indefinite, combined in a fleshy tube: estivation imbricate. Stamens indefinite, perigynous: anthers extorse, bursting longitudinally. Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovaria several, simple, one-celled, adhering to the tube of the calyx: ovules solitary, or in pairs, one above the other: style terminal. Achenia enclosed within the fleshy tube of the calyx. Seed solitary. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons convolute.—Shrubs with square stems. Leaves opposite, simple, scabious, exstipulate. Flowers bisexual, axillary, solitary.—Ex. Calycanthus, Chimonanthus.

Most nearly allied to the Rosaceæ, although in some points they bear a resemblance to the Monimicæ: even to the Magnoliaceæ there is an affinity through Illicium. The aromatic fragrance of the flowers is the only known property.

Order 64. Salicariæ.¹ Juss.

Suborder 1. Lythrariceæ. Juss. Calyx tubular or campanulate, lobed, the lobes sometimes with intermediate ac-

cessory lobes or teeth: estivation valvate. Petals alternate with the lobes of the calyx, very deciduous, sometimes wanting. Stamens inserted a little below the petals, equal in number to them, or two, three, or four times as many, rarely fewer: anthers intorse, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium superior, 2-4-celled: ovules numerous: style filiform: stigma usually capitate. Placenta in the axis. Capsule membranous, surrounded by, but not combined with, the calyx: usually one-celled by the obliteration of the dissepiments, bursting longitudinally or irregularly. Seeds numerous, small, apterous or winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat and foliaceous.—Herbs or shrubs with usually tetragonal branches. Leaves opposite or (seldom) alternate, entire, exstipulate, and without glands. Flowers bisexual.—Ex. Lythrum, Lagerstroemia.

Suborder 2. Ceratophyllæ. GRAY. Calyx 10-12-partite, lobes equal. Petals none. Stamens 12-20: anthers ovato-oblong, bilocular, bicuspidate, sessile. Ovarium free, ovate, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform, oblique: stigma simple. Nut one-celled, indehiscent, terminated by the indurated style. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons four! alternately smaller.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves verticillate, cut into filiform lobes. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Ceratophyllum.

Much as these two suborders differ in appearance, we have the authority of Richard for uniting them. It must be confessed, however, that their chief great resemblance is in the persistent calyx, free from, but surrounding, the fruit.—Lythrum Salicaria is astringent: a few species of the order are used for dyeing.

Order 65. Rhizophoræ. R. BROWN.

Calyx 4-13-lobed: estivation valvate, or sometimes calyptiform. Petals inserted on the calyx, alternate with the lobes, and equal to them in number. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice or thrice as many: filaments distinct, subulate: anthers erect, straight, or incurved. Ovarium two-celled, adherent to the calyx, or (rarely) free: ovules two or more in each cell, pendulous. Fruit indehiscent, one-celled. Seed pendulous, solitary. Albumen none. Radicle long: cotyledons flat.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, with stipules between the petioles.—Ex. Rhizophora.

Allied on the one hand to Salicariæ, and on the other to Saxifragæ (Cunoniæ): to Vochysiæ and Combretaceæ its affinity is also strong.—The bark is astringent, and in some cases is used for dyeing black.

Order 66. Vochysiæ. ST. HILAIRE.

Sepals 4-5, unequal, united at the base, the upper one spurred: estivation imbricate. Petals one, two, three, or five, alternate with and inserted into the base of the sepals, unequal. Stamens 1-5, opposite to or alternate with the petals, for the most part sterile, one having an ovate, fertile, four-celled anther. Ovarium free, or adherent to the calyx, three-celled: ovules solitary or in pairs, rarely more: style and stigma one. Placenta in the axis. Capsule triquetrous, three-celled, three-valved, loculicid, or rarely septicide. Seeds usually 1-2 (rarely many) in each cell, erect (LINDL.). Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons large, foliaceous, convolute, plicate.—Trees. Leaves opposite, entire, stipulate (very rarely exstipulate).—Ex. Vochisia, Qualea.

An order as yet ill understood, but seemingly most allied to Combretaceæ and Onagraceæ.

¹ We have arranged this and the fifteen following orders somewhat differently from what De Candolle has done; but we trust they are disposed in a more natural series.

Calyx 4-5-lobed, lobes deciduous. Petals alternate with the lobes, or wanting. Stamens twice as many as the lobes, rarely equal in number to them or thrice as many: filaments distinct, subulate: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium adherent with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules 2-4, pendulous from the apex of the cavity: style one, slender: stigma simple. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or nut-like, one-celled, indehiscent, often winged. Seed solitary (by abortion), pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons leafy, usually convolute, sometimes plicate.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Combretum, Terminalia.

Allied to Onagraceæ, Memecyleæ, Myrtaceæ, and even to Santalaceæ and Elaeagnæ.—The species of this order are mostly astringents: the bark, therefore, of some is used for tanning; others are employed in dyeing. Terminalia Verna is said to furnish the Chinese varnish, which is poisonous.

Calyx 4-5-lobed or toothed. Petals 4-5, alternate with the sepals. Stamens twice as many as the petals: filaments distinct: anthers incurved, two-celled. Ovarium 2-8-celled, adherent with the tube of the calyx: ovules solitary: style one, filiform: stigma simple. Berry (balausta?) crowned by the limb of the calyx, one, four, or eight-celled. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous, convolute.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, without stipules or dots, penninerved or rarely three-nerved.—Ex. Memecylon, Mourinia.

Near Myrtaceæ and Melastomaceæ, and in some respects intermediate.

Calyx with four or five teeth or divisions, which are more or less deep, or are sometimes united and separate from the tube like a lid. Petals equal to the segments of the calyx, perigynous. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them, usually with intermediate sterile ones: filaments in aestivation bent downwards between the carpels and the calyx: anthers long, two-celled, usually bursting by two terminal pores, sometimes longitudinally. Ovarium with several cells, more or less cohering with the calyx by its angles, but otherwise free: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple, entire, punctiform or capitate. Placentæ in the axis. Fruit plurilocular, either free, and then capsular, valvate, and loculicid, or adherent, baccate (a balausta), and indehiscent. Seeds numerous, minute. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons equal or unequal.—Leaves opposite, undivided, not dotted, 3-9-nerved.—Ex. Melastoma, Rhexia, Charianthus.

Bordering on both the Salicariæ and Myrtaceæ, but differing from these and other allied orders in several particulars. The great characteristic of this order is the singular situation of the filaments in aestivation.—There are no unwholesome species in this large family, and the succulent fruit of several is eatable and pleasant. They all possess a slight degree of astringency.

Calyx campanulate, 5-10-toothed, with an annular fleshy disc, or continuation of the torus at the base of the segments. Petals as many as the segments of the calyx, linear, reflexed: aestivation twisted. Stamens long, exserted, two or four times as many as the petals: filaments distinct, villous at the base: anthers introrse, two-

celled, often sterile. Ovarium globose: style one, subulate: stigma capitate or conical. Berry (balausta) oval, coherent with the tube of the calyx, and somewhat crowned by its limb, fleshy, slightly ribbed, 1-3-celled: endocarp sometimes ossaceous, and separating from the sarcocarp like a putamen. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen fleshy, brittle. Embryo straight: radicle long, ascending: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entire, not dotted.—Ex. Alangium.

Closely allied to the Melastomaceæ, from which they differ in very few particulars. To Myrtaceæ they also bear so strong a resemblance, that till lately they were inserted in that order.—The fruit is eatable. The juice of the root is said to be vermifuge and hydragogic; and the root itself, in powder, efficacious against the bite of serpents.

Calyx 4-10-divided. Petals alternate with the segments of the calyx, and equal to them in number: aestivation convolute-imbricate. Stamens indefinite, in one or two rows, or rarely ten. Ovarium coherent with the tube of the calyx: styles distinct, or united into one: stigmas 4-10. Capsule free above, 4-5-celled. Seeds indefinite, scobiform, subulate, smooth, pendulous, heaped in the inner angle of the cells upon an angular placenta: arillus loose, membranous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, about as long as the albumen: radicle superior, obtuse: cotyledons flat, shorter than the radicle.—Shrubs. Leaves deciduous, opposite, without dots or stipules.—Ex. Philadelphus, Deutzia, Decumaria.

This small order borders on the Myrtaceæ, and also on the Saxifragæ. Decumaria is usually described with a fruit of 7-10 cells, but Mr Don asserts it has but four. Mr Lindley doubts if the cover to the seed be an arillus; but if it were the testa, then the interior portion could not have been attached next the hilum, as in these plants, in order to have produced a radicle pointing also towards it.

Calyx 4-5-6-8-cleft, the limb sometimes cohering in two portions, sometimes in one, and then falling off like a cap or lid. Petals perigynous, as many as the segments of the calyx, and alternating with them, sometimes slightly united at the very base; rarely none: aestivation imbricated. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many as the petals, or (usually) indefinite: filaments either all distinct, or monadelphous, or variously polyadelphous, in aestivation curved inwards. Anthers ovate, bilocular, small, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, formed of two, four, five, or six carpels, the dissepiments rarely imperfect, and hence one to six-celled: style and stigma simple. Placentæ in the axis. Fruit dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent, 2-6 or many-celled, or by the obliteration of the dissepiments one-celled. Seeds rarely solitary, or few, usually indefinite. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons distinct, or sometimes consolidated into one mass with the radicle.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves usually opposite, entire, and with transparent dots, sometimes alternate, rarely serrated, and rarely without dots.—Ex. Chamaelaucium, Calyptro: Leptospermum, Eucalyptus: Myrtus, Eugenia: Barringtonia, Gustavia: Bertholletia, Leptospermum.

This very extensive family has been separated into five sections by De Candolle; but, however desirable it might be to erect these into independent orders, no good characters have yet been pointed out. We shall here give a summary of the sections. 1. Chamaelaucieæ has a one-

celled ovary and capsule, with leaves opposite, and dotted. 2. Leptospermea has a plurilocular capsule, opposite or alternate leaves, which are usually dotted. 3. Myrtæ has a berry or balausta, distinct stamens, opposite leaves, which are almost always dotted. 4. Barringtonæ has a fleshy, one-celled fruit, monadelphous stamens, opposite or verticillate leaves without dots. 5. Lecythidæ has a plurilocular woody capsule that opens with a lid or remains closed, monadelphous stamens, and leaves alternate, and not dotted. To the Myrtæ we, with Mr Lindley, unite the Granateæ, because Punica or the pomegranate only differs by having its two verticels of carpels developed instead of one, as in plants not in a state of cultivation: the inner series (or those at the bottom of the fruit) have their placentæ in the axis; but the outer series, forced to the top of the fruit by the contraction of the mouth of the tube of the calyx, having their placentæ in the ovary at the back of the inner carpels, exhibit them in the ripe fruit in a horizontal position on the upper surface of the lower cells.—The dots on the leaves and other parts indicate the presence of a volatile oil, which is aromatic and pungent, and gives the perfume to the cloves of commerce, and to several fruits of this order. The fleshy seeds of the Lecythidæ are eatable, and highly esteemed.

Order 73. Onagraræ. Juss.

Calyx tubular, with the limb usually quadripartite; sometimes sexpartite, very rarely 2-3-partite, the lobes sometimes cohering in various degrees: estivation valvate. Petals usually equal in number to the lobes of the calyx, regular (or rarely irregular), inserted at the top of the tube: estivation twisted. Stamens definite: filaments distinct: anthers oblong or ovate: pollen triangular. Ovary plurilocular, cohering with the tube of the calyx: ovules indefinite, rarely definite: style filiform: stigma capitate or lobed. Fruit baccate or capsular, dehiscent or indehiscent, 1-2-4-celled. Seeds indefinite, rarely definite, or solitary in each cell. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle long and slender, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons short, equal, or rarely unequal.—Leaves alternate or opposite, not dotted.—Ex. Montinia, Fuchsia, Epilobium, Jussiaea, Circeæ, Trapa.

Distinguished from Salicariæ by the adherent fruit; from Myrtæ by the definite stamens and leaves not dotted; from Haloragæ by the filiform style and absence of albumen; and from Loasæ by the seeds attached to the central axis, and not to the wall of the fruit. With all these, however, Onagraræ are intimately allied. Lindley has separated from this family Circeæ and Trapa; the former on account of its solitary seeds, but then Gaura is in the same predicament. Trapa is chiefly remarkable for its very large seeds and unequal cotyledons.—Almost no properties have been recorded of these beautiful plants. The seeds of Trapa, which are very large, are eatable.

Order 74. Haloragæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Cercodiæ. RICH. Calyx with the limb 3-4-partite or entire. Petals inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx, and alternate with its segments, or wanting. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many, or equal to them in number, rarely fewer. Ovary closely cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-3-4-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: style 0: stigmas equal in number to the cells, papulose on their inner surface, or penicilliform. Fruit dry and indehiscent, membranous or bony, with as many cells as stigmas (rarely fewer by abortion). Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen fleshy, sometimes thin. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen: radicle superior, long: cotyledons minute.—Leaves alternate, opposite, or whorled. Flowers axillary, sessile, occasionally unisexual.—Ex. Haloragis, Hippuris, Myriophyllum.

Suborder 2. Callitricheæ. LINK. Calyx exceedingly minute, inconspicuous, surrounding the ovary, soon rupturing. Petals wanting. Stamens one, rarely two: filament filiform, grooved in the inside: anther reniform, one-celled, bursting transversely. Ovary solitary, tetragonal, compressed, two-celled (of two carpels, the dorsal sutures being slightly inflexed towards the axis): ovules in pairs, peltate: styles none: stigmas two, filiform, papulose on their inner surface. Fruit two-celled, contracted at the dorsal sutures, at once loculicidal and septicidal (thus as if composed of four achenia, attached round the base of the stigmas by the centre of their inner angle). Seeds, two in each cell, divaricating (or in each achenium solitary), peltate. Embryo slightly curved, in the axis of a thin fleshy albumen: radicle superior, long: cotyledons very short.—Aquatic herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite, simple, entire. Flowers axillary, very minute, usually unisexual, sometimes with two small bractæ at the base of the short peduncle.—Ex. Callitriche.

Between these two suborders there is little difference except the seeds solitary or in pairs; the last is usually described with four cells to the fruit, although with only two stigmas, an incongruity too obvious to require discussion; the structure is as in the Boragineæ and Labiæ. The nearest affinity is with the Onagraræ, from which they only differ by the presence of albumen, which, however, is sometimes very thin indeed.

Order 75. Loasæ. Juss.

Calyx five-parted, persistent, in estivation spreading. Petals five, cucullate, arising from the top of the tube of the calyx, and alternate with its segments, sometimes with an inner series of five, either similar to the outer or dissimilar: estivation inflexed, valvate. Stamens indefinite, in several rows, distinct, or polyadelphous, each parcel opposite the outer petals: filaments subulate, unequal, the outer ones often sterile. Ovary adherent with the tube of the calyx, or (rarely) only inclosed within it, one-celled: ovules several: styles 3-7, combined into one: stigma one or several. Placentæ parietal. Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, 3-7-valved, septicidal. Seeds usually indefinite, rarely definite, without an arillus. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen, straight: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons small, flat.—Herbaceous plants, hispid, with sharp stinging hairs. Leaves opposite or alternate. Peduncles axillary, one-flowered.—Ex. Loasa (Plate CXVIII.), Mentzelia.

This family is most readily distinguished from those, with which it might be otherwise confounded, by the parietal placentæ. With Onagraræ it has much, but with Cucurbitaceæ, as we conceive, little affinity. The cuticle of the stem sometimes separates readily while growing.—The stinging property is the only one known.

Order 76. Cucurbitaceæ. Juss.

Calyx 5-toothed, sometimes obsolete. Petals five, distinct or more or less united, sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the calyx, strongly marked with reticulating veins, sometimes fringed. Stamens five, distinct or triadelphous: anthers 2-celled, usually long and sinuous, rarely ovate. Ovary adhering to the tube of the calyx, of 3-5-carpels, spuriously one-celled: ovules solitary or indefinite: style short: stigmas 3-5, two-lobed, very thick, velvety or fringed. Fruit a pepomida. Seeds usually ovate and flat, enveloped in a juicy, or dry and membranous, arilla: testa coriaceous, often thick at the margin. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, palmatinerved.—Stem succulent, climbing by means of lateral tendrils formed of abortive stipules. Leaves palmatinerved, alternate. Flowers usually unisexual.—Ex. Cucumis, Bryonia.

This order bears considerable affinity to the last. Brown

range. and Jussieu consider the calyx and corolla together as a
ment and
Craters. double calyx; and were it not for the obvious affinity of
Belvisiaceæ, we would have removed it to the Mono-
chlamydeæ.—The melon, the cucumber, and the gourds,
come here, of which the uses are well known. Some, as
the colocynth, are extremely bitter and purgative. The
seeds of all are sweet and oily, and from some a consider-
able quantity of fine flavoured oil may be expressed.

Order 77. Papayaceæ. AGARDH.

Flowers unisexual. Calyx minute, five-toothed. Corolla
monopetalous, inserted into the base of the calyx, in the
male tubular and five-lobed, in the female divided nearly
to the base into five segments. Stamens ten, inserted on
the throat of the corolla: anthers introrse, two-celled,
bursting longitudinally; those alternate with the lobes of
the corolla on short filaments, those opposite to the lobes
sessile. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: stig-
mas sessile, five-lobed, lacerated. Placentæ five, parietal.
Fruit succulent, indehiscent, one-celled. Seeds indefinite,
parietal, enveloped in a loose mucous coat: testa brittle,
pitted. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle
slender, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees
without branches. Leaves alternate, lobed, on long slender
petioles.—Ex. Carica (Plate CXXIV.)

Formerly referred to the neighbourhood of the Urticæe,
but now considered as more allied to the Cucurbitaceæ
and Passifloræe, especially in the structure of its fruit.
—The tree yields an acrid milky juice. The fruit is cooked
and eaten. Its juice, when unripe, is a very powerful ver-
mifuge. When newly-killed meat of any kind is sus-
pended among the leaves, it in the course of a few hours
becomes quite tender.

Order 78. Belvisiaceæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx monosepalous, persistent: limb divided. Corolla
monopetalous, plaited, deciduous, inserted on the summit
of the tube of the calyx. Stamens either indefinite, or
ten with an outer row of abortive ones converted into a
much laciniated inner monopetalous corolla, distinct or
polyadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium adhering
to the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules indefinite:
style one, short: stigma one, lobed or angular. Placentæ
parietal. Fruit a fleshy berry, crowned by the lobes
of the calyx, one-celled. Seeds numerous, parietal.—
Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate. Flowers
axillary and solitary, bisexual.—Ex. Belvisia, Asteranthos.

This small order exhibits much affinity to both Cucur-
bitaceæ and Passifloræe. Belvisia is the same genus as
Napoleonia, an older name, and which ought therefore to
be retained. A comparison of Asteranthos will readily
show that the inner corolla of Belvisia is, as we have
stated, formed of an outer row of stamens.

Order 79. Passifloræe. JUSS.

Sepals five or ten, united below into a more or less
elongated tube, in one or two series, the outer being lar-
ger and foliaceous, the inner more petaloid, and sometimes
wanting. Petals perigynous, usually represented by an
annular or many filamentous processes, rarely five, dis-
tinct, and with the usual appearance of petals. Stamens
five (very rarely indefinite), monadelphous, usually with
processes from the torus between them and the petals:
anthers versatile, turned outwards, two-celled, bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules inde-
finite: styles three, or four, or none. Fruit naked or sur-
rounded by the calyx, one-celled, usually three-valved,
sometimes dehiscent and loculicid, sometimes fleshy and
indehiscent. Seeds indefinite, compressed, with an aril-
lus or strophida: testa brittle, sculptured. Embryo straight,
in the centre of a thin fleshy albumen: radicle pointing
to the hilum.

Tribe 1. Paropsiceæ. Petals five, membranaceous. Sta-

mens five or numerous: ovarium sessile: stigma of three,
four, or five divisions: capsule with as many valves as
divisions of the stigma. Seeds with a thick fleshy arilla:
cotyledons foliaceous.—Shrubs, not climbing, without ten-
drils. Leaves alternate, without glands, exstipulate.—Ex.
Patrisia, Smethmannia.

Tribe 2. Passifloræe verae. Petals deformed. Stamens
five, opposite the outer divisions of the calyx: ovarium
stipitate: stigma sessile, three-lobed: capsule three-valved:
seeds with a pulpy arillus: cotyledons foliaceous.—Usually
climbing plants, with tendrils. Leaves alternate, stipulate,
usually with glands on the petioles.—Ex. Passiflora, Tue-
sonia.

Tribe 3. Malesherbieæ. Calyx tubulous: petals changed
into a ten-toothed membranous corona: stamens five, op-
posite the inner segments of the calyx (DON) or ten: ova-
rium stipitate: styles three, inserted below the apex of
the ovary: capsule three-valved: placentæ not higher up
than the dehiscence of the valves: seeds strophiliolate,
cotyledons fleshy.—Suffrutescent plants, not climbing,
without tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate,
without glands.—Ex. Malesherbia.

We think the view we have taken of the corolla is borne
out by a comparison of the different genera in this with
all those in the allied neighbouring orders. There is a
considerable affinity between these and the Violariæe, Fla-
courtiæe, and Cappariæe; but through Malesherbia it
is strongest with the Turneraceæ.—In several species
the succulent arillus and pulp has been found to be fra-
grant, cooling, and agreeable to the taste.

Order 80. Turneraceæ. D. C.

Calyx with five equal lobes: estivation imbricated.
Petals five, inserted into the tube of the calyx: estiva-
tion twisted. Stamens five, inserted a little below the
petals, and alternating: filaments distinct: anthers ob-
long, erect, two-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules
indefinite: styles three, more or less cohering, or bifid:
stigma multifid. Placentæ three, parietal. Capsule
one-celled, three-valved, loculicid, bursting only half-
way down. Seeds indefinite, crustaceous, reticulated,
with a thin arillus on one side. Embryo slightly curved,
in the middle of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the
hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Herbaceous or suffru-
tescent plants, pubescent, but not stinging. Leaves al-
ternate, exstipulate, sometimes biglandular at the apex of
the petiole.—Ex. Turnera, Piriqueta.

Considerably allied in habit to the Cistincæ, but differ-
ing in several respects in character. Kunth makes it a
section of Loaseæ; but the hairs are not stinging, the
estivation of the corolla is twisted, and the styles only
united at the base.

Order 81. Fouquieriaceæ. D. C.

Sepals five, persistent, ovate, or roundish: estivation
imbricated. Petals five, regular, combined in a long tube,
arising from the base of the calyx. Stamens 10-12, ex-
serted, distinct, inserted with the petals, but not cohering
with them: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, sessile,
somewhat three-celled: ovules indefinite: style filiform,
trifid. Capsule triangular, imperfectly three-celled, three-
valved, loculicid. Seeds partly abortive, compressed,
winged, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a thin
fleshy albumen: radicle at the opposite extremity from the
hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves fleshy,
clustered in the axilla of a spine or cushion.—Ex. Fou-
quieria, Bronnia.

A family very little known, chiefly allied to the Portu-
laccæ and Crassulaceæ: to Turneraceæ their affinity is
slight, as the fruit is really trilocular, and not one-celled.

Order 82. Portulaceæ. JUSS.

Sepals two, seldom three or five, cohering at the base.

Petals usually five, sometimes three, four, or six, or rarely wanting, distinct, or cohering at the base, inserted at the very base of the sepals, sometimes hypogynous, alternate with the sepals when of the same number. Stamens inserted with the petals, variable in number, all fertile: filaments distinct, when definite opposite to the petals or alternating with the sepals: anthers versatile, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium one, free, one-celled: style single or none: stigmas several. Capsule one-celled, dehiscing transversely (a pyxidium), or by three valves. Seeds numerous or three (solitary? (by abortion), in one plant scarcely known), attached to a central placenta or to the base of the fruit, campulitropous: testa usually crustaceous and black. Embryo curved round the circumference of a farinaceous albumen: radicle long.—Succulent plants. Leaves usually alternate, without stipules, or with scarios ones at each side at the base.—Ex. Portulaca, Talinum, Calandrinia (Plate CXVI.), Montia.

This family bears so much affinity to the Caryophyllææ, and to Illecebrææ, that it is difficult to discriminate them. Caryophyllææ have, however, no stipules, nor a pyxidium, nor a calyx of two sepals; and the stamens (when few) are opposite to the sepals, and hypogynous. Illecebrææ and Scleranthææ, on the other hand, have fertile stamens opposite the sepals, alternating with others that are either fertile or sterile, or with petals, which are sometimes wanting. We exclude from this order the genus Aylmeria, of which the two bractææ, five sepals, alternately sterile stamens and scarios stipules, mark it to belong to the Illecebrææ near to Cordia.—Insipidity and want of smell are the usual qualities of this tribe.

Order 83. Paronychiææ. ST. HIL.

Suborder 1. Illecebrææ. R. BROWN. Sepals five, sometimes distinct, sometimes more or less cohering. Petals between the lobes of the calyx, sometimes conspicuous, usually small, and resembling sterile stamens, sometimes wanting. Stamens perigynous or hypogynous, opposite the sepals (when equal to them in number), some of them occasionally wanting: filaments distinct, or rarely united: anthers two-celled. Ovarium superior: styles two or three, distinct or partially combined. Fruit small, one-celled, an utricle, or a 3-5-valved capsule. Seeds either numerous upon a free central placenta, or solitary and pendulous from a long funiculus arising from the bottom of the fruit. Embryo lying on one side of a farinaceous albumen, more or less curved: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons small.—Leaves opposite or alternate, entire, with scarios stipules.—Ex. Telephium, Illecebrum, Polycarpæa, Pollichia.

Suborder 2. Scleranthææ. R. BROWN. Sepals 4-5, more or less cohering. Petals between the lobes of the calyx, perigynous, resembling sterile or fertile stamens, sometimes wanting. Stamens equal to the sepals in number, and opposite to them, sometimes fewer: filaments distinct: anthers two-celled, or rarely one-celled. Ovarium superior: styles 2-3, distinct, or combined into one. Fruit one-celled, either an utricle covered by the calyx, or a three-valved capsule. Seeds campulitropous, solitary, pendulous from a long funiculus proceeding from the base of the utricle; or one or several attached to a central placenta. Embryo cylindrical, curved round a farinaceous albumen.—Leaves opposite, usually setaceous, without stipules.—Ex. Scleranthus, Queria, Minuartia.

Upon carefully examining these suborders, they will be found to present no difference but the presence or absence of the membranous stipules. These, however, will distinguish the Illecebrææ from both the Caryophyllææ and Amaranthææ, and the accessory stamens or petals will separate the Scleranthææ from the Chenopodææ. The Paronychiææ, as a whole, form the passage to the Mono-

clamydeæ; for what are here termed petals or abortive stamens, constitute in the Amaranthææ what are often called processes or teeth between the stamens, nor is there any practical difference between them. Lithophila, referred here by De Candolle, having three scarios bractææ, a calyx of five unequal sepals, no corolla, two stamens united at their base with a membranous tube round the ovary, unilocular anthers, an utricular fruit, two long subulate stigmas, and no stipules, evidently belongs to the Amaranthææ, next to Gomphrena.

Order 84. Crassulææ. D. C.

Suborder 1. Sempervivæ. JUSS. Sepals 3-20, more or less united at the base. Petals equal in number to the sepals, and alternate with them, inserted in the bottom of the calyx, either distinct or cohering in a gamopetalous corolla. Stamens inserted with the petals, equalling them in number, and alternate, or twice as many, those opposite the petals being shortest, and arriving at perfection before the others. Filaments distinct, subulate: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Nectariferous scales (abortive stamens), one at the base of each ovary, sometimes obsolete. Ovaria equal in number to the petals, and opposite to them, one-celled, tapering each into a short style, distinct, or slightly connected at the base. Fruit of several follicles, opening by the ventral suture. Seeds variable in number. Embryo straight, in the axis of a thin, fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves succulent (or very rarely membranaceous), entire, or pinnatifid, exstipulate.—Ex. Crassula, Sempervivum, Cotyledon, Penthorum.

Suborder 2. Galacineæ. DON. Sepals 4-5, united at the base, persistent. Petals as many as the sepals, and inserted upon their bases, alternate with them, caducous. Stamens fertile, either equal in number to and alternate with the petals, or twice as many, inserted along with them, with sterile filaments alternating with them, either distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-celled bursting longitudinally, or one-celled bursting transversely. Ovarium 3-4-celled, free: ovules indefinite, attached to the inner angles of the carpels: stigma three-cornered or four-lobed. Fruit of 3-4 follicles attached to each other by their inner angles and the stigma, dehiscing at their ventral and dorsal sutures. Seeds indefinite, minute. Embryo (only observed in Galax) straight in the midst of a copious fleshy albumen: radicle long, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons very short.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves radical, simple or pinnatifid, with glandular serratures: stipules none.—Ex. Francoa, Galax.

These two suborders are principally allied by their carpels not being attached to a central axis or column, and thus bear affinity to the Saxifragææ. The Galacineæ perhaps merit being considered as distinct: but in Galax the sterile filaments opposite to the petals have an affinity with the alternate fertile stamens of Sedum, a relation which is confirmed by the similarly-situated stamens in Francoa being also fertile. In this last genus the sterile filaments are placed between the stamens and petals, and therefore belong, a pair to each petal, and are the choristate petals of Dunal: in neither genera are there hypogynous scales, as is usual in the Sempervivæ.—This order possesses refrigerant and abstergent properties, mixed sometimes with a good deal of acridity.

Order 85. Ficoideæ. JUSS.

Suborder 1. Aizoideæ. SPRENG. Sepals definite (usually five, but varying from four to eight), more or less combined at their base, equal or unequal: estivation valvate or imbricate. Petals indefinite, coloured, sometimes wanting. Stamens perigynous, distinct, definite or indefinite: anthers oblong, incumbent. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, or free, plurilocular (usually five-celled):

stigmas several, distinct. Capsule of several cells bursting in a stellate form at the apex. Seeds usually indefinite, rarely definite, or even solitary. Embryo on the outside of a mealy albumen, curved, or rarely spiral.—Leaves succulent, opposite or alternate, simple.—Ex. Mesembryanthemum, Aizoon.

Suborder 2. Nitrariae. LINDE. Calyx five-toothed, fleshy, persistent. Petals five, perigynous: estivation inflexed, valvular. Stamens perigynous, three times the number of the petals: anthers erect, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, three- (rarely six-) celled: ovules pendulous, attached by a long funiculus: style none: stigmas sessile on the attenuated apex of the ovary, as many as there are cells. Fruit drupaceous, one-celled: sarcocarp bursting at the apex by 3-6 valves: endosperm ossaceous. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves deciduous, succulent, alternate, sometimes fascicled.—Ex. Nitraria.

Suborder 3. Neuradæe. Calyx five-cleft, persistent: estivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, perigynous: estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, perigynous. Ovarium syncarpous, cohering at the base with the short tube of the calyx, 5-10-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: styles 5-10. Capsule 5-10-celled, depressed, indehiscent. Seeds solitary, pendulous, germinating within the capsule. Albumen none. Embryo slightly curved: radicle small, superior, next the hilum: cotyledons large.—Leaves pinnatifid or bipinnatifid, membranaceous, tomentose, stipulate.—Ex. Neuradæa, Griedium.

This order is much allied to the Crassulaceæ, but is distinguished by the truly syncarpous ovary; and also to the Portulacæe. The Nitrariæe show an affinity with the Rhamnæe, and the Neuradæe with the Rosaceæ.—The succulent leaves of a few are eaten; some yield an abundance of soda.

Order 86. Cactæe. JUSS. Sepals numerous, usually indefinite, and confounded with the petals, either crowning the ovary or covering its whole surface. Petals numerous, usually indefinite, sometimes irregular, inserted at the orifice of the calyx. Stamens indefinite, cohering more or less with the petals and sepals: filaments long, filiform: anthers ovate, versatile. Ovarium fleshy, cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules indefinite: style filiform: stigmas several. Placenta parietal, as many as the stigmas. Fruit succulent, one-celled. Seeds many, after having lost their adhesion nesting in a pulp, ovate or obovate: albumen none. Embryo straight, curved, or spiral: radicle thick, obtuse, next the hilum.—Succulent shrubs. Leaves almost always wanting; when present fleshy, smooth, entire, or spiniform. Flowers sessile.—Ex. Cactus, Rhipsalis.

Connected chiefly with Grossulariæe, and somewhat with Portulacæe: there is also an affinity with the Ficoideæ. The ovules in Rhipsalis are decidedly parietal, notwithstanding that this has been made an exception by De Candolle.—The fruit of several, known under the name of Indian Figs, is eaten: it resembles somewhat that of the Grossulariæe, but is more insipid, and is entirely destitute of the acidity found in that order. It is upon the Cactus (Opuntia) Tuna, and cochinillifera, principally, that the cochineal insect feeds.

Order 87. Grossulariæe. D. C. Calyx 4-5-cleft, regular, coloured. Petals perigynous, as many as the segments of the calyx, alternate with them. Stamens 4-5, alternate with the petals, and inserted with them: filaments equal, distinct, usually short: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally (or occasionally transversely). Ovarium one-celled, cohering with the tube of the calyx: ovules indefinite: style one, 2-4-cleft. Placenta

two, parietal, opposite. Berry crowned with the remains of the flower, one-celled, filled with pulp. Seeds numerous, suspended among the pulp by long filiform recurved funiculi: testa externally gelatinous. Albumen horny. Embryo straight, very minute at the opposite extremity from the hilum: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, lobed: vernation plicate.—Ex. Ribes.

From the Cactæe they may be distinguished by the structure of the seed, and the habit; and from Onagraceæ, Homaliniæe, and Loaseæ, to all which they are related, by the same and various other characters.—Gooseberries and currants are well known as agreeable acid fruits, owing to the presence of malic acid in them. The black currant is tonic and stimulant, and the leaf is sometimes used to heighten the flavour of bad tea.

Order 88. Saxifragæe. JUSS. Sepals usually five (rarely three, four, seven, or nine), more or less cohering at their base: the limb usually persistent. Petals as many as sepals (except in Donatia), inserted on the tube of the calyx, alternate with its lobes, deciduous or persistent, very rarely wanting. Stamens perigynous, either equal to (or rarely fewer than) the petals, and alternate with them; or twice as many as the petals, some alternate, some opposite to them (in one species, by the abortion of the alternating stamens, there are only five, and opposite to the petals); or (in Bauera) indefinite: filaments subulate: anthers ovate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally (in Bauera) by two pores. Ovarium partly coherent with the tube of the calyx, formed of two (rarely 3-5) carpels, cohering by their introflexed sides, or margins: styles as many as the carpels, distinct, or more or less combined: stigmas capitate or clavate. Placenta along the introflexed margins of the carpels, either throughout the whole length, or at the base only, or at the apex, usually separating with the carpels, rarely attached to a central axis. Fruit capsular, usually of two (rarely 3-5) carpels or valves, the margins of which are either entirely introflexed, or partly introflexed, or scarcely at all when the fruit is one-celled: carpels dehiscing at the ventral suture, separating from each other, either from the base upwards, or from the apex downwards. Seeds usually numerous, rarely definite: albumen fleshy. Embryo small, in the midst of the albumen: radicle pointing towards the hilum.

Tribe 1. Escalloniæe. R. BR. Petals and stamens five (rarely six): ovary adherent, or rarely free: styles two or three combined into one.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate.—Ex. Escallonia, Itea.

Tribe 2. Cunoniæe. R. BR. Petals 4-5, or none: stamens 8-10: ovary usually free: styles 2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, with interpetiolar stipules.—Ex. Cunonia, Weinmannia.

Tribe 3. Bauerae. LINDE. Petals 7-9: stamens indefinite: anthers biporose: ovary almost free: styles 2-3, distinct.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, ternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Bauera.

Tribe 4. Hydrangeæ. D. C. Petals five: stamens ten: ovary adherent, or rarely free: styles 2-3, distinct, or combined.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers corymbose; the exterior, and sometimes all of them, sterile and dilated.—Ex. Hydrangea, Broussaisia.

Tribe 5. Saxifragæe. D. C. Petals 4-5, or wanting: stamens 8-10, or 3-5: ovary adherent or free: styles 2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Herbs. Leaves exstipulate, alternate, or rarely opposite. Flowers in a raceme or panicle, rarely solitary, all fertile.—Ex. Saxifraga, Chrysosplenium, Heuchera.

We follow De Candolle in not breaking up this large order, each tribe passing imperceptibly into another. It seems to form a central point between several other or-

Thus, through Escallonia it is allied to the Grossulariaceæ and Vacciniæ; to the Philadelphææ and Caprifoliaceæ through Hydrangeæ; and to Hypericiniæ through Saxifragæ. De Candolle also compares it with the Umbelliferae. The albumen of Escallonia, though fleshy, is very oily; and the embryo is in the centre of the albumen, with the radicle pointing to the hilum. Mr Lindley says, erroneously, that the embryo is "in the apex of the albumen, and the radicle at the opposite extremity of the hilum."—The species of Saxifragæ are astringent; the properties of the other tribes are unknown.

Order 89. Bruniaceæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-cleft: estivation imbricated. Petals alternate with the segments of the calyx, inserted on its throat: estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals, arising with them, or from a discoid torus: anthers turned inwards, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, or usually cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-3-celled: ovules suspended, solitary, or two collateral ones in each cell, very rarely numerous: style simple or bifid: stigma one, or 2-3, small, and papilliform. Fruit dry, bicoccos, or indehiscent and one-celled, usually crowned by the persistent calyx. Seeds (some of them usually abortive) suspended, sometimes with a short arillus. Embryo minute, at the base (next the hilum) of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons short, fleshy.—Branched, heath-like shrubs. Leaves small, imbricated, rigid, entire. Flowers small, capitate, or rarely panicle, spiked, or terminal, and solitary.—Ex. Brunia, Stauvia, Berardia.

An order thought by De Candolle to be allied to Rhamnææ, but now considered as much nearer to Hamamelideæ, or even Myrtaceæ. Thamnea has a one-celled ovary with a central columnar axis, from the apex of which the ovules hang, indicating a tendency in this order to have a plurilocular fruit.

Order 90. Hamamelideæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx four-lobed or truncate, with 5-7 callous teeth. Petals inserted on the calyx, usually long and linear, equal in number to (rarely by abortion fewer), and alternating with, the calycine segments, rarely changed into fertile stamens. Stamens twice as many as the petals; all fertile when the petals bear anthers, half of them (those opposite to the petals) sterile when there are true petals: anthers erect, two-celled, each cell dehiscing longitudinally at the side, either by a valve opening inwards, or by a simple fissure. Ovarium coherent at the base with the tube of the calyx, two-celled: styles two (rarely by accident three). Capsule two-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, plane, or slightly involute at their base.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, petiolate, penninerved, with two stipules. Flowers axillary, nearly sessile, fasciculate, usually with bractææ, sometimes unisexual.—Ex. Hamamelis, Fothergilla.

The above character is perhaps a little strained to include Fothergilla, a genus, however, referred here both by Nuttall and Brown: perhaps it must be even still more modified when Trichocladus, another genus of the order, becomes better known. The relation of Fothergilla to Pachysandra shows some affinity between this family and Euphorbiaceæ; and there is a manifest connection also between it and the Amentaceæ. There is likewise an affinity to the Alangieæ, Bruniaceæ, the Rhamnææ, and the Haloragææ.

Div. II.—Dichlamydeæ Calycifloræ. D. C.

(3. Epipetalæ.) Juss.)

Order 91. Umbelliferae. Juss.

Calyx five-toothed, or entire. Petals five, inserted on the outside of a fleshy disc, around the top of the ovary, alternate with the teeth of the calyx, often inflexed at the point, the inflexed portion cohering with the middle vein of the lamina: estivation somewhat imbricate, rarely valvate. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, distinct, during estivation inflexed: anthers ovate, two-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovarium cohering entirely and closely with the calyx, crowned by a double fleshy disc (an expansion of the torus), two-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: styles two, distinct: stigma simple. Fruit dry (a cremocarpium), consisting of two carpels (or mericarpia) which adhere by their face (commissura) to a common axis (carpophorum), but in maturity separate from it, and are pendulous: each carpel indehiscent, traversed by five longitudinal ridges (juga primaria), one opposite to each petal and each stamen: and often also by alternating nerves (juga secundaria), the ridges being separated by channels. In the substance of the pericarp are linear receptacles of oily matter (vittæ), usually opposite the channels, sometimes below the ridges, rarely wanting. Seed pendulous, usually cohering with the carpel, rarely loose. Embryo minute, at the base (that is, at the apex of the fruit) of a copious horny albumen: radicle superior, pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous, or rarely suffrutescent plants: stem usually fistular and furrowed. Leaves alternate, very rarely opposite, simple (without articulations), variously cut, sometimes reduced to the petiole (phyllodium). Flowers in umbels, the umbel sometimes capitate, usually with an involucre.—Ex. Conium, Eryngium, Hydrocotyle.

Supposed to be allied to Saxifragæ (through Hydrocotyle), to Araliaceæ, and through them to Ampelideæ. Lindley seems to think them nearest to Ranunculaceæ. Perhaps each flower is made up of two, a structure explained by that of Dampiera among the Campanulaceæ (Scævoleæ), and rendered probable by that of Heteromorphea. Then each petal being formed of two cohering by their margins and an intervening stamen, we should have two flowers each with five petals, five stamens, and one style, united together; and thus other affinities must be looked for.—The fundamental organs of this order are usually very poisonous, at all events ought to be looked on with suspicion, although the roots of a few by cultivation seem to lose their virulent qualities. The fruit is in no case hurtful, and is usually a warm and agreeable aromatic. Gum ammoniacæ, galbanum, assafœtida, and opoponax, are obtained from plants of this family.

Order 92. Araliaceæ. Juss.

Calyx entire or toothed. Petals 5-16, alternate with the teeth of the calyx, very rarely wanting, and then (in Adoxa) perhaps changed into petals: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, rarely twice as many, inserted below the margin of a large epigynous disc: anthers two-celled. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, of two or more cells: ovules solitary, pendulous: styles two or more, distinct, concrete, or rarely wanting: stigma simple. Fruit usually fleshy, 2-15-celled, crowned by the limb of the calyx: endocarp crustaceous. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Embryo small, surrounded by a copious fleshy albumen, close to the hilum: radicle pointing to the hilum, superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.

* We keep the subdivisions Epipetalæ, Epicorollæ, and Epistaminæ, although the plants belonging to them have in reality the stamens and petals as much perigynous as the Grossulariaceæ, Eicodiceæ, &c. which have a perfectly adherent fruit.

range-
ment and
characters. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers umbelled or capitate.—Ex. Aralia, Adoxa, Hedera.

This borders strongly on the Umbelliferae, Ampelideae, and also the Corneae.—The famed Ginseng, which, when first introduced into Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century, sold for its weight in gold, is a species of Panax; it is supposed to have a stimulating and invigorating property when fresh, but when dry has now been found of little use. The berries of Hedera are purgative.

Order 93. Corneae. D. C.

Calyx four-lobed. Petals four, oblong, broad at the base, regular, inserted on the top of the tube of the calyx: estivation valvate. Stamens four, alternate with the petals, inserted with them: anthers two-celled. Ovarium closely cohering with the tube of the calyx, two-celled: ovules pendulous, solitary: style filiform: stigma simple. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the remains of the calyx, two-celled (or rarely one-celled by abortion): endocarp thick and bony. Seeds solitary, pendulous: albumen fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle superior, shorter than the oblong cotyledons.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite (in two species only alternate). Flowers capitate, umbelled, or corymbose, naked or with an involucre.—Ex. Cornus.

Approaching to the Hamamelideae and Araliaceae (from which it is best distinguished by the opposite leaves, bony endocarp, and a ternary arrangement of the parts of the flower); and also to Caprifoliaceae; but this last has a gamopetalous corolla, and a quinary arrangement in the flowers. One species among the Corneae, however, the Mastixia pentandra, is said to have the quinary arrangement and alternate leaves, but is not well known.—The fleshy part of the fruit is sometimes eaten. The bark of Cornus florida and C. sericea is tonic and febrifuge, and has been substituted in North America for the Peruvian bark.

Div. II.—Dichlamydeae Calyciflorae. D. C.

(4. Epicorollae Corisantherae. Juss.)

Order 94. Loranthaceae. Rich. and Juss.

Calyx with a smaller calyx or bractae at the base of its tube: limb short, entire or lobed. Petals 4-8, free or more or less united: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the petals, and opposite to them: filaments more or less combined with the petals: anthers versatile, or erect, or adnate to the corolla. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform or none: stigma capitate. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the calyx, one-celled: endocarp membranaceous. Seed one, pendulous. Embryo straight in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs almost all parasitical. Leaves fleshy, entire, opposite, rarely alternate or wanting.—Ex. Viscum, Loranthus.

Distinguished from Caprifoliaceae, Corneae, and the other orders in the neighbourhood, by the position of the stamens before the petals. Mr Brown suggests their relation to Proteaceae.—The berries contain a viscid matter, that is insoluble in water and alcohol. The bark is usually astringent. The well known Mistletoe of the oak is the Viscum album. Loranthus tetrandrus (the Lonicera corymbosa of authors), is used in Chili for dyeing black.

Order 95. Coprifoliaceae. Juss.

Calyx with its limb 5- (very rarely 4-) lobed. Corolla of one piece, lobed, sometimes irregular; the divisions alternate with those of the calyx: estivation not valvate

(D. C.). Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla (or sometimes one of them abortive), alternating with them, and inserted towards its base: filaments subulate: anthers ovate, bilocular. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, three-celled (rarely four or five-celled): ovules few in each cell, pendulous: style one, exserted, or none: stigmas as many as the cells, either distinct or combined into one capitate stigma. Fruit crowned by the limb of the calyx, fleshy, or rarely almost dry, plurilocular, or one-celled (either by the disappearance of the dissepiments, or by the abortion of the other cells). Seeds solitary, in pairs, or several (some often abortive) in each cell, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the centre of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite without stipules (or rarely with two small stipules or glands at the base of each petiole). Flowers terminal, corymbose, or axillary.—Ex. Sambucus, Viburnum, Lonicera, Linnæa.

Tribe 1. Sambuceae. KUNTZ. Corolla regular, rotate, seldom tubular: style none: stigmas three, sessile: raphe on the inner side of the ovule.

Tribe 2. Lonicereae. R. BROWN. Corolla more or less tubular, often irregular: style filiform: raphe on the outer side of the ovule. (Br.)

In Sambucus and Viburnum the testa of the seed is membranous, but the endocarp is bony: in Lonicera and Triosteum the testa itself is bony; and care must be had to distinguish whether the bony part belong to the carpel or the seed. This order bears a striking relation to the Rubiaceae: it is also allied to the Apocynæ.—The flowers of the elder (Sambucus nigra) are fragrant and sudorific, but the leaves emetic and purgative. The fruit of Viburnum has an austere astringent pulp, which becomes edible after fermentation. The honeysuckle is a purgative.

Order 96. Rubiaceae. Juss.

Tube of the calyx adherent with the ovarium, the limb variable, truncate, or lobed, consisting of as many sepals as petals, rarely with accessory intermediate teeth. Petals 4-5, rarely 3-8, united, inserted upon the summit of the tube of the calyx: estivation twisted or valvate. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla, alternate with them (rarely some of them suppressed): filaments more or less combined with the tube: anthers oval, two-celled, turned inwards: pollen elliptical. Ovarium adherent, usually two-celled, or with several cells, rarely (by abortion) one-celled, crowned by a fleshy urceolate disc: style single, sometimes partly divided: stigmas usually two, rarely several, distinct, or more or less concrete. Fruit a cremocarpium, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous, two or many-celled. Seeds one or many in each cell, in the former case attached to the apex, or more usually to the base of the cell; in the latter to a central placenta. Albumen horny or fleshy, copious. Embryo straight or slightly curved, inclosed in the albumen: radicle turned to the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves simple, entire, opposite (very rarely verticillate): stipules two at the base of each leaf, entirely distinct, or cohering either with the leaf or with each other, or both ways; their apex sometimes produced into setæ, sometimes into foliaceous expansions, resembling verticillate leaves.—Ex. Cinchona, Gardenia, Hedyotis, Isertia, Hamelia, Cordia, Guetarda, Paderia, Coffea, Spermacoce, Anthospermum, Rubia, Opercularia.

The above thirteen genera have been taken by De Candolle¹ as the types of as many tribes, but our limits do

¹ Prodr. Syst. Regn. Veg. vol. iv. p. 342.

Arrangement and Characters. not permit us to give the characters. The Rubiaceæ are allied to the Caprifoliaceæ, to Valerianæ, Dipsaceæ, and Compositeæ; but perhaps it was with the Apocynæ and Gentianæ that they were most generally confounded, previous to the separation of the Loganaceæ. Houstonia, referred still by De Candolle to the Gentianæ, has an inferior (adherent) ovary, interpetiolar stipules, a bilocular polyspermous capsule, and seeds not winged, and consequently must be arranged here, at the end of the Hedyotideæ.—The roots (as in Rubia or the Madder) sometimes yield an excellent red dye; in others they are acrid, emetic, purgative, or diuretic. The bark (as in Cinchona or Peruvian bark) is sometimes bitter, tonic, astringent, and aromatic, and eminently powerful in intermittent fevers. The horny albumen of the Coffea Arabica is what is roasted, and made use of, under the name of Coffee; and it is probable that such other seeds, of this order, as have a horny albumen, might be used as a substitute. The fruit of a few is succulent and eatable.

Order 97. Valerianæ. JUSS.

Calyx with a limb of various kinds, either membranous, or resembling a pappus. Corolla inserted into the top of the ovary, tubular, usually five-lobed, rarely 3-4-lobed, lobes obtuse: tube equal, or gibbous, or spurred, at the base. Stamens 1-5, inserted into the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its lobes: anthers ovate, two-celled. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx (inferior), 1-3-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform: stigma 1-3, distinct or combined. Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned with the limb of the calyx, one-celled, or three-celled (two being abortive). Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Leaves opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Patrinia, Valeriana.

Most intimately connected with Dipsaceæ, but distinct by having no albumen, and by the absence of an involucre.—The roots of several are tonic, bitter, vermifuge, and antispasmodic; and some seem to be even febrifugal. The smell is disagreeable, although esteemed in some countries: thus the Nardostachys Jatamansi is the spike-nard of the ancients. The young leaves of Valerianella olitoria make a good spring salad.

Order 98. Dipsaceæ. JUSS.

Calyx with a limb short or elongated, entire, or toothed, or pappose. Corolla inserted on the apex of the tube of the calyx, tubular, limb oblique, 4-5-lobed, rarely ringent: estivation imbricated. Stamens four, inserted on the tube of the corolla, alternate with its lobes, almost always distinct: anthers two-celled. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, either closely, or only by the apex, or at first free and afterwards cohering, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform: stigma simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned by the limb of the calyx, usually covered by an outer calyx or involucre, one-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Leaves opposite, very rarely verticillate, variable in shape on the same plant. Flowers densely capitate, or very rarely verticillate.—Ex. Morina, Scabiosa.

The involucre to each flower in this order is of a very singular kind, and may be distinguished into three parts: the base, or the lower portion; the tube, which is furnished with several deep furrows or grooves; and the crown, or the portion above the grooves,—the modifications of which are well suited for generic characters. This family is most allied to the Calyceræ and Valerianæ. The teasel (the head of Dipsacus fullonum) is used by fullers in dressing cloth.

DIV. II.—Dichlamydeæ Calycifloræ. D. C.

(5. Epicorollæ Synantheræ.)

Order 99. Calyceræ. R. BROWN.

Calyx with a limb of five unequal segments. Corolla regular, funnel-shaped, with a long slender tube and a five-lobed limb: the lobes with three principal veins. Stamens five, inserted on the tube, with as many alternating glands inserted a little below them: filaments united: anthers introrse, partially connate. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, crowned by a disc, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style single, smooth: stigma capitate. Fruit an achenium, crowned by the rigid teeth of the calyx. Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers sessile, capitate, surrounded by an involucre: sometimes the ovary mutually cohere into one mass.—Ex. Calycera Boopis.

In this, the preceding order, and the following, the flowers are sometimes termed florets, and the whole capitulum a flower; but this is incorrect. From Compositeæ this order is easily known, by the radicle being superior.

Order 100. Compositeæ. ADANSON.

Limb of the calyx either wanting or membranous, and divided into bristles, palææ, or hairs, and called pappus. Corolla monopetalous, five-toothed or lobed, tubular, or ligulate, or bilabiate, inserted on the top of the ovary, alternate with the lobes, which have each two marginal nerves: estivation valvate. Stamens five, alternate with the teeth of the corolla: filaments distinct: anthers connate (very rarely free), erect, articulated with the filaments. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style single: stigma two, distinct or united. Fruit an achenium, crowned with the limb of the calyx. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen none. Radicle inferior.—Leaves alternate or opposite, usually simple, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual, capitate, surrounded by a many-leaved involucre (bracteoles), the scales of which are sometimes also interspersed with the flowers on the receptacle, and are then called palææ.—Ex. Carduus, Centauræ; Achillea, Artemisia; Trixis, Chaetantheræ; Sonchus, Heiracium.

Of this there are four principal groups: 1. Cynarocephalæ, where the flowers are all tubular, the receptacle hairy or pitted, the style swollen and furnished with hairs below the stigma; 2. Corymbiferae, where the external flowers are usually ligulate, and the inner ones tubular; 3. Labiatifloræ, where the flowers have two deep unequal lips to the corolla; 4. Cichoraceæ, where all the flowers are ligulate. Various subdivisions have been also attempted, but their limits are hitherto very unsettled.—All the Compositeæ are bitter. The Cynarocephalæ are some of them stomachics, others febrifugal, and others sudorific and diaphoretic; but the bitter principle is not found in the unexpanded leaves or receptacle. The Corymbiferae possess tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal qualities; some are sudorific, others diuretic: the roots of Helianthus tuberosus, or the Girasole (vulgo Jerusalem) artichoke, are eatable. The Cichoraceæ have usually a milky, bitter, astringent, and narcotic juice, which induces sleep; but before this is formed, many of the species may be used as articles of food.

DIV. II.—Dichlamydeæ Calycifloræ. D. C.

(6. Pericorollæ. JUSS.)

Order 101. Brunoniaceæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-partite, with four bractæa at its base, persistent: tube very short, afterwards enlarged. Corolla in-

serted in the base of the calyx (truly hypogynous?): monopetalous, infundibuliform, nearly regular, marcescent: tube ultimately split at the back, with the primary nerves opposite its divisions: limb five-partite, the upper segments most deeply divided; nerves central, dividing at the top into two recurrent marginal branches: estivation valvular. Stamens five, inserted with, but free from, the corolla, alternating with its segments: filaments very short, distinct: anthers connate, erect, articulated with the filaments, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style single: stigma single, inclosed in a two-valved cup (indusium). Fruit a utricle, inclosed in the indurated tube of the calyx. Seed one, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle small, inferior: cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex.—Herbaceous plants, without stems. Leaves radical, exstipulate. Flowers capitate, on a scape: heads surrounded by an involucre of enlarged bractea.—Ex. Brunonia.

Very nearly allied indeed to the Dipsaceæ and Compositæ, but having the ovary free. We do not feel quite certain that the corolla is hypogynous, having observed a kind of disc at the base of the calyx, to which it seemed attached; but although it were so, it would be impossible to remove this order from the side of the Goodenoviæ. The habit is that of the Globularineæ. Perhaps this and the three following ought to be made suborders of one great order.

Order 102. Goodenoviæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-cleft, sometimes 5-3-partite, sometimes obsolete, equal, or rarely unequal, persistent. Corolla inserted into the calyx, sometimes at its base; monopetalous, more or less irregular, marcescent or deciduous: its tube split at the back, and sometimes separable into five petals when the ovary is almost free: its limb five-partite, with one or two lips, the edges of the segments being thinner than the middle: primary nerves of the tube alternate with the divisions; the thick part of the lobes with lateral nerves: estivation valvate. Stamens five, distinct, inserted with, but free from, the corolla, alternate with its lobes: anthers distinct or cohering, continuous with the filaments, two-celled, bursting longitudinally: pollen simple or compound. Ovarium more or less cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-2 or four-celled, sometimes with a gland between the two anterior filaments: ovules erect: style one, simple (rarely divided): stigma fleshy, simple, or two-lobed, surrounded by a membranous cup. Fruit various. Seeds erect, definite or indefinite: testa thick, sometimes bony. Embryo straight, inclosed in a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Plants without milky juice. Leaves scattered, exstipulate. Flowers distinct, never capitate.

Tribe 1. Goodeniæ. R. BROWN. Ovarium of two (rarely four) carpels, 2-4-celled: ovules indefinite: fruit a two or rarely four-celled capsule, septicidal, rarely loculicidal: seeds numerous, attached to the axis.—Ex. Goodenia, Vellina.

Tribe 2. Scavoleæ. R. B. Ovarium of two or four carpels, 1-2 or four-celled: ovules solitary in each carpel: fruit indehiscent, drupaceous, or nut-like: seed one, or two (by abortion of the dissepiment), in each cell, attached to the bottom of the cell.—Ex. Scavola, Dampiera.

The above two tribes, differing little from each other, but agreeing in a multitude of extraordinary characters, we cannot consider even as suborders. We consider the indusium to the stigma as an abortive gynandrous column, both in this order and the last.

Order 103. Styliæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx with 2-6 divisions, bilabiate or regular, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, falling off late: its limb 5-6-partite, irregular, or rarely equal: lobes with a central nerve:

estivation imbricated. Stamens two: filaments longitudinally connate with the style into a column: anthers didymous, rarely simple, lying over the stigma: pollen globular, simple, sometimes angular. Ovarium cohering with the side of the calyx, crowned often with one gland in front or two opposite ones, two-celled, or, by the contraction of the dissepiment, sometimes one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma entire or bifid. Capsule two-valved, two or one-celled, septicidal. Seeds indefinite, small, erect. Embryo minute, inclosed in a fleshy, somewhat oily albumen.—Plants, destitute of milky juice. Leaves alternate, scattered, or apparently verticillate.—Ex. Stylium, Forstera.

The position of the anthers in this order, combined with the tube at the base of the style in some of the Campanulaceæ, serves to explain the structure of the indusium to the stigma in the two preceding. This family is readily distinguished by the gynandrous stamens, from those in its vicinity.

Order 104. Campanulaceæ. JUSS.

Calyx usually five-lobed (sometimes 3-8-lobed), rarely entire, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, inserted on the calyx, usually five (sometimes 3-4-6-8) cleft, deciduous or marcescent: lobes with a central principal nerve: estivation valvate. Stamens inserted with the corolla, alternating with its lobes, and equal to them in number: anthers two-celled, distinct or cohering, erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium cohering, wholly or by its lower half, with the tube of the calyx, of two or more carpels: ovules indefinite: style simple: stigma naked, simple, or with as many lobes as cells to the ovary. Placentæ in the axis of the plurilocular, or parietal in the one-celled ovary. Fruit capsular, one or more celled, loculicidal, dehiscing either by lateral fissures, or by valves at the apex. Seeds indefinite. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants, yielding a milky juice. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, exstipulate.

Tribe 1. Lobelieæ. JUSS. Odd segment of the calyx anterior: corolla irregular: anthers cohering: pollen ovate, elongated, smooth, marked by a longitudinal furrow: style glabrous, with a fringe of hairs below the stigma.—Ex. Lobelia.

Tribe 2. Campanulæ. D. C. Odd segment of the calyx posterior: corolla regular: anthers free, or rarely cohering: pollen spherical, papillose: style pubescent.—Ex. Campanula.

The distinguishing characters of these two tribes are perhaps too few to afford ordinal characters. The hairs on the style or under the stigma seem to be intended for the absorption of the vivifying part of the pollen. There is an expansion of the torus (or abortive stamens) at the insertion of the corolla and stamens, and this sometimes not only covers the top of the ovary, but even forms a tube round the style (as in Adenophora). The cells of the fruit are usually opposite the calycine segments, rarely alternate with them. In the Lobeliæ the odd sepal is really anterior, although by a twist in the pedicel it appears posterior.—The milky juice is acrid, and in some cases poisonous.

Order 105. Gesneriaceæ. RICHT. and JUSS.

Calyx five-parted: estivation valvate. Corolla monopetalous, tubular, more or less irregular, five-lobed: estivation imbricated. Stamens four (rarely two), two being longer than the others, with the rudiment of a fifth inserted on the corolla: anthers two-celled, with a thick tumid connectivum. Ovarium partly free, surrounded by glands alternating with the stamens, of two carpels whose margins are introflexed and placentiferous: ovules indefinite: style continuous with the ovary: stigma capitate,

Arrangement and Characters. concave. Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds minute, indefinite: testa thin, finely and obliquely veined. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves opposite, rugose, exstipulate.—Ex. Gesnera, Sarmentia, Gloxinia.

More allied to the Bignoniaceæ, and especially Orobanchaceæ, from which last order the present is most readily distinguished by the usually adherent ovary: perhaps, as hinted by Richard, the two orders may be conjoined. Being allied, however, to the Orobanchaceæ, the Gesneriaceæ form a link between the Campanulaceæ and the following order (Monotropeæ).

Order 106. Ericineæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Monotropeæ. Nutt. Calyx 3-4-5-partite, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular, deciduous, more or less deeply 4-5-lobed, inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous?): estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted with the corolla, twice as many as its lobes, distinct, free from the corolla: anthers two (often imperfectly) celled, dry, opening by fissures or pores, with or without appendages. Torus discoid. Ovary free, 4-5-celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple, discoid. Fruit capsular, 4-5-celled, 4-5-valved, loculicidal: axis 4-5-lobed. Seeds indefinite, minute: testa long and linear, loose, membranous, largely reticulated with veins: nucleus globose in the centre of the testa. Albumen fleshy. Embryo at one extremity of the albumen, extremely minute.—Herbaceous, or rarely suffrutescent plants. Leaves simple, entire, or toothed, or wanting.—Ex. Pyrola, Monotropa.

Suborder 2. Ericææ. Calyx 4-5-cleft, nearly equal, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous?), monopetalous, 4-5-cleft (occasionally separable into four or five petals), regular or irregular, often marcescent: estivation imbricated. Stamens definite, equal in number to the segments of the corolla, or twice as many, distinct, inserted with the corolla, free from it, or attached to its base: anthers two-celled, hard and dry, usually (rarely not) bifid and furnished with some kind of appendages, dehiscing by terminal pores, or rarely by clefts. Torus discoid, or in the form of scales. Ovary free, plurilocular: ovules indefinite, very rarely solitary in each cell: style one, straight: stigma one, entire or toothed. Placentæ central. Fruit capsular or baccate, with several cells, loculicid, or septicid. Seeds indefinite, minute, very rarely definite, testa adhering closely to the tegmen and nucleus. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubby or suffrutescent plants. Leaves evergreen, rigid, entire, whorled, or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Erica, Arbutus, Rhododendrum, Andromeda (Plate CXXIV.)

Suborder 3. Vaccinææ. D. C. Calyx entire, or 4-6-lobed. Corolla monopetalous, with as many lobes as the calyx. Stamens distinct, twice as many as the lobes of the corolla: anthers dry, two-celled, deeply bifid, with narrow horn-like lobes. Torus forming a disc round the top of the ovary. Ovary adherent to the tube of the calyx, 4-5-celled: ovules indefinite: style simple: stigma simple. Fruit baccate, crowned by the persistent limb of the calyx, succulent, 4-5-celled. Seeds numerous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle long, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons very short.—Ex. Vaccinium, Oxyococcus.

Suborder 4. Epacridææ. R. Br. Calyx five- (rarely four-) parted, often coloured, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx (hypogynous?), deciduous or marcescent, monopetalous, sometimes separable into five petals; limb five (rarely four), divided, sometimes by the cohesion of the segments, bursting transversely: estivation imbricated or valvular. Stamens as many as, and al-

ternate with, the segments of the corolla, rarely fewer, inserted with or on the corolla: anthers dry, simple, entire, without appendages, bursting longitudinally: pollen round or three-lobed, attached to a single central receptacle. Torus in the form of scales. Ovary sessile, free, pluri- (rarely uni-) locular: ovules solitary or indefinite: style one: stigma simple, or sometimes toothed. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsular. Embryo slender, straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and about half its length.—Shrubs or small trees. Leaves usually alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Epacris, Styphelia.

Between Monotropeæ and Ericææ there is no certain character but in the testa of the seed: the mode by which the anthers dehisce being variable in both, even although we exclude Pyrola, as has been already done by Don. Ericææ is usually described with indefinite ovules; but Cyrtilla, usually referred here, has them solitary in each cell. Between Ericææ and Vaccinææ no character can be given, farther than the ovary free or adherent: the habit of several species in both is the same. Between Ericææ and Epacridææ, again, there is almost nothing but the structure of the anthers and a difference of habit: we therefore consider them all as suborders. As a whole, it is difficult to say what are the affinities. In some points they slightly approach to the Campanulaceæ, and in others to the Saxifragæ (Escalloniæ and Cunoniæ).—Their general properties are astringent and diuretic. The berries of the succulent fruited species are mostly grateful and eatable: the Bilberries, Cranberries, Bearberries, &c. belong to this family. The fruit of the Arbutus unedo (so called because one was sufficient) is, however, exceedingly disagreeable.

Order 107. Columelliaceæ. Don.

Calyx turbinate: limb persistent, five-lobed, or multi-(10-11-) partite. Corolla perigynous, rotate, 5-8-lobed: estivation convolute. Stamens two, inserted in the throat of the corolla: anthers linear, sinuous, and one-celled, or straight and two-celled. Torus expanded into a perigynous disc. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, two-celled: ovules indefinite (Don): style simple, declinate: stigma capitate. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two-valved, septicidal, each valve often splitting at the apex. Seeds indefinite, ascending: testa coriaceous, smooth. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves opposite, entire, exstipulate. Flowers solitary, yellow.—Ex. Columellia, Menodora.

A very little known order, lately established, and imperfectly characterised. Thus, Don says of Menodora, that the ovary is adherent (inferior), and the ovules indefinite; while Kunth, and Bonpland, who formed the genus, says the stamens are hypogynous, the ovary superior, and the ovules only two in each cell. The nearest affinity of this order is with Styracinææ, Jasminaceæ, and Ebenaceæ.

Order 108. Symplocææ. Juss.

Calyx monosepalous, limb entire or divided, persistent. Corolla perigynous or rarely hypogynous (?), monopetalous, regular: estivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens definite or indefinite, inserted into the tube of the corolla, unequal, mono- or polyadelphous at their base. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx either entirely or in part, or free, three, four, or five-celled: ovules four in each cell, of which two are ascending and two suspended: style simple: stigma simple: placentæ central. Fruit surrounded by or inclosed in the calyx, being a carcerulus, or a one- (by abortion) celled, three-valved, loculicidal, coriaceous capsule. Seeds usually solitary in the capsule, or in each cell of the carcerulus, erect or suspended: testa membranous or bony. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons

range—flat, foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, ex-stipulate.—Ex. Styrax, Symplocos, Cipomina, Halesia.
Characters. In Styrax there is usually but one bony seed, but that genus, although the corolla be certainly perigynous, is by some referred with Strigilia to the Meliaceæ. Don asserts that Halesia forms a very distinct group, so that the present order would thus consist of Symplocos, to which Kunth joins Cipomina, of which the characters are however still less understood than the other two. It may be therefore considered as a dubious order, of which the genera chiefly agree in the position of the ovules.—Storax and benzoin are derived from the genus Styrax.

Div. III.—Dichlamydeæ Corollifloræ. D. C.

(7. Hypocorollæ.¹ Juss.)

Order 109. Ebenaceæ. VENT.

Flowers uni- (rarely bi-) sexual. Calyx 3-6-divided, nearly equal, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular, deciduous, somewhat coriaceous, 3-6 divided: estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted on the corolla, or hypogynous, definite (two or four times as many as the segments of the corolla, and rarely of the same number when they alternate with them), filaments usually in two rows: anthers erect, linear-lanceolate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, sessile, plurilocular: ovules one or two in each cell, pendulous: style divided, rarely simple: stigma simple or bifid. Fruit fleshy, round or oval, the pericarp sometimes opening regularly. Seeds few: testa membranous. Embryo straight, nearly in the axis of a cartilaginous albumen: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs, without milky juice. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Diospyrus, Ferreola.

Allied to the Symplocææ, to the Sapotææ, and several others that we have placed in the neighbourhood.—The fruit is eatable, but the chief peculiarity of this order consists in the extreme hardness of its wood. Ebony and iron-wood both belong to it.

Order 110. Illicineæ. BRONGNIART.

Sepals 4-6: estivation imbricated. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-partite: estivation imbricated. Stamens inserted into the base of the corolla, alternate with its lobes, and equal to them in number: filaments straight: anthers introrse. Torus not discoid. Ovarium free, fleshy, somewhat truncate, 2-6-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous from a cup-shaped funiculus: stigma nearly sessile, lobed. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, containing from two to six one-seeded nucules. Seed suspended. Embryo small, lying at the end next the hilum of a large fleshy albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons small.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves coriaceous, alternate, or opposite.—Ex. Ilex, Prinos.

Separated by Brongniart from the Celastrineæ. They are much allied to the Ebenaceæ.—The leaves of some species are used as tea. The bark and berries of others are tonic, astringent, and antiseptic.

Order 111. Sapotææ. Juss.

Flowers bisexual. Calyx divided, regular, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, deciduous, monopetalous, regular, its lobes usually equal to, rarely twice or thrice as many as, those of the calyx. Stamens inserted on the corolla, definite, distinct; the fertile ones as many as (rarely more than) the segments of the calyx, with which they alternate; the sterile ones between them rarely wanting. Ovarium plurilocular: ovules solitary, erect: style one: stigma simple, sometimes lobed. Fruit fleshy, plurilocular, or, by abor-

tion of the dissepiments, one-celled. Seeds solitary, erect: testa bony, shining. Embryo large, erect, white, usually enclosed in a fleshy albumen, which, however, is sometimes wanting: radicle short, straight, or slightly curved, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous (in the albuminose seeds), or fleshy (in the exalbuminose seeds).—Trees or shrubs, with copious milky juice. Leaves coriaceous, entire, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Achras, Lycium.

Closely allied to the Ebenaceæ, from which, however, they differ by their having milky juice, bony seeds, bisexual flowers, and various other important characters.—The fruit of many, as the star-apple, the sappodilla plum, and others, is much prized in their native countries. The bark of some species of Achras is astringent and febrifugal.

Order 112. Myrsineæ. R. BROWN.

Flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual. Calyx 4-5-cleft, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-cleft, equal. Stamens 4-5, inserted into the corolla, and opposite its segments: filaments distinct, rarely connate, short, sometimes wanting, with sometimes five sterile petaloid alternating ones: anthers sagittate, erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules definite or indefinite, peltate, immersed in the placenta: style one: stigma simple or lobed. Placenta free, central, fleshy. Fruit fleshy. Seed usually solitary, sometimes 2-4, peltate: hilum concave: testa membranous, incorporated with the tegmen. Albumen horny. Embryo slender, slightly curved, heterotrophic (or lying across the hilum): radicle horizontal when the seed is solitary, or inferior when there are several seeds: cotyledons short.—Trees or shrubs, rarely suffrutescent. Leaves coriaceous, exstipulate, usually alternate.—Ex. Myrsine, Ardisia.

Allied to Sapotææ, but particularly to Primulaceæ in the structure of the fruit, though with a very different habit.—Bread is prepared from the pounded seeds of Theophrasta Jussiei in St Domingo.

Order 113. Jasminaceæ.

Suborder 1. Jasmineæ. Juss. Flower bisexual. Calyx divided or toothed, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous, regular, hypocateriform, 5-8-divided: estivation imbricated and twisted. Stamens two, inserted on the corolla, enclosed within its tube: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules solitary, rarely in pairs, at first pendulous, afterwards erect: style one: stigma two-lobed. Fruit a double berry, or pyxidium, or a bivalved capsule. Seeds usually solitary, rarely in pairs, erect. Albumen none, or very thin. Embryo straight: radicle inferior.—Shrubs, with usually twining stems. Leaves opposite, pinnate.—Ex. Jasminum, Bolitaria.

Suborder 2. Oleineæ. HOFFM. and LINK. Flowers bisexual, or sometimes unisexual. Calyx gamosepalous, divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, and four-cleft, sometimes of four petals, connected in pairs by the intervention of the filaments, rarely wanting: estivation somewhat valvate. Stamens two, alternate with the segments of the corolla: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules in pairs, collateral, pendulous: style one or none: stigma entire or bifid. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsular. Seeds often by abortion solitary. Albumen dense, fleshy, abundant. Embryo straight, about half the length of the albumen: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite.—Ex. Olea, Ligustrum, Fraxinus.

¹ Such orders as Brunoniaceæ, &c. which have the insertion of the corolla doubtfully hypogynous, but the stamens free from it, were with De Candolle, have referred to the Peripetalæ. Plumbagineæ, however, we have retained.

These two suborders are so very much allied that few separate them. Bolivaria has two seeds in each cell, and thus partakes of the character of both. In both the radicle points to the hilum. Their affinities extend on the one side to the Ebenaceæ and Columelliaceæ, and on the other to the Verbenaceæ. The flowers are usually fragrant. The bark of the olive and ash is astringent and highly febrifuge. Olive oil is expressed from the pericarp, the oil of Jasmine from the flowers.

Order 114. Asclepiadæ. R. BROWN.

Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, regular, five-lobed, deciduous: estivation contorted-imbricate: rarely valvate. Stamens five, inserted into the base of the corolla, and alternate with its segments: filaments usually connate: anthers two-celled, each cell sometimes divided by incomplete septa: pollen, when the anther bursts, coalescing into masses which are as numerous as the cells, or sometimes confluent by pairs, and sticking to the five processes of the stigma, either by twos, by fours, or singly. Ovaria two: ovules indefinite: styles two, close to each other, often very short: stigma one, common to both styles, dilated, with five corpuscular angles. Placentas at the ventral sutures. Follicles two (sometimes one by abortion). Seeds indefinite, imbricate, pendulous, usually with a coma at the hilum. Albumen thin. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous. Plants, with usually a milky juice, often twining. Leaves entire, usually opposite, with interpetiolar ciliae instead of stipules.—Ex. Asclepias, Stapelia.

Separated by Mr Brown from the Apocynæ on account of the very remarkable structure of the anthers and stigma. The milky juice is usually acrid and bitter, and must always be regarded with suspicion, even although it seems in some few species to be used as aliment. The roots are generally acrid and stimulating; some few are diaphoretic and sudorific. The root and bark of the mudar plant (Calotropis Mudara), is a powerful purgative and alterative; and an extract, a new principle, called mudarine, has the singular property of dilquescing by cold and congealing by heat.

Order 115. Apocynæ. JUSS.

Calyx five- rarely four-divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, regular, five- rarely four-lobed, deciduous: estivation contorted-imbricate, rarely valvate. Stamens five, rarely four, inserted on the corolla, alternate with its lobes: filaments distinct: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally: pollen granular, globose, or three-lobed, immediately applied to the stigma. Ovaria two and each one-celled, or one and bilocular: ovules usually indefinite, rarely solitary or few: styles two or one: stigma one. Fruit follicular, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous, double or single. Seeds indefinite or rarely definite: albumen fleshy, cartilaginous, or horny, rarely wanting. Embryo foliaceous: radicle pointing to the hilum. Plants, with usually a milky juice. Leaves entire, generally opposite, without stipules, but with interpetiolar ciliae or glands.—Ex. Apocynum, Vinca, Strychnos.

We have now entered upon a group to be distinguished with great difficulty, so much do the orders run into each other; and indeed more than one botanist have suggested that the Rubiaceæ, Apocynæ, Loganiaceæ, and Gentianæ, may form one class. Gentianæ, however, touches upon Scrophularineæ, and this again on various others, so that we scarcely know what limits to impose on the series. Strychnos, Carissa, and some others, have been separated by Jussieu as a distinct order, having a simple fruit, and peltate seeds without a coma. To this, perhaps, Gardnera belongs, having a quaternary divided flower, valvate corolla, like Strychnos, simple fruit, and ecomose seeds. But then, some still referable to Apocynæ have a simple fruit

and comose seeds, others a double fruit and ecomose seeds, all of which might as well be made orders; besides, we doubt if, by having only one stigma, the ovary ought to be ever considered as different from a syncarpous one.—The milk seems still more deleterious than that of the last order, being known to be used as food in only two plants. The root of some is poisonous, in others cathartic; in some the bark has these properties, in others the fruit. One seed of the Tanghin tree of Madagascar is sufficient to poison twenty persons. The nux-vomica is prepared from the seeds of the Strychnos. Of some species the bark is febrifugal.

Order 116. Loganiaceæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Loganiæ. Calyx quinque-partite. Corolla hypogynous, regular, or irregular: estivation convolute. Stamens inserted on the corolla, five or one (and therefore not corresponding with the divisions of the corolla): anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally: pollen marked by three bands (MARTIUS). Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules indefinite: style continuous: stigma simple. Fruit either a two-celled capsule, with placentæ finally becoming loose; or a nuculanium with one or two-seeded nucules. Seeds peltate: testa finely reticulated, sometimes winged. Albumen fleshy or cartilaginous. Radicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves entire, opposite, usually with interpetiolar sheathing stipules.—Ex. Logania, Gardneria.

Suborder 2. Potaliæ. MARTIUS. Calyx 4-5-6-partite. Corolla hypogynous, regular, 5-10-divided (not corresponding with the segments of the calyx): estivation contorted-convolute. Stamens inserted on the corolla: pollen elliptical, simple. Ovarium free: style continuous: stigma simple. Placentæ central, four-lobed. Fruit succulent, two- (or spuriously four-) celled. Seeds indefinite, peltate: testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen cartilaginous. Embryo heterotropous (MART.).—Trees or shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, with interpetiolar sheathing stipules.—Ex. Potalia, Fagraea.

Suborder 3. Spigeliæ. MARTIUS. Calyx quinque-partite, regular. Corolla hypogynous, five-lobed: estivation valvate. Stamens five, inserted into the corolla: pollen triangular, the angles globular. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules few: style articulated with the ovary: stigma simple. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two-valved, septicidal, valves separating from the central placenta. Seeds few, nearly definite, small. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo very minute: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves entire, opposite, with stipules or a tendency to produce them.—Ex. Spigelia.

The genera of these three suborders have perhaps no very great affinity with each other. Some have been lopped off the Apocynæ, some taken from the Gentianæ, others from the Rubiaceæ. All botanists now agree that they are osculating eccentric plants; and we have therefore brought them all here under the head of Loganiaceæ. Their general character lies in the free, two-celled ovary, and opposite stipulate leaves.—Their properties seem to be bitter, like the Gentians: some are acrid and emetic like the Apocynæ. The root of Spigelia marilandica is vermifuge, and in large doses cathartic.

Order 117. Gentianæ. JUSS.

Calyx gamosepalous, usually 5- (sometimes 4-6-8 or 10-) divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, usually regular, marcescent, or deciduous: limb divided into as many lobes as the calyx: estivation imbricate-twisted. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, alternate with the segments, and equal to them in number, some of them occasionally abortive: pollen three-lobed or triple. Ovarium single, of two carpels, the edges of which are either slightly inflexed, or meet in the axis, hence

1-2-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, continuous: stigmas one or two. Fruit capsular or fleshy, one-celled, usually two-valved, septicidal, or rarely (in Menyanthes) loculicidal. Seeds small, indefinite. Embryo straight, in the axis of a soft fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves exstipulate, opposite, and entire (in Menyanthes and Villarsia, usually alternate, toothed, or divided).—Ex. Gentiana, Chlora.

From an examination of very imperfectly ripe fruit, we had concluded that the capsule of Villarsia was loculicidal, and thought ourselves confirmed by Brown, "Valvularum axibus seminiferis." But Gærtner and others assert the contrary: otherwise this character might serve to remove both Menyanthes and Villarsia, and form a distinct suborder. Martius says that the two carpels of the Gentianæ are right and left, and not anterior and posterior; but certainly the one is (at all events where the quinary arrangement holds) opposite to the odd sepal, and the other to the odd petal, which again, with regard to the bractea, appear to us anterior and posterior. The torus presents a disc or gland in Tachia and Villarsia.—The Gentianæ are intensely bitter; and this renders them, without exception, tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal.

Order 118. Bignoniaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Bignoniæ. Calyx divided or entire, sometimes spathaceous. Corolla hypogynous, usually irregular, 4-5-lobed. Stamens five, unequal (one and sometimes three of them being sterile): anthers two-celled. Torus discoid. Ovarium superior, one or two-celled, each cell being often spuriously divided: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma bilamellate. Capsule one or two-celled, sometimes spuriously two or four-celled, two-valved. Seeds transverse, compressed, winged. Albumen none. Embryo straight, foliaceous: radicle next the hilum.—Trees or shrubs, or rarely herbaceous. Leaves opposite or rarely alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Bignonia, Spathodea, Leccemocarpus.

Suborder 2. Didymocarpeæ.¹ Dos. Calyx five-divided, equal. Corolla tubular, irregular, five-lobed, more or less bilabiate: estivation imbricate. Stamens four, didynamous (two sometimes sterile), rarely with the rudiment of a fifth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium superior, one-celled, of two carpels, the contiguous introflexed margins of which diverge, and form two or four spurious cells: ovules indefinite: style filiform: stigma two-lobed or bilamellate, or infundibuliform and entire. Fruit succulent, or capsular or siliquose, and two-valved. Seeds indefinite, small, ovate, or cylindrical, suspended, apterous, sometimes with a coma. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum.—Usually herbaceous, sometimes shrubby plants. Leaves in general opposite, or radical.—Ex. Didymocarpus, Cyrtandra, Fieldia.

Suborder 3. Pedalinæ. R. Brown. Calyx five-divided, nearly equal, rarely spathaceous. Corolla irregular, the tube ventricose, the limb five-lobed, bilabiate. Stamens four, didynamous (two sometimes sterile), with the rudiment of a fifth: anthers bilocular. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium one or two-celled, of two carpels, the introflexed margins of which, by splitting and diverging, constitute several spurious cells: ovules few in each spurious cell: style one: stigma bilamellate or 2-4-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, or rarely capsular and two-valved, spuriously many-celled. Seeds few, large, apterous: pendulous, erect, or transverse. Albumen none. Embryo

straight, next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite.—Ex. Pedalinum, Sesamum. Arrangement and Characters.

Most botanists now agree that these three form but one order. The true Incarvillea has winged and perhaps transverse seeds, and belongs to Bignoniæ; while other species, by some united to it, have pendulous, apterous seeds, and belong to Didymocarpeæ. Ramondia is referred to Didymocarpeæ by Martius, but we know of none who has examined the mature seeds. If these be exalbuminose, then the character of the order may be slightly altered for its reception; in the mean time, on account of the anthers dehiscing by terminal pores, we refer it to the Solanæ. Bignonia seems to have a one-celled fruit, with a transverse septum or projection from its parietal placentæ. Arragoea is too imperfectly known for any one to judge of its place. The Bignoniaceæ are nearly allied to Scrophulariæ and Solanæ, but have no albumen.—Nothing almost is known of their medical properties.

Order 119. Polemoniæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Cobææ. Don. Calyx foliaceous, five-cleft, equal. Corolla campanulate, equal, limb five-lobed: estivation imbricate. Stamens five, equal, inserted on the base of the tube: anthers entire, two-celled. Torus large, discoid, five-angular. Ovarium free, simple, of three carpels, one-celled (spuriously three-celled, by means of the placentæ of each carpel being introflexed and attached to the sides of a solid triangular centre axis): ovules indefinite, ascending: style simple: stigma trifid. Capsule somewhat fleshy, spuriously three-celled, three-valved, septicidal: placentæ attached to the central axis, and separating from the valves. Seeds flat, winged, ascending, in a double row. Albumen thin, fleshy, soft. Embryo straight, large: radicle cylindrical, pointing to the hilum, inferior: cotyledons broad, compressed, cordate.—Climbing diffuse shrubs. Leaves alternate, pinnate, terminated by a tendrils.—Ex. Cobæa.

Suborder 2. Polemoniæ. Juss. Calyx five-divided, persistent, sometimes irregular. Corolla regular, rarely irregular, five-lobed. Stamens five, inserted on the middle of the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its segments. Anthers entire. Torus discoid, lobed. Ovarium free, of three carpels, three-celled, or one-celled (and spuriously three-celled by the introflexed placentæ being united with a triangular central axis): ovules ascending: style simple: stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or spuriously so, three-valved, loculicidal: placentæ in the axis, and separating from the valves. Seeds few or numerous, angular or oval, often enveloped in mucus, ascending, in a single row. Embryo straight, in the axis of a horny albumen: radicle inferior, next the hilum: cotyledons elliptical, foliaceous.—Herbaceous, erect plants. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple or variously divided.—Ex. Polemonium, Phlox, Bonplandia.

This order borders very close on the Bignoniæ, especially Cobæa, in which genus, had the seeds been attached to the margins of the valves, and consequently the septa been merely projections of the placentæ, as in Bignonia, we should have referred it to that order, notwithstanding the trifid stigma, and the presence of some albumen. On the other side, Polemoniæ are allied to Convolvulaceæ, but from this the shape of the embryo is sufficient to distinguish them.

Order 120. Hydroleaceæ. R. Brown.

Calyx five-parted, persistent: estivation imbricated. Corolla regular, not always agreeing with the calyx in

¹ On account of its priority, we have adopted this name, instead of Cyrtandraceæ given to these plants by Dr Jack. Jack's paper was read in May 1822, and published long afterwards in the 14th volume of the Linnæan Transactions; Don's was read on 20th January 1822, and published in July that same year.

the number of its divisions: estivation plicate or imbricate. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla, equal: anthers deeply lobed at the base, two-celled. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, 2-3-celled: ovules indefinite: styles two or three: stigmas incrassate. Fruit capsular, 2-3-celled, loculicidal. Seeds indefinite, very small. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, often covered with glandular or stinging hairs.—Ex. Hydrolea, Diapensia.

Almost exactly intermediate between Polemoniidae and Convolvulaceæ; like the former, having the placentæ often adhering to the axis and separating from the valves, and principally differing in the plurality of styles. From Convolvulaceæ the dehiscence of the capsule, the number of seeds, the albumen, and flat cotyledons, will distinguish them.

Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla deciduous, regular, five-lobed: estivation usually plicate. Stamens five, inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with its segments. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, of two, three, or four carpels, usually syncarpous, rarely apocarpous, usually with two, three, or four cells, rarely by abortion one-celled: ovules erect, definite; when more than one, collateral: style one, sometimes entire, usually bifid, rarely two: stigma obtuse or acute. Capsule 1-4-celled, septifragal and septicidal; sometimes without valves, or a pyxidium. Seeds at the base of the placentæ. Albumen mucilaginous. Embryo curved: radicle inferior: cotyledons corrugated, rarely inconspicuous.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs, usually twining and with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Convolvulus, Falkia, Cuscuta. (Plate CXIX.)

Cuscuta, from its having no leaves developed, has, as may be presumed, no conspicuous cotyledons. Analogy, however, enables us to assert that they do exist, although in an abortive state. In Cuscuta the calyx and corolla are sometimes four-lobed, the stamens four. Dichondra and Falkia, usually described as with apocarpous ovaries, ought rather, by analogy, to be considered as syncarpous, with a deeply-divided style.—An acrid, purgative, milky juice abounds in the roots: the Jalap and Scammony are obtained from those of species of Convolvulus. The roots of C. batatas (or sweet potato) and C. edulis are eaten.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) toothed. Corolla with the limb 5-4- (rarely 10-) cleft. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers versatile. Ovarium free, four-celled: ovule solitary: style continuous: stigma four-cleft. Fruit with a fleshy epicarp; sarcocarp bony, four-celled (some of them occasionally abortive). Seed erect, attached to a long funiculus that proceeds from the apex of the cell to the base. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons plaited longitudinally.—Trees. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers panicled.—Ex. Cordia, Varronia.

Perhaps not distinct from Boraginæ, but somewhat allied to Convolvulaceæ by the plaited cotyledons.—The flesh of the fruit is mucilaginous and emollient. The Sebestena plums are produced by Cordia Myxa and C. Sebestena.

Suborder 1. Ehreticeæ. MART. Calyx five-parted: estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, limb five-divided: estivation imbricate. Stamens five, inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, simple, two or four celled: ovules four, suspended: style terminal: stigma simple, two-lobed. Fruit a nuculanum. Seeds four, sus-

pended, some occasionally abortive. Albumen very thin and fleshy, or wanting. Embryo straight or curved: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, scabrous, or harshly pubescent, exstipulate. Flowers in corymbose spikes, or panicles.—Ex. Ehretia, Tournefortia.

Suborder 2. Heliotropiceæ. MART. Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla regular, five-lobed: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, entire, or two-lobed, four-celled: ovules four, pendulous: style terminal or between the lobes, simple: stigma simple or bifid. Fruit dry, separable into four achenia. Seed pendulous, solitary. Albumen none, or very thin and fleshy. Radicle minute, next the hilum, superior: cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex, or convolute.—Somewhat shrubby or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers in terminal, fasciculated or corymbose spikes.—Ex. Heliotropium, Tiaridium, Coldenia.

Suborder 3. Boragaceæ. Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla regular, five-cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers erect. Ovarium four-lobed, four-celled: ovules four, each suspended from the inner angle and near the summit of the cell: style simple, arising from the base of the lobes of the ovary: stigma simple or bifid. Fruit a microbasis, separable into four achenium-like, or two bilocular bony, portions. Seed suspended. Albumen none. Radicle superior, short: cotyledons plano-convex.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs: stem terete. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers usually spicate.—Ex. Borago, Myosotis.

There is scarcely any good character between these. The first may be best distinguished by its fleshy fruit, the last by the fruit being a microbase, and the second by the fruit being dry and yet not a microbase. In the Boragaceæ, as may be easily seen in Cerinthæ, a placenta, or rather a conducting thread, passes up through the sarcocarp at the inner angle of each part of the fruit, and enters the cell between the middle and the summit, bearing the seeds, which are thus suspended, not erect as some botanists say. In Tiaridium the fruit has two dividing lobes, between which the style is inserted: a cord passes from its base along the middle of each lobe, to near the apex, where it enters each cell, forming a double placenta. Coldenia seems to have a thin albumen, and somewhat convolute cotyledons. The Ehreticeæ, on account of the fleshy fruit, formed part of the original family of Sebestenæ (Cordiaceæ) of Ventenat. Although we have termed the fruit in all these four-celled, it, however, consists only of two cells, each of which is divided into two by an incrasation and inflexion of the dorsal nerve. A fifth part is sometimes suppressed from the calyx, corolla, and stamens.—The Boragaceæ are mucilaginous and emollient. Some contain nitrate of potash, which gives a coolness to the beverage in which their leaves are steeped. The roots of others give out a reddish brown dye.

Calyx five- or ten-divided, persistent. Corolla regular or nearly so, five-lobed, with two lamellæ towards the base of each constituent petal. Stamens alternate with the lobes of the corolla: anthers ovate, two-celled, versatile, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, simple, one-celled: ovules definite or indefinite, suspended: style terminal, bifid: stigma two. Placentæ two, parietal, or on stalks from the base of the cavity. Fruit capsular, one-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds definite or indefinite. Embryo small at the umbilical extremity of a copious cartilaginous albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous his-

pid plants. Leaves opposite, or alternate and lobed.—
Ex. Hydrophyllum, Phacelia.

Closely allied to Boragineæ, from which Mr Brown separated them in the Prodromus Floræ Nov. Holl., and in the appendix to Franklin's Overland Expedition. What are termed here stalked placentæ, are, we suspect, the parietal placentæ detached from the back of each valve, but remaining attached to the base of the cell.

Order 125. Solanææ. Juss.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) parted, persistent. Corolla with the limb five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, or somewhat unequal, deciduous: estivation plicate, or in some imbricate. Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments, sometimes one abortive: anthers bursting longitudinally or by terminal pores. Ovarium two or more celled, rarely one-celled: ovules usually indefinite: style continuous: stigma obtuse, rarely lobed. Fruit either a capsule, which is 2-4-celled, 2-4-valved, and septicidal, or opening transversely with a double dissepiment; rarely one-celled, two-valved, the margins introflexed, and bearing the placentæ: or a 2-4-celled berry, with the placentæ adhering to the dissepiment; or a nuculanum, with five or more nucules which have spurious one or more cells with one seed in each. Seeds sessile. Embryo more or less curved, often eccentric, lying in a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves alternate.—Ex. Solanum, Nicotiana; Nolana; Verbascum, Anthocercis.

Allied to both Convolvulaceæ and Boragineæ, with which last, and also with Hydrophyllæ, it has sometimes been proposed to associate Nolana: this genus, indeed, merits being made into a suborder. As to Verbascum, Ramondia, Celsia, Anthocercis, and Duboisia, they have the habit of the Solanææ, but the imbricate corolla, unequal stamens, and almost straight embryo, of the Scrophularineæ; and if they are not conjoined with these, and the character of the present order thus made more rigorous, we cannot point out a decided distinguishing character between the two families. Ramondia has a unilocular fruit. Trigenera seems to have an irregular, plicate corolla, and the fruit a tetrachenium; but this genus is little known.—Upon the whole, the leaves of the Solanææ are narcotic and acrid: those of Verbascum, however, and probably of the others with an imbricate corolla, are mucilaginous. The roots are usually poisonous. The fruit is also in general very poisonous, although, whether by the effects of cultivation, or some peculiarity in the plants themselves, that of the Love-apple, Tomato, Capsicum, and a few others, are eaten without inconvenience. The tubers formed on the potato-plant are, when boiled, highly alimentary. The dominant property of these vegetables is their stupifying action, which is usually joined to an acrid principle. The σπέρμης of Homer (Od. iv. l. 221), supposed by some to be the poppy, seems rather to be the Hyoscyamus, which has still a similar name applied to it in some eastern languages.

Order 126. Orobanchææ. VENT.

Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, usually bilabiate, persistent: estivation imbricate. Stamens four, didynamous. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium free, one-celled, of two carpels, whose edges are sometimes slightly introflexed and divaricated: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma two-lobed. Fruit capsular, inclosed within the withered corolla, one-celled, loculicidæ. Seeds indefinite, minute. Embryo very minute, lodged in a lateral hollow near the apex of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, leafless, parasitical plants.—Ex. Orobanche, Lathraea.

Richard, and Nuttal (under his genus Epiphyagus), describe the embryo situated as above: Gærtner, how-

ever, figures it in Lathraea at the base of the albumen; but the character is too minute to be of much use. This order approaches very close to the following, from which, however, it is easily distinguished; and also to the Gesneriaceæ.—Orobanche major is powerfully astringent.

Order 127. Scrophularineæ. Juss.

Calyx divided, unequal, persistent. Corolla usually irregular and bilabiate or perianth, deciduous: estivation imbricate. Stamens usually four, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes two. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules definite or indefinite: style simple: stigma two-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit capsular (rarely fleshy), two-celled (rarely, by the obliteration of the dissepiments, one-celled), 2-4-valved, loculicidal or septicidal: dissepiment distinctly double, or apparently single. Placentæ central in maturity, either remaining attached to the dissepiment, or becoming loose. Seeds definite or indefinite. Embryo straight, included within a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, seldom shrubby, plants. Leaves usually opposite.—Ex. Veronica, Erinus, Scrophularia, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum.

After Brown, we unite the Pedicularæ of Jussieu to the Scrophularineæ, the two kinds of dehiscence of the capsule being found sometimes in the same genus. Richard, in 1828, proposed to make use of another character, viz. the direction of the embryo, which he supposes to be orthotropous in the true Scrophularineæ, and heterotropous or inverted in the Pedicularæ or Rhinanthaceæ. Mr Lindley has therefore lately availed himself of this structure. But the only genera we can discover with a heterotropous embryo are, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum, and Pedicularis; Euphrasia and Bartsia, so allied to them, having it orthotropous. In the above three the embryo is minute, while in all the others it occupies a great part of the length of the albumen.—This family presents no great uniformity in its properties; the greater number, nevertheless, containing a principle more or less acrid, purgative in Gratiola and some Scrophulariæ, but so powerful in Digitalis purpurea (the fox-glove), that this plant is very poisonous unless in small doses. Euphrasia is slightly astringent and aromatic, without the deleterious qualities of the other genera.

Order 128. Labiataæ. Juss.

Calyx tubular, regular, or bilabiate, persistent. Corolla bilabiate: upper lip entire or bifid, lower three-cleft: the upper in estivation overlapping the lower. Stamens four, didynamous (two being sometimes abortive), inserted on the corolla, alternate with the lobes of the lower lip: anthers two-celled, sometimes apparently one-celled, either by the obliteration of the septum, or by the abortion of a cell. Ovarium free, deeply four-lobed: ovules four: style one, proceeding from the base of the lobes: stigma bifid, usually acute, sometimes unequal or dilated. Fruit a microbasis, separable into four achenia. Seeds erect, some of them occasionally abortive. Albumen none, or very thin. Radicle inferior: cotyledons flat.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants, with quadrangular stems. Leaves opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Salevia, Teucrium, Scutellaria.

The Labiate approach to the Boragineæ, and also to the Verbenaceæ. The leaves are full of little utricles of oil.—Two principles are found in these plants; the one aromatic and stimulant owing to the abundance of the essential oil, the other bitter; and, according as the one or the other predominates, so they are cordial, sudorific, and antispasmodic, or tonic and stomachic. The order contains no dangerous plants.

Order 129. Verbenaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Myoporinaæ. R. BROWN. Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla nearly equal, or bilabiate. Stamens four, didynamous, with the rudiment of a fifth some-

times bearing pollen. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, 2-4-celled: ovules four, pendulous: style one: stigma scarcely divided. Fruit an osteocarpium, with a fleshy epicarp and bony sarcocarp, with 2-4-cells: seeds four. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a firm albumen: radicle superior.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Myoporum, Bontia.

Suborder 2. Verbeneæ. Calyx tubular, persistent. Corolla tubular, deciduous, limb usually irregular. Stamens four, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes only two. Ovarium free, 2-4-celled: ovules four, erect, rarely pendulous, and then becoming erect after fecundation: style one: stigma bifid or entire. Fruit an osteocarpium, or nucularium, or a tetrachenium (the epicarp being sometimes extremely thin). Seeds erect, four, or by abortion three or one. Albumen none, or very thin. Embryo straight: radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs, rarely herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Verbena, Vitex, Avicennia.

Suborder 3. Selagineæ. Juss. Calyx tubular, rarely of two sepals, persistent. Corolla tubular; limb five-lobed, irregular. Stamens four, usually didynamous, seldom only two, inserted on the top of the tube of the corolla: anthers one-celled. Ovarium free, very minute: style one, filiform. Fruit membranous, two-celled, one cell often abortive. Seed solitary in each cell, erect. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Herbaceous or shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Selago, Hebenstreitia.

These have a somewhat similar habit, and only differ from each other by very minute characters. Through Verbena they are allied to the last order; and through Selagineæ to both Scrophularineæ and Acanthaceæ.—Their properties are of little importance; the Verbeneæ has long since fallen into disrepute; and the fruit of the Vitex Agnus-castus, being hot and aromatic, may be expected to produce a contrary effect from that from which the plant derived its name. The bark of Avicennia tomentosa is used in Brazil for tanning. The Teak-tree of East India belongs to this family.

Order 130. Acanthaceæ. Juss.

Calyx 5-4-divided, equal or unequal, rarely either multifid or entire and obsolete, persistent. Corolla mostly irregular, with the limb ringent or bilabiate, or occasionally with one lip, sometimes nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens mostly two, sometimes with other two or three shorter ones, two of which are sometimes fertile: anthers either two-celled or one-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules two or many in each cell: style one: stigma two-lobed or entire. Placenta in the axis. Capsule two-celled, elastically two-valved, loculicidal. Seeds two or many in each cell, sometimes by abortion solitary, ascending, usually subtended by rigid subulate persistent ascending processes from the placenta: testa loose. Albumen none. Embryo curved or straight: radicle cylindrical, descending, next the hilum: cotyledons large, foliaceous.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers with three (or by abortion two) bracts to each.—Ex. Acanthus, Justicia.

The flowers, as in Thunbergia, have sometimes large bracts inclosing an obsolete calyx. They approach the Scrophularineæ in habit, and Bignoniaceæ in character, from which it is extremely difficult to separate those genera that want the hooked processes of the placenta.—Acanthus mollis is considered emollient. The properties of the other genera of this order are almost unknown.

Order 131. Lentibularieæ. RICHARD.

Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, bilabiate,

with a spur. Stamens two, included within the corolla, and inserted into its base: anthers one-celled, sometimes contracted in the middle. Ovarium free, of two carpels, one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, very short: stigma unequally bilamellate. Placenta central, erect, globular. Fruit capsular, one-celled, opening transversely, or by a longitudinal cleft at the apex. Seeds minute. Albumen none. Embryo with two (sometimes inconspicuous) cotyledons.—Herbaceous, marsh or water plants, or parasites. Leaves radical, often abortive. Flowers on scapes.—Ex. Pinguicula, Utricularia.

These are most closely allied to the Scrophularineæ, from which they are distinguished by the ovary being one-celled, or, in other words, by the inflexed part of the carpellary leaves being at an early age obliterated. The large, central, free placenta allies them to the Primulaceæ; but these have more than two carpellary leaves and a copious albumen.

Order 132. Primulaceæ. Juss.

Calyx five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, rarely perigynous, with the limb regular, five- (rarely four-) cleft, rarely wanting. Stamens inserted upon the corolla or hypogynous, equal in number, and opposite to its segments. Ovarium free (rarely with its base adherent to the calyx), one-celled, of five (rarely four) carpels: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma capitate. Placenta central, free. Capsule opening by valves, or a pyxidium. Seeds numerous, peltate. Embryo straight, cylindrical, inclosed within a fleshy albumen, transverse, or rarely in the axis.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite.—Ex. Primula, Trientalis.

Closely allied through the last order to Scrophularineæ and the other Hypocorollæ: to Myrsineæ however it has the greatest affinity, from which it is best known by its capsular and not fleshy fruit. Samolus has the ovary only partly free, and has five sterile stamens alternate with the fertile ones, but cannot be confounded with any of the Pericorollæ if we consider the structure of the fruit and seed. Glaux has no petals, but the stamens are still alternate with the sepals; Don has united it with the Plantagineæ on account of the embryo being in the axis of the albumen; but the stamens are erect in estivation, and the fruit one-celled.—The Cowslip is slightly narcotic, and the root of the Cyclamen acrid; but little is known about their properties.

Order 133. Globularineæ. D. C.

Calyx five-cleft, usually equal, sometimes bilabiate, persistent. Corolla tubular, five-parted, bilabiate, or rarely of one lip. Stamens four, somewhat didynamous, inserted into the top of the tube of the corolla, alternate with the segments of the lower lip: anthers reniform, one-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style filiform, persistent: stigma bifid. Fruit indehiscent. Seed pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Shrubby or herbaceous plants, with perennial roots. Leaves alternate. Flowers capitate, on a paleaceous bracted receptacle.—Ex. Globularia.

Jussieu and De Candolle considered this allied to the Primulaceæ. Cambessedes has lately demonstrated their affinity with the Verbenaceæ (Selagineæ), and more particularly with the Dipsaceæ. Perhaps they ought to be placed in the vicinity of the Brunoniaceæ and Goodenoviæ, with which last they agree in the irregular corolla: but in the Dipsaceæ and these two the torus surrounds the ovary, and either appears on its surface in the shape of a disc, or incloses the style and forms a cup under the stigma, whereas here it is almost imperceptible at the bottom of the calyx.—Bitter, tonic, and purgative.

Order 134. Plumbagineæ. Juss.

Calyx tubular, persistent: estivation plicate: corolla

gampetalous, or of five distinct petals, regular. Stamens five, hypogynous when the petals are combined, inserted into the base of the petals when distinct. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous from the extremity of an umbilical cord arising from the bottom of the cell: styles five, seldom three or four, each bearing a subulate stigma. Fruit a utricle. Seed pendulous: testa and tegmen combined. Embryo straight, in the axis of a farinaceous albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous or suffruticose plants. Leaves alternate or fascicled, somewhat sheathing at the base. Flowers panicled, either loosely or in a capitate manner.—Ex. Plumbago, Statice, Armeria.

Jussieu and De Candolle consider the calyx as a kind of involucre, and the petals as a perianth, probably on account of other points of resemblance between this order and Nyctagineæ, in which there is no corolla.—The genus Plumbago is caustic and acrid. Statice is tonic and astringent.

Order 135. Plantagineæ. Juss.

Sepals four (rarely three), somewhat unequal, persistent: estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, with a four-(rarely three-) parted limb, scarious, persistent. Stamens four, inserted into the tube of the corolla, or its base, alternate with its segments: filaments long, filiform, doubled inwards before fecundation: anthers versatile, two-celled. Torus inconspicuous. Ovarium free, two-seldom four- and very rarely one-celled: ovules solitary, in pairs, or indefinite: style simple capillary: stigma hispid, simple or rarely bifid. Fruit a pyxidium, inclosed within the persistent corolla. Seeds sessile, peltate or erect: testa mucilaginous. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior.—Herbaceous and generally stemless plants. Flowers bisexual in spikes, or unisexual and solitary, the male on a long peduncle, the female sessile.—Ex. Plantago, Littorella.

We agree with Brown and some others, that this has a true calyx. In the genus Plantago, the filaments, although only freed from the corolla in their upper part, really have the same origin as the corolla, but are adnate to its tube.—The Plantains are bitter, astringent, and slightly febrifugal.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(8. Hypostamineæ. Juss.)

Order 136. Nyctagineæ. Juss.

Perianth tubular, coloured, contracted in the middle, becoming indurated at the base; limb entire or toothed: estivation plicate. Stamens definite, hypogynous: anthers two-celled. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary erect: style one; stigma one. Fruit a Caryopsis, inclosed within the enlarged persistent tube of the perianth. Embryo rolled round a farinaceous albumen: radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves opposite, rarely alternate. Flowers with an involucre, which is either common or proper, one or many-leaved, or sometimes minute.—Ex. Mirabilis, Boerhaavia.

The nearest affinity of this order is with Plumbagineæ, but particularly with Polygonææ: it is, however, very distinct from either. The genus Mirabilis, that word being an adjective, ought to be called Nyctago.—The root of the Marvel of Peru, and most others of this family, is purgative.

Order 137. Amaranthaceæ. Juss.

Perianth 3-5-partite, scarious, persistent, with usually two bracteoles at the base. Stamens as numerous as the segments of the perianth, distinct, or united into a membranous cup or tube, occasionally partly abortive, often with intermediate barren filaments or processes: anthers two-celled or one-celled. Ovarium single, free, one-celled: ovules solitary or several, suspended from a free cen-

tral funiculus: style one or none. Stigma simple or compound. Fruit an utricle or a pyxidium, rarely a berry. Seeds lentiform, pendulous: testa crustaceous. Embryo curved round a central farinaceous albumen: radicle near the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate. Flowers capitate or in spikes, usually bisexual.—Ex. Amaranthus, Gomphrena, Deeringia.

Closely allied in many respects to the Illecebrææ: nor is it easy to point out any general distinguishing character. Martius supposes the bracteoles to be a true calyx, and the perianth a corolla.—The leaves are mucilaginous. This order is chiefly cultivated for its showy flowers.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(9. Peristamineæ. Juss.)

Order 138. Chenopodeæ. D. C.

Perianth ebracteate, deeply divided, sometimes tubular at the base, persistent: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, or sometimes hypogynous opposite its segments, and equal to them in number, occasionally fewer. Ovarium single, free, or sometimes cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovule solitary, attached to the base of the cell: style 2-4-divided: stigmas simple. Fruit indehiscent, membranous, inclosed in the calyx, which becomes often enlarged or fleshy. Seed erect or resupinate. Embryo curved, placed round a farinaceous albumen, or spiral, or doubled together without albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, sometimes opposite, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual.—Ex. Chenopodium, Atriplex.

Very difficult to be distinguished by a character from the last order, although usually with a habit very different.—Some, as the Spinage, are used as pot-herbs: of others, the root, as of the Beet, is eaten.—Many possess an essential oil. The Salsolæ, Salicornia, and others, yield much soda.

Order 139. Phytolaccaceæ. R. Brown.

Suborder 1. Phytolaccææ. Perianth 2-4-5-partite. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, indefinite, or as few as the segments of the perianth, alternate with them. Ovarium of one or several carpels, syncarpous or apocarpous: ovule one in each carpel, ascending: styles equal to the number of the carpels, terminal in the simple ovary, lateral in the apocarpous: stigmas simple or divided. Fruit baccate or dry, indehiscent. Seeds solitary, ascending. Embryo curved round a fleshy (rarely a fleshy) albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, often with pellucid dots.—Ex. Phytolacca, Rivina, Gisekia, Theligonum.

Suborder 2. Petiveriæ. Ac. Perianth 4-5-partite. Stamens perigynous, indefinite; or, if occasionally equal in number to the leaves of the perianth, alternate with them. Ovarium one, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style one, lateral: stigma simple or penicillate. Fruit dry, one-celled, indehiscent. Seed erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons convolute.—Leaves alternate, often dotted, with minute deciduous stipules (in Petiveria).—Ex. Petiveria, Seguiera.

We do not see why these ought to be separated; their habit is precisely the same. Microtea and Ancistrocarpus, both with albumen, approach closely to Petiveria by the prickles on the fruit. Rivina also exhibits a tendency to have the cotyledons convolute. We have joined to them Theligonum, although with an oily and somewhat fleshy albumen. De Candolle and Richard do not separate this family from Chenopodeæ.—Phytolacca decandra is a purgative: its root is emetic, as also is a spirit distilled from its berries: but a tincture from them seems to be much

Arrangement and Characters. esteemed for chronic rheumatism. The leaves are acrid; but young shoots, when boiled, are used instead of asparagus.

Order 140. Polygonææ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Persicariæ. Flowers solitary. Perianth divided: estivation imbricate. Stamens definite, inserted into the bottom of the perianth: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium one, free: ovule solitary, erect: styles or stigmas several. Fruit a nut, naked, or covered by the enlarged perianth. Seed erect. Albumen farinaceous, rarely very thin and fleshy. Embryo usually on one side of the albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, sheathing at the base, or adhering there to infrafoliaceous stipules, revolute when young. Flowers often unisexual.—Ex. Polygonum, Rumex.

Suborder 2. Eriogonææ. Flowers bisexual, collected in a campanulate involucre. Perianth campanulate, six-cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens nine, inserted into the bottom of the perianth: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovary one, free: ovule solitary, erect: stigmas three. Fruit an achenium, covered by the persistent perianth. Seed erect. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen: radicle superior, remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, usually tomentose, neither sheathing nor with infrafoliaceous stipules.—Ex. Eriogonum.

The erect ovule and superior radicle will distinguish this at once from the two last orders. The second suborder contains, in addition to Eriogonum, an allied genus from South America, in which the segments of the involucre terminate in spiny processes, and the fruit is lenticular, although with a triangular beak.—In almost all the species the root and young leaves have an astringent and acid taste, the first owing to the presence of tannin and gallic acid, the second to oxalic acid, which makes them rank among tonic medicines. The roots of some, as the rhubarb, possess, in addition, a purgative property. The seeds of all, with the exception of those of Polygonum hydropiper, which are hot and acrid, may be used as food, like those of most other orders with a copious farinaceous albumen.

Order 141. Begoniææ. R. BROWN.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth coloured; of four or sometimes 3-9 in the males, or 5-6 in the females, petals or leaves, of which some are smaller than the others: estivation imbricate. Stamens indefinite, distinct, or united into a single column: anthers collected in a head, continuous, clavate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally, with a very thick connectivum. Ovarium coherent with the tube of the perianth, of three carpels, each with the dorsal nerve winged, three-celled: ovules indefinite: stigmas three, sessile, two-lobed, somewhat spirally twisted. Placenta in the axis. Fruit membranous, capsular, triangular, three-celled, loculicid (bursting at the angles) below. Seeds indefinite: testa thin, reticulated. Albumen 0. Embryo oblong: radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves alternate, oblique at the base, with scarious stipules.—Ex. Begonia (Plate CXVIII.)

Closely allied to the Polygonææ in several respects, but distinguishable from them by a multitude of characters: some slight relation they also bear to Loasææ and Onagraceæ. Mr Lindley once considered them as having affinity with Saxifragææ (Hydrangææ), and Link places them near Umbelliferæ.—The leaves and young shoots are acid, and may be used, like those of the rhubarb, for tarts. The roots are astringent and slightly bitter.

Order 142. Laurineæ. Juss.

Perianth 4-6-cleft, the limb sometimes obsolete: esti-

vation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, definite, opposite to the segments of the perianth; more often twice as many, and in two rows, in which case the outer row is almost always fertile, while such of the inner row as are opposite the inner segments of the perianth are sterile: filaments of the inner row often with glands at their base: anthers 2-4 celled, cells opening by a longitudinal persistent valve from the base to the apex, outer row intorse, inner row extorse. Ovarium single, free or rarely adherent, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style one: stigma obtuse. Fruit fleshy, naked, or covered by the enlarged and fleshy perianth. Seed one, pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle short, superior: cotyledons large, usually plano-convex and peltate near the base, rarely convolute: plumule conspicuous, two-leaved.—Trees. Leaves exstipulate, alternate, or seldom opposite. Sometimes twining, parasitic, suffrutescent, or herbaceous plants, without leaves.—Ex. Laurus, Cassya.

Perhaps Gyrocarpus, having an adherent ovary, a drupe with two winged processes at its apex, and convolute peltate cotyledons, ought to form a small suborder. The Laurineæ are allied to the Berberideæ and Monimeæ by their valvular anthers.—Cinnamon, camphor, benzoin, and sassafras, are the products of this family: indeed all the species are aromatic, warm, and stomachic.

Order 143. Hernandiææ. BLUME.

Perianth petaloid, tubular, 4-8-parted, deciduous, with a small involucre or outer perianth around the flowers that contain pistils. Stamens perigynous definite, in two rows, of which the outer is often sterile: anthers bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule pendulous: style one or none: stigma peltate. Fruit a fibrous drupe. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior: cotyledons somewhat lobed, shrivelled, oily.—Trees. Leaves alternate, entire.—Ex. Hernandia, Inocarpus.

Allied to Laurineæ and Myristicæ, differing from the former by its anthers, from the latter by its want of albumen. Mr Lindley has also explained its affinity to the Thymelææ.—The bark, young leaves, and seed of Hernandia, are slightly purgative. The seeds of the Inocarpus are eaten, and have a taste similar to chestnuts.

Order 144. Myristaceæ. R. BROWN.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth trifid, in the female deciduous: estivation valvular. Stamens 3-12 (definite): filaments combined closely into a cylinder: anthers connate or distinct, two-celled, extorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style very short: stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit baccate, one-celled, two-valved. Seed solitary, erect, nut-like, covered by a deeply laciniated arillus. Albumen ruminated, between fatty and fleshy. Embryo small, at the base of the albumen. Radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous: plumule conspicuous.—Trees, with often a red juice. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, coriaceous, not dotted.—Ex. Myristica (Plate CXX.)

Mr Brown remarks that the stamens or anthers, however numerous, are always a multiple of the number of the segments of the perianth, and therefore definite.—The use of the mace or arillus, and albumen, of the nutmeg, is well known, as highly aromatic. The bark, however, has an acrid juice, and the fleshy part of the fruit is caustic.

Order 145. Proteaceæ. Juss.

Perianth more or less deeply 4-divided: estivation valvular. Stamens perigynous, four (one sometimes sterile), opposite the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium solitary, free, sessile or stalked, one-celled: ovules solitary, or rarely in pairs: style simple: stigma discoid, slightly oblique. Fruit deliscent or indehiscent, one-celled. Seed sometimes winged: testa thick. Albumen none. Embryo straight:

radicle inferior, and below the hilum: cotyledons sometimes more than two.—Shrubs or small trees. Leaves hard, dry, opposite or alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Protea, Banksia, Persoonia.

A very distinct order, and scarcely to be confounded with any other.—They are handsome evergreens, much prized by gardeners, but of no use except as firewood.

Order 146. Elaeagnææ. Juss.
Perianth tubular, the limb entire or 2-4-toothed; consisting, in purely staminiferous flowers, of 3-4 tepals; persistent. Stamens three, four, or eight, alternate with the segments of the perianth: anthers nearly sessile, two-celled, erect, bursting on the inner side and longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, ascending, on a short funiculus: style short: stigma simple, subulate, glandular. Fruit a crustaceous achenium, inclosed within the persistent, enlarged, and fleshy tube of the perianth. Seed ascending. Embryo straight, surrounded by a thin fleshy albumen: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, entire, alternate or opposite, exstipulate, covered beneath with leprosy scales. Flowers dioecious or rarely bisexual.—Elaeagnus, Hippophae.

This order is allied to several in the neighbourhood, and also to Combretaceæ.—The fleshy enlarged perianth of several species is eaten.

Order 147. Penæææ. R. BROWN.
Perianth coloured, more or less deeply 4-divided, regular, persistent. Stamens perigynous, four (or eight, and then the four additional ones are longer than the others), alternate with the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, opening inwards and longitudinally. Ovarium free, 4-celled: ovules two, collateral in each cell, resupinately erect, or pendulous; forams near the hilum: style one, entire or 4-fid: stigmas four, or one entire or 4-lobed. Fruit a capsule, 4-celled, 4-valved, loculicide, with no persistent axis: seeds erect (by resupination), or pendulous, two in each cell, rarely solitary, with an imperfect fungus-like arillus at the hilum: testa brittle: nucleus fleshy. Radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, exstipulate. Flowers with two or more bracteas at their base.—Ex. Penæa, Sarcocolla.

We have examined the structure of the seeds of this order, and have come to the same conclusions as Gærtner, Lindley, and Kunth. The nucleus seems quite homogeneous, solid, and fleshy. There is no part in particular that one can describe as albumen, or cotyledons, or radicle; but from the situation of the foramen in the ovule, it may be presumed that the radicle points to the hilum. In those with erect seeds, the raphe is on the outer side of the seed, that is, at the opposite side from the placenta, and therefore we consider them resupinate.—The Gum-resin called Sarcocolla is obtained from several species.

Order 148. Thymelæææ. Juss.
Perianth tubular, coloured, 4- (rarely 5-) cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens definite, perigynous, usually eight, sometimes four (or more rarely two) and then opposite to the segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule one, pendulous: style one: stigma entire. Fruit a nut or a drupe. Albumen none, or thin and fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons plano-convex: plumule inconspicuous.—Shrubs, or rarely herbaceous plants, with a tough bark. Leaves entire, alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Daphne, Passerina.

Allied to Santalaceæ, Elaeagnæææ, and Proteaceæ, from which they are readily known by one or two of the characters given.—The bark is caustic: it is composed of tenacious interlaced fibres, easily separable, which are sometimes worked into cordage: in the lace bark tree

(Daphne Laghetto), the inner bark resembles a piece of fine lace; that of Daphne Gardneri, and some others, is manufactured into paper. The berries of D. Laureola are poisonous to all animals except birds.

Order 149. Aquilarineææ. R. BROWN.
Perianth coriaceous, tubular, five-lobed. Stamens monadelphous; ten fertile, alternating with ten that are sterile and sometimes petaloid: anthers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, ovate, of two carpels, one-celled: ovules two, suspended, acuminated, with the foramen at the apex: stigma sessile, simple. Placentas parietal. Capsule pyriform, one-celled, two-valved, loculicide. Seeds two (one to each placenta), arillate, or winged.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Aquilaria, Gyrinops.

The above account of this little-known order we owe to Mr Lindley; and, if his observations be correct, the seed is probably suspended, and the radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum. On account of the capsule being extremely compressed at the sutures of the valves, it is very difficult to determine whether the margins are not so much introflexed as to meet, and thus form a true dissipiment, and the fruit two-celled, as it has hitherto been described by Gærtner and Lamarck. Gærtner, moreover, describes and figures the seeds of Gyrinops as ascending. Nothing yet is known of the internal structure of the seed. Mr Brown arranges this order next to, if it do not form part of, Chailletiaceæ, and mentions its relation to Thymelæææ. The ambiguous kind of capsule, and appendage to the seeds, seem to point out some affinity with Penææææ and Polygalæææ. If the above description be correct, this order borders very closely on the Samydeææ.

Order 150. Chailletiaceææ. R. BROWN.
Perianth five-partite, tepals persistent: estivation imbricate (D. C.) or valvate (LINDL.). Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, and opposite its lobes, with alternating, sterile, petaloid, often bifid, filaments, each of which has usually a gland at its base on the inside: anthers ovate, versatile, two-celled. Ovarium free, 2-3-celled: ovules two in each cell, collateral, pendulous: styles 2-3, distinct or combined: stigmas capitate. Fruit an osteocarpium, with the epicarp rather dry and coriaceous, or a capsule, 2-3-celled, one or two cells being often abortive. Seeds solitary in each cell, pendulous. Albumen none. Embryo thick: radicle short, superior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with two stipules. Peduncles axillary, often cohering with the petiole.—Ex. Chailletia, Tapura.

Plants with the appearance of Celtis (Amentaceææ); they are allied somewhat to Terebinthaceææ, and also to Rosaceæææ.—Chailletia toxicaria is said to be poisonous.

Order 151. Samydeææ. GÆRTNER.
Perianth usually 5- (sometimes 3-7-) divided, coloured on the inside: estivation somewhat imbricate, seldom completely valvate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the perianth, two, three, or four times as many as its segments, either all fertile, or the alternate ones shorter, vilous or ciliated, and sterile: filaments monadelphous at the base: anthers erect, ovate, two-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, filiform: stigma capitate, or slightly lobed. Placentæ parietal. Capsule coriaceous, one-celled, 3-5-valved, dehiscing imperfectly; the inside often somewhat pulpy, and coloured. Seeds attached to the valves, not in any evident order, on the papillose or pulpy part, with a fleshy arillus and excavated hilum. Albumen fleshy. Embryo minute: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons ovate, foliaceous, plicate.—Leaves alternate, simple, with round and linear pellucid dots mixed, stipulate.—Ex. Samyda, Cascaria.

The structure of the fruit shows great affinity with the Bixineæ and Flacourtiæ; in some respects also it is allied to Rosaceæ; but it approaches most to Chailetiæ.—The bark and leaves are said to be slightly astringent.

Order 152. Homalinee. R. BROWN.

Perianth with a short tube, the limb 4-15-partite, with usually as many alternating petaloid segments, either in the same row or forming an inner series. Glands or scales generally present in front of the outer or proper divisions of the perianth. Stamens perigynous, alternating singly, or in parcels of threes or sixes, with the outer segments of the perianth: anthers three-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium partly cohering with the tube of the calyx or free, syncarpous, one-celled: ovules numerous: styles 3-5 (sometimes combined), simple, filiform, or subulate: stigmas 3-5. Placentæ 3-5, parietal. Fruit bacate or capsular, one-celled. Seeds sometimes arillate. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Homalium, Pineda, Azara.

This order is closely allied to Bixineæ and Samydeæ. Some botanists consider the alternate segments of the perianth as petals, and arrange it near to Rosaceæ.—The properties are unknown.

DIV. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(10. Epistamineæ. JUSS.)

Order 153. Santalaceæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Exocarpeæ. Perianth five- (rarely four-) partite, or of three tepals. Stamens perigynous, as numerous as the segments of the perianth, and opposite to them. Ovarium free, or partly cohering with the tube of the perianth: style short or none: stigma obtuse or lobed. Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed solitary. Embryo minute, in a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Exocarpus, Anthobolus.

Suborder 2. Santaleæ. Perianth 4-5-cleft: estivation valvate. Stamens 4-5, opposite the segments of the perianth, and inserted at their base. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules 2-4, pendulous from near the apex of a central placenta: style one: stigma often lobed. Fruit nut-like or drupaceous. Seed solitary. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, or nearly opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Santalum, Thesium.

Suborder 3. Nysseæ. JUSS. Perianth 4-5-cleft. Stamens (in the bisexual flowers) opposite the segments of the perianth, as numerous, and inserted at their base: in the male flowers usually twice as many as the segments. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovule one, occasionally two, pendulous from the apex of the cavity: style one: stigma simple or divided. Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary. Albumen fleshy. Radicle superior: cotyledons broad, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers polygamous.—Ex. Nysa.

Notwithstanding that Exocarpeæ has the fruit wholly or partly free, and therefore belongs to the Peristamineæ, and that Nysseæ has no central placenta, and has foliaceous cotyledons, these three suborders can scarcely be separated. Cereantæ has petaloid scales alternating with the stamens, and, according to Ruiz and Pavon, an erect seed, an embryo at the apex of the albumen, and an inferior radicle, and therefore may be associated with Exocarpeæ till better understood. Sanders wood is the produce of Santalum album.

Order 154. Aristolochieæ. JUSS.

Perianth tubular, three-cleft, regular, or sometimes very unequal: estivation valvate. Stamens (6-12) a multiple of the segments of the perianth, epigynous, distinct, or adhering to the style and stigma. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, 3-6-celled: ovules indefinite, horizontal: style simple, short: stigmas radiating, as numerous as the cells of the ovary. Fruit dry or succulent, 3-6-celled. Seeds numerous. Embryo very minute, placed at the base of a cartilaginous albumen.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves alternate, with often leafy stipules. Flowers axillary, solitary, bisexual.—Ex. Aristolochia, Asarum.

In this family the root is the most active part: it has, particularly in Aristolochia, a bitter, aromatic, and sometimes even slightly acrid taste. This acridity is predominant in Asarum, which is emetic, whilst the other plants are generally stimulant.

Order 155. Cytineæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Rhizantheæ. BLUME. Perianth divided: estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid central column, from the apex of which arise some horned processes: filaments none: anthers cohering with the column, extorse, bursting longitudinally or by terminal pores. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovules indefinite. Placentæ several, broad, parietal. Fruit a pulpy berry. Seeds indefinite, very minute.—Parasitic plants. Stem simple. Leaves in the form of scales. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Cytinus, Rafflesia.

Suborder 2. Nepentheæ. LINK. Perianth four-parted: estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid central column: filaments none: anthers about 16, sessile on and agglomerated into a spherical head at the apex of the column, extorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, four-cornered, spuriously four-celled: ovules indefinite: stigma sessile, somewhat four-lobed. Placentæ parietal, constituting the spurious dissepiments. Fruit a capsule, spuriously four-celled, four-valved, loculicid. Seeds ascending, indefinite, very minute: testa loose, setaceous: tegmen ovate oblong, with a filiform process at each extremity. Embryo oblong, in the midst of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Leaves alternate, slightly sheathing at the base, with a foliaceous petiole that is pitcher-shaped at the extremity, with a lid-like lamina. Flowers unisexual, densely racemose.—Ex. Nepenthes.

Notwithstanding the diversity of habit, we consider these two to be extremely closely allied. In both, the solid central column of the male flowers may be viewed, in whole or in part, as an abortive pistillum. The stamens will thus be epigynous, although in Nepenthes the ovary be free. Perhaps Mr Brown was right in uniting this order as a section to the last.—The properties of Nepenthes are unknown. Cytinus and Rafflesia are astringents.

DIV. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(11. Dielines. JUSS. § 1. Angiospermeæ.)

Order 156. Datisceæ. R. BROWN.

Flowers unisexual. Male: Perianth deeply divided. Stamens several: anthers linear, membranous, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Female: Perianth toothed. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled: ovules indefinite, parietal: styles three or four. Placentæ parietal, as many as the styles. Fruit capsular, opening at the vertex, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, parietal: testa reticulated. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous branched plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Datisca, Tremelleæ.

Mr Lindley considers this as a connecting link between Resedaceæ and Urticæ: Mr Brown, however, thinks that they differ widely. Both the above genera are dicacious.

Order 157. Empetræ. NUTTAL.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth gemmaceous, in four (rarely two) imbricated rows: each series of two or three hypogynous scales alternating with those of the next row; the inner often petaloid. Stamens 2-3, equal in number to the scales of each series, and alternating with the innermost, hypogynous: anthers roundish, two-celled, bursting longitudinally at their margin. Ovarium free, seated on the small fleshy discoid torus, with as many cells as stamens, or twice or thrice as many: ovules solitary, ascending: style one, short, deciduous: stigma radiating, multifid. Fruit a nuculanum, seated within the persistent perianth. Seeds solitary in each nucule, ascending: testa membranous: embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and about the same length: radicle inferior: cotyledons semicylindrical, much shorter than the radicle.—Small heath-like shrubs. Leaves alternate, or somewhat verticillate, exstipulate.—Ex. Empetrum, Corema, Ceratola.

Closely allied to Euphorbiaceæ. It has little or no affinity with the Ericææ, with which it is usually arranged; and as little with Coniferae, where Nuttall places it. Don and most others view the inner series of the perianth as petals, the next as a calyx, and the outer, when present, as bractea, and therefore consider them as allied to Celastrineæ.

Order 158. Euphorbiaceæ. Juss.

Flowers unisexual. Perianth lobed (sometimes wanting), with various internal glandular or petaloid scales (abortive petals) alternating with the lobes. Stamens definite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, sessile, or rarely stalked, 2-3- or sometimes many-celled: carpels arranged round a central column: ovules solitary or in pairs, suspended: styles equal in number to the cells, distinct or combined, sometimes none: stigmas several, or one with several lobes. Fruit of two, three, or more cocci, which are usually distinct and elastically two-valved, sometimes indehiscent or closely cohering. Seeds solitary or in pairs, suspended, arillate. Embryo enclosed in a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, often lactescent. Leaves usually with stipules, opposite or alternate, sometimes none.—Ex. Euphorbia (Plate CXXI.), Buxus, Croton, Ianipha (Plate CXXII.).

This order is usually arranged among the Monochlamydeæ, and next the Urticææ; but if Coriariææ belong to the Thalamifloræ, so ought the Euphorbiaceæ, for the petaloid bodies, often in this family reduced to mere glands, are of the same nature in both. The stigmas of many Euphorbiaceæ resemble much those of Coriariææ; and perhaps the true place for them in a linear series is between the Coriariææ and Celastrineæ.—The plants of this order are acrid, caustic, and poisonous. Their deleterious effects are owing to the milky juice which most of them possess; but they may be deprived of this very easily by means of heat, so that the root of the Ianipha Manioc becomes a wholesome food. The albumen of the seed contains much fat and sweet oil, but the embryo is acrid and purgative. It is impossible to give here the various modifications of the properties to be found in this family. They are discussed at length by Ad. de Jussieu, in his treatise on this family.

Order 159. Urticaceæ. Juss.

Suborder 1. Urticææ. Juss. Flowers unisexual, scattered or clustered. Perianth membranous, lobed, persistent.

Stamens definite, distinct, inserted into the base of the perianth, and opposite its lobes: filaments sometimes curved inwards during estivation. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: stigma simple. Fruit an indehiscent nut, surrounded by the membranous or fleshy perianth. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen 0, or very thin. Embryo straight, or curved, or spiral: radicle superior, remote from the hilum.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, hispid, or scabrous, stipulate.—Ex. Urtica, Cannabis, Humulus.

Suborder 2. Ulmææ. MIRBEL. Flowers bisexual or polygamous, scattered. Perianth campanulate, divided. Stamens definite, inserted into the base of the perianth, erect during estivation: ovarium free, two-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous: style 0: stigmas two. Fruit one or two-celled (one of them abortive), a samara or a drupe. Seed one, pendulous: albumen 0, or very thin. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Ulmus, Celtis.

Suborder 3. Artocarpeæ. R. BROWN. Flowers unisexual, in heads or catkins. Perianth usually divided, sometimes tubular or entire. Stamens solitary or several, straight during estivation. Ovarium free, or rarely cohering with the perianth, 1-2-celled: ovule suspended: style one, filiform: stigma bifid. Fruit a sorosus or syconus, which is sometimes, but very rarely, reduced to a single flower. Seed solitary, suspended. Albumen thin or inconspicuous. Embryo straight or curved: radicle pointing superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with milky juice. Leaves alternate: stipules deciduous, convolute in veneration. Ex. Artocarpus (Plate CXXV.), Morus, Ficus.

We follow Richard and some others in combining these three. The Ulmaceæ, however, from the two-celled ovary, ought perhaps, as has been done by De Candolle and Duby, to be united to the Amentaceæ. Mr Brown says that they should be rejected on account of the pendulous ovules. But then he states Artocarpus to have the ovules erect. Mr Lindley, however, finds them suspended. We have in several species observed them to be peritropal, and in general attached to a point opposite the base of the style: the radicle is however always superior, wherever be the hilum.—In the Urticææ the fibres of the stem are very tenacious. The leaves of the hemp are narcotic. The hop is extremely bitter, and the effluvia is said to cause sleep. The nettles are well known for the stinging property of the hairs on their leaves. The bark of the Elm (Ulmus) is bitter and astringent. The fruit of most of the Artocarpeæ is edible; but the juice is usually acrid, and contains more or less of caoutchouc. The Antiaris toxicaria, the celebrated Upas or poison-tree of Java, belongs to this tribe. Brosimum galactodendron, or the cow-tree of Humboldt, is a solitary instance of the milk being wholesome. The banyan-tree of India is the Ficus religiosa.

Order 160. Monimieæ. Juss.

Flowers unisexual, collected together, the males and females into different involucres: involucre toothed or lobed, valvular during estivation. Perianth 0. Stamens numerous, covering the whole interior of the involucre: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovaria several, sessile, and enclosed within the tube of the involucre, each with one style and one stigma: ovule solitary, pendulous. Fruit a dry syconus. Seed pendulous. Embryo in the midst of a copious albumen: radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers axillary, in short racemes.—Ex. Monimia, Boldoa.

Closely allied to the Urticaceæ.—The bark and leaves give out when bruised a highly aromatic smell.

Order 161. Atherospermae. R. BROWN.
Flowers unisexual, collected together, males and females usually in distinct, rarely in the same, involucres: involucre tubular, divided at the extremity, the divisions usually in two rows, of which the inner, and sometimes all, are petaloid, accompanied in the pistilliferous involucre with a few scales. Stamens in the purely staminiferous involucra very numerous, inserted into the bottom of the involucre, mixed with scales; in the involucra having also pistilla, they are fewer, and arise from its orifice: anthers adnate, two-celled, bursting with a valve that separates from the base to the apex. Ovaria several, usually indefinite: ovule solitary, erect: styles simple, sometimes arising from the side or the base: stigma undivided. Achenia furnished with the persistent styles, become feathery, included within the enlarged tube of the involucre. Seed solitary, erect. Embryo short, at the base of a soft fleshy albumen: radicle inferior.—Trees. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers axillary, solitary.—Ex. Atherosperma, Laurelia.

The anthers indicate some affinity to the Berberideæ and Laurineæ. Mr Brown and Mr Lindley consider the involucre a perianth. We have been induced to differ from them only by the analogy subsisting between this order and Monimieæ, with which they agree in many very important points: like them they are aromatic.

Order 162. Lacistemeæ. MARTIUS.
Perianth in several narrow divisions, covered by a dilated bractea. Stamen one, hypogynous: anther two-celled, separated by a thick two-lobed connectivum, bursting transversely. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules several, ascending: style scarcely any: stigmas two, three, or four: small, subulate, spreading. Placentas parietal. Fruit capsular, 2-3- or 4-valved, loculicid. Seed usually (by abortion) solitary, suspended from a long funiculus, with a fleshy arillus: testa crustaceous. Embryo in a fleshy albumen: radicle straight, cylindrical, superior: cotyledons flat.—Small trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers in axillary clustered catkins.—Ex. Lacistema.

Martius and Lindley attribute to this a fleshy albumen; St Hilaire and Kunth say there is none. Some authors suppose the perianth to consist only of four pieces, accompanied with one or more bractea, and the whole surrounded by a large bractea. We, however, are rather inclined to consider the supposed perianth as mere processes from the torus, and consequently this tribe approaches very near to the Chloranthææ. Although all the flowers are bisexual, the upper ones only of the catkin are fertile, whence we have arranged the order among the Dielines, with which it is otherwise most allied.

Order 163. Chloranthææ. R. BROWN.
Flowers without a perianth, bisexual or unisexual, with a supporting scale. Stamens definite, lateral: if more than one, connate: filament adhering slightly to the ovary: anthers one-celled, bursting longitudinally, each adnate to a fleshy connectivum, which coheres laterally in various degrees, so as to represent usually only one anther with several cells. Ovarium one-celled, ovule solitary, pendulous: stigma simple, sessile. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent. Seed pendulous. Embryo minute, at the apex of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior, pointing to the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons divaricate.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Stems jointed. Leaves opposite, simple, with sheathing petioles, and minute intervening stipules. Flowers in terminal spikes.—Ex. Chloranthus, Ascarina, Hedysarum.

Allied to Piperaceæ. "Their anthers consist of a fleshy mass, upon the face of which the cell lies that bears the pollen. Whether these anthers are one or two-celled, is a

matter of doubt; one botanist considering those which have two cells to be double anthers, another considering those with one cell to be half anthers."—(Lindl.) Chloranthus officinalis has an aromatic fragrant smell, which is combined in the root with a somewhat bitter flavour, giving it the same properties as Aristolochia serpentina.

Order 164. Piperaceæ. RICHARD.
Suborder 1. Piperineæ. Flowers without a perianth but with a bractea, bisexual. Stamens definite or indefinite, arranged on one side, or all round the ovary, to which they adhere more or less: anthers one or two-celled, with or without a fleshy connectivum: pollen smooth. Ovarium solitary, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: stigma simple, sessile, rather oblique. Fruit somewhat fleshy, one-celled. Seed erect. Embryo enclosed in a fleshy endosperm, placed on the outside of the perisperm, at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite (sometimes alternate by abortion), or verticillate, exstipulate. Flowers in spikes.—Ex. Piper, Peperomia.

Suborder 2. Saurureæ. RICHARD. Flowers without a perianth, seated on a scale or bractea, bisexual. Stamens three or six, clavate, hypogynous or cohering with the angles of the germen, persistent: anthers continuous with the filament, with a thick connectivum, and two lobes bursting longitudinally. Ovaria four, apocarpous, with one ascending ovule and a sessile recurved stigma to each: or syncarpous, consisting of three or four carpella, one or 3-4-celled, with several ascending ovules, and 3-4 sessile recurved stigmas. Fruit either consisting of four fleshy achenia, or a one or 3-4-celled capsule, opening at the apex and containing several ascending seeds. Seeds with a membranous testa. Embryo minute, enclosed in a fleshy endosperm, situated on the outside of a hard mealy perisperm at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, growing in marshy places, or floating in water. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Flowers in spikes, rarely with a four-leaved involucre at the base of the spike.—Ex. Saururus, Aponogeton, Houttuynia.

This order has floated for some time between the Di-cotyledones and Monocotyledones; but what Richard and others took for a monocotyledonous embryo, proves now to be merely the embryonic sac, or endosperm. As to Houttuynia, we have referred it here, notwithstanding several botanists have considered it as more allied to the Aroidææ.—The common pepper is well known as pungent, stimulant, and aromatic, and this represents the ordinary property of the Piperineæ.

Order 165. Amentaceæ. JUSS.
Suborder 1. Salicineæ. RICHARD. Flowers in unisexual amenta. Stamens distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, one or two-celled: ovules numerous, erect, attached to the bottom of the cell or to the base of two parietal placentas: style one or none: stigmas two. Fruit a coriaceous capsule, one or two-celled, two-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous, adhering as in the ovary, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with stipules that are often deciduous.—Ex. Salix, Populus.

Suborder 2. Myricææ. RICH. Flowers unisexual in an amentum, which is sometimes globose. Stamens one or several, each subtended by a scale: anthers two-celled, 2-4-valved, opening longitudinally. Ovarium one-celled, with several hypogynous scales: ovule solitary, erect: stigmas two, subulate. Fruit drupaceous, often covered with waxy granules; surrounded by the scales of the ovary become fleshy and adherent: or dry and dehiscent, with the scales distinct. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons

Arrangement and Characters. two, plano-convex.—Shrubs with resinous glands and dots, or leafless shrubs or trees, with filiform branches bearing membranous toothed sheaths. Leaves alternate.—Ex. Myrica, Casuarina.

Suborder 3. Betulineæ. RICH. Flowers unisexual in an amentum, the males sometimes having a membranous toothed perianth (or rather an expansion of the torus). Stamens distinct, or rarely monadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium two-celled: ovules definite, pendulous: style one or none: stigmas two. Fruit membranous, indehiscent, by abortion one-celled. Seeds pendulous, not comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate: stipules deciduous.—Ex. Betula, Alnus.

Suborder 4. Platanææ. JUSS. Flowers in unisexual globose amenta. Stamens distinct, with several small scales and appendages mixed among them: anthers linear, two-celled. Ovaria terminated by a thick style, with the stigma lateral and adnate: ovules solitary or in pairs, pendulous. Fruits in consequence of mutual compression clavate, bony, with a persistent recurved style. Seeds solitary, or rarely in pairs, pendulous, elongated: testa thick. Embryo long, cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy albumen; radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with scarious sheathing stipules.—Ex. Platanus.

Suborder 5. Cupuliferaæ. RICH. Flowers unisexual, in amenta, the females sometimes aggregated. Stamens 5-20, generally distinct, inserted into the base of the scales or of a membranous perianth. Ovarium seated in a coriaceous involucre (cupula), crowned by the rudiments of an adherent perianth, plurilocular: ovules two or one, pendulous: stigmas several, nearly sessile, distinct. Fruit a gland. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen 0. Embryo large: radicle superior, small: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Quercus, Corylus, Fagus.

We leave this order entire, nearly as done by Jussieu. With regard to the suborders, their limits are not yet well fixed. Thus De Candolle excludes Liquidambar from the Myricææ, on account of the globular catkins and palm-nerved leaves, and alters materially the character of Platanææ for its reception; but although more allied in habit to Platanus, these two genera seem to differ widely in the structure of the seed.—As to medical properties, the Saliciniæ have the bark bitter and febrifugal. The Myricææ are aromatic. The bark of Betulineæ is astringent and somewhat febrifugal. Cupuliferaæ are tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal. The bark of the oak is employed for tanning. Cork is the bark of the Quercus Suber. The Hazel, Beech, and Sweet Chestnut, belong to this suborder.

Order 166. Stilagineæ. AGARDH. Flowers unisexual. Perianth 3-5-partite. Stamens two or more, arising from a tumid receptacle: filaments capillary: anthers erect, two-lobed, with a fleshy connective, and vertical cells opening transversely. Ovarium free: ovules two: stigma sessile, 3-4-toothed. Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary, suspended. Embryo in the midst of a copious fleshy albumen: cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Stilago, Antidesma.

An order by no means understood. In some points it appears to approach the Amentaceæ, particularly Cupuliferaæ and Platanææ.

Order 167. Juglandææ. D. C. Flowers unisexual. Males in an amentum. Perianth scaly, oblique, irregularly lobed. Stamens inserted on the receptacle, indefinite: filaments short, distinct: an-

thers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Females arranged with a single or double perianth: the exterior four-parted, the inner (when present) of four pieces. Ovarium cohering with the perianth, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: styles one or two, very short, or none: stigmas large, either two and lacerated, or discoid and four-lobed. Fruit (a drupe) fleshy, containing a 2-4-valved, one-celled, putamen. Seed four-lobed, with a membranaceous testa. Albumen none. Embryo large: radicle superior: cotyledons fleshy, two-lobed, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves alternate, without pellucid dots or stipules.—Ex. Juglans.

Allied on the one side to Terebinthaceæ, by which view the inner segments of the female perianth may be supposed a corolla, and on the other to the Amentaceæ (Cupuliferaæ).—The fruit of the walnut is much esteemed: the rind is astringent. Some species are anthelmintic and cathartic.

Div. IV.—Monochlamydeæ. D. C.

(11. Dielines. JUSS. § 2. Gymnospermæ.)

Order 168. Coniferaæ. JUSS.

Flowers unisexual. Male florets consisting of one or several monadelphous stamens, collected in an amentum about a common rachis: anthers two or many-lobed, bursting outwardly; often terminated by a crest, which is an uncovered portion of the scale out of which each stamen is formed. Females usually in cones, sometimes solitary. Ovarium none (in the solitary flower), or spread open (in the cone) and resembling a flat scale, destitute of style or stigma, arising from the axil of a membranous bractea: ovules exposed; in the cones in pairs on the face of the ovary, inverted; in the solitary flower erect. Fruit, a solitary naked seed, or a cone. Seeds with a hard crustaceous testa. Embryo in the midst of a fleshy oily albumen: radicle next the apex of the seed, having an organic connection with the albumen.—Trees or shrubs; trunk branched, abounding in resin. Leaves with the veins parallel to each other.—Ex. Pinus, Taxus, Thuja.

There are often more than two cotyledons, but they are opposite, whence perhaps they may be viewed as only two, but multipartite. "The structure of the Conifera differs so widely from that of the true (or angiospermous) Dicotyledons, that a single glance will in general enable us to distinguish the one tribe from the other. In the Conifera there is only one regular system of pores, resembling a piece of the most delicate net-work. Each mesh is bounded by straight lines crossing each other at nearly right angles, and the concentric lines of the meshes almost always approximate each other at the outer edge of each annual layer of the wood. The structure of the true Dicotyledons consists of a system of vessels separated from each other by masses of cellular matter, and the vessels or pores are always bounded by curved lines."—This order is of great importance on account of its timber. But it is also valuable for its resinous productions; various kinds of pitch, turpentine, and balsams being procured from the different species. The large seeds of some are eaten, and are wholesome. The berries of some species of Juniper are diuretic.

Order 169. Cycadeæ. RICH.

Flowers unisexual. Males naked, collected into cones; each floret of a single scale or anther, bearing the pollen on its under surface in two-valved cells, which cohere together by twos, threes, or fours. Females either collected in cones, or surrounding the central bud in the form of contracted leaves or scales (the expanded ovaria). Ovules

Arrangement and Characters exposed on the margin of the scale or contracted leaf. Embryo in the midst of a fleshy or horny albumen: radicle next the apex of the seed, from which it hangs by a long funiculus, with which it has an organic connection.—Trees with a simple cylindrical trunk. Leaves pinnatisect; vernation gyrate.—Ex. Cycas (Plate CXXVI.), Zamia.

These trees increase by the development of a single terminal leaf-bud. The wood consists of concentric circles, the cellular rings between which are very loose. They seem to hold a middle rank between the Coniferae and Palms.—They abound in a mucilaginous juice. A kind of Sago is obtained from the soft centre of Cycas circinalis.

B. ENDOGENE. D. C. (MONOCOTYLEDONES. JUSS.)

(12. Monoepigynæ. JUSS.)

Order 170. Balanophoreæ. RICH.

Flowers unisexual, in dense heads: the receptacle covered with scales or bristles, and also here and there with peltate thick scales; rarely naked. Male flowers pedicellate. Perianth tripartite, equal, spreading, or in place of it a thick truncate obconical scale. Stamens epigynous, 1-3: filaments united: anthers connate, opening longitudinally. Females: Ovarium cohering with the perianth, and crowned by its limb, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style one, rarely two, filiform: stigma simple, terminal, slightly convex. Achenium crowned by the remains of the limb of the perianth, roundish. Embryo very minute, roundish, enclosed in a hollow on the surface of a fleshy cellular albumen.—Fungous-like, parasitical plants: stem naked or covered with imbricated scales.—Ex. Balanophora, Helosis, Cynomorium.

Professor Richard considered this order most nearly allied to the Hydrocharideæ: there is also some affinity with the Cythereæ. Agardh makes them a section of Urticæ. May not what is taken for the embryo be the endosperm, and what is called albumen the perisperm?—Cynomorium is astringent.

Order 171. Hydrocharideæ. JUSS.

Flowers spathaceous, uni- or rarely bisexual. Perianth with the limb six-partite; the three exterior segments herbaceous, the three inner petaloid. Stamens epigynous, definite or indefinite. Ovarium solitary, cohering with the tube of the perianth, one or spuriously many-celled: ovules indefinite: stigmas 3-6. Placentas parietal, sometimes projecting into the centre of the ovary. Fruit dry or succulent, indehiscent, one- or spuriously many-celled. Seeds numerous, ascending: testa thin, membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight, cylindrical: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Floating plants. Flowers spathaceous.—Ex. Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, Vallisneria.

Allied in some points to the Alismaceæ, but differing in the cohering ovary. The spiral peduncles of Vallisneria, and the process of fertilization in that plant, are highly curious.

Le Rhône impétueux, sous son onde écumante,
Durant six mois entiers nous dérobe une plante
Dont la tige s'allonge en la saison d'amour,
Monte au-dessus des flots, et brille aux yeux du jour.
Les mâles, dans le fond jusqu'aux immobiles,
De leurs liens trop courts brisent les nœuds débiles,
Vagent vers leur amante, et libres dans leurs feux,
Lui forment sur le fleuve un cortège nombreux:
On dirait une fête où le dieu d'hyménée
Promène sur les flots sa pompe fortunée;
Mais les temps de Vénus une fois accomplis,
La tige se retire en rapprochant ses plis,
Et va mûrir sous l'eau sa semence féconde.¹

Order 172. Orchideæ. JUSS.

Perianth with a ringent, six-partite, limb: outer segments usually coloured, of which the odd one is often uppermost by a twisting of the ovary: inner segments more petaloid, the odd one or the labellum being frequently lobed and unlike the others, and often spurred at the base. Stamens in a double row, three, epigynous, united in a central column; either the two lateral (opposite to the lateral inner segment of the perianth) or the central one (opposite to the odd exterior segment) being abortive; very rarely all the three fertile: anther persistent or deciduous, two, or four, or eight-celled: pollen powdery, or cohering in definite or indefinite waxy masses. Ovarium one- (very rarely three-) celled, cohering with the tube of the perianth: ovules indefinite: style forming part of the column of the stamens: stigma a viscid cavity in front of the column, communicating directly with the ovary by an open canal. Placentas three, parietal. Capsule three-ribbed, three-valved, rarely baccate. Seeds very numerous: testa loose, reticulated. Albumen none. Embryo a solid fleshy mass.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves simple, quite entire.—Ex. Orchis, Goodyeria, Epidendrum, Cypripedium.

Nearly allied to the following order. The botanical world have to thank Mr Brown for first giving a correct view of the organization of the flowers of these plants. Apostasia has a regular flower, a three-celled ovary, and three perfect stamens.—The Orchideæ are beautiful to the eye, but of little use. Sulep is obtained from the roots of Orchis mascula. Vanilla, used so much for mixing with chocolate, is the succulent fruit of a West Indian species.

Order 173. Anomeæ. JUSS.

Suborder 1. Scitamineæ. R. BROWN. Perianth in a double row: exterior tubular, three-lobed, short; inner elongated, tubular, trifid, segments nearly equal. Stamens in two rows: the outer (projections of the torus) sterile, resembling a trifid tubular corolla, of which the intermediate segment (labellum) is larger than the rest (which are sometimes nearly abortive), and often three-lobed: stamens of the inner row distinct, two sterile: one intermediate, fertile, at the opposite side of the flower from the labellum: filament not petaloid, often extended beyond the anther: anther two-celled, opening longitudinally. Ovarium three-celled, or imperfectly so: ovules several: style filiform: stigma dilated, hollow. Placenta in the axis. Fruit usually capsular, three-celled: occasionally baccate. Seeds numerous. Embryo enclosed in a membranous endosperm, surrounded by a farinaceous albumen, that is deficient near the hilum.—Herbaceous aromatic plants. Stems simple. Leaves sheathing: midrib central, with numerous diverging simple veins. Flowers arising from spathaceous bracts.—Ex. Anomum, Zingiber.

Suborder 2. Cannææ. R. BROWN. Perianth in a double row: exterior three-lobed, short; interior elongated, tubular, trifid, segments nearly equal. Stamens in a double row: the outer (projections of the torus) sterile, resembling a trifid tubular corolla, of which one of the lateral segments is unlike the others: stamens of the inner row distinct, petaloid; two sterile, one lateral fertile: filament petaloid, entire or two lobed: anther opening longitudinally, one-celled, seated on the margin of the filament (the other cell belonging to the other margin being always abortive). Ovarium three-celled (rarely one-celled), ovules solitary and erect, or numerous and attached to the axis: style petaloid or swollen: stigma either the naked apex of the style, or hollow, cucullate, and incurv-

¹ Castel, Poëme sur les Plantes.

ed. Fruit capsular, three-celled; or baccate, one-celled, one-seeded. Albumen (perisperm) hard, somewhat farinaceous. Embryo straight, without endosperm: radicle lying against the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, not aromatic. Leaves and inflorescence as in the Scitamineæ.—Ex. Maranta, Canna, Phrynium.

The above view of the structure of these plants being nearly that adopted by Lestiboudois, Richard, and Lindley, is somewhat at variance with that proposed by Mr Brown, who considers the outer row of our perianth as accessory, and what is here called the outer sterile stamens to be the inner row of the perianth. But this order is closely allied to the Musaceæ, and the affinity is confirmed by the supposition of six stamens, although only one be perfect.—The Scitamineæ are aromatic, cordial, and stomachic: Ginger, Galangale, and Zedoary are the roots or rhizoma; Cardamoms are the seeds of several species. The Canneæ are scarcely or not at all aromatic, and hence the fecula which abounds in the root furnishes a delicate article of food. Arrow-root is obtained from more than one species, but principally from Maranta arundinacea, the juice of the root of which is said to be a cure for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows.

Order 174. Musaceæ. Juss.

Perianth six-cleft, in two rows, more or less irregular. Stamens six (some occasionally abortive), inserted on the middle of the divisions of the perianth: anthers linear, two-celled, introrse, often with a membranous petaloid crest. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous, or rarely only three: style simple: stigma usually three-lobed. Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal capsule: or succulent and indehiscent. Seeds sometimes surrounded by hairs: testa usually crustaceous. Embryo in the axis of a farinaceous albumen.—Stem scarcely any. Leaves sheathing, and forming a spurious stem: limb separated from the petiole by a round tumour, having a midrib with fine parallel diverging veins. Flowers spathaceous.—Ex. Musa, Streptia.

By comparing this with the last order, their relation will be readily perceived.—The young shoots of the Banana (Musa sapientum) are eaten as a delicate vegetable. The fruit of the same is nourishing, and either it, or that of the Plantain (M. paradisaica), in some parts of the world, forms the principal food of the natives.

Order 175. Iridææ. Juss.

Perianth tubular, six-parted, in two often unequal rows. Stamens three, epigynous, distinct or monadelphous, opposite the outer segments of the perianth: anthers two-celled, bursting outwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous: style one: stigma three, dilated, often petaloid, and sometimes two-lipped. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal. Seeds numerous. Embryo cylindrical, enclosed within a fleshy or horny albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants usually herbaceous. Leaves equitant and distichous, except in Crocus. Flowers with spathaceous bractæ.—Ex. Iris, Ixia, Crocus.

Allied on the one hand to the Amomeæ, and on the other to the Amaryllideæ.—Of no great utility. The orris, however, is the root of Iris Florentina. Some other species of Iris are purgative. Saffron is the dried stigmas of a Crocus. The root of the common Iris, when cut by an iron or steel knife, yields a beautiful purple dye.

Order 176. Burmanniæ. Spreng.

Perianth petaloid, tubular, six-cleft, the three outer segments carinate, the three inner minute. Stamens three, inserted on the tube, opposite the inner segments of the perianth, with sometimes three alternating sterile filaments: anthers erect, two-celled, opening transversely, with a

fleshy connectivum. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled, the cells being opposite the inner segments of the perianth: ovules indefinite: styles single: stigma three, dilated. Capsule crowned by the withered perianth, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds indefinite, minute, striated.—Herbaceous plants, with radical equitant leaves.—Ex. Burmannia.

Allied to Iridææ in many respects, but differing by the fertile stamens being alternate with the outer segments of the perianth; but this ought perhaps to be viewed as accidental (however constant), as the return to the symmetrical arrangement is exhibited in the position of the carpellary leaves.

Order 177. Hæmodoraceæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Hæmodoreæ. Perianth petaloid, six-cleft. Stamens inserted on the perianth, either three and opposite the inner segments of the perianth, or six: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, or very rarely free, of three carpels, three- or rarely one-celled: ovules 1-2, or numerous, to each carpel: style simple: stigma undivided. Fruit capsular, three-valved, seldom indehiscent, somewhat nucamentaceous. Seeds definite and peltate, or indefinite: testa chartaceous. Embryo minute, a farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves equitant.—Ex. Hæmodorum, Dilatrix.

Suborder 2. Wachendorfiæ. Perianth petaloid, six-parted, irregular. Stamens three, inserted on the base of the inner segments of the perianth: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules solitary or numerous: style simple: stigma undivided. Fruit capsular, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds roundish.—Leaves equitant.—Ex. Wachendorfia, Xiphydium.

This order is related both to Iridææ and Amaryllideæ. Wachendorfiæ, though allied in many respects to Hæmodoreæ, might perhaps, without great violence, be rather placed between Liliaceæ and Bromeliaceæ.—The roots of Hæmodorum, Dilatrix, and Wachendorfia, yield a red dye.

Order 178. Amaryllideæ. R. BROWN.

Perianth petaloid, regular, six-cleft: the outer segments overlapping the inner, which are equitant. Stamens six (rarely more, and then hexadelphous), inserted on the perianth, sometimes cohering by their dilated bases into a kind of cup: anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules indefinite, rarely 1-2: style one (rarely three): stigma three-lobed (rarely three). Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved, loculicidal capsule, or baccate. Seeds numerous in the capsular, 1-2 in the baccate species: testa neither black nor crustaceous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo somewhat straight: radicle next the hilum.—Roots usually bulbiferous, rarely fibrous. Leaves ensiform, with parallel veins. Flowers with spathaceous bractæ.—Ex. Amaryllis, Narcissus.

Allied to the Hæmodoraceæ, but much more to Liliaceæ and Asphodelææ. The coronas of Narcissus and some other genera may be viewed either as a second row of sterile cohering filaments between the fertile ones and the perianth, or as a process of the torus, both considerations tending to prove that the perianth is more of the nature of a calyx than a corolla. Although having three styles and stigmas, we refer Campynema here.—The juice of the root of Hamanthus toxicarius is poisonous. The bulbs of some species of Narcissus and Pancratium are emetic. Some Alstrameria are diuretic. Amaryllis ornata is astringent.

Order 179. Hypoxideæ. R. BROWN.

Perianth petaloid, usually six-parted, regular: estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted into the base of the

segments, equal to them in number: anthers introrse. Torus an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous: style single: stigma three-lobed. Capsule indehiscent, sometimes succulent. Seeds numerous: testa black and crustaceous: hilum lateral, rostelliform. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, stemless (or nearly so) plants. Leaves plicate.—Ex. Hypoxis, Curculigo. Allied to Hæmodoraceæ, and also to Asphodelææ, particularly in the black crustaceous seed.

Perianth petaloid, six-partite, regular, in a double series. Stamens six, or in six (rarely three) fascicles, inserted into the base of the segments: anthers introrse. Torus an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous: style single: stigma three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-valved. Seeds indefinite, cuneiform: testa coriaceous, furrowed: hilum prominent.—Ex. Barbacenia, Vellosia, Xerophyta.

An order pointed out by Mr Don, as holding a middle place between Hypoxideæ, and Bromeliææ.

Suborder 1. Dioscoreææ. R. BROWN. Flowers uni- (rarely bi-) sexual. Perianth six-cleft, equal. Stamens six, distinct, or rarely monadelphous, inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth: anthers introrse. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules one or two in each cell: style trifid: stigmas undivided. Fruit a thin compressed capsule, with two of the cells sometimes abortive. Seeds flat: testa membranaceous. Embryo small, lying in a large cavity of a somewhat horny albumen, near the hilum.—Twinning shrubs. Leaves alternate, occasionally opposite, veins generally reticulated. Flowers small, spiked, each with 1-3 bractæ.—Ex. Dioscoreææ, Testudinariææ.

Suborder 2. Tamææ. GRAY. Flowers unisexual. Perianth petaloid, six-partite. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth. Ovarium three-celled: ovules two in each cell, erect: style one: stigmas three, reflexed, acutely bifid. Fruit fleshy, three-celled, indehiscent. Seeds ovate: testa membranaceous. Albumen between cartilaginous and horny. Embryo minute, lying at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Root tuberous. Stem herbaceous, twining from left to right. Leaves alternate. Flowers small, axillary, racemose.—Ex. Tamus.

This order agrees in many points with Smilacææ, but differs by the adherent fruit. According to Mr Lindley, it makes a near approach in structure to the Dicotyledonææ, the leaves being those of that class, while the stem, flower, and seeds, are those of the Monocotyledonææ. The sub-orders are so closely allied that Testudinariææ, till lately, was considered a species of Tamus.—The tubers or yams produced by Dioscoreææ are well known as an article of food in all tropical countries.

Perianth tubular, six-cleft, in two rows: the outer persistent, the inner petaloid, marcescent or deciduous. Stamens six (rarely more), inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth. Ovarium either entirely free, or cohering more or less with the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules indefinite: style single: stigma three-partite, often twisted. Fruit capsular or succulent, three-celled. Seeds indefinite. Embryo cylindrical, recurved, lying in the base of a farinaceous albumen.—Plants, with

scarcely any stem. Leaves rigid, channelled, often thorny or toothed at the margin.—Ex. Bromelia, Tillandsia.

Sometimes the fruits in the same spike cohere together into a mass; by means of the perianth become succulent; and this is the structure of the pine-apple.—The pine-apple is well known. The Agave Americana is remarkable for the quick growth of its flower stalk, reaching sometimes to the height of thirty feet in ten days; and as its growth is most rapid at first, one may almost see its progress. The scape of several species, when withered, is cut into slices for razor strops, for which it is well adapted, on account of a very small portion of silica it is supposed to contain among the cellular substance. The fibres of the leaves of some of these species serve for making cordage.

Perianth petaloid, six-partite. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the divisions of the perianth, rarely hypogynous. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules one or several in each cell: style usually three-cleft: stigmas three. Fruit a globose berry. Seeds with a membranaceous (neither black nor crustaceous) testa. Albumen fleshy, cartilaginous. Embryo often remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants, often climbing. Leaves with the veins sometimes reticulated.—Ex. Smilax, Paris, Convolvulus.

Between Dioscoreæææ and Asphodelæææ, from which last it is principally distinguished by the testa of the seed.—The species are in general diuretic. The roots of Trillium are emetic.

Suborder 1. Asphodelæææ. R. BROWN. Perianth petaloid, six-divided, regular. Stamens six, inserted upon the perianth, or hypogynous; the three opposite the outer segments of the perianth sometimes unlike the others, or wanting, anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium free, three-celled, rarely apocarpous: ovules two ascending, or many, in each cell: style one: stigma entire, or shortly three-lobed. Fruit either a capsule, three-celled, three-valved, loculicidæ; or fleshy, and then sometimes tripartite. Seeds with a black, crustaceous, brittle testa. Embryo included in a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants or trees. Leaves with parallel veins. Peduncles articulated at their middle or near the apex.—Ex. Asphodelus, Scilla, Aloe, Asparagus.

Suborder 2. Gilliesiæææ. LINDL. Perianth six- (or, by the cohesion of the two outer anterior segments, five-) parted, in a double row: the outer herbaceous, the inner more coloured: estivation twisted. Stamens in a double series; outer sterile, forming either a six-toothed urceolus or three scale-like bodies, of which the anterior (labellum) is very dissimilar to the others; inner of six fertile stamens, or a six-toothed urceolus, of which the three anterior teeth alone bear anthers. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules numerous: style one: stigma simple. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicidæ. Seeds numerous: testa black and crustaceous. Embryo curved in the midst of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants with tunicated bulbs. Leaves grass-like. Flowers umbellate, arising from spathaceous bractæ.—Ex. Gilliesia, Miersia.

Gilliesiæææ is a singular suborder; and even the view we have taken is neither that of Lindley nor Hooker. They regard our perianth as bracteal or involucreal leaves, and the outer row of stamens as the perianth; we consider the whole structure as elucidated by that of the Amomeæææ. The inner row of the perianth appears at first sight to consist of only two of the parts, while the others seem external, but in estivation that series is formed of three of them. The outer series of stamens (sterile) has subulate appendages projected outwardly from the base. The As-

phodelineæ are most certainly distinguished from their allies by the black brittle testa of the seed.—All species, at least of the Asphodelææ, contain a bitter stimulant principle in a gummy viscid juice. The onion, leek, garlic, and their allies, belong to the genus Allium. The roots of several are purgative; the Aloes are well known for this property. Gum Dragon is the styptic juice of Dracena Draco.

Order 185. Liliaceæ. Juss.

Perianth coloured, regular, six-divided. Stamens six, perigynous, opposite the segments of the perianth. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple or three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, loculicid. Seeds numerous, usually flat, packed one above the other in one or two rows: testa spongy, dilated, often winged. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Plants with scaly bulbs or arborescent stems. Leaves with parallel veins.

Tribe 1. Tulipeæ. D. C. Perianth deeply divided.—Ex. Lilium, Fritillaria, Erythronium.

Tribe 2. Hemerocallideæ. R. BROWN. Perianth tubular.—Ex. Hemerocallis, Polyanthæ.

Closely allied to the last order, and also to Melanthaceæ, through Erythronium. We can scarcely conceive why this last has been sometimes placed in Asphodelææ; for the testa is brown and spongy, and not black and crustaceous. The roots of most of the species of Lilium found in the east of Siberia, particularly L. spectabile, ternifolium, and Kamtschaticum, are eaten like potatoes, and known by the name of Sarana (Сапана, Russ.).

Order 186. Melanthaceæ. BATSCH.

Perianth petaloid, six-divided, the margin of the segments generally involute in estivation. Stamens six: anthers usually bursting outwards. Ovarium three-celled: ovules numerous: style trifid or tripartite: stigmas three, undivided. Capsule three-celled, usually septicidal, sometimes loculicidal. Seeds with a membranous testa. Albumen dense, fleshy.—Leaves sheathing at the base, with parallel veins.—Ex. Melanthium, Colchicum, Tofieldia.

This order requires revision. The positive characters separating it from Liliaceæ, depending on the divided style, are slight.—Every species is poisonous, but particularly the genera Colchicum and Veratrum.

Order 187. Pontederiaceæ. KUNTH.

Perianth tubular, coloured, six-cleft, more or less irregular: estivation circinate. Stamens three or six, unequal, perigynous. Ovarium free, or sometimes coherent at the base, three- (or rarely one-) celled: ovules indefinite: style one: stigma simple. Capsule three- (rarely one-) celled, three-valved, loculicid. Seeds indefinite: testa membranous: hilum small. Embryo straight, in the axis of a somewhat farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Aquatic or marsh plants. Leaves sheathing at the base: veins parallel.—Ex. Pontederia, Heteranthera, Lepanthus.

Distinguished from Asphodelææ by the testa of the seed: the syncarpous ovary and perigynous stamens separate them from Alismaceæ.

Order 188. Restiaceæ. R. BROWN.

Suborder 1. Resticeæ. Perianth 2-6-partite, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, perigynous, 1-6: when half as many as the segments of the perianth they are opposite the inner divisions: anthers usually one-celled. Ovarium one or more-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous. Fruit capsular or nucemantaceous. Seeds pendulous. Embryo lenticular, on the outside of a farinaceous albumen, at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves simple, narrow, or none. Culms naked, or protected by sheaths, which are usually slit (en-

tire in Eriocaulon alone), with the one margin overlapping the other. Flowers in spikes or capitula, separated by bractoleæ or scales, and usually unisexual.—Ex. Restio, Centrolepis, Elegia, Eriocaulon.

Suborder 2. Xyrideæ. KUNTH. Perianth six-parted, in two rows: outer glumaceous; inner petaloid, unguiculate. Stamens six, three fertile inserted upon the apex of the claw of the segments of the inner row of the perianth: anthers bursting outwardly. Ovarium single: ovules indefinite: style trifid: stigmas obtuse, multifid or undivided. Placentas three, parietal. Capsule one-celled, three-valved. Seeds numerous. Embryo on the outside of a farinaceous albumen, at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves radical, with dilated, equitant, scarious bases. Culms naked. Flowers in terminal capitula.—Ex. Xyris, Abolhoda.

Closely allied to Juncaceæ and also to Cyperaceæ, from which it is distinguished by the position of the embryo.—The leaves and roots of Xyris Indica are employed against the itch and leprosy. The tough wiry stems of Willdenovia teres and some others are manufactured into baskets and brooms.

Order 189. Juncaceæ. Juss.

Perianth six-parted, more or less glumaceous. Stamens six, inserted into the base of the segments, sometimes only three and opposite the outer series: anthers two-celled. Ovarium 1-3-celled: ovules one, three, or many, in each cell: style one: stigmas generally three, sometimes only one. Fruit capsular, three-valved, loculicid, sometimes indehiscent. Seeds with a testa neither black nor crustaceous. Embryo inclosed within a firm, fleshy, or cartilaginous albumen, seated near the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves fistular, or channelled, or flat, with parallel veins.—Ex. Juncus, Luzula.

Related to the Restiaceæ and Asphodelææ, as also to the Palmæ.—The leaves of Flagellaria are supposed to be astringent: the others have no particular medical properties. Different species of Juncus are used for making chair-bottoms, mats, &c., and the pith for the wicks of candles.

Order 190. Palmæ. Juss.

Flowers bisexual or polygamous. Perianth six-parted, persistent, in a double row: the three outer segments often smaller, the three inner sometimes deeply connate. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, usually six, seldom three, in a few polygamous genera indefinite in number. Ovarium one-three-celled, or deeply three-lobed: ovules three, rarely one. Fruit baccate or drupaceous, the flesh fibrous. Albumen cartilaginous, either ruminate, or furnished with a central or lateral cavity. Embryo cylindrical, or flat and circular, small, usually at a distance from the hilum, lodged in a lateral cavity at the opposite side from the empty cavity of the albumen.—Trunk arborescent, simple, occasionally shrubby and branched. Leaves terminal, large: vernation plaited. Spadix terminal, often branched; spatha one or many-valved.—Ex. Sabal, Phœnix, Calamus, Borassus, Arecæ, Cocos.

We have already said that there was a relation between this and the Juncaceæ. Pandanæ seems to have no affinity; but between Calamus and Gramineæ, particularly the bamboo, many points of comparison present themselves.—Wine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, salt, thread, utensils, weapons, habitations, and food, are obtained from this order. The cocoa-nut, sago, date, and betel-nut, are well known. The common cane that is imported is a species of Calamus. The name Cocoinæ may be given to a section whose principal character consists in the originally trilocular putamen having its cells, when fertile, perforated opposite to the seat of the embryo, and, when abor-

Arrangement and Characters. tive, indicated by foramina ceca.¹ From the fruits of this section only, the oil afforded by plants of this family is obtained.

Perianth in two rows; outer herbaceous, tripartite; inner petaloid, tripartite or trifid. Stamens six or fewer, hypogynous: anthers of some filaments either wanting or differently formed from the others. Ovarium three-celled: ovules few in each cell: style one: stigma one. Capsule 2-3-celled, 2-3-valved, loculicidæ. Seeds often in pairs in each cell: hilum usually linear and lateral. Albumen densely fleshy. Embryo flat and circular (pulley-shaped), lying in a cavity of the albumen, and at the opposite extremity from the hilum: radicle projected from the centre of the embryo.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually sheathing at the base.—Ex. Commelina, Tradescantia.

Not very closely allied to either Juncæ or Restiaceæ. With some Palmæ they agree in the singular embryo: this is flat and circular, and the radicle projects from its centre towards the outside of the seed, thus resembling a pulley and its axis: moreover, in both orders the embryo is remote from the hilum, the radicle pointing away from it, and its position being indicated by an external papilla.

Suborder 1. Alismoidæ. D. C. Perianth six-partite, in two rows; outer herbaceous, inner petaloid. Stamens definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of several one-celled carpels, apocarpous: ovules erect or ascending, solitary in each ovary, or in pairs at a distance from each other: styles and stigmas several. Fruits of several dry, indehiscent carpels. Seeds 1-2 in each cell. Albumen none. Embryo cylindrical, curved like a horse-shoe: radicle next the hilum.—Floating plants. Leaves with parallel veins.—Ex. Alisma, Sagittaria.

Suborder 2. Butomeæ. RICHT. Perianth six-partite, in two rows; outer usually herbaceous, inner petaloid. Stamens definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of three, six, or more, one-celled carpels, apocarpous or syncarpous: ovules very numerous in each cell: stigmas simple, as many as the carpels. Placentas ramified over the inner surface of each carpel. Fruit of several follicles, distinct and rostrate, or cohering into one mass. Seeds minute, indefinite. Albumen none. Embryo straight, or curved like a horse-shoe: radicle next the hilum.—Aquatic plants. Leaves with parallel veins, often possessing a milky juice. Flowers in umbels.—Ex. Butomus, Limnocharis.

Suborder 3. Juncagineæ. RICHT. Perianth herbaceous, rarely wanting. Stamens six, hypogynous. Ovarium of three or six carpels, cohering firmly together: ovules one or two in each carpel, erect, approximated at their base. Fruit dry. Seeds 1-2, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum: plumule emitted through a lateral cleft in the embryo.—Herbaceous bog-plants. Leaves ensiform: veins parallel. Flowers in spikes or racemes, minute.—Ex. Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.

The limits of this order are not perhaps yet well understood. According to Mirbel, the radicle in every embryo, curved like a horse-shoe, is actually at the apex, although by the curvature of the seed it may appear close to the hilum; and if this view be correct, Alismaceæ ought to consist of Alismoidæ (to which might be attached Limnocharis and the other genera of Butomeæ with a curved

embryo), with perhaps the addition of Potameæ; while Butomus and Juncagineæ, both with a decidedly orthotropous embryo, ought to be rejected. The apocarpous ovary of Alismoidæ makes this hold the same rank among the Monocotyledones that is done by Ranunculaceæ among the higher organized vegetables.—Alismoidæ and Butomeæ have an acrid herbage.

Flowers unisexual or polygamous, wholly covering the spadix. Perianth 0. Filaments of the stamens with a single two-celled anther. Ovaria one-celled, united together in groups: ovules usually solitary, erect: stigma, one to each ovary, sessile, adnate. Fruit either fibrous drupes, collected several together, or baccate and plurilocular. Seeds in the drupes solitary, in the baccate genera several in each cell. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: plumula inconspicuous.—Stem arborescent. Leaves imbricated in three rows, long, amplexicaul, with the margin usually thorny.—Ex. Pandanus, Freycinetia.

Usually placed next the palms, but in reality much more nearly allied to Aroideæ (Typhaceæ), of which Kunth makes it a section.—The seeds of Pandanus are eatable, as well as the flowers of P. odoratissimus; the fruit of several is used as an article of food.

Suborder 1. Typhaceæ. D. C. Flowers unisexual, arranged upon a naked spadix. Perianth three-partite. Stamens three or six, opposite to the segments of the perianth: filaments long and slender: anthers wedge-shaped, erect, bursting outwardly. Ovarium single, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style short: stigmas one or two, linear, simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-celled. Embryo in the centre of a farinaceous albumen, straight, cylindrical: radicle next the hilum: cotyledon cylindrical, with a short longitudinal lateral cleft near its base: plumule of 2-3 leaves, the outer contained in the cleft of the cotyledons, and partly protruded.—Herbaceous marsh plants. Stems without nodi. Leaves sheathing at their base, rigid, ensiform, with parallel veins.—Ex. Typha, Sagittaria.

Suborder 2. Arineæ. Flowers uni-, rarely bisexual, arranged upon a spadix, often naked. Perianth 4-6-partite, or wanting. Stamens definite and opposite the lobes of the perianth, or indefinite, hypogynous: filaments very short: anthers 1-2 or many-celled, ovate, bursting outwardly. Ovarium free, one-celled, rarely three-celled: ovules several, rarely solitary, ascending, peritropal, or rarely pendulous: stigma sessile. Fruit succulent or dry, indehiscent. Seeds solitary or several. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy or farinaceous albumen (which is rarely wanting), straight, cylindrical: radicle next the hilum, rarely at the opposite extremity: cotyledon cylindrical, with a short lateral cleft near its base: plumule 2-3-leaved, the outer leaf contained in the cleft of the cotyledon, and partly protruded.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants. Root often tuberous or thickened. Leaves sheathing at the base, with parallel or branching veins, often cordate, entire, or sometimes divided. Spadix usually enclosed in a spatha.—Ex. Arum, Caladium, Pothos, Acorus.

Suborder 3. Pisticeæ. RICHT. Flowers unisexual, enclosed in the same spatha. Stamens definite, 2-7, in a spatha. Ovarium one in each spatha, one-celled: ovules two or several, erect or horizontal: style short: stigma simple. Fruit membranous, one-celled, indehiscent. Seed one or several: testa thick and spongy: chalaza thick, adhering to the apex of the cotyledon, and separable from the integuments. Embryo either large in the axis of a

thin and fleshy albumen, with a lateral cleft for the emission of the plumule; or minute at the extremity of a copious farinaceous albumen, most remote from the hilum: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Floating plants. Flowers appearing from the margin of the stems.—Ex. Pistia, Lemna.

We continue to unite these suborders. The difference between the two first is reduced to the structure of the stamens, for the same number and position of the ovules occurs in both. As to Pistia, there is as great a difference between its constituent genera as betwixt either and the true Aroideæ. It is difficult to determine the position of the radicle in Pistia; but as the inner integument (tegmen) of the seed is pendulous in the ovule, we are forced to suppose that the radicle points to the hilum, although the embryo itself is at the other extremity, a structure very uncommon. What we suppose the chalaza, Mr Lindley, however, describes as an indurated foramen, and consequently, in both Lemna and Pistia, the radicle would be turned away from the hilum; but this structure our own observations on Pistia do not confirm. The apex of the seed, however, in that genus has a strong depression, or orifice, caused by the separation of the chalaza, and its attachment to the apex of the embryo.—All the Aroideæ are acrid; and this principle is sometimes so strong as to render various species very poisonous. The flat underground stems, and the leaves of many, are however harmless, and, when boiled or roasted, are even nutritive.

Order 195. Potameæ. Juss.

Flowers bi- or unisexual. Perianth two or four-parted, often deciduous, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, hypogynous. Ovarium one or more, free, inserted on the receptacle or central spadix: ovule solitary in each ovary: style one or none: stigma one, entire or rarely two- or three-parted. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous, or suspended. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved, with a lateral cleft for the emission of the plumule: radicle very large, inferior, pointing to the extremity remote from the hilum.—Water plants. Leaves very cellular, with parallel veins. Flowers minute.—Ex. Potamogeton, Naias, Zostera.

The structure of the seed of Zostera is explained by that of Ruppia, where the great mass of the embryo is the radicle with a cleft for the emission of the plumule. If we suppose, with Richard, that in no case is the flower of Potameæ bisexual, but that even in Potamogeton the perianth is a four-partite spatha, we shall readily see how closely this order approaches to the Aroideæ.—Of little use. Zostera is used for packing, and stuffing the beds of the poorer classes.

Order 196. Podostemæ. Rich.

Flowers naked, bisexual, bursting through an irregularly lacerated spatha. Stamens hypogynous, definite or indefinite, monadelphous, alternately sterile and shorter. Ovarium free, spuriously two-celled: ovules numerous: styles two or none: stigmas two or three. Placenta forming the disseptum. Fruit slightly pedicellate, capsular, two-valved, septicide, the valves falling off from the disseptimal placenta. Seeds indefinite, minute.—Herbaceous, branched, floating plants. Leaves capillary or linear, or irregularly lacerated, or minute and imbricated. Flowers minute.—Ex. Podostemum, Lacis, Mniopsis.

The internal structure of the seed is still unknown. Martius says it is homogeneous; but we may rather compare them with the seeds of such Potameæ as consist almost entirely of an immense radicle; and there are many other points of resemblance between the two orders. Mr Lindley arranges Podostemæ between Piperaceæ and Callitrichineæ (Haloragaceæ).—No properties are known.

Order 197. Cyperaceæ. Juss.

Flowers bi- or unisexual, furnished each with a soli-

tary bracteole called a glume or scale, which are imbricated on a common axis. Perianth rarely membranaceous, 2-3-valved, the valves distinct or united: generally entirely wanting. Stamens hypogynous, definite (1-12), with sometimes an additional row of abortive filaments or setæ: anthers erect, two-celled: ovary one-celled: ovule one, erect: style single, three-cleft or bifid: stigmas undivided, or occasionally bifid. Fruit an achenium or nut. Embryo lenticular, seated at the base of a farinaceous albumen, and covered by a very thin membranous projection of it: plumule inconspicuous.—Roots fibrous. Stems often without joints. Sheaths of the leaves entire.—Ex. Cyperus, Scirpus, Scleria, Carex.

We have slightly altered the character of the order from that usually given; for while we consider Carex and some others to have a true perianth, we cannot regard the hypogynous setæ of authors in the same light, they being more analogous to abortive stamens, and consequently to a corolla. The Cyperaceæ are closely allied to the Gramineæ.—The herbage of this order contains almost no nutritive principle. The roots of some are succulent, and possess diaphoretic and demulcent properties: those of Cyperus esculentus are said to be eaten; those of Cyperus longus are bitter and tonic; those of Cyperus odoratus have a warm aromatic taste. The Cyperus Papyrus yielded the paper of the Egyptians. Some species of Scirpus are used for making chair bottoms.

Order 198. Gramineæ. Juss.

Flowers usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual or polygamous: one, two, or more being seated on a common rachis, which is contained within an involucre, that consists of one or two valves (glumes), or is rarely wanting; the whole constituting a locusta. Partial involucre similar to the glumes, of two (rarely one) dissimilar valves (glumellæ or paleæ); outer or lower simple, usually carinate: inner with two nerves or keels, and hence formed of two pieces cohering by their contiguous margins. Lodicle (abortive stamens?) of two (rarely one) hypogynous minute scales, sometimes wanting. Stamens hypogynous, 1-6, or rarely indefinite: anthers two-celled, versatile: ovary simple: ovule one: style one, bipartite, rarely simple or tripartite: stigma plumose or hairy. Pericarp a caryopsis. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo lenticular, external, lying on one side of the albumen near its base.—Culms cylindrical, hollow, jointed. Leaves alternate: sheath split. Locustæ of flowers arranged in spikes, racemes, or panicles.—Ex. Panicum, Avena, Anthoxanthum.

The above, with some slight variations, is the account of the structure of these plants most usually adopted. Some botanists term the partial involucre the perianth, others view the lodicle in that light; perhaps if a perianth be present, it must be looked for in the upper glumella alone. Their affinity with Cyperaceæ is evident.—This order, whether as furnishing food to man or beast, is one of the most important in the whole vegetable kingdom. Wheat, barley, oats, rice, guinea corn, millet, maize, and the sugar-cane, belong to it. The cuticle contains a large quantity of silex. This abounds so much in the sugar-cane, that by the mere using that plant for fuel in the extraction of sugar, the fire-place is soon choked up by large masses of a coarse kind of glass. The siliceous matter of the bamboo is often secreted at the diseased joints, and forms the mineral called Tabasheer. The straw of different grasses is plaited, and made into ladies' bonnets: that used at Leghorn is the Hordeum pratense, which also grows wild in our own country. Seringe's Herbarium Cereale, with the accompanying descriptions in his Manières Botaniques, deserve to be carefully studied by such as principally attend to the uses of this tribe of plants.

II.—CELLULARES. D. C.

(15. ACOTYLEDONES. JUSS. § 1. DUCTULOSÆ.)

Order 199. Equisetaceæ. D. C.

Sporules surrounded by elastic clavate filaments, and inclosed in thecae arising from the scales of terminal cones.—Vernation straight.—Ex. Equisetum.

The cuticle abounds in silex, and hence the plants of the only genus of this order are very useful for polishing furniture, &c.

Order 200. Filices. JUSS.

Sporules inclosed in thecae arising from the back or margin of the fronds, or rarely without thecae seated on the back of a deformed frond (LINDL.).—Vernation circinate, in those without thecae straight.—Ex. Polypodium, Gleichenia, Osmunda, Dunaea, Ophioglossum, Parkeria.

Adopting Mr Lindley's views already explained relative to the formation of the thecae of ferns, he is led to the conclusion that Ophioglossum and its allies have no thecae, but that what is there called so are merely the involute contracted segments of the deformed frond that bears the sporules.—The fronds generally contain an astringent mucilage, and are thus considered as pectoral and lenitive. A few species have been employed for food. The caudex of Aspidium Filix mas, and Pteris aquilina, being bitter and astringent, have been used as anthelmintics, emmenagogues, and purgatives. Aspidium fragrans has been employed as a substitute for tea.

Order 201. Marsiliaceæ. R. BROWN.

Sporules inclosed in thecae which are contained within closed involucre.—Ex. Marsilea, Salvinia.

Their properties are entirely unknown.

Order 202. Lycopodiaceæ. SWATZ.

Sporules inclosed in axillary thecae.—Vernation circinate.—Ex. Lycopodium, Isotetes.

The minute pulverulent matter contained in the one kind of thecae is highly inflammable, and is collected on the continent in considerable quantities, particularly from Lycopodium clavatum. It is used for artificial lighting in the theatres. Lyc. clavatum and L. Selago excite vomiting.

II.—CELLULARES. D. C.

(15. ACOTYLEDONES. JUSS. § 2. EDUCTULOSÆ.)

Order 203. Musci. JUSS.

Sporules contained in thecae closed by an operculum or lid, which falls off or is rarely adnate.—Stem with leafy appendages.—Ex. Hypnum, Gymnostomum, Andræa.

Of little or no use, except for packing.

Order 204. Hepaticæ. JUSS.

Sporules contained in thecae which are dehiscent (or rarely indehiscent), and destitute of an operculum.—Plants with leafy appendages.—Ex. Marchantia, Jungermannia.

Some species are slightly fragrant, but little is known of their properties.

Order 205. Algæ. JUSS.

Plants without leafy appendages, and with very few exceptions found in water. Sporules variously disposed.—Ex. Fucus, Ulva, Conferca, Chara.

The Hæmatococcus nivalis, or red snow plant, belongs to this order.—The algæ are of considerable importance in our manufactures and domestic economy. "Rhodomenia palmata, the dulse of the Scots, dillisk of the Irish,

and saccharine Fucus of the Icelanders, is consumed in considerable quantities throughout the maritime countries of the north of Europe, and in the Grecian archipelago; Iridaea edulis is still occasionally used both in Scotland and the south-west of England. Porphyra laciniata and ulvaris is stewed, and brought to our tables as a luxury under the name of Laver, and even the Ulva latissima, or green Laver, is not slighted in the absence of the Porphyra. Enteromorpha compressa, a common species on our shores, is regarded, according to Gaudichaud, as an esculent by the Sandwich islanders. Laurentia pinnatifida, distinguished for its pungency, and the young stalks and fronds of Laminaria digitata (the former called Pepper-dulse, the latter Tangle) were often eaten in Scotland; and even now, though rarely, the old cry, 'buy dulse and tangle,' may be heard in the streets of Edinburgh. When stripped of the thin part, the beautiful Alaria esculenta forms a part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands. To go farther from home, we find the large Laminaria pottorum of Australia furnishing the Aborigines with a proportion of their instruments, vessels, and food. On the authority of Bory St Vincent, the Durvillea utilis and other Laminaria constitute an equally important resource to the poor on the west coast of South America. In Asia several species of Gelidium are made use of to render more palatable the hot and biting condiments of the East. Some undetermined species of this genus also furnish the materials of which the edible swallows' nests are composed. It is remarked by Lamaroux that three species of swallow construct edible nests, two of which build at a distance from the sea coast, and use the sea-weed only as a cement for other matters. The nests of the third are consequently most esteemed, and sold for nearly their weight in gold. Gracillaria lichenoides is highly valued for food in Ceylon and other parts of the East, and bears a great resemblance to G. compressa, a species recently discovered on the British shores, and which seems to be little inferior to it. It is not to mankind alone that marine Algæ have furnished luxuries or resources in times of scarcity. Several species are greedily sought after by cattle, especially in the north of Europe. Rhodomenia palmata is so great a favourite with sheep and goats, that Bishop Gunner named it Fucus ovinus. In some of the Scottish islands, horses, cattle, and sheep, feed chiefly upon Fucus resiculosus during the winter months; and in Gothland it is commonly given to pigs. Fucus serratus also, and Chorda Filum, constitute a part of the fodder upon which the cattle are supported in Norway. In medicine we are not altogether unindebted to the Algæ. The Gigartina helminthocorton, or Corsican moss, as it is frequently called, is a native of the Mediterranean, and held once a considerable reputation as a vermifuge. The most important medical use, however (omitting minor ones), derived from sea-weeds, is through the medium of Iodine, which may be obtained either from the plants themselves or from kelp. French kelp, according to Sir H. Davy, yields more Iodine than British; and, from some recent experiments made at the Cape of Good Hope by M. Ecklon, Laminaria buccinalis is found to contain more than any European Algæ. Iodine is known to be a powerful remedy in cases of goitre. But were the Algæ neither 'really serviceable either in supplying the wants, or in administering to the comforts, of mankind' in any other respect, their character would be redeemed by their usefulness in

¹ De Candolle arranges these, as has already been seen, among the Endogenæ; we have stated our reasons for their removal here. The structure of each order of the Cellulares we have already described at sufficient length, and shall therefore refer to p. 37 and p. 63.

the arts; and it is highly probable that we shall find ourselves eventually infinitely more indebted to them. One species (and I regret to say that it is not a British one) is invaluable as a glue and varnish to the Chinese. This is the Gracillaria tenax, the Fucus tenax of Turner's Historia Fucorum. Though a small plant, the quantity annually imported at Canton from the provinces of Tokien and Tehe-kiang is stated by Mr Turner to be about 27,000 pounds. It is sold at Canton for 6d. or 8d. per pound, and is used for the purposes to which we apply glue and gum-arabic. The Chinese employ it chiefly in the manufacture of lanterns, to strengthen or varnish the paper, and sometimes to thicken or give a gloss to silks or gauze. In addition to the above account, the substance of which I have extracted from Mr Turner's work, Mr Neill remarks that it seems probable that this is the principal ingredient in the celebrated gummy matter called Chin-chow, or Hai-tsai, in China and Japan. Windows made merely of slips of bamboo, crossed diagonally, have frequently their lozenge-shaped interstices wholly filled with the transparent gluten of the Hai-tsai. On the southern and western coasts of Ireland, our own Chondrus crispus is converted into size for the use of the house-painters, &c., and, if I be not erroneously informed, is also considered as a culinary article, and enters into the composition of blanc-mange, as well as other dishes. In the manufacture of kelp, however, for the use of the glass-maker and soap-boiler, it is that the Algae take their place among the most useful vegetables. The species most valuable for this purpose are, Fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and serratus; Laminaria digitata and bulbosa; Himanthalia lorea, and Chorda Filum.¹

Plants not growing in water, without leafy appendages. Sporules lying in superficial disc.—Ex. Parmelia, Ramalina.

Some Lichens were formerly supposed to grow in water. This is still allowed by Fries, but he denies that they ever fructify there; and he has further observed, that several of what were termed Algae, upon being removed from that element and exposed to the sun, produce shields and become Lichens. "Lichens," says De Candolle, "present two classes of properties, 1st, the dyeing properties, which are developed by different agents, and especially by maceration in urine, properties which are common to all the species, but particularly to such as approach most to the consistence of a calcareous crust; 2d, medicinal properties, which are most sensible in those species that are soft, whether it be that these contain more mucilage, or that they have been most experimented upon." The Iceland moss of the shops, which is the Cetraria Islandica, is tonic, demulcent, and nutrient; and several others are nearly equally suited to the same purpose. The Orchale or Archil, and Cudbear, of various kinds, are all famed for the dye they give out.

Plants not growing in water, and without leafy appendages.

Sporules in the substance of the plants, the whole of which may be viewed as organs of reproduction.—Ex. Sphaeria, Agaricus, Lycoperdum, Mucor, Uredo.

This order presents many anomalies. Some are wholesome, others extremely poisonous; nor does this diversity of property seem at all connected with their external forms, many most allied in appearance being extremely distinct in their virtues; and the difficulty of distinguishing the two kinds is known by all who have turned their attention to the subject. In this country, therefore, scarcely more than one or two mushrooms are eaten; in France, Italy, and Germany, more are used; and in Russia many are employed which are elsewhere considered as poisonous. Either the climate or the mode of cooking must thus operate in rendering these wholesome. The dry rot is caused by several species of parasitical Fungi, as Polyporus destructor, Merulius vastator and laurymans, &c. The blights in corn, mildew, smut, and ergot, are also Fungi of the same description. Mouldiness, whether in cheese or on books, is also constituted of small parasitical Fungi, and is best prevented by the presence of an essential oil. Amadou or German tinder is prepared from some kinds of Boletus (as B. ignarius and fomentarius), and afterwards impregnated with nitre.

We have now presented an account of all the natural orders of plants acknowledged up to the present time; and, on studying their characters, we are forced to draw the following conclusions. 1. That the difference between an ovary free, or adherent with the tube of the calyx, is weakened by many genera, as by comparing the Loasceæ with the allied family of Turneraceæ, and by the genera of Dip-saceæ, in which the ovary is adherent at the apex and not below. 2. The difference between hypogynous and perigynous stamens is often imperceptible, this depending on the greater or less expansion of the torus: the same may be said of the epigynous and gynandrous insertions. 3. Loculicide or septicide dehiscence of the fruit depends only on the greater or less adhesion of the sides, or of the middle of the valves; both, in certain states, being liable, to dehisce. 4. The parietal placenta is merely that modification of the other kind in which the introflexed margin of the valves is little apparent. 5. Petals may be accidentally more or less combined by their margins into a gamopetalous corolla, or may be entirely absent; so that there is no limit between gamopetalous, polypetalous, and apetalous orders. 6. Stamens may be more or less combined, or distinct. 7. Stamens may become abortive, and even change into petals. 8. St. Hilaire has shown that there are many ambiguous states in the relative positions of the radicle of the embryo and the hilum of the seed.

Thus the great characters for defining natural orders are impaired. To none in particular can we trust at all times; and it is only by a combination of several tolerably constant ones that, in the present state of our knowledge, we can attain that most desirable end of botanical classification, the natural approximation of genera. (u. u.)

¹ Greville's Algae Brit. p. xix.