CHRONOLOGY.

Chrono-
logy.

CHRONOLOGY, from χρονος, time, and λογία, word or description, is the science which treats of time. Its object is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between them.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time, implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement in the arts of civilized life, which could only be attained by the accumulated experience of many generations. Before the invention of letters, the memory of past transactions could not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth, might be vaguely transmitted through several ages by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by abstract numbers, and these too constantly varying, would soon escape from the memory. The invention of the art of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and permanent records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the infancy of the world mankind had neither learned to estimate accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to a fixed and determined epoch. Writing was practised many centuries before historians began to assign dates to the events they narrated.

For these reasons the history of the early ages of the world is involved in impenetrable obscurity, and chronology, comparatively speaking, is only of recent date. After political relations began to be established, the necessity of preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon be felt, and the practice of recording important transactions must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life. But of these early records, how small a portion has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism? The annals of the early Greeks and of the Etruscans are irretrievably lost. Of the chronicles which Manetho, high priest of Sebenne, professed to have reduced from the archives of the Egyptian temples; of the histories of Sanconiaton the Phœnician, of Berossus, Hecateus, and others, only a few mutilated fragments have been transmitted to our times through the suspected relation of Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and other chronologists. The Gauls destroyed the records of ancient Rome. The Romans, in their turn, extirpated the Druids of Gaul and Britain, and obliterated the last vestiges of their ancient traditions. An Arab chief burned the library of Alexandria, a Chinese emperor the histories of his own country, and a Spanish soldier the paintings and hieroglyphics of the palace of Montezuma.

In order to preserve an exact record of the succession of events, some conventional epoch, or fixed point of time, must be taken as the origin of the reckoning, and some standard period assumed with which the successive intervals may be compared. It is a trite remark, that the simplest ideas are generally the latest in representing themselves to the mind. Nothing seems more obvious than to measure the longer intervals of time by the tropical revolutions of the sun, and to number the years in regular succession. But this simple method was not adopted by historians in the earliest ages. In the Scripture history the lapse of time is frequently estimated by generations, or reigns of kings, and not by exact numbers of years. The

historians of early Greece proceeded in a similar manner. Hellanicus regulated his narrative by the succession of the priestesses of Juno in the temple of Argos. Others reckoned by the ephori and kings of Sparta, or the archons of Athens. Ephorus, the disciple of Isocrates, who composed a chronological history of Greece, reckoned by generations. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus, who flourished about a hundred years after the death of Alexander the Great, first attempted to introduce precision into historical records, by substituting numbers of years for generations, reigns, or successions. (See Newton's Chronology, Introduction). Now, when time is measured by any of the above methods, it is obvious that we can only approximate to the intervals between successive events, from our knowledge of the average duration of human life, and of kings' reigns, in the present state of the world. Chronologists usually reckon three generations equivalent to a hundred years, and Sir Isaac Newton allows eighteen or twenty years to a reign or succession. In a great number of years this estimate is probably near the truth, but it affords very uncertain information with respect to short periods, and none whatever with regard to the duration of an individual reign. It is to those loose methods of marking the lapse of time that we must ascribe the great discrepancy that exists among the chronological accounts of the early ages of Greece and Rome.

Another great cause of uncertainty and confusion in chronology has arisen from the diversity of epochs assumed by historians, and the practice, which has been unhappily too prevalent, of shifting the origin of their eras from one epoch to another. Having little intercourse with each other, the different groups or communities into which mankind were divided in early times, instead of agreeing on a common epoch, began each to date the years from some event, important perhaps in reference to its individual history, but of which other tribes were probably entirely ignorant, or which at least they regarded with indifference. Hence in ancient history we have the Olympiad of Corebus, the foundation of Rome, the era of Nabonassar &c.; and in more recent times the Christian era, the Hegira, the era of Yezdegerd, &c. Some centuries after the introduction of Christianity, the various sects of Christians began to found their eras on events connected with the appearance of Christ, but without any regard to uniformity. Some reckoned from the epoch of his conception, or the annunciation; others from his birth, others again from his passion, others from his ascension; and hence there is very frequently the greatest difficulty in reconciling the dates given by the historians and annalists of the middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession, the numbers denoting the years necessarily undergo a constant and unlimited augmentation. But rude nations, and illiterate people in general, seldom attach any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice, very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, containing a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese, and some other nations of Asia, reckon not only the years, but also the months and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldeans, the Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction, are instances of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and were

Chrono- rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than as logy. chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly expressed, and consequently form important elements of chronology.

In the article CALENDAR, we have already treated of that part of Chronology which relates to the measurement of time, and explained with sufficient detail the principal methods that have been employed, or are still in use, for adjusting the lunar months to the solar year, as well as the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according to the celestial motions. In the present article it is our purpose to give an account of the different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians, and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succession of time and events; to fix the epochs at which the eras respectively commenced; to ascertain the form and the initial day of the year made use of; and to establish their correspondence with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical date, of which the chronological characters are given according to any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the common era of the Incarnation.

Julian Period.

Although the Julian period is not, properly speaking, a chronological era, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologists. It consists of 7980 Julian years. The number 7980 is formed by the continued multiplication of the three numbers 28, 19, and 15, that is, of the cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the Indiction: hence, when the number of any year in the Julian period is divided by one of these three numbers, the remainder of the division will indicate the number of that year in the corresponding cycle. The first year of the Christian era had ten for its number in the cycle of the sun, two in the cycle of the moon, and four in the Indiction; but 4714 is the only number less than 7980 which, on being divided by 28, 19, and 15, gives the respective remainders 10, 2, and 4 (See CALENDAR). Hence the first year of the Christian era corresponded with the year 4714 of the Julian period. In order, therefore, to find the year of our era corresponding to any other year of the period, or the contrary, we have the following rule:

1. When the given year is anterior to the commencement of the Christian era, subtract the number of the year in the Julian period from 4714, and the remainder is the year before Christ: or subtract the year before Christ from 4714, and the remainder is the corresponding year in the Julian period.

2. When the given year is after Christ, subtract 4713 from the year of the period, and the remainder is the year of the Christian era; or add 4713 to the year of Christ, and the sum is the corresponding year of the Julian period.

Olympiads.

The Olympic games, so famous in Grecian history, were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the banks of the river Alpheus, near the city of Pisa, in the Peloponnesus, and lasted five days. They are said to have been originally instituted by Hercules, at the funeral ceremonies of Pelops, 1354 years before the Christian era; but they seem to have been forgotten, or at least to have been discontinued, during several centuries. They were afterwards re-established by Iphitus, king of a canton of Elis, in con-

cert with Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa, 844 years before Christ, and 470 years from the time of their original institution; but it was not till upwards of a hundred years after this time that they began to be used as a chronological epoch. It was then that the practice was adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The first who received this honour was Corœbus. The games in which Corœbus was victor, and which form the principal epoch of Grecian history, were celebrated about the time of the summer solstice, 776 years before the common era of the Incarnation, in the 3938th of the Julian period, and twenty-three years, according to the account of Varro, before the foundation of Rome.

Form of the Olympic Year.—Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the ordinary Grecian year consisted of twelve lunar months, containing twenty-nine and thirty days alternately; and in order to reconcile this with the course of the sun, a thirteenth month was added, at first every second year, and subsequently three times in eight years. The additional or intercalary month contained thirty days, so that the Octaeteris, or period of eight years, consisted of ninety-nine months, containing in all 2922 days, which is exactly equal to eight Julian years. The years which contained the intercalary month were called embolismic, and formed the third, fifth, and eighth of the period. Hence the Olympiads contained forty-nine and fifty months alternately, the first four years of the Octaeteris containing one intercalary year, and the second two; and hence, also, the Olympic games were celebrated alternately on common and embolismic years. It has been shown in the article CALENDAR, that the Octaeteris fell short of the actual length of ninety-nine lunations by a day and a half nearly; at the end of two periods, therefore, the moon's age was three days less than it had been at the commencement, and in order to restore the coincidence between the civil month and the lunation, three days were added to the last year of each second Olympiad. But this correction introduced an error in respect of the sun, and caused the solar year to commence three days too late. This error was allowed to accumulate till the end of the fortieth Olympiad, when a full month of thirty days was omitted, by which means the solar and lunar years were adjusted, and the forty-first Olympiad commenced with the same day of the moon, and the same season of the year, as the first had done 160 years before. According to this arrangement the common years contained 354 days, and the embolismic 384; excepting however the concluding year of each second Octaeteris, which contained 387 days, and the last year of each fortieth Olympiad, which had 357 days.

In the fourth year of the eighty-sixth Olympiad, Meton published his celebrated cycle of nineteen years, which, after receiving a slight correction from Calippus, continued to be followed ever afterwards, so long as the practice of dating by Olympiads continued in use. Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, sometimes with that which preceded, the summer solstice, on account that the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354; but subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results differ from one another only by a few days, chronologists in general regard the first of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome, and the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the first of September; but they seem to have confounded the Olymp-

pic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the Seleucidae.

It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods begin with the first of July, the first six months of a year of our era correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another. Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corresponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore distinguish two cases.

1st, When the event in question happened between the first of January and the first of the following July, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year of the era, therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year from 776. For example, Varro refers the foundation of Rome to the 21st of April of the third year of the sixth Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth Olympiad is $5\; \backslash times\; 4\; +\; 3\; =\; 23$; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776, we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred by Varro.

2d, When the event took place between the summer solstice and the first of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference therefore between 777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required to find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413 from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 91 without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic year to find the corresponding year of our era; but if it took place in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the fifth century of our era.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian states. The Attic months, which were the most usual, are as follows:

Era of the Foundation of Rome.

After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respecting the year in which this event took place; but the authorities most deserving of credit are the five following:

1st, Fabius Pictor, who places the epoch of the foundation of Rome in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with the year 747 before Christ.

2d, Polybius, who places it in the second year of the

seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period, and 750 B.C.

3d, Cato, who places it in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and 751 B.C.

4th, Verrius Flaccus, who places it in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and 752 B.C.

5th, Terentius Varro, who places it in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 B.C.

A knowledge of these different computations is frequently necessary, in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even with themselves. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologists for the most part adopt the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 21st of April; all the accounts agree in regarding this date as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular year, according to which the annals of their history have been composed. From the time of Numa the civil year always commenced with the calends of January; but by reason of the arbitrary manner in which, till the time of Julius Cæsar, their calendar was regulated by the pontiffs, the civil months did not retain a fixed place in the solar year, and the calends of January successively passed into the different seasons. Hence part of the Roman civil year corresponded to one Julian year, and part of it to another. Thus, when the 1st of January in the civil year corresponded with the Julian 1st of September, the first four months of the civil year belonged to one Julian year, and the last eight months to the Julian year following. With regard to the consular year (or year of the reign before the expulsion of the kings) the confusion and uncertainty are still greater. The epoch of the succession of a king regulated the commencement of the years of his reign, and the installation of the consuls the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the seventh century of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the sixth century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the time of the Decemviri, however, February was the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Cæsar. Through a like want of

Chrono- attention, many writers also, particularly among the mo- logy. derns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making an entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these particulars is required in the comparison of ancient dates.

The Christian Era.

The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian countries, and is even used by some eastern nations. Its epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but there are various opinions with regard to the year in which that event took place. The most probable is, that the birth of Christ happened five years and seven days before the initial day of the vulgar era. This method of dating the years was introduced into Italy in the sixth century, by Dennis or Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in France in the seventh, though it was not generally followed in that country before the reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne. In England it seems to have been introduced by St. Augustin. Before its adoption the usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply marked and distinguished by the cardinal numbers; those before Christ being distinguished by the characters B. C. (Before Christ), or A. C. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ by A. D. (Anno Domini.) This method of reckoning time is more commodious than those which employ cycles or periods of any length whatever; and, provided the commencement of the era had been placed at the creation of the world, or at some point of time prior to all historical records, it would have satisfied, in the simplest manner possible, all the conditions that are necessary for registering the succession of events. But when the commencement of the era is placed, as in the present case, at an intermediate period of history, some inconvenience is felt with regard to the dates of preceding events, on account of the interruption of the numerical order. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the methods adopted by authors, of numbering the preceding years. In order to preserve uniformity in their computations, astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that by 1 B. C.; but chronologists, in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the era 1 B. C., the previous year 2 B. C., and so on. By reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty frequently arises respecting dates, on account of the different epochs that have been assumed for the commencement of the Christian year. Dennis, the author of the era, thinking it more natural to reckon from the conception, adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. The epoch of Dennis therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some of the Italian states, and continued to be used in Pisa even down to the year 1745. It was also adopted by some of the Popes in their Bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle of the eleventh century. Some chroni-

clers, who adhere to the day of the annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the tenth century. Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the sixth and seventh centuries, make the year commence sometimes with the 1st of March, like the Romans before the time of Numa, and sometimes with the 1st of January. In France under the third race of kings it was usual to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till the middle of the sixteenth century, for an edict was passed by Charles IX. in the month of January 1563, ordaining that the commencement of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the first of January. An instance is given, in l'Art de Vérifier les Dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the eleventh century, it was usual to commence the year at Christmas; and this practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian cities, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at Christmas was introduced in the seventh century, and traces of it are found to exist even in the thirteenth. Gervais of Canterbury, who lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century, mentions that almost all writers of his country had agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms as it were the term at which the sun finishes and recommences his annual course. In the twelfth century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the first of January. The liturgic year of the church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of the ancient chronicles and annals, in which the dates often appear contradictory, though correctly and precisely marked. We may cite an example or two. It is well known that the emperor Charlemagne was crowned at Rome on Christmas-day in the year 800, and that he died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning; but in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation of Charlemagne is stated to have taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. Both these statements appear at first sight to be erroneous; but on attending to the different periods at which the year has been supposed to begin, they will both be easily reconciled with the known facts. In the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would be referred to the end of the year 813. As another example, the English revolution is popularly called the revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it now does, with the 1st of January, it would have been the revolution of 1689, that event having taken place in February in the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the

Gregorian Calendar. The old style still continues to be used by the Russians and Greeks; and in order to convert a date expressed in this manner into the new style, it is necessary to attend to the variation which takes place from century to century, in the interval between the commencement of the Julian and Gregorian years. From the reformation of the calendar in 1582 to the 29th of February 1700, the difference is ten days; from the 1st of March 1700 to the 29th of February 1800, it is eleven days; from the 1st of March 1800 to the 29th February 1900 the difference is twelve days; and after the 1st of March 1900, if the old style shall then continue to be in use, the difference will be thirteen days, till the 29th of February 2100, as has been explained at length in the article CALENDAR.

Era of the Creation of the World.

As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain Pagan rites and observances, which the Christians held in abhorrence, these began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the creation of the world. The chronological elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their computations for determining the epoch of that event were derived from the Old Testament narrative, which, though sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to determine the lapse of time during the first two ages of the world with considerable precision, has been transmitted to us through three distinct channels, not only differing greatly in respect of chronology, but totally irreconcilable with each other. These are, first, the Hebrew text of the Scriptures; second, the Samaritan text; and, third, the Greek version of the Septuagint. Unfortunately no very conclusive reason can be given for preferring any one of these accounts to another. We have no concurrent testimony with which to compare them: it is not even known which of them was regarded as the most probable by the Jews themselves, when the books of the Old Testament were revised and transcribed by Ezra; and the ordinary rules of probability cannot be applied to a state of things in which the duration of human life extended to nearly a thousand years.

Between the creation and the flood ten patriarchs are enumerated, whose names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son, according to the three versions, are as follows:

Noah entered the ark when he was 600 years of age; by adding, therefore, a hundred to each of the above sums, we have for the interval between the creation of Adam and the flood,

Hence it appears that the Greek version assigns to this period a duration of 606 years above the Hebrew account, and 955 above the Samaritan, while the two lat-

ter differ from each other only by 349 years. On account of their nearer agreement, and also of their greater antiquity, critics generally give the preference to the Hebrew and Samaritan texts; and as it appears from a passage in St. Jerome, that in his day some manuscripts of the Samaritan agreed with the Hebrew in respect of Methusaleh and Lamech (two out of the three cases in which it at present differs), chronologists usually adopt the Hebrew account. The Latin or vulgate translation, which was declared authentic by the Council of Trent, is in entire conformity with the Hebrew.

The second age of the world is reckoned from the deluge to the vocation of Abraham. It contains also ten patriarchs (the Septuagint reckons eleven), with respect to whose ages the three accounts differ still more widely than in the case of the antediluvian patriarchs. The following are their names, with the age of each at the birth of his eldest son:

From the above sums we must deduct the age of Shem when the deluge took place. This was ninety-eight years. The interval between the flood and the call of Abraham is consequently,

In this case the Samaritan and Greek accounts differ greatly from the Hebrew. Their difference from each other is only 230 years; and if we reject Cainan II., whose name does not appear either in the Hebrew or Samaritan text, the difference is only 100 years, which may easily be supposed to have arisen from the errors of the copyists. The near agreement of the Samaritan and Greek accounts renders it probable that the Hebrew text is in error. As another reason for giving the preference to the Samaritan, it may also be mentioned, that according to the Hebrew account, the dispersion of the descendants of Noah, which took place in the time of Peleg, must have happened about a hundred years after the deluge; and it can hardly be conceived that in so short a space of time they should have increased to so great an extent, that, as it is mentioned, a single country could not contain them. According to the Samaritan text, the dispersion took place about 400 years after the deluge,—a space of time which allows of a considerable increase in the number of the inhabitants of the earth.

From this period the intervals of time between the principal events recorded in Scripture are seldom mentioned in the same circumstantial manner; and the chronologists who computed the succession of years had not only to contend with the discordant readings, but were often obliged to assign arbitrary values to the generations, or other vague terms by which the time is computed. From computations founded on such loose and uncertain data, it would be in vain to look for agreement; accordingly the results not only present great discrepancies, but

Chrono- appear to be as numerous as the computations. Desvignes, in the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he has collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the commencement of the vulgar era, and the longest 6984. The difference amounts to thirty-five centuries. In the following table we have inserted the results obtained by some of the most eminent of the computera. The reader who is desirous of more information on this subject may consult the first volume of the Universal History, or L'Art de Vérifier les Dates, avant J. C. p. ix.

Table of the Years elapsed between Adam and the Birth of Christ, according to the computation of the principal Chronologists.

All that can be gathered from these conflicting statements amounts to this, that the true epoch of the creation of the world is utterly unknown. British chronologists in general prefer the computation of Archbishop Usher, who places the creation of the world, or rather of Adam, 4004 years before the vulgar era.

Jewish Year and Eras.

Before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of the jubilees and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient

year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox.

The ancient Jewish year was lunisolar, that is to say, the months were regulated by the moon, and intercalations employed to preserve a correspondence between the same months and the same seasons of the year. This correspondence was implied in the ceremonials of their religion. The passover began at the middle of the month Nisan; and, besides the paschal lamb, required the offering of a sheaf of barley as the first fruits of the harvest. Pentecost, or the feast of weeks, which was celebrated fifty days after the passover, required the offering of two loaves as the first fruits of the wheat harvest; and the feast of tabernacles, which was always celebrated on the 15th of the month Tisri, was at the end of the harvest. Hence the passover could only be celebrated about the season when the barley was ready to be cut, Pentecost after the wheat was ripe, and the feast of tabernacles after the vintage and the ingathering of the olives. These regulations rendered it necessary that the three great festivals of the Jews should always occur at nearly the same seasons, and consequently, that some sort of intercalation should be employed for the adjustment of solar and lunar time. But the methods employed for this purpose seem to have been of the rudest kind,—founded on no astronomical calculation, and regulated by no fixed rule. The beginning or end of the month was determined only by sight. When a new moon became visible, a new month began. Experience taught them that it was needless to look out for a new moon before the 29th day of the month; if a new moon then appeared, the next day was the first of the following month; if not, they resumed their watch on the night following, and if the moon was not then visible, they concluded that it must have been obscured by clouds, and the following day was reckoned the first of the succeeding month. Twelve months formed the ordinary year, but every two or three years an intercalary month was added. The rule which they followed with regard to the intercalary month seems to have been this. When the 15th of Nisan, which was the first day of unleavened bread, and of the passover, would have occurred in the ordinary course before the vernal equinox, an intercalary month was inserted before Nisan, in consequence of which the passover, with the feasts depending on it, was thrown back a whole month. The intercalary month was called ee-Adar, or second Adar, from its immediately following Adar, the last of the twelve ordinary months.

While the year continued to be regulated in this uncertain and arbitrary manner, it is evident that uniformity could only be preserved by conventional arrangements entered into from year to year. Accordingly the Jews, after their dispersion, were constrained to have recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be neither more nor less than the Calippe period of seventy-six years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days (see CALENDAR), the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon, which was the

whole error of the Calippic period, this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day six hours and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the commencement of this cycle in the year 162 B. C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B. C. According to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have commenced in the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St. Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of the Messiah.

The following are the names of the Jewish months, with the number of days in each:

When each of the two months Marchesvan and Chisleu has twenty-nine days, the year of twelve months contains only 353 days, and is called defective; when these months contain each thirty days, the year contains 355 days, and is called perfect; when the one contains twenty-nine days and the other thirty, the year is common, and contains 354 days. These two months are variable, because certain days of the week are regarded by the Jews as unlucky; on such days it is not lawful to celebrate the feasts; and as the passover begins on the same day of the week as that with which the year began, when the first day of the year would fall, in the regular course, on one of the unlucky days, the commencement of the year is postponed to the day following.

Till the fifteenth century the Jews usually followed the era of the Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they generally employ a mundane era, and date from the creation of the world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three months before the commencement of our era. No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins, without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.

Egyptian Year and Canicular Period.

The ancient year of the Egyptians appears to have been lunisolar, and to have continued so till the reign of Hyperton or Osiris. From that time they employed a solar year, which consisted of 365 days, or twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end of the last month. This was their religious year; and as its commencement anticipated that of the true solar year by one day every four years, it was adhered to long after they had discovered that the year consists of 365$\backslash frac\{1\}\{4\}$ days, from superstitious notions, in order that each of the seasons might in its turn be blessed by the enjoyment of the sacred festivals.

As the anticipation of a day every four years brought back the commencement of the vague year to the same

place in the seasons in the space of 1461 years, it follows that 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian years. The period of 1461 Egyptian years is denominated in chronology the Sohlic or Canicular period, because it commenced with the heliacal rising of the dog-star, called in Egypt Sothis; that is to say, it commenced at the time when that star begins to disengage itself from the rays of the sun, and to be visible just before sunrise. In the latitude of Lower Egypt the dog-star begins to rise heliacally about the 20th of July.

The vague year of the Egyptians began with the month of Thoth, or the 20th of July, in the year of our era 136, which year, therefore, was the first of a Sothic period. The same coincidence took place 1460 Julian years before that time, that is to say, in the year 1325 before Christ. The cycle which began 1325 B. C. is regarded by chronologists as the second which was used in Egypt. Hence, since 1325 + 1460 = 2785, the first must have commenced in the year 2785 B. C. according to the Julian computation. In this first cycle we must place the principal events of Egyptian history, such as the invasion of the shepherds, the establishment of the Israelites in that kingdom, &c.

The names of the Egyptian months are,

Each month contained thirty days, and the year, as already stated, was completed by the addition of five supplementary or epagomenal days.

Era of Constantinople.

This era, which is still used in the Greek church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of the 14th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at Constantinople as beginning with September previous to the separation of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we have the following rule: If the event took place between the 1st of January and the end of August, subtract 5508 from the given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end of the year, subtract 5509.

Era of Alexandria.

The chronological computation of Julius Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ; but in reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era, it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the throne

Chrono- of the Roman empire in the year of Christ 284. According logy. to the Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before, and the other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not very well known for what reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to commence with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being divided by 19, leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the fifteenth century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by subtracting 5502, till the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch.

The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the fourth century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later, referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch being placed in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 if the event falls between January and September; from September to January subtract 5493.

Era of Nabonassar.

This era is famous in astronomy, having been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It had been in use for some centuries among the Chaldean astronomers; for the ancient observations of eclipses, which were collected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by him into Greece to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the commencement of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the Babylonians. The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary days added at the end. No intercalation was used; and it is therefore in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. From this circumstance the initial day of the year falls one day earlier every four years than the first of the Julian year; so that 1460 Julian years are equal to 1461 Babylonian years. On account of this difference in the length of the year, the conversion of dates according to the era

of Nabonassar, into years before Christ, is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we also know the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cæsar, they adopted, like the other Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded to the 29th of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth, in the ancient Egyptian year, corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the 29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 B. C. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23, and 22 B. C.

Era of the Seleucids, or Macedonian Era.

The era of the Seleucids dates from the epoch of the first conquests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucids, but in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant; was followed by the Jews till the fifteenth century; and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the Jews it was called the Era of Contracts; by the writers of the books of Maccabees the Era of Kings. But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East during a great number of centuries, the authors by whom it was followed differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different epochs which they adopt for the commencement of the year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October. Albategnius, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfragan, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies with respect to the initial day of the year render it extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of 365 days; Albategnius adopts the Julian year of 365$\backslash frac\{1\}\{4\}$ days. For all these reasons, it frequently happens that the date cannot be fixed, unless some other chronological characters are given with it than merely the month and the year.

According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of the era of the Seleucids began on the 1st of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:

Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, which took place in the year 325 before Christ. The year is the same as in the preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.

The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperbereteus, in the year 126 before Christ. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

This era was established to commemorate the victory obtained by Julius Cæsar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 B.C., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Goriæus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the Cæsarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding our history; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his Ecclesiastical History.

The Julian era commences with the 1st of January, forty-five years before Christ. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Cæsar.

The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year before Christ, gave rise to another era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long followed in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated according to this era. After the ninth century it became usual to join with it the year of the Incarnation in public acts. It was followed in Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Arragon till 1350, in Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1393. In Portugal it is said to have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem, that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain commenced with the 1st of January, and the months and days of the year are those of the Julian ca-

lendar, any date is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the year 31 before Christ, and in the 15th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as commencing on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian era, and the 30th B.C. The Egyptians, who followed it till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the eastern Greeks from the 2d of September. By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and continued to be used till the ninth century. It must not be confounded with the Cæsarean era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this era. Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which commenced four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

We have already remarked that the Alexandrians, at the accession of Diocletian to the throne of the Roman empire, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. The same event furnished them with an opportunity of establishing a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution raised by that prince against the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era; for it was in this year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. In order to transfer a date from this era to that of the Incarnation, it is necessary to recollect the form of the Egyptian year. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. In consequence of this regulation the year is exactly similar to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period commence on the 29th of our August, and the fourth commences on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to the 29th of August. Hence, to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if it falls between the 30th of August and the end of the year of the third year of the Julian cycle, we must add 283 years and 241 days. We ought to remark, that the Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which they again commence with unity. This is the Diomysian, or Great Paschal Period, and is formed

Chrono- by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, logy. of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

The following are the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old style:—

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August. In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later. The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indiction.

The cycle of indiction is a period of fifteen years, and was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some ages before the adoption of the Christian era. We are unacquainted with the circumstances and the exact time of its origin, but it was certainly not in use before the time of Constantine; and examples occur in the Theodosian code of its being employed in dating the years under the reign of Constance, who died 361 A.C. Three indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, which, like the Grecian year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction, so called because its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the Cæsarean Indiction. It commences on the 24th of September, and it is not unfrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction, which began on the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to commence on the one or other of these days. It is often employed in the papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.; and traces of its use are found in some of the old French authors.

The first year of the first cycle of Indiction is generally considered to correspond with the year 313 of the Christian era. Some authors, however, regard it as having commenced in 312, others in 314, and some also in 315. The number of cycles, however, is scarcely ever referred to, but only the year in the cycle. Reckoning backwards from 313, the first year of our era is found to be 4 in the cycle of Indiction. Hence to find the Indiction corresponding to any year of the Christian era, add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the Indiction. If there is no remainder, the proposed year is the 15th or last of the cycle.

Era of the Armenians.

The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the council of Tiber, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days,

so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, we may proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 521 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552; that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years, one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months, with their correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:—

1. 1. Navazardi begins.....11th August.
2. 2. Hori .....10th September.
3. 3. Sahomi .....10th October.
4. 4. Dre Thari..... 9th November.
5. 5. Kagoths ..... 9th December.
6. 6. Aracz ..... 8th January.
7. 7. Malegi ..... 7th February.
8. 8. Arcki ..... 9th March.
9. 9. Angi..... 8th April.
10. 10. Mariri ..... 8th May.
11. 11. Marcacz ..... 7th June.
12. 12. Herodiez..... 7th July.

To complete the year, five complementary days are added in common years, and six in leap years.

Era of the Hegira.

The epoch of this era, which is universally used in all Mahomedan countries, is Friday the 16th of July, A. D. 622—the day on which Mahomed fled from Mecca to Medina. Some chronologists, however, and the Arabian astronomers in general, refer its commencement to the preceding day; but though the flight of Mahomed probably began on the evening of Thursday the 15th of July, it is certain, from the comparison of modern dates, that the present practice of the Mahomedans, in dating their civil transactions, is to count from Friday the 16th of July 622. It may be remarked that the civil day of the Mahomedans begins at sunset; the astronomers probably began the day at noon.

The Mahomedan year is strictly lunar, and the civil months are adjusted to the course of the moon, by means of a cycle of 30 years, containing 19 common years of 354 days, and 11 intercalary years of 355 days; whence the cycle contains 10,631 days, which amount to 29 Julian years and 39 days. Each year is divided into 12 months, containing alternately 30 and 29 days, excepting that the last month of the intercalary year contains also 30 days.

Chrono- The intercalary years are the 2d, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, logy. 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th of the cycle.

The names of the Turkish months, with the number of days in each, are as follows:—

The months of the Hegira are composed of weeks of seven days. The following are the names of the days in Turkish and modern Arabic:—

Such are the chronological elements by means of which Mahommedan dates are reduced to the Christian era. As the rules generally given for this purpose are attended with ambiguity, and cannot be depended on to a day, unless corrected by means of a subsidiary table, we will explain at length a method of proceeding by which the correspondence between the two eras is established, without the slightest risk of ambiguity or mistake. The subject is of some interest, in consequence of the era of the Hegira being used over so large a portion of the world.

Having given a Mahommedan date to find the corresponding date in the Christian era,

1. Divide the number of years elapsed by 30; the quotient will be the number of cycles, and the remainder the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the current cycle. Call the quotient A, and the remainder B; and let x be the number of intercalary years in B. Then the number of days that have elapsed from the commencement of the Hegira to the beginning of the year in which the date occurs, is given by the formula,

for 10,631 is the number of days in the cycle or intercalary period, and 354 is the number of days in the common lunar year. To the sum obtained from this formula add the days since the beginning of the current year, and the result is the number of days from the commencement of the cycle to the given date.

2. To the number of days from the commencement of the Hegira to the given date, add the number of days between the commencement of our era and the Hegira, and the sum is the number of days from the epoch of the Incarnation to the given date. The number of days from the beginning of our era to the beginning of the Hegira is 22,7016; for..... $621\; \backslash times\; 365\; =\; 226665$ in 621 years there are 155 leap years..... 155 from 1st of January to 15th July 622, inclusive..... 196

3. It now remains only to reduce the sum thus obtained to Julian years. For this purpose divide by 1461 (the number of days in the Julian intercalary period), and call the quotient C. Divide the remainder by 365, and call the quotient D, and the last remainder y. Then $4C\; +\; D$

is the number of years elapsed since the beginning of the era, and y is the days elapsed of the current year.

Example.—The treaty of peace concluded between the emperor Charles VI. and Gianfilo Ali Pacia, ambassador of the sultan of Constantinople, is dated the 15th of Rabiu I., in the year of the Hegira 1153; required the year, month, and day, in the Christian era.

1. In this case the years elapsed are 1152; therefore,

The intercalary years being the second, fifth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, &c., the remainder, 12, contains four intercalary years, whence $x\; =\; 4$; therefore

Add days from first of Moharem to }
15th Rabiu I..... } 74

Days from the beginning of the Hegira 408304

From beginning of our era to the }
given date..... } 635320

3. To convert this sum into Julian years;

Therefore, as 1739 years have elapsed, the date required is the 151st day of the Christian year 1740. Now since 1740 is a leap year, the 151st day is the 30th of May. This, however, is in Old Style. Add eleven days for the change of style, and we have the 10th of June.

It results, therefore, that the 15th of Rabiu I. of the year of the Hegira 1153 corresponds with the 10th of June 1740 New Style. In this way any Mahommedan date may be reduced to the corresponding Christian date. The arithmetical operation is extremely simple, and can never lead to ambiguity or error.

Era of Yezdegird, or Gelalæan Era.

This era commences with the elevation of Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, and dates from the 16th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1075 A. C. the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by Gelal-Edin Malek Schah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted, which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years; one day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end of four years, and

Chrono- the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the logy. fifth year (See CALENDAR). This era was at one period universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a different name. According to Alfragan, the names of the Persian months are as follows:

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1075, anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years. In 443 years the anticipation would amount to about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would, in consequence, be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.

Chinese Chronology.

From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000 years B. C., the Chinese had two different years; a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a thirteenth was added, in order to preserve its correspondence with the solar year. Even at this early period the solar or astronomical year consisted of 365½ days, like our Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100 ke, each ke into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day commences at midnight, and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 205 B. C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also, they have employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is, however, not precisely known how they distributed their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them, great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun, with regard to the solstitial points, into twelve equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is denominated a tze, is subdivided into two equal portions, called techong-ki and tsie-ki; the techong-ki denoting the first half of the tze, and the tsie-ki the latter half. Though the tze are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet, what is remark-

able, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the techong-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the tze is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a techong-ki during the same lunation; and as there are only twelve tze, the year can contain only twelve months having different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and called by the same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which they reckon their days, moons, and years. The days are distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has a particular name; and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalations that may be necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1833 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1828, 1823, &c., or 1837, 1842, &c., will also commence a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated. The present cycle began in the year 1804 of our era; the year 1832 is consequently the 29th of the current cycle.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called celestial signs, are,

1. 1. Kea;
2. 2. Yieh;
3. 3. Ping;
4. 4. Ting;
5. 5. Woo;
6. 6. Ke;
7. 7. Kang;
8. 8. Sin;
9. 9. Jin;
10. 10. Kwey.

And in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

1. 1. Tse;
2. 2. Tchow;
3. 3. Yin;
4. 4. Maou;
5. 5. Shin;
6. 6. Sze;
7. 7. Woo;
8. 8. We;
9. 9. Shin;
10. 10. Yew;
11. 11. Seo;
12. 12. Hae.

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary cycle, is formed by combining the first words in each of the above series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series, and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first series is combined with the eleventh of the second; then the second of the first series with the twelfth of the second; after this the third of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last of the second. Thus Kea-tse is the name of the first year, Yih-tchow that of the second, Kea-seo that of the eleventh, Yih-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tse that of the thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tartar dialect by the orders of the emperor Kang-hi, who died in 1722, the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the year 2357 B. C. From this it has been inferred, that the

Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely, that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given to that year 2357 B. C. are Kea-shin, which denote the 41st of the cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 B. C., or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by the authors of L'Art de Vérifier les Dates. The mathematical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial, counted the first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the year 2277 B. C.

Since the year 163 B. C. the Chinese writers have generally dated the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An emperor, on his accession to the throne, gives a name to the years of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c. of Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor, or his successor, to ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to this method of dating the years, a new era commences with every reign; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the years of our era.

The Chinese chronology is discussed with ample detail by Freret, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. xviii.; and an abridgment of his memoir is given in L'Art de Vérifier les Dates (tom. ii. p. 284, et seq. Ed. in 4to, 1818), from which the preceding account is principally taken.

Indian Chronology.

The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by the various nations of India resembles in its general features that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more complex by the intermixture of Mahomedan with Hindu customs. Like the Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year, which is generally followed in the transaction of public business, especially since the introduction of European power; and they have also a lunar year, which regulates their religious festivals, and which they follow in their domestic arrangements. Their solar year, or rather sidereal year, is measured by the time in which the sun returns to the same star, and is consequently longer than our astronomical year, by the whole quantity of the precession of the equinoxes. It is reckoned by the Hindus at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, and consequently exceeds a Gregorian year by one day in sixty years. The Indian zodiac is divided into twelve solar and twenty-eight lunar signs; and the year begins with the sun's arrival at the first degree of the first sign. The month is the time the sun takes to pass through one sign; and as each sign contains the same number of degrees, the months vary somewhat in length, according as the sun is nearer the apogee or perigee. The longest month may contain 31 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, and the shortest only 29 days, 8 hours, 21 minutes. The civil months, however, depend solely on the moon; though, with the same perversion of ingenuity which we have already remarked with regard to the Chinese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example, except in the east of Asia, they derive their names from the solar signs of the zodiac. The first civil month commences with the day after the full moon of that lunation in the course of which the sun enters the first Hindu sign, and so on with the others. When the sun enters into no new sign during the course of a lunation, the month is intercalary, and is called by the name of that which precedes or follows it, which some prefix, to distinguish it from

the regular month. In some provinces of India, as in Bengal, the civil month commences with the day after the new moon; but in the upper or northern provinces, it begins, as we have stated, with the day after the full moon. From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evident that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, neither consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the sun and moon. The time of their commencement is different on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no means of knowing beforehand on what day any month begins, except by consulting his almanack. The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise.

The Hindu eras have been the subject of much controversy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the duration of the world is limited to four yugs or ages, three of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the kali-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms the principal era of India, and comprehends several others in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, of Salivahana, the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.

The Kali-yug commenced in the year 3101 B. C. The year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about the 11th of April. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the beginning of the year advances in the seasons at the rate of about one day in sixty years.

The Era of Vicramaditya is reckoned from the year 56 B. C., which corresponds to 3045 of the Kali-yug. This era, the years of which are called Samvat, prevails chiefly in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Guzerat. Its name is derived from that of a sovereign of Malwa, who, by defeating Soka, king of Delhi, acquired possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession or death of this prince, is uncertain. The years are reckoned in the same manner as those of the Kali-yug; and it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general, that though some of them profess to be counted from the deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in his annual course through the zodiac.

The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 A. C., which corresponds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 134 of the Vicramaditya. The name is derived from Salivahan, who is said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Nor-singa, and to have been a liberal encourager of the arts and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called Saka.

The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on the natives of India by their Mahomedan conquerors. It is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty generally known over India. There are several eras of this name; but the most common is that which is reckoned from the year 590 A. C. At Madras, the commencement of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July. In Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon preceding the autumnal equinox.

The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be derived from the Hegira; but the year is measured by solar time, and therefore differs entirely from the Mahomedan year, which is purely lunar. At the present time, the Bengalee epoch is about nine years later than the Hegira; the year 1245 of the Hegira having commenced in July 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. The sidereal year exceeds the lunar year by 10 days 21½ hours nearly; consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be found

Chrono- logy. that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira coincided about the middle of the sixteenth century. History is silent on the subject; but it seems probable, that though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions of the year.

Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some others which are less generally known, or which are followed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal account, the first cycle began 3185 years B. C.; and the year 1832 of our era is consequently the thirty-seventh of the eighty-fourth cycle. In the Telinga account the first cycle began 3114 B. C.; and the year 1832 is the twenty-fourth of the eighty-third cycle.

We will conclude this part of the article with the following table, showing the dates at which the different eras above described respectively commenced.

The utility of chronological and synchronistic tables in the illustration of history has been long perceived. Of the more ancient writers who devoted their labours to this object, the principal are, Diodorus Siculus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius of Cœsarea, and George Syncellus, to whom we are indebted for the preservation of some curious fragments of Berossus, Sanconiation, and Manetho. The modern works of this kind are exceedingly numerous. It will be sufficient to refer the reader to Petau, de Doctrina Temporis; Usher's Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti; Newton's Chronology; Blair's Chronology and History of the World; Playfair's Chronology; and the Tables Chronologiques de l'Histoire Ancienne et Moderne of Thouret; without mentioning a multitude of smaller tables, of various degrees of merit. But the most complete work on chronology is the Art de Vérifier les Dates, an immense compilation, for which the student of history is indebted to the Benedictines of the congregation of St. Maur. We may likewise mention, as a very extensive and useful work, though printed in a most inconvenient form, the Tableaux Historiques Chronologiques et Géographiques of Buret des

Longchamps, the second edition of which was published at Brussels in 1822.

The subjoined table of political events has been compiled with great care for the present edition of the Encyclopædia. Though necessarily of limited extent, it will be found to contain a useful summary of the principal events of ancient and modern history. In the early period, the dates are taken from Usher and Blair, as being those followed by the majority of chronologists. (T. G.)

A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE of the Principal Events of Political History, and of the most important Inventions and Discoveries, from the Creation of the World to the Year 1854.

Chrono-logy. B. C.

• 328 Alexander invades India; penetrates to the Ganges; his admiral, Nearchus, sails from the Indus to the Euphrates.
• 324 Death of Alexander at Babylon—an event followed by wars among his officers, and the dismemberment of his empire.
• 315 Restoration of Thebes.
• 312 Era of the Seleucidae.
• 311 Appian way and aqueducts constructed at Rome.
• 304 Demetrius Poliorcetes besieges Rhodes; restores (303) the liberty of the Grecian cities.
• 301 Battle of Ipsus. Dismemberment of the empire of Alexander completed.
• 300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea.
• 286 Law of Mœnius; the Roman senate bind themselves to sanction all decrees of the people.
• 285 Astronomical era of Dionysius of Alexandria.
• 283 Alexandrian library founded.
• 281 Achaean league negotiated.
• 280 Pyrrhus, invited by the Samnite allies, invades Italy. Battles of Lyris and Asculum.
• 277 Greek (Septuagint) version of the Scriptures made by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
• 274 Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus withdraws from Italy.
• 272 Samnite war ended. Rome mistress of all the southern states of Italy.
• 266 Silver money first coined at Rome.
• 264 First Punic war begins. Chronology of Paros (Arundel marbles) composed.
• 256 Regulus defeats the Carthaginians in the sea-fight of Ecnoma; lands in Africa; reduces Clupea and other towns; is vanquished (255) by Xanthippus, and taken prisoner.
• 250 Parthia, under Arsaces, becomes an independent kingdom.
• 241 Catulus destroys the navy of Carthage. End of first Punic war.
• 240 Plays (the composition of Livius Andronicus) first acted at Rome.
• 237 Conquest of Spain attempted by the Carthaginians.
• 235 Temple of Janus shut; open since reign of Numa.
• 231 Sardinia and Corsica subdued by the Romans.
• 227 War between Sparta and the Achaean league; ended (222) by the battle of Sellasia. Cleomenes. Aratus.
• 225 to 220 Gauls repeatedly defeated and driven from Cisalpine Gaul. Illyria subdued.
• 219 Hannibal the Carthaginian besieges Saguntum, and brings on the second Punic war.
• 218 Hannibal leads an army from Spain into Italy, defeats the Romans at Ticinum and Trebia; 217, at Thrasymene; 216, at Cannæ; 215, concludes an alliance with Philip (2d) of Macedon.
• 212 Philip defeats the Ætolians, allies of Rome. Marcellus takes Syracuse.
• 211 P. Scipio sent into Spain. Antiochus conquers Judea.
• 207 Asdrubal, conducting supplies to Hannibal, is defeated and slain at the Metaurus. Gold money at Rome.
• 204 Scipio, having reduced Spain, carries the war into Africa.
• 203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal.
• 202 Battle of Zama. 201, Submission of Carthage. End of second Punic war.
• 197 Defeat of Philip at Cynocephale. End of first Macedonian war.
• 192 to 189 War between the Romans and Antiochus, king of Syria. Battle of Magnesia.

B. C.

• 188 Philopœmen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus.
• 172 to 168 Second Macedonian war. Battle of Pydna. Macedon becomes a Roman province.
• 170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem.
• 168 First library at Rome.
• 166 Judas Maccabæus delivers the Jews from the Syrians.
• 149 Third Punic war begins.
• 147 Rome defends Sparta against the Achaean league.
• 144 Corinth, Thebes, Chalcis destroyed. Greece becomes a Roman province.
• — Carthage destroyed. Carthaginian territory reduced into a province.
• 141 War of Numantia.
• 135 to 132 Servile war in Sicily.
• 133 Tiberius Gracchus slain. Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman empire.
• 121 Caius Gracchus slain.
• 117 Gallia Narbonensis becomes a Roman province.
• 111 to 106 Jugurthian war. Metellus. Marius.
• 109 Cimbri and Teutones invade Gaul; 105, cut off a Roman army of 80,000 on the banks of the Rhone.
• 102 Marius exterminates the Teutonic army at Aix, and the Cimbrian (101) on the banks of the Athesis.
• 91 Italian (social) war begins; lasts three years.
• 88 Mithridatic war. Marian civil war.
• 87 Marius seizes Rome; 86, dies. Cinna.
• 84 Sylla conquers and makes peace with Mithridates; 88, attacks the Marian party in Italy; 82, seizes Rome, and is made perpetual dictator; resigns his office (78).
• 77 Civil war of Sertorius in Spain, and of Lepidus and Catulus in Italy.
• 74 Mithridatic war renewed. Lucullus.
• 73 to 71 Servile war in Italy. Spartacus. Crassus.
• 67 Pompey reduces the pirates; 64, subdues Mithridates and Tigranes; 63, reduces Syria into a Roman province.
• 62 Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero.
• 59 First triumvirate; Pompey, Crassus, Cæsar.
• 58 Cæsar begins the conquest of Gaul; 55, invades Britain. Crassus goes to Syria; slain (53) by the Parthians.
• 52 Clodius murdered by Milo.
• 50 Subjugation of Gaul completed.
• 49 Civil war. Cæsar drives Pompey from Italy, and disperses his army in Spain.
• — Commencement of the era of Antioch.
• 48 Battle of Pharsalia. Murder of Pompey in Egypt.
• 47 War in Egypt. Destruction of the Alexandrian library. Defeat of Pharnaces.
• 46 African war. Cato. Reformation of the calendar; this the year of confusion.
• 45 War in Spain; Battle of Munda. Cæsar declared perpetual dictator.
• 44 Cæsar assassinated. Brutus. Cassius.
• 43 Battle of Mutina. Second triumvirate; Octavius, M. Antony, Lepidus.
• 42 Battles of Philippi. The triumviri masters of the empire.
• 40 Accommodation between Sextus Pompey and the triumviri; broken, 39.
• 36 Pompey driven from Sicily; put to death.
• 35 Lepidus deprived of power.
• 32 War between Octavius and Antony.
• 31 Battle of Actium. Era of the Roman emperors.
• 27 Name of Octavius changed, by the senate, to Augustus.
• 15 Rhætii and Vindelicii defeated by Drusus.

Chrono-logy.

12 Pannonia subdued by Tiberius.
10 Temple of Janus shut.
8 Augustus corrects the calendar, suppressing the intercalary days for twelve years.
4 Birth of Christ, four years before the vulgar era.

9 Three Roman legions under Varus cut to pieces in Germany.
14 Tiberius emperor of Rome.
25 End of the Olympiads.
33 Crucifixion of our Saviour.
37 Caligula emperor.
40 The followers of our Saviour called Christians.
41 Claudius emperor.
43 Expedition of Claudius to Britain. 44, Successes of Plautius.
50 London founded by the Romans. 51, Caractacus carried to Rome.
54 Nero emperor.
61 Boadicea defeats the Romans. Suetonius Paulinus.
64 Rome set on fire—burned six days. First persecution of the Christians.
66 Jewish war begins.
68 Galba emperor. 69, Otho—Vitellius. 70, Vespasian. Destruction of Jerusalem.
77 The Parthians ravage Armenia.
79 Titus emperor. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius.
80 Agricola completes the pacification of South Britain.
81 Domitian emperor.
85 Agricola defeats the Caledonians; circumnavigates Britain.
88 Dacian war begins.
95 Second Christian persecution.
96 Nerva emperor. 98, Trajan.
103 to 107 Dacia and other eastern countries subdued.
118 Adrian emperor. Conquests of Trajan abandoned. Euphrates, eastern frontier.
120 Adrian's wall (from Tyne to Solway) built.
132 to 135 Second Jewish war. Jews driven from their country.
138 Antoninus Pius emperor.
139 Lollius Urbicus subdues Britain to the Moray Frith; builds the wall of Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde.
161 Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus joint emperors.
163 Fourth Christian persecution.
166 to 178 War with the Marcomanni, Quadi, &c.
171 Death of Verus. Aurelius sole emperor.
180 Commodus. Goths seize the eastern part of Dacia.
189 The Saracens (now first noticed in history) defeat the Romans.
193 Pertinax. Didius Julian. Pescennius Niger. Septimius Severus.
202 Fifth Christian persecution.
209 Severus rebuilds the wall of Antoninus (Graham's Dyke).
211 Caracalla and Geta emperors. 212, Geta murdered.
213 First mention of the Alemanni (Germans), a union of tribes on the Upper Rhine.
217 Macrinus emperor. 218, Heliogabalus. 222, Alexander Severus. The Goths bribed not to molest the empire.
226 Alexander defeats the Persians; 235, is murdered by Maximin.
236 Sixth Christian persecution. 237, Defeat of the Sarmatians.
238 Papienus and Balbinus joint emperors. Gordian.

242 Gordian defeats Sapor the Persian.
244 Philip the Arabian emperor.
249 Decius emperor. Seventh Christian persecution. First notice of the Franks, a union of tribes on the Lower Rhine.
251 Vibius, Gallus, emperors.
253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c. break into Mæsia and Pannonia.
254 Valerian emperor. 257, Eighth Christian persecution.
259 Sapor ravages Syria; takes Valerian prisoner. The Germans advance to Ravenna.
260 Gallienus emperor. Thirty tyrants.
261 Sapor takes Antioch. 263, The Franks invade Gaul; 267, the Heruli Greece.
268 Claudius emperor; defeats (269) 320,000 of the Goths and Heruli.
270 Aurelian emperor.
271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the empire.
272 Ninth Christian persecution.
273 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, defeated by Aurelian at Edessa.
274 Silk brought from India.
275 Tacitus emperor. Goths seize Dacia.
277 Probus emperor; drives the Alemanni from Gaul; defeats the Franks.
282 Carus, (284) Diocletian, emperors. The northern nations redouble their attacks.
292 Partition of the empire by Diocletian.
298 Constantine Chlorus defeats the Alemanni near Langres.
302 Tenth Christian persecution.
304 Constantine and Galerius emperors. 306, Constantine (the Great) becomes sole emperor; stops the persecution of the Christians.
313 Constantine publishes the edict of Milan in favour of the Christians; defeats the Franks; also (321) the Saracens.
325 First general council meets at Nice.
329 Seat of empire transferred from Rome to Constantinople.
337 Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius joint emperors.
350 Franks possess extensive settlements in Gaul.
357 Julian defeats the Germans at Strasburg.
361 Julian emperor; slain (363) in battle with the Persians.
364 Valentinian emperor of the West. Valens, of the East.
373 Scriptures translated into the language of the Goths.
375 "Migration of Nations." The Huns cross the Don and Wolga.
376 Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace. They advance (378) to the gates of Constantinople.
379 Theodosius the Great emperor of the East, in 392 also of the West. Christianity becomes the religion of the state.
381 Second general council held at Constantinople.
383 Huns overrun Mesopotamia; are defeated by the Goths; invade (395) the eastern provinces.
400 Alaric the Visigoth ravages Italy; is defeated (403) by Stilicho.
406 The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invade France and Spain.
410 Alaric sacks Rome.
411 The Vandals established in Spain.
420 Pharamond, first king of the Franks, supposed to begin his reign.
424 Valentinian III. emperor of the West.

Chrono-logy. A. D.

• 426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain.
• 429 The Vandals pass into Africa.
• 431 Third general council—held at Ephesus.
• 439 Vandals take Carthage; establish themselves in the African province.
• 442 Theodosius II. concludes a disgraceful treaty with Attila the Hun.
• 445 to 448 Attila ravages the eastern provinces; exacts a tribute from the emperor; 450, invades Germany and France; sustains a defeat at Chalons.
• 451 Saxons assist the Britons against the Scots and Picts.
• — Fourth general council—held at Chalcedon.
• 452 Foundation of the city of Venice.
• 455 Rome sacked by the Vandals. Genseric.
• 468 The Visigoths expel the Romans from Spain.
• 470 Ælla the Saxon occupies the kingdom of Sussex; defeats (471) all the British princes.
• 475 Romulus Augustulus last emperor of the West; deposed (476) by Odoacer, king of the Heruli. Extinction of the western empire.
• 481 Clovis king of the Franks.
• 485 Battle of Soissons. Syagrius.
• 488 Theodoric the Ostrogoth defeats Odoacer; becomes king of Italy.
• 497 Clovis, with his Franks, embraces Christianity; 500, exacts tribute from the Burgundians; 507, subdues the Visigoths settled in Gaul; 510, makes Paris the capital of France. 511, The kingdom divided.
• 516 Computation of time by the Christian era introduced by Dionysius Exiguus.
• 529 Belisarius defeats the Persians. Code of Justinian published.
• 534 Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa destroyed.
• 537 Rome taken from the Ostrogoths; recovered (547) by Totila.
• 540 Antioch destroyed by the Persians.
• 547 Northumbrian kingdom founded by Ida the Saxon.
• 550 Rise of the kingdom of Poland.
• 553 Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy destroyed by Narses.
• 559 France re-united under Clotaire.
• 568 The Lombards conquer Italy.
• 580 Latin ceases to be the spoken language of Italy.
• 585 Kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy established, some before, others about this period. Britons in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. Civil wars of the Saxons begin.
• 596 Augustine the monk preaches Christianity to the British Saxons.
• 602 Papal supremacy authorized by Phocas, emperor of the East.
• 604 St Paul's Church in London founded.
• 616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians under Cosroes II.
• 622 Era of the Hegira, or flight of Mahommed from Mecca to Medina.
• 625 Constantinople besieged by an army of Persians, Huns, and Sclavonians.
• 632 Abubeker—633, Omar, succeed Mahommed as caliphs of the Saracens.
• 636 Omar takes Jerusalem—640, Alexandria—orders the Alexandrian library to be burnt.
• 648 The Saracens take Cyprus—653, Rhodes—658, agree to pay the emperor tribute—669, ravage Sicily—672, make a fruitless attack on Constantinople—675, fail in an attempt to establish themselves in Spain.
• 680 Sixth general or œcuménical council of Constantinople.

Chrono-logy. A. D.

• 690 Pepin d'Heristal (Maire du Palais) regent of France.
• 698 The Saracens seize Carthage—699 and 700, sustain defeats from the emperor of the East—713, make themselves masters of Spain.
• 714 Charles Martel (Maire du Palais) regent of France.
• 718 Christian kingdom of the Asturias founded by Pelagius.
• 729 The Saracens ravage France—are defeated (732) by Charles Martel, in the battle of Tours.
• 742 Childeric III. (last of the Merovingian dynasty) king of France.
• 749 The Abassidæ caliphs of the Saracens.
• 751 Pepin (le Bref.) deposes Childeric, and founds the Carolingian dynasty of French kings.
• 754 Pepin takes Ravenna from the Lombards, and confers it on the pope—hence origin of the pope's sovereignty.
• 756 Abdarrahman king of Cordova. Didier last king of Lombardy.
• 762 Almanzor caliph of the Saracens, makes Bagdad the seat of his government.
• 767 The Turks (a Tartar tribe) ravage Asia Minor.
• 768 Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman kings of France.
• 772 Charlemagne sole ruler.
• 774 Charlemagne subdues the kingdom of Lombardy—778, Spain to the Ebro—779, Navarre and Sardinia—785, Saxony.
• 785 Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Saracens, ravages part of the empire of the East—encourages science among the Arabs.
• 787 The Danes pay their first visit to England. Seventh general council—held at Nice.
• 794 Charlemagne defeats and disperses the Huns.
• 797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, and Rhodes.
• 800 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Romans. Clocks brought from the East to Europe.
• 814 Louis (le Debonnaire) emperor and king of France—817, divides his dominions among his sons.
• 827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy into one—England. The Danes begin to infest the English coast.
• 838 Ethelwolf king of England. Tithes.
• 843 Kenneth M'Alpin reduces the whole of North Britain into the monarchy of Scotland.
• 853 Separation of the Greek and Latin churches.
• 855 Kingdom of Navarre founded by Garcias.
• 855 Ethelbald and Ethelbert—866, Ethelfred—872, Alfred, kings of England. The Danes commit destructive ravages.
• 874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians.
• 875 Norway, Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides, subject to Harold Harfager.
• 877 Louis (the Stammerer) emperor of Germany and king of France. Hereditary feudal system begins to prevail in France.
• 878 to 890 Alfred the Great destroys the Danish power in England; establishes a militia—a navy; divides England into counties, hundreds, &c.; publishes a code of laws.
• 880 The Normans ravage France; 885, besiege Paris.
• 886 University of Oxford founded by Alfred.
• 900 Louis IV. (last Carlowingian) emperor of Germany.
• 901 Edward the Elder king of England.
• 904 The Russians before Constantinople.
• 911 Conrad, duke of Franconia (a German), elected emperor by the princes of the empire.

912 Rollo the Norman extorts a grant of the province of Neustria (Normandy) from Charles the Simple.
915 University of Cambridge founded.
928 Athelstan king of England.
931 Rise of the republic of Pisa. Geneva in the hands of the Saracens.
941 Edmund I.—948, Edred—955, Edwy—959, Edgar, kings of England. Wolves extirpated by Edgar.
961 Candia retaken from the Saracens.
964 Otho the Great re-unites Italy to Germany.
967 Antioch retaken from the Saracens.
970 Greenland discovered by Gubbiorn, an Iclander.
976 Edward II. and 978, Ethelred II., kings of England.
977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the Bulgarians.
986 Louis V. (last Carolingian) king of France.
987 Hugh Capet, count of Paris, ascends the throne of France—third dynasty.
991 The arithmetical figures introduced into Europe by the Arabians.
999 Boleslaus first king of Poland.
1002 Massacre of the Danes settled in England, by Ethelred; the cause of an invasion by Sueno, king of Denmark, in 1013, and by Canute, his son, in 1014.
1016 Edmund Ironside king of England. War with Canute, king of Denmark.
1017 Canute becomes king of England.
1018 The Normans invade Italy.
1030 Caliph of Cordova dismembered.
1036 Harold Harefoot king of England.
1039 Hardicanute (last Danish) king of England.
— Macbeth murders Duncan—usurps the throne of Scotland.
1041 Edward the Confessor (son of Ethelred II.) king of England. Danish power in England annihilated.
1043 The Turks subdue Persia—1055, take Bagdad—deprive the caliphs of temporal authority—suffer them to retain the spiritual.
1056 Milan a republic.
1057 Macbeth slain by the English. Malcolm Canmore, son of Duncan, king of Scots.
1058 Guiscard the Norman expels the Saracens from Sicily.
1062 A council of bishops decrees that the cardinals alone shall nominate supreme pontiffs.
1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.
1066 Harold king of England. William, duke of Normandy, disputes his title; defeats Harold at Hastings, and gains the crown.
1070 Feudal law introduced into England by William the Conqueror.
1073 Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) publishes a bull against the investiture and marriage of priests; 1076, excommunicates and deposes the emperor Henry IV.
1079 Doomsday book begun by order of William the Conqueror—finished 1085 or 1086.
1085 Alphonso of Castile takes Toledo and Madrid from the Saracens.
1086 Carthusian order of monks established.
1087 William II. (Rufus) king of England; Robert, his brother, duke of Normandy.
1091 Saracens in Spain assisted by the Moors, who take possession of their dominions.
1095 Council of Clermont. First crusade. Peter the hermit.

1098 The crusaders take Antioch, and, 1099, Jerusalem; erect a Christian kingdom; Godfrey of Bouillon sovereign. Knights of St John instituted.
1100 Henry I. king of England.
1102 Guiscard the Norman assumes the title of king of Naples.
1106 Normandy re-annexed to England.
1108 Louis VI. of France incorporates towns; abridges the power of the feudal chiefs.
1110 Order of the Templars instituted.
1119 War between England and France. Battle of Andeli.
1135 Stephen king of England.
1137 Pandects of Justinian discovered at Amalfi.
1138 Battle of the Standard; David First of Scots defeated by the earl of Albemarle.
1139 Civil war in England between Stephen, and Matilda, daughter of Henry I.; 1141, Battle of Lincoln.
1140 Canon law introduced into England. Faction of the Guelphs and Ghibellines.
1147 Second crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux. Moscow founded. Alphonso Henriquez takes Lisbon from the Moors; assumes the title of king of Portugal.
1150 Study of civil law revived at Bologna. Scholastic philosophy cultivated.
1152 Frederic Barbarossa emperor of Germany.
1153 Treaty of Winchester; compromise between Stephen and Prince Henry, son of Matilda.
1154 Henry II. (Plantagenet) king of England. Guelphs and Ghibellines at war in Italy.
1157 Bank of Venice established.
1160 Religious sect of the Albigenses begins to attract notice.
1163 London bridge built of stone.
1164 Teutonic order of knighthood instituted in Germany.
— King of England attempts to retrench clerical usurpations. Council of Clarendon. Becket.
1172 Ireland conquered by Henry II. Strongbow earl of Pembroke.
1175 Division of England into four circuits; appointment of itinerant judges.
1179 University of Padua founded.
1180 Philip (Augustus) king of France. Guelphic party repulsed. Bills of exchange in use.
1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin, sultan of Egypt.
1189 Richard I. king of England. Third crusade; the leaders, Frederick of Germany, Richard of England, Philip of France.
1191 Ptolemais reduced by the crusaders; Battle of Ascalon; truce of three years, three months, three weeks, three days, &c. with Saladin.
1200 Universities establishing in many large towns.—First historical notice of the mariner's compass.
1202 Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, earl of Flanders; bursts upon Constantinople. Baldwin becomes emperor of the East.
1204 The inquisition established by Pope Innocent III.
— Provinces of Normandy, Anjou, &c. re-united to France.
1206 Gengis Khan. Mogul empire. Dispute between John, king of England, and the pope; settled 1213.
1208 London obtains a charter for electing its own magistrates.
1210 Crusade against the Albigenses.
1212 Battle of Toledo; Christians defeat the Moors.

CHRONOLOGY.

Chrono-logy. A. D.

• 1213 King of England becomes a vassal of the holy see.
• 1215 Magna Charta signed by John.
• 1216 Henry III. king of England.
• 1217 Fourth crusade, under Andrew, king of Hungary.
• 1218 Switzerland a province of the German empire.
• 1219 Damietta taken by the crusaders.
• 1222 Assembly of estates of France called a parliament.
• 1226 St Louis king of France. Institution of the monastic orders of St Dominic and St Francis.
• 1227 Gengis Khan and the Moguls (Western Tartars) overrun the empire of the Saracens.
• 1228 Sixth crusade under the emperor Frederic II.
• 1234 Inquisition committed to the Dominicans.
• 1237 Russia subdued by the Moguls.
• 1248 Seventh crusade under St Louis.
• 1254 Interregnum in Germany to 1273.
• 1256 Hanseatic league formed.
• 1258 Bagdad taken by the Moguls. End of the empire of the Saracens.
• 1261 Battle of Largs. Norwegians defeated by Alexander III. king of Scots. Use of the mariner's compass known in France.
• 1264 Borough deputies sit, for the first time, in the English parliament. Earl of Leicester. Battle of Lewes and (1265) of Evesham.
• 1266 Charles, count of Anjou, defeats Mainfroy, king of Naples and Sicily; 1268, succeeds him as king.
• 1272 Edward I. king of England. Florentine academy founded.
• 1273 Rodolph of Hapsburg (first of the Austrian family) emperor of Germany.
• 1279 The Moguls subdue China.
• 1282 Sicilian vespers. King of Aragon obtains possession of Sicily; academy de la Crusca instituted.
• 1283 Edward I. conquers Wales.
• 1290 Death of Margaret of Norway queen of Scots. Competition of Bruce, Baliol, &c. for the crown. Edward I. arbiter.
• 1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the crusades.
• 1292 Edward extorts an admission of his feudal superiority from the Scots barons; decides the disputed succession in favour of Baliol.
• 1295 First English House of Commons assembled.
• 1296 Edward dethrones Baliol; attempts to annex Scotland to his other dominions. Battles (1297) of Stirling and (1298) Falkirk. Sir William Wallace.
• 1299 Othman (founder of the Ottoman empire) makes Prusa the seat of the Turkish power.
• 1301 King of England's eldest son created prince of Wales. Spectacles used.
• 1305 Robert Bruce attempts to restore the independence of Scotland; 1306, is crowned at Scone.
• 1307 Establishment of the Swiss republics. William Tell. Edward II. king of England.
• 1308 Pope transfers his residence from Rome to Avignon.
• 1310 Lincoln's Inn Society established. Rhodes taken by the knights of St John. Chimneys used in domestic architecture.
• 1312 Order of Templars suppressed.
• 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. Independence of Scotland secured.
• 1319 Catalonia and Valencia united to Aragon. University of Dublin established.
• 1325 First treaty of commerce between England and Venice.
• 1327 Edward III. king of England.

A. D.

• 1328 Philip of Valois king of France. Salic law.
• 1329 David II. (Bruce) king of Scots.
• 1331 The Teutonic knights settle in Prussia.
• 1332 to 1336 Crown of Scotland contended for by David Bruce, and Edward, son of John Baliol. Battle of Halidon Hill.
• 1336 Crown of France claimed by Edward III.—the cause, in 1339, of war between France and England.
• 1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a monk of Cologne. Oil painting by John Van Eyck.
• 1341 Petrarch crowned at Rome.
• 1345 Canary islands discovered by the Genoese. Firearms in use.
• 1346 Battles of Cressy and Durham. Siege of Calais.
• 1347 Rienzi tribune of the people at Rome. University of Prague founded.
• 1350 Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III.
• 1351 John king of France.
• 1352 The Turks first enter Europe.
• 1355 The Golden Bull fixes the constitution of the German empire.
• 1356 Battle of Poictiers. Black Prince.
• 1357 Coals first used in London.
• 1360 Peace of Bretigni. Aquitaine ceded to England.
• 1361 The Turks conquer Adrianople; settle in Europe; establish the military order of Janizaries.
• 1362 Edward III. abolishes the use of French in the English courts of law.
• 1365 Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded.
• 1370 War between England and France renewed.
• 1377 Pope returns to Rome. Richard II. king of England. Doctrines of Wickliffe propagated.
• 1378 Two popes, Urban VI. at Rome, Clement VII. at Avignon.
• 1380 Tamerlane (or Timur) the Mogul conqueror, subdues Chorasan.
• 1381 Wat Tyler and Jack Straw's insurrection in England. Bills of exchange used by the English.
• 1383 Cannon employed in the defence of Calais.
• 1384 First navigation act in England. Windsor Castle built.
• 1386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia.
• 1388 Battle of Otterburn. Douglas. Percy.
• 1392 Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese.
• 1395 Hungarians defeated by the Turks.
• 1398 Delhi taken by Tamerlane.
• 1399 Henry IV. (of the house of Lancaster) king of England. Order of the Bath instituted.
• 1400 Wenceslaus, emperor of Germany, deposed by the electoral princes.
• 1401 First final law against heresy in England. William Sautré, a Wickliffite, the first victim.
• 1402 Battle of Homeldon; 1403, of Shrewsbury.
• — Moguls under Tamerlane defeat the Turks under Bajazet at Angoria; 1405, death of Tamerlane.
• 1406 James I. king of Scots.
• 1411 University of St Andrews founded.
• 1412 Algebra taught in Europe by the Arabs.
• 1413 Henry V. king of England. Persecution of the Lollards.
• 1414 Council of Constance deposes two popes. Pontificate vacant for three years.
• 1415 Civil war of the Burgundians and Armagnacs in France. Invasion of Henry V. Battle of Agincourt. John Huss and (1416) Jerome of Prague consigned to the flames for heresy by the council of Constance.
• 1417 First mention of the Bohemians or gypsies in Europe. Paper made from linen rags.

Diet of Spire. The reformers acquire the name of Protestants. Papal opposition to the dissolution of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Spain precipitates the reformation in England.

1530 Diet and confession of Augsburg. League of Smalcald. Secretary of state appointed in England.

1532 Treaty of Nuremberg; the German Protestants obtain liberty of conscience. Court of Session remodelled by James V.

1533 Henry VIII. quarrels with the Holy See; 1534, is declared by parliament "The only supreme head of the church of England upon earth."

1534 Anabaptist republic at Munster. Jack of Leyden. Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Tunis.

1535 Society of the Jesuits instituted by Loyola. Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis.

1536 Renewal of war between Charles and Francis; Milan the cause. Invasion of France.

1538 Dissolution of all the monasteries in England. English Bible read in the churches. Turks defeat the Germans at Essek on the Drave. Barbarossa ravages the coasts of Italy. Truce of Nice.

1540 Reformation at Geneva. Calvin. Variation of the compass noticed by Cabot.

1541 Great part of Hungary subdued by the Turks. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers.

1542 Renewal of hostilities between France and the empire. The Turks allies of Francis. Henry VIII. makes war with Scotland. Battle of Solway Moss. Mary Queen of Scots. Japan visited by Ferdinand Mendez Pinto.

1544 Battle of Cerisoles. Peace of Crespi.

1545 Battle of Ancrum Muir.

1546 Peace concluded between Charles V. and Turkey. Council of Trent meets. Religious war in Germany.

1547 Battle of Mulhausen. Henry II. king of France; Edward VI. king of England; Duke of Somerset protector. Battle of Pinkey. Orange trees brought from China to Portugal.

1548 The Interim published and enforced in Germany.

1549 English liturgy completed. Telescopes invented.

1551 War of Parma.

1552 The German Protestants assisted by Henry II. of France. Peace of religion concluded at Passau. War with France continues; siege of Metz.

1553 Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England; obliged to resign the crown to the Princess Mary. Queen Mary attempts to restore the Catholic religion, and (1555) persecutes the Protestants.

1555 Recess of Augsburg. Charles V. resigns the Spanish dominions to his son Philip, and Germany to his brother Ferdinand. Truce of Vaucelles.

1556 War rekindled in Italy and the Low Countries. Waigat's Strait discovered by Stephen Borrough.

1557 England joins Spain against France. Battle of St Quentin. Calais taken by the French.

1558 Elizabeth queen of England. Marriage of Mary queen of Scots to the dauphin.

1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis. Francis II. king of France.

1560 Charles IX. king of France. Struggle between the French Catholic and Protestant parties commences. Papal jurisdiction abolished, and Presbyterian worship established in North Britain by the Scots Parliament. John Knox.

1561 Mary queen of Scots returns from France to her own dominions. Persecution of the Dutch and

A. D.

Flemish Protestants by Philip II. of Spain; the cause (in 1566) of a war in the Low Countries.

1562 Religious war rages in France. Battle of Dreux.

1563 The Protestants obtain toleration.

1564 The Turks fail in an attempt to take Malta.

1565 Marriage of the queen of Scots to Lord Darnley. Catholic or Holy League of Bayonne negotiated.

1566 Revolt of the Low Countries from Philip II. His governor (Duke of Alba) commits great cruelties. Flemish refugees establish manufactures in England.

1567 Religious war in France renewed. Battle of St Denis. Lord Darnley murdered. A resignation of the crown is extorted from Mary; her son is proclaimed king (James VI.), and the Earl of Murray appointed regent. Solomon Isles discovered by Mendana.

1568 Battle of Langside. Mary escapes into England; is put under restraint by Elizabeth. Philip II. employs the inquisition to exterminate the Moors in Spain.

1569 The Regent Murray assassinated. French Protestants defeated at Jarnac and Moncontours.

1570 Treaty of St Germain en Laye. The French Protestants obtain an amnesty, liberty of conscience, and other privileges. Queen Elizabeth excommunicated by the pope.

1571 The Turks conquer Cyprus; are defeated in the naval action of Lepanto.

1572 Massacre of St Bartholomew. The Brille taken by Flemish privateers (the Gueux).

1573 Siege of Haarlem. Requesens succeeds Alba in the Low Countries. Siege of Rochelle. Toleration granted to the French Protestants.

1574 Henry III. king of France. Africa invaded by Don Sebastian, king of Portugal. Siege of Leyden.

1576 The Catholic league in France formed against the Protestants. Frobisher's Straits discovered by Sir Martin Frobisher.

1578 Elizabeth supports the insurgents in the Low Countries. The Spaniards are defeated at Rimenant.

1579 Union of Utrecht. Battle of Alcazar; king of Portugal slain.

1581 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. Parish registers kept in England.

1582 Raid of Ruthven; James VI. seized by the Earl of Gowrie. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII.

1584 William Prince of Orange murdered. Siege of Antwerp by the Duke of Parma. Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. Tobacco used in England.

1586 Babington's conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth.

1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded. French Protestants defeat the army of the league at Coutras. Davis' Straits explored by John Davis.

1588 Spanish Armada sent to invade England.

1589 Henry III. joins the Protestants under the king of Navarre; besieges Paris; is assassinated. Henry IV. (of Navarre) king of France. Coaches first used in England.

1590 Henry obtains aid from England; defeats the army of the league at Ivri. Telescopes first made.

1591 Elizabeth re-endows the University of Dublin.

1594 Earl of Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. Falkland Isles discovered by Hawkins.

1595 The Dutch establish factories in Java.

1597 Watches brought to England from Germany.

1598 Edict of Nantes in favour of the French Protestants. Reduction of Cadiz by an English armament. Peace of Vervins between France and Spain. Philip III. king of Spain.

1599 Eastern possessions of Spain and Portugal seized by the Dutch. Earl of Essex sent to suppress Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland.

1600 Gowrie's conspiracy in Scotland. English East India Company established. Battle of Nieuport. Thermometer.

1601 Ostend invested by the Archduke Albert.

1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.

1603 Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland, James VI. of Scotland becoming king of Great Britain.

1604 Ostend reduced by Spinola.

1605 Gun-powder plot.

1606 English colonies settled in Virginia and New England.

1608 Galileo constructs telescopes; discovers the satellites of Jupiter; spots; rotation of the sun.

1609 Spain acknowledges the independence of the United Provinces. Evangelical union and Catholic league formed in Germany.

1610 Henry IV. murdered by Ravaillac. Louis XIII. king of France. Hudson's Bay discovered.

1611 Baronets first created in England by James I. Smolensko seized, and Moscow burnt by the Poles.

1614 Logarithms invented by Napier of Merchiston. New river brought to London by Sir Hugh Middleton.

1616 The English establish factories in Amboyna, Banda, &c. Baffin's Bay discovered. Cape Horn.

1617 Family compact of the Emperor Mathias; alarming to the evangelical union.

1618 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War.

1619 Ferdinand II. emperor of Germany. Circulation of the blood discovered by Dr Harvey. Vanini burnt at Toulouse for atheism.

1620 Battle of Prague. Elector Palatine loses his dominions. Catholicism forced upon the Protestants of Bearn. The French reformers take arms with the intention of establishing a republic. The English make a settlement at Madras.

1621 Philip IV. king of Spain. Batavia built by the Dutch. The English House of Commons claim unlimited freedom of debate; beginning of the disputes concerning privilege and prerogative.

1623 Knights of Nova Scotia instituted by James I. Peace between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects. Edict of Nantes confirmed.

1624 Massacre of the English settlers in Amboyna by the Dutch.

1625 Charles I. king of Great Britain. Barbadoes colonized by the English.

1626 League of the Protestant princes of Germany against the emperor. War between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects renewed; the latter supported by England. Richelieu. Buckingham.

1627-8 Siege of Rochelle. English Bill of Rights.

1629 France and (1630) Sweden join the enemies of the emperor.

1631 Battle of Leipsic; Imperialists defeated. Description of the Vernier published.

1632 Battle of Lutzen; Gustavus Adolphus slain. Christina queen of Sweden. English non-conformists emigrate in great numbers to North America, and form many settlements.

1632 to 1697 The Buccaneers wage implacable war with the Spaniards in America.

1634 Battle of Nordlingen. Evangelical union disposed to peace.

1635 Treaty of Prague. Sweden and France continue the war. French academy instituted.

1637 Ferdinand III. emperor of Germany.

1638 Bagdad taken by the Turks.

1639 The Scottish Covenanters take arms in defence of Presbytery. Reflecting telescope constructed by Mersenne.

1640 John, duke of Braganza, recovers the kingdom of Portugal. Long Parliament assembled.

1641 Earl of Strafford beheaded. Irish rebellion; massacre of the Protestants in Ulster.

1642 Civil war between Charles I. and the Long Parliament. Battle of Edgehill. Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand discovered by Tasman.

1643 Louis XIV. king of France. Anne of Austria regent. Battle of Rocroi. Solemn league and covenant between the English and Scottish parliaments. Friendly Islands; Tasman. Barometer; Torricelli.

1644 The Tartars subdue China. Battle of Marston Moor.

1645 Execution of Archbishop Laud. Battle of Naseby.

1646 Royalist force completely broken; Charles surrenders to the Scottish army; civil war ended.

1648 Peace of Westphalia. War of the Fronde at Paris. Exclusion of Presbyterians from the House of Commons (Pride's Purge). Rump Parliament.

1649 Charles I. beheaded. Monarchy abolished in England. Commonwealth. Prince of Wales assumes the title of Charles II. The Covenanters declare him king of Scotland. Cromwell storms Drogheda and Wexford; 1650, defeats Charles at Dunbar; and 1651, at Worcester. Commonwealth recognised by every dependence of the British kingdoms, and by foreign states.

1651 Office of stadtholder abolished by the Dutch. English act of navigation passed.

1652 First war between the English and Dutch.

1653 Dissolution of the Rump Parliament by Cromwell. — and 1654 The Dutch defeated in several naval actions.

1654 End of the commonwealth of England. Cromwell lord protector.

1655 Persecution of the Waldenses. Cromwell joins France in a war against Spain. Jamaica reduced by Penn, an English admiral. Blake destroys the shipping in the harbours of Tunis and (1657) Santa Cruz. Fourth satellite of Saturn discovered by Huygens. Pendulum clocks made.

1656 Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, procures a recognition of the independence of Prussia.

1658 Spaniards totally defeated near the Downs. Dunkirk taken and delivered to the English. Richard Cromwell lord protector of England. Copenhagen besieged by Charles X. of Sweden.

1659 Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. Richard Cromwell resigns his office. Rump Parliament re-assembles. Micrometer; Huygens.

1660 Charles II. restored to the throne of Great Britain. Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland.

1661 Sir Henry Vane, the Marquis of Argyle, and others, executed for treason.

1662 Act of uniformity passed by the English Parliament; two thousand clergymen in one day resign their benefices. Dunkirk sold back to the French. Royal Society of London instituted.

A. D.

Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles, disregarded. War of the Austrian succession.

1741 Battle of Molwitz; Frederick defeats the Austrians; receives the submission of Silesia. The elector of Bavaria claims Bohemia and the imperial crown; gains the support of France; carries Prague by assault; is crowned king of Bohemia. British parliament grants a subsidy to Maria Theresa. Sweden declares war against Russia; battle of Wilmansdorf. Siege of Carthagen. Expedition to the South Sea under Commodore Anson.

1742 Elector of Bavaria chosen emperor (Charles VII.). British army sent into the Netherlands to support Maria Theresa. The Austrians recover Linz; take Munich. Battle of Czaclau. Peace of Breslau between Austria, Prussia, and Poland. Retreat of the French and Bavarians; siege of Prague. Convention of Turin between Austria and Sardinia. Austrian dominions in Italy attacked by Spain; with little success.

1743 French driven from the Palatinate. Battle of Dettingen. French defeated by the British. Treaty of Worms between Austria and Sardinia. Family compact; France and Spain. Peace of Abo; Russia and Sweden. War between Nadir Shah and Turkey. Society of Sciences of Copenhagen. University of Erlangen.

1744 Invasion of England, in favour of the Pretender, attempted by France. War declared between France and England. French and Spaniards overrun Savoy. Treaty of Frankfort between France and Prussia.

1745 Death of Charles VII.; his son Maximilian Joseph consents to guarantee the pragmatic sanction, and concludes peace with Maria Theresa. France and Spain continue the war. Battle of Fontenoy. Francis duke of Tuscany (husband of Maria Theresa) chosen emperor. Treaty of Dresden; internal peace of Germany restored. Prince Charles Edward, grandson of James II. lands in Scotland; takes Edinburgh; defeats the king's army at Prestonpans; marches into England. Habeas corpus act suspended; militia called out. Duke of Cumberland takes the command of the army. The prince retreats into Scotland.

1746 Siege of Stirling castle. Battle of Culloden. The rebellion entirely suppressed. Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault subdued by the French. Battle of Rocoux gained by the French, and of St Lazaro by the Austrians. Ferdinand VI. king of Spain. Genoa garrisoned by Austrians; the garrison expelled by the Genoese. Madras reduced by the French.

1747 Neutral territory of the United Provinces invaded by the French. Prince of Orange (William IV.) declared stadtholder, and hostilities commenced with France. Battle of Val; allies under the Duke of Cumberland defeated. Bergen-op-Zoom taken by the French. Siege of Genoa. French defeated at sea; off Cape Finisterre by Admiral Anson; off Belleisle by Admiral Hawke. Nadir Shah assassinated.

1748 Pondicherry in the East, Cuba and Hispaniola in the West Indies, attacked by British armaments. Siege of Maastricht. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Austria, Sardinia, and Holland.

1749 Kingdom of Afghanistan founded by Achmet Abdallah, a general of Nadir Shah. League of the

Pope, Venetians, &c. against Algiers. English and French in the East Indies take opposite sides in a contest of native princes for the nabobship of Arcot.

1750 Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden and Denmark concerning Holstein. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Spain. Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. Royal Society of Göttingen. Westminster Bridge finished.

1751 Siege of Arcot. Captain Clive. Death of Frederick Prince of Wales.

1752 New style adopted in Britain; September 2d reckoned September 14th.

1753 Hostilities in India continued; advantage generally on the British side. British Museum established.

1754 The French (having connected Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts) attempt to circumscribe the British American colonies; attack Nova Scotia and Virginia. War in India concluded; non-interference with native governments a stipulation of the treaty.

1755 Armaments sent by Great Britain and France to support their respective American colonies. Expeditions of General Braddock against the French posts on the Ohio, of Sir W. Johnson against Crown Point, of General Shirley against Niagara, —all unsuccessful. Maritime commerce of France distressed by British cruisers. Treaty between George II. and Russia for defence of Hanover. Foundation of the Burman empire in the eastern peninsula of India. Destruction of Lisbon by an earthquake.

1756 Kings of Britain and Prussia conclude a treaty for the exclusion of foreign troops from Germany; Austria, Russia, Sweden, and France, another for the partition of Prussia. Minorca attacked by the French. Declaration of war between Great Britain and France. Militia bill; rejected by the Peers. German mercenaries brought to defend Britain from invasion. Admiral Byng attempts to relieve Minorca; fails; the island submits. Calcutta taken by the Soubahdar of Bengal; garrison thrust into the Black Hole; 123 die of suffocation. King of Prussia invades Saxony (beginning of the Seven Years' War); takes Dresden; enters Bohemia; defeats the Austrians at Lowositz. William Pitt prime minister of George II.

1757 Admiral Byng tried for misconduct off Minorca; shot. French troops pass the Rhine to invade Hanover. Pitt, opposing British interference with the affairs of Germany, is dismissed from office. Duke of Cumberland sent to defend the electorate. Battle of Reichenberg; the Austrians, repulsed by the Prussians, retreat to Prague. Battle; siege of Prague; battle of Colin; siege raised. Memel taken by the Russians. Duke of Cumberland repulsed and driven from the electorate. Convention of Closter-Seven. Pitt reinstated. Frederick gains the battles of Rosbach and Lissa; the Russians return home. The Hanoverians rise against the French. Colonel Clive recovers Calcutta; defeats the Soubahdar of Bengal at Plessy; lays the foundation of the British power in India.

1758 The Hanoverians drive the French across the Rhine. Britain and Prussia engage not to treat but in concert, and the former grants the latter a large subsidy. Battle of Crevelt; the French defeated by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Battle of Sangershausen; the prince defeated. Frederick en-

ters Moravia; invests Olmutz; raises the siege to oppose the Russians; defeats them at Zorndorf; is defeated at Hochkirchen by the Austrians; expels them from Silesia and Saxony. The works of Cherbourg demolished; islands of Cape Breton and St John on the coast of America, and French settlements on the coast of Africa, reduced by British armaments. Achromatic telescope; Dollond.

1759 Frankfort on the Maine (a neutral city) seized by the French. Battle of Minden; French defeated by Prince Ferdinand. The Russians enter Silesia; defeat Frederick at Cunersdorf. Guadaloupe reduced. Battle of Quebec; death of General Wolfe; surrender of Quebec. British gain advantages in the East Indies; take Surat. French fleet under Conflans, destined for the invasion of Britain, destroyed by Admiral Hawke; another, under Thurot, pillages Carrickfergus; is captured off the Isle of Man (February 1760).

1760 Three armies, Austrian, Russian, and Swedish, surround Frederick at Lignitz; he defeats the Austrians, and prevents their junction. The Russians pillage Berlin. Battle of Torgau; the Austrians again defeated. Siege of Quebec by the French; raised. Province of Canada submits to Britain. Siege of Pondicherry. George III. king of Great Britain.

1761 Pondicherry taken; French power in India destroyed. Negotiations for a general pacification opened at London and Paris. Belleisle reduced by a British armament. Family compact of the Bourbons; Pitt proposes instant war with Spain; resigns; Earl of Bute succeeds as premier. Negotiations broken off.

1762 War declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Spaniards invade Portugal; are expelled by British assistance. Peter III. emperor of Russia; he concludes an offensive and defensive alliance with Sweden, a peace with Prussia. Catherine II. empress of Russia; adheres to the peace, but withdraws her troops. The West India islands belonging to France, the town of Havannah, with a great part of Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, belonging to Spain, subdued by British armaments. Preliminaries of a treaty signed at Fontainebleau (November 3).

1763 Treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg; France cedes to Britain Canada, Cape Breton, St Vincent, Tobago, and the coast of Senegal; Spain cedes Florida; Prussia and Austria mutually restore conquests; end of the Seven Years' War. Parliaments of Paris, Rouen, &c. declare against the arbitrary imposition of taxes. Grenville administration formed. Wilkes expelled from the House of Commons.

1764 Stanislaus Poniatowski king of Poland. Byron's voyage.

1765 British government suggests the taxation of the North American colonies. Stamp act. Opposition of the colonies. Rockingham administration.

1766 Repeal of the stamp act. Grafton administration. Civil war in Poland arising out of religious differences. Death of James Stuart, son of James II.

1767 Jesuits banished from Spain and the Indies, Naples and Sicily. British government imposes new taxes on the American colonies. Russia and Prussia interfere in the domestic broils and government of Poland. Otaheite discovered by Wallis.

1768 Riots at Boston in North America. Corsica ceded by Genoa to France. War between Russia and

Turkey, arising out of the interference of the former in the affairs of Poland. Royal Academy established. Voyage of Bougainville.

1769 House of Commons annul the votes of the Middlesex electors. Wilkes. Luttrell.

1770 Dispute between Britain and Spain respecting the Falkland Islands; compromised without honour to Britain (1771). Russians send an armament into the Mediterranean; obtain a footing in the Morea; destroy Turkish fleet off Scio; subdue Moldavia and Wallachia. Blackfriars Bridge finished.

1771 House of Commons issue an order for the apprehension of the printers and publishers of certain parliamentary debates. Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, an alderman of London, resisting the execution of the order, are sent to the Tower by command of the house. From this period the proceedings in both houses of Parliament have been regularly reported in the newspapers. Members of the parliament of Paris deprived of their offices, and banished to different parts of the country. Turks defeated near Bucharest, and in the Crimea. Cooke's first voyage.

1772 Treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, for the partition of Poland. British American colonies claim the sole right of legislating for themselves.

1773 First partition of Poland. Society of the Jesuits suppressed in France. Constitution of the British East India Company settled by act of Parliament, on nearly the existing basis. Assembly of Massachusetts Bay pass a resolution against the importation of tea; a quantity thrown into the sea at Boston.

1774 Peace of Kainargi; the Crimea independent; Russian frontier advanced into Turkey. Port of Boston closed by act of Parliament. Congress of twelve provinces at Philadelphia. Louis XVI. king of France. New Caledonia discovered by Cook.

1775 War of American independence. Battle of Bunker's Hill. General congress of thirteen provinces. Washington commander in chief. Louis XVI. restores the parliament of Paris. Spain engaged in war with the Moors and Algerines.

1776 The United States of North America declare themselves independent (July 4). Philosophical administration in France.

1777 Capitulation of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Alliance between France and Switzerland.

1778 To prevent an alliance between the American colonies and France, the British government offer to concede the right of self-taxation to the colonial assemblies—without effect; the alliance is concluded. A British fleet is sent to cruise against the French. War of the Bavarian succession; Austria and Prussia the belligerents. Sandwich Islands discovered by Cook.

1779 Treaty of Teschen between Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria. Spain joins France in the war against Britain. Islands St Vincent and Grenada reduced by the French. Holland refuses Britain the assistance stipulated by treaty 1678. Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee.

1780 War in India with the Mahrattas and Hyder Ali. Riots in London; Lord George Gordon. South Carolina reduced. The Americans defeated at Camden. Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent, and French in the American seas, by Rodney. Armed neutrality; Russia, Denmark,

Sweden, Holland, Portugal, German and Italian States, the parties. War declared against Holland.

1781 St Eustatia and the colonies of Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara taken from the Dutch. Jersey invaded by France. Gibraltar besieged by Spain. Minorca reduced by the French and Spaniards; Tobago by the French. Army of Cornwall surrenders to Washington. Planet Uranus discovered by Herschell.

1782 House of Commons condemns the American war. Rockingham; Shelburne administration. Ireland declared independent of the British parliament. St Christophers reduced by the French. Their fleet defeated by Rodney. Floating batteries employed against Gibraltar destroyed by General Elliot. Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, continues the war in India. Revolutions attempted in Geneva and some of the Swiss cantons.

1783 Treaties of peace concluded between Great Britain and her enemies. Independence of the United States of America recognised. Washington president. The Crimea seized by Russia. Pitt administration.

1784 Peace concluded with Tippoo Saib. Board of control established for regulation of affairs of India.

1785 German league. Treaty of commerce negotiated with France; concluded in 1786.

1786 Death of Frederick the Great; Frederick William succeeds. Contest for power between the stadtholder and the pensionaries of several of the states of Holland. Sinking fund established for the extinction of the national debt of Great Britain. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.

1787 Civil war in Holland. The stadtholder obtains aid from Prussia; secures an extension of authority. First assembly of the notables of France, at Versailles. Turkey engaged in hostilities with Russia and Austria.

1788 Second assembly of the notables. The Swedes attack Russia; the Danes Sweden. Oczakoff taken from the Turks. Great Britain, Holland, and Prussia conclude a defensive alliance; compel Sweden and Denmark to abstain from hostilities. Prince of Wales regent for four months. Charles IV. king of Spain. Convict colony of Botany Bay founded. Death of Prince Charles Edward Stuart at Rome.

1789 Abolition of the slave trade proposed in the British parliament. The states-general of France meet at Versailles (May 5). French revolution. Constituent assembly. Bastille destroyed (July 14). National guard instituted. Feudal privileges and tithes suppressed. Jacobin club. Insurrection in the Low Countries. Suvarrow defeats the Turks. The Austrians take Belgrade.

1790 France divided into eighty-three departments. Religious orders suppressed. Hereditary nobility abolished. Assignats. Civil constitution of the clergy. Belgic confederation at Brussels. Alliance of Prussia with Poland and Turkey. Peace of Werla between Russia and Sweden. Capture of Ismael by Suvarrow. The Austrians enter Brussels. War with Tippoo Saib renewed; concluded 1792.

1791 Flight; arrest of Louis XVI. He is conducted to Paris; accepts the constitution of 1791. Legislative assembly. Party of the Girondists. Convention of Pilnitz. The pope issues a bull against the civil oath of the French clergy. Peace of Szistowa between Austria and Turkey.

1792 France declares war against Austria. An Austrian and Prussian army invades France. Thuilleries attacked. Swiss guards massacred by an armed mob. Royal authority suspended (Aug. 10). Royal family imprisoned in the Temple (14). Massacre of the state prisoners at Paris (Sept. 2 and 3). Battle of Valmy. National convention. Abolition of royalty (21). Republic proclaimed. Battle of Jemappes. Savoy incorporated with the French republic. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey. Disturbances in St Domingo. City of Washington founded.

1793 Execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21). First coalition against France. Reign of terror. Levy en masse of all Frenchmen between eighteen and twenty-five years of age. Toulon taken by the English. Christian religion abolished. New era introduced, to date from 22d Sept. 1792. Queen beheaded (Oct. 16). Toulon retaken from the English. Bonaparte. Second partition of Poland. Pondicherry reduced by the English.

1794 Fall of Robespierre. Struggle of the Poles against Russia. Kosciusko. Habeas Corpus act suspended. Telegraph invented. Victory of Lord Howe (June 1). Exchequer bills issued. American minister received at Paris. Retreat of the British army in Flanders. Battle of Praga; 30,000 Poles butchered by Suvarrow. Trial of John Horne Tooke. The Duke of York leaves the Continent. Missionary societies established in England.

1795 Battle of Fleurus. Occupation of Amsterdam by the French. Revolution in Holland; United Provinces dependent on France. Third and last partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. End of the elective kingdom of Poland. Peace of Basle between France and Prussia. Death of Louis XVII. in the Temple. Peace between France and Spain; St Domingo wholly yielded to the former. Martinique, St Lucia, Guadeloupe, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, taken by the English. Belgium and Liege united to the French republic. Insurrection of the 13th Vendemiaire (Oct. 5). Barras. Bonaparte. New Constitution. Councils of Ancients and Five Hundred. Executive Directory. Polytechnic School. National Institute of France. Mungo Park.

1796 Italian campaign of Bonaparte. Battles of Montenotte and Monte-lezino (April 14). King of Sardinia cedes Savoy and Nice to the republic. Battle of Lodi (May 10). Sovereigns of Naples and Parma make peace. Conquest of the Milanese. Cisalpine republic. Retreat of Moreau from the Danube. Paul emperor of Russia. War between England and Spain (Oct. 5). Battle of Arcole (Nov. 15). Irish insurrection act. Lithography; Sennefelder.

1797 Mutiny in the British navy. Battle of Rivoli. Part of the papal territory ceded to France. Bonaparte traverses the Tyrol; subdues Carinthia, Styria, &c.; opens negotiations with the court of Vienna at Leoben (April 18). Successes of Hoche and Moreau on the Rhine; arrested by the negotiations. Venice revolutionized (May 12), and Genoa (21). Spanish fleet defeated off Cape St Vincent. Trinidad taken by the English. Treaty of Campo Formio (Oct. 7). French frontier extended to the Rhine. Dutch fleet defeated off Camperdown (Oct. 11). Britain menaced with invasion. Rebellion in Ireland.

1809 Battle of Corunna; fall of Sir John Moore (Jan. 16). Convention between Spain and Great Britain. Duke of York's direction of the army the subject of parliamentary investigation. He resigns the office of commander-in-chief. Abdication of Gustavus IV. of Sweden; Charles XIII. king. Sault enters Portugal. Oporto taken. Battle of Medellin (March 19). Sir Arthur Wellesley opposes Sault; recovers Oporto. Emperor of Austria declares war against France (April 8); invades Bavaria; battle of Eckmühl; capitulation of Vienna (May 13); Austrians repulsed in Italy; papal territory incorporated with the dominions of France (17). Battle of Essling (21 and 22); of Wagram (July 6); of Talavera (28). Insurrection in the Tyrol; Hofer. British expedition to Walcheren. Cayenne, Martinique, Ionian Islands, taken from France. War between Russia and Persia. Britain concludes treaties with Turkey and Persia. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria (Oct. 14). Defeat of the Spaniards at Ocana and Alba de Tormes. Mr Perceval prime minister. Jubilee.

1810 Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower by the House of Commons. Napoleon marries Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria; de-thrones his brother Louis; annexes the United Provinces to France (July 1). The United States of America prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain and France. Marshal Bernadotte chosen crown-prince of Sweden (Aug. 18). Massena reduces Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida; battle of Busaco (Sept. 27). Meeting of the Spanish cortes (28). Siege of Cadiz. Isle of Bourbon, Mauritius, settlements in Madagascar belonging to the French, Amboyna and Banda, to the Dutch, reduced by British armaments. Mental derangement of George III. Prince of Wales regent.

1811 Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo (March 1). Massena commences a retreat from Portugal (5). Battle of Fuentes d'Honor; of Albuera (May 16). The Spanish American colonies refuse submission to the Cortes; claim independence. Java, with all its dependencies, reduced by the British. Riots at Nottingham.

1812 Ciudad Rodrigo stormed by Lord Wellington (Jan. 19). Constitutional code promulgated in Spain (March 20). Badajos stormed (April 6). Assassination of Mr Perceval (May 11). Administration of Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh. The United States declare war against Britain (June 18); invade Canada. Treaties of alliance; Russia with Sweden, with Great Britain, with the Spanish Cortes; of peace, with Turkey, the Pruth the frontier. War between France and Russia (June 24). Battle of Salamanca (July 22). Smolensko taken (Aug. 18). Battle of Borodino (Sept. 7). Entry of the French into Moscow (14); the city burnt by the inhabitants. Napoleon offers peace; retreats from Moscow (Oct. 22). Frost and the Russians destroy the French army.

1813 Prussia joins the enemies of France (Feb. 22). Napoleon enters Germany. Battle of Lutzen (May 2); of Bautzen (21 and 22); of Richenbach; truce (June 4); the French to occupy Silesia. Sweden and Austria join the allies. England contributes largely towards the expenses of the war. Battle of Vittoria gained by Lord Wellington (June 21). St Sebastian stormed (August 31). The allies

resume hostilities with 180,000 men; Napoleon with as many. Battles of the Katzbach (August 26); Dresden (September 4 and 5), &c.; Leipsic (October 16, 18, 19). Bavaria joins the allies. Lord Wellington enters France (October 18). Battle of Hanau (October 30). Revolution in Holland (November 16). Prince of Orange restored (December 2). British trade to India partially opened.

1814 The allies invade France at different points; after many conflicts with various success, enter Paris (March 31). Bonaparte abdicates (April 11); embarks at Frejus for Elba (28). Louis XVIII. enters Paris (May 3); Ferdinand VII. Madrid (14). Peace of Paris between France and the allies (30); France reduced to her limits on the 1st January 1792. King of Spain suppresses the Cortes; re-establishes the Inquisition, Jesuits' College, &c. Norway united to Sweden (August 14). City of Washington taken by the British (24). Congress of Vienna (September 26); Belgium united to Holland. Hanover a kingdom. Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and America (December 15).

1815 Congress of Vienna guarantees the integrity of the twenty-two Swiss cantons; issues a manifesto against Bonaparte on his return to France. Bonaparte leaves Elba (February 26); lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris (21). Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, bind themselves to bring 150,000 men each into the field against Bonaparte (25). Murat attacks the Austrians; loses the battle of Tolentino (May 3), and the kingdom of Naples (20). The three legations restored to the Pope (29). Bonaparte leaves Paris (June 10) to oppose the allies. Conflicts at Charleroi, Quatre Bras, Ligny (15, 16, 17). Battle of Waterloo (18). Bonaparte abdicates in favour of his son (24). The allies enter France. Capitulation of Paris (July 3). Return of Louis XVIII. to the capital (8). Bonaparte surrenders to Captain Maitland, H. B. M. S. Bellerophon (15). Ney, Labedoyere, shot. Holy alliance concluded (September 26). Bonaparte at St Helena (October 13). Ionian republic established (November 5). New treaties, providing for the military occupation of France by foreign troops for five years, and further contracting the French frontier, concluded between the allies and Louis XVIII. (November 20). Congress of Vienna adjusts the boundaries of the states formerly dependent on the French empire; fixes the federative constitution of Germany.

1816 Majority of thirty-seven in the House of Commons against the property-tax (March 19). Princess of Wales married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield (May 2). Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth (August 27). Declaration of South American independence issued at Buenos Ayres. Duke of Cambridge governor-general of Hanover (Nov. 2). Distress; riots in England. Spa Fields Mob (December 2).

1817 Habeas Corpus Act suspended (March 7). Insurrection at Nottingham. Convention between Louis XVIII. and the pope; privileges of the Gallican church secured. Spain disturbed, and Portugal threatened with popular tumults. Waterloo Bridge opened (June 18). Bolivar supreme chief of the government of Venezuela. Death of

the Princess Charlotte (November 6). Pindarri war in India; ended (December 17).

1818 Habeas corpus suspension act repealed (January 31). Bernadotte king of Sweden (February 30). Censorship of the press enforced by Louis XVIII. France, Spain, and the Netherlands, agree to measures proposed by England for the suppression of the slave trade. Duke of Clarence marries the Princess of Saxe-Meiningen; Duke of Kent the Princess of Saxe-Coburg (July 13). A papal bull allows benefits in Spain to remain two years vacant, and yields the revenues to the service of the government (August 12). Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (September 29). Army of occupation withdrawn from France (October 9). Death of Queen Charlotte (November 17).

1819 Southwark Bridge opened (March 26). Princess Victoria born (May 23). Radical reform meetings (June 23). Congress of Carlsbad (August 1). Manchester massacre (16). Chili, Buenos Ayres, Colombia, de facto independent. The "Six Acts" sanctioned by the British legislature. Spain cedes the Floridas to North America. New South Shetland discovered.

1820 Revolution in Spain; Constitution of 1812 proclaimed (January 1). Death of George III. (29). The king of Spain swears to the constitution; inquisition suppressed (March 8). Expulsion of the Jesuits from Russia (25). Revolution at Naples (May 15). Carbonari. Constitutional junta in Portugal (October 1).

1821 Revolution in Brazil (January 1). Congress of Leybach. Austrian army occupies Naples (8). Disturbances in Piedmont; the king resigns in favour of his brother (April 10). Death of Napoleon Bonaparte (May 5). Coronation of George IV. (July 19). Austrian troops occupy the kingdom of Sardinia (29). George IV. visits Dublin (August 17), and Hanover (October 10). Catholic bill lost in the House of Peers.

1822 The Greeks declare themselves free (January 1). The Prince Royal of Brazil institutes a representative government (February 16). Spanish Cortes meet at Madrid (March 1). The Greeks victorious at Larissa, Salonica, and Thermopylæ. The king of Portugal swears to the new constitution (October 1). Brazil independent; the Prince Regent proclaimed emperor (12). Congress of Verona (20). Great distress in Ireland. George IV. visits Scotland.

1823 Mediation of the holy alliance rejected by the cortes of Spain (January 9); removal of Ferdinand to Seville, thence to Cadiz (March 20). French army enters Spain (April 7), and Madrid (May 23). The king of Portugal suppresses the constitution (June 5). Cadiz invested by the French (25). Guatemala proclaims its independence (July 20). Battle of the Trocadero before Cadiz (August 31). Riego taken (September 15); executed at Madrid (November 27). Proceedings of the cortes from 7th March 1820 annulled; end of the Spanish revolution (October 1). Mexican constitution proclaimed (4). The government of Great Britain sends consuls to the new states of South America.

1824 The English troops defeated by the Ashantees (January 21). Bolivar dictator of Peru (February 10). Lord Hastings, the governor-general of India, declares war against the Burmese (March 5).

Capture of Rangoon (May 5). The Ashantees driven from Cape Coast Castle (July 22). Charles X. king of France. Treaty between the United States and Colombia (Oct. 3). Provisional government in Greece (12). The Turks evacuate Moldavia (Nov. 23). Mechanics' Institutions formed. Union of the Scotch dissenters. Catholic rent.

1825 Great Britain concludes a treaty of commerce with the united provinces of Rio de la Plata (February 2). Mr Adams president of the United States of North America (9). Ibrahim Pasha invades Greece (26). Convention concluded between Russia and Great Britain for the freedom of navigation, commerce, and fishery on the Pacific Ocean, and the north-west coast of America (28). Independence of St Domingo confirmed by the king of France (April 17). Treaty between Great Britain and Colombia (18). Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Greeks near Forgi (19). Treaty between Great Britain and Mexico (April 29). Ports in the East Indies belonging to the Dutch opened to the ships of all nations (July 21). Resolution of the provisional government of Greece to have recourse to the protection of England (24). The provinces of Upper Peru declare their independence, and take the name of the Bolivian republic (August 6). Treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between Great Britain and the Hanse Towns (September 26). The Spaniards evacuate Mexico (November 18). Death of Alexander, emperor of Russia (December 1). General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome (1, 2, 5). Act against the Catholic association. Petitions against the Corn Laws. Joint stock company mania; Commercial distress; Failures.

1826 War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres (January 3). Bhurtpore stormed by the British troops under Lord Combermere. Sir A. Campbell defeats the Burmese near Mallooun (20). Surrender of Callao (23); Peru evacuated by the Spaniards. Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and France (26). Peace concluded between the East India Company and the Burmese (February 24). Death of John VI. emperor and king of Portugal. Don Pedro grants the Portuguese a charter; confirms the regency (April 26); abdicates in favour of his daughter Donna Maria da Gloria (May 2). Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden (19). Departure of the Ottoman troops from Wallachia. Opening of the first congress of the Bolivian republic (25). Landing of the Greeks near Salonichi; battle with Omer Pasha (June 1). Importation of foreign silks into Great Britain permitted from June 5. Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople. New organization of the Ottoman army. Defeat of the Janissaries; suppression of the corps (14, 15, 16). Convocation of a general congress in Chili to frame a constitution (15). Death of ex-presidents Adams and Jefferson on the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of North American independence (July 4). The national congress constitutes Chili a confederative state (11). Ashantees defeated by the English (August 7). National assembly of Greece called together in the Isle of Paros (14). Bolivar president of Peru for life (19). Nicholas, emperor of Russia, crowned at Moscow (September 3). Russia declares war against Persia. Colombian flag admitted into

French ports (September 28). The infant Don Miguel takes the oath of fealty to the Portuguese constitution at Vienna (October 4). Lotteries cease in England (18). Treaty between Great Britain and Brazil for the abolition of the slave trade. The Portuguese rebels take Lamego; Portugal entreats the assistance of Great Britain (Dec. 3). English troops arrive at Lisbon (25).

1827 Death of the Duke of York (January 5). The Duke of Wellington appointed commander-in-chief (22). Lord Liverpool becomes incapable of transacting public business (February 17). Subject of Catholic claims brought before the House of Commons by Sir Francis Burdett; majority against concession four (March 5, 6). Departure of the Hecla, Captain Parry, from Deptford, on the northern expedition (25). Mr Canning appointed first lord of the treasury (April 10); the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral (17). National guard of France disarmed by Charles X. (April 30). Unitarian marriage bill assented to by the House of Peers (June 26). Resolution of the Bank of England to discount bills at four per cent. (July 5). Death of Mr Canning (August 8). Lord Goderich appointed premier (11); Duke of Portland president of the council (17). Return of Captain Parry from the northern expedition (September 29). Battle of Navarino (October 20). French chambers dissolved; seventy-six new peers created (November 5). The bank of Lisbon suspends its payments (Dec. 7).

1828 Resignation of Lord Goderich (January 8). Duke of Wellington premier. British troops withdrawn from Portugal. Usurpation of Don Miguel. Finance committee appointed (February 15). Test and corporation acts repealed (26). Law commission appointed (29). Catholic relief bill rejected by the Upper House (January 9); majority forty-four. Mr O'Connell, a Catholic, elected M. P. for the county of Clare. Catholic association. Brunswick clubs.

1829 Settlement of the Catholic question recommended in a speech from the throne (February 5). Catholic association suppressed by act of Parliament (March 5). Catholic relief bill receives the royal assent (April 13). The Irish forty-shilling freeholders disfranchised. Agricultural distress. Partial disturbances in England (November and December).

1830 Measures of reform proposed in the House of Commons; by the Marquis of Blandford (February 18), by Lord John Russell (23), by Mr O'Connell (May 28), unsuccessfully. Death of George IV. (June 26); William IV. king of Great Britain. Revolution of July in France. Duke of Orleans becomes "King of the French." Revolution in Belgium. Riots in England; great destruction of agricultural produce. Reform associations and political unions formed at Birmingham, &c. Duke of Wellington resigns (November 16). Earl Grey premier; Mr Brougham lord high chancellor. Revolution of the 19th November in Poland.

1831 Reform bill announced to the House of Commons by Lord John Russell (March 1); read a first time (14); frustrated in committee by a motion of General Gascoyne; Parliament dissolved; debated in a new House of Commons from June 15 to September 22; carried by a final majority of 109; rejected by the Peers (October 7) by a majority of 41. Parliament prorogued. Riots at Derby, Not-

tingham, and Bristol. Prince Leopold accepts the crown of Belgium. Warsaw surrenders to the Russians; the Poles are reduced to complete submission. Insurrection at Lyons (November). Cholera Morbus breaks out at Sunderland.

1832 The Reform bill (introduced again into the House of Commons December 12, 1831), is debated until the 22d March; and endangered in the House of Peers by a motion of Lord Lyndhurst (May 7). Ministers resign. The House of Commons and the country present to the king addresses expressing confidence in the retired ministry. The Duke of Wellington attempts to form an administration; fails; Earl Grey and his colleagues are recalled (May 18). Royal assent given to the English Reform bill (June 7), to the Scotch (July 17), to the Irish (August 7). Hereditary peerage abolished in France. Prince Otho of Bavaria accepts the sovereignty of Greece (May 7). Carlist and republican insurrection in Paris (June 5, 6). The city declared in a state of siege. The diet of Frankfurt publishes resolutions abridging the liberties of Germany (28). Don Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil, lands at Oporto (July 9); civil war for the possession of Portugal. Death of young Napoleon (July 22). Don Pedro defeats the Portuguese royalists at Valongo. Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Grand Vizier in Syria (July 30). The Migueletes repulsed from Oporto (Sept. 19). Formation of a French ministry under Soult (Oct. 10). Eruption of Mount Aetna (Nov. 18). The Grand Vizier defeated by the Pasha on the plains of Konieh (Dec. 21). Antwerp surrendered to the French after a bombardment of 20 days (Dec. 24).

1833 King Otho lands at Napoli (Jan. 31). Turkey applies to Russia for succours (Feb. 2). Migueletes twice repulsed from Oporto (March 4 and 24), and from Monte Cavello (April 9). Peace concluded between Turkey and Egypt (April 14). Don Carlos proclaims himself successor of the Spanish king (April 29). Mehmet Ali confirmed in his government of Egypt and Candia, with the annexation of Damascus, Tripoli, Seyd, and Safed (May 6). Ibrahim repasses the Taurus (May 9). Temporary settlement of the affairs of Holland and Belgium (May 21). Cortes convened to swear allegiance to the Infanta (June 20). Military disturbances in Rhenish Bavaria, in Basle, and Schwytz. Admiral Napier captures Don Miguel's squadron (July 2). Migueletes repulsed from Lisbon (Sept. 5). Death of the king of Spain (Sept. 29). The Mexican insurgents defeated by the president Santa Anna (Oct. 4). Various actions of the Carlists in Spain.

1834 Invasion of Savoy by Polish and other refugees (Feb. 1). Migueletes repulsed at Santarem (Feb. 18). Claims of the United States rejected in the French Chamber (Feb. 27). Riots at Lyons and Brussels. Carlists defeated in Lower Navarre (April 22). Treaty concluded at London between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, by the expulsion of Don Carlos and Don Miguel (April 22). Don Miguel capitulated (May 26). Don Pedro abolishes monastic establishments in Portugal (May 28). Cholera in Sweden and Denmark. Don Carlos retired to England (June 18), landed again in Spain (July 10). Lord Napier arrives at Canton (July 16). Insurrections in Syria (July 20). Slavery abolished in the British dominions (July 31). Death of Don Pedro (Sept. 24). Houses of Parliament

destroyed by fire (Oct. 16). Sir Robert Peel prime minister (Dec. 8). Insurrection of the Caffres at the Cape of Good Hope (Dec. 25).

1835 Mohammed Mirza king of Persia. Emperor of Austria died (March 2). Lord Melbourne prime minister (April 18). The life of Louis Philippe attempted by Fieschi (July 28). Freedom of the press restrained in France. Spain recognised the independence of her American colonies (Aug. 9). Halley's comet seen (Aug. 20). Marshal Clausel takes the headquarters of Abd-el-Kader (Dec. 6).

1836 Marriage of Ferdinand Augustus Duke of Saxe-Coburg to Donna Maria Queen of Portugal (Jan. 1). Massacre of Carlist prisoners at Barcelona (Jan. 5). Queen of Naples died (Jan. 31). Madame Bonaparte died at Rome (Feb. 2). Mediation of Great Britain between France and America accepted (Feb. 8). French ministry organized under Thiers (Feb. 22). Cracow occupied by Russian and Austrian troops (Feb. 22). The British fleet co-operates with the Carlists on the coast (March 22). Revolt of the National Guard at Malaga, and proclamation of the Constitution of 1812 (Aug. 3). Revolution at Madrid, and acceptance of the Constitution by the Queen Regent (Aug. 12). Resignation of Thiers (Sept. 7). Repulse of the Carlists (Oct. 1). Insurrection of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Strasburg, and his dismissal to America (Oct. 29). Insurrection in Lisbon (Sept. 9). Bilbao invested unsuccessfully by the Carlists (Dec. 24).

1837 General Espartero drives the Carlists from Hernani (May 15). William IV. died (June 20). Queen Victoria proclaimed (June 22). The Duke of Cumberland becomes king of Hanover, and abrogates the constitution of 1833 (June 27). The Carlists defeated at Valencia (July 15). Parliament dissolved (July 17). The Carlists threaten Madrid (Aug. 11). Cholera raging in Rome, the Two Sicilies, &c. Don Carlos victorious near Herrera (Aug. 24). Saldanha and Terceira defeated in Portugal (Sept. 18). Canadian insurgents defeated at St Charles (Nov. 26). Insurrection extended to Upper Canada (Dec. 4).

1838 Bahia retaken by the Emperor of Brazil (March 16). Brazilian troops defeated by the insurgents (April 29). Great Western arrived at New York (June 17). Defeat of the Carlists at Penacerrada (June 22). Victory of the Carlists at Altura (25). Coronation of Queen Victoria (June 28). Hostilities commenced between France and Mexico (July 12). Revolution at Lima (July 29). Chilean troops enter Lima (Aug. 21). Coronation of the Emperor of Austria at Milan (Sept. 6). British troops enter Afghanistan to aid the legitimate king of Cabul. Rebellion in Lower Canada (Nov. 5). General Santa Cruz enters Lima (Nov. 10). The insurgents enter Monte Video (Nov. 11). The rebellion in Canada suppressed (Nov. 17). War proclaimed between France and the Mexican republic (Nov. 30). Chartist meetings throughout the country (Dec. 12).

1839 Eruption of Vesuvius (Jan. 2). Decision of Conference on the Dutch and Belgian question (Jan. 23). War declared between the Uruguay republic and Buenos Ayres (March 10). Arrest of British merchants by the Chinese government (April 15). Treaty between Holland and Belgium signed (April 19). Indian army occupies Candahar (April 21). Mexican Federalists defeated near Nocarigo (May 7). Lord Melbourne resigned, but immediately rein-

stated (May 7). Riots at Paris (May 11). Hostilities commenced between Ibrahim Pasha and Hafiz Pasha (June 10). Sultan Mahmud II. succeeded by Abdul Medjid (June 27). Riots in Birmingham (July 15). Anglo-Indian army capture Ghiznee (July 23). Treaty between France and Texas (Sept. 25). Newport attacked by Chartists (Nov. 4). Trade between England and China suspended by edict of the imperial commissioner (Nov. 24). King of Denmark died (Dec. 3).

1840 Penny postage established (Jan. 10). Marriage of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (Feb. 10). Morella the Carlist general surrenders (May 28). Death of Frederick William III. king of Prussia (June 7). Cabrera Carlist general is arrested (July 1). Capture of Chusan (July 5). Prince Louis Napoleon made prisoner at Boulogne (Aug. 6). Revolutionary outbreak at Madrid (Sept. 1). Beyrouth bombarded (Sept. 19). The king of Holland abdicates (Oct. 7). Dost Mahomed Khan defeated (Oct. 18), surrenders (Nov. 2). St Jean d'Acre bombarded (Nov. 3). Remains of Napoleon deposited in the Hôtel des Invalides (Dec. 15).

1841 Capture of the Bogue forts at Canton (Jan. 7). Union of the two Canadas proclaimed at Montreal (Feb. 10). Peace concluded between Mehemet Ali and the Sultan (March 5). Hostilities recommence at Canton (May 21). Plague in Egypt. Insurrection in Candia. Queen Christina declared no longer royal guardian (June 23). Amoy taken (Aug. 26). Recapture of Chusan (Oct. 1). Capture of Tinghai and Ningpo. Formation of new ministry under Sir Robert Peel (Aug. 30). Insurrection in Spain suppressed (Oct. 4). Fire in the Tower of London (Oct. 30). General rising in Cabul (Nov. 2). Birth of the Prince of Wales (Nov. 9).

1842 Massacre of British soldiers while evacuating Cabul (Jan. 8). The Afghans repulsed from Candahar (March 10), and Jellalabad (April 6). General Pollock forces the Khyber Pass. Insurrection of the Boers of Port Natal (May 4), defeated (June 26). Capture of Shang-hai (June 16). Riots in the manufacturing districts of England (Aug. 8). Peace concluded between Great Britain and China (Aug. 29). Ghiznee retaken by General Nott (Sept. 6). Cabul taken (Sept. 6), and evacuated (Oct. 12). Insurrectionists in Barcelona surrender after the bombardment of the city (Dec. 3).

1843 Defeat of the Ameers of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier, and capture of Hyderabad (Feb. 20). Insurrectionary movement of "Rebecca's daughters" in Wales. Thames Tunnel opened (March 25). "Disruption" of the Church of Scotland (May 18). Insurrection in Spain successful by the defection of the government troops (July 23). Pomaré, queen of Otaheite, compelled to place herself under the protection of France (Sept. 9). Revolution at Athens without bloodshed (Sept. 14). Government prohibits a repeal meeting, and Mr O'Connell and John O'Connell arrested (Oct. 14). Queen of Spain declared of age by the Cortes (Nov. 8).

1844 Death of the king of Sweden (March 8). A new constitution adopted by the National Assembly of Greece (March 16). Anti-Irish riots in Philadelphia (May 3 and July 5). Incendiary fires in Suffolk. Tangier bombarded by the Prince de Joinville (Aug. 6). Mogadore bombarded (Aug. 15). Peace concluded between France and Morocco (Sept. 6). Spanish constitution of 1837 abrogated (Oct. 28). Rongé heads the "second re-

A. D.

formation" in Germany. Revolution at Lahore (Dec. 18).

1845 Iowa and Florida annexed to the United States. Attack on Lucerne on account of the appointment of the Jesuits to be schoolmasters (April 1). New convention between France and England for the suppression of the slave trade (May 29). Attack on Madagascar on account of the expulsion of European traders (June 15). Annexation of Texas (June 19). A tribe of Moors destroyed by the French in Algeria (June 20). French detachment cut to pieces by Abd-el-Kader (Sept. 16). Insurrection in Rimini and Ravenna (Sept. 23). English and French squadrons destroy the batteries of General Rosas on the Parana (Nov. 19). Battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah (Dec. 18 and 19). Lord John Russell unable to form a ministry, Sir Robert Peel reaccepted office (Dec. 20). Revolt of Yucatan from Mexico (Dec. 31).

1846 Sir H. Smith checked by the Sikhs (Jan. 21). Defeat of the Sikhs by Sir H. Gough at the Sobraon (Feb. 10). Attempted revolution in Poland (Feb. 22). Treaty of Lahore signed (March 9). Provisional riots in Tipperary and Clonmel (April 13). Eruption of Hecla (April 15). Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto by General Taylor (May 8). Louis Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from Ham (May 26). Corn-Law Bill passed the House of Lords (June 25). Lord John Russell forms a cabinet (July 6). Famine in Ireland. Monterey capitulated to General Taylor (Sept. 24). Revolution at Geneva (Oct. 7). Cracow restored to Austria (Nov. 16).

1847 Famine in Ireland. The king of Prussia grants a constitution (Feb. 3). Vera Cruz surrendered to General Scott (March 28). Capture of the Bogue forts at Canton (April 3). Cerro Gordo taken by General Scott (April 18). Peace restored in Portugal (June 18). Military occupation of Ferrara by the Austrians (Aug. 13). General Scott defeats the Mexicans near Mexico (Aug. 19). The Swiss diet decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Catholic cantons (Sept. 3). Riot at Milan (Sept. 8). The territories of Lucca taken possession of by the Grand Duke of Tuscany (Oct. 10). The deputies of the cantons of the Sonderbund retire from the diet (Oct. 27). Friburg surrendered to the Federal troops (Nov. 13). The Federal troops enter Lucerne (Nov. 24). Abd-el-Kader surrenders (Dec. 22). Crime and Outrage Act enforced in several parts of Ireland (Dec. 23).

1848 Riot between the Austrians and Milanese (Jan. 3). Death of Christian VIII. king of Denmark (Jan. 20). Revolution in France and abdication of Louis Philippe (Feb. 24). French republic proclaimed (Feb. 26). Income-tax mob in London, and arrests (March 6). Insurrection at Berlin tranquillized by the appointment of a popular ministry (March 18). Abdication of the king of Bavaria in favour of his son (18). Successful insurrection in Milan against the Austrians (18). Schleswig and Holstein revolt from the Danish government (March 25). Revolution in Madrid crushed (March 26). The Danes defeated the Holsteiners and Germans near Flensburg, and entered Schleswig (April 10). Great Chartist demonstration on Kensington Common (April 10). Sitting of the Sicilian parliament at Palermo. Bombardment of Messina by the king (April 13). Capture of Schleswig and Flensburg by the Prussian army (April 22). Skirmishes of the Poles and Prussians in Posen (April 29). The national guard defeated by the king's troops at Naples (May 15). Emperor of Austria retired from Vienna (May 18). Treaty between Mexico and the United States ratified (May 19). Renewal of the insurrection at Vienna (May 27). Defeat of the Austrians by the Sardinian army at Goito (May 29). Attack on the Danish position at Doppeln by the Prussians and Hanoverians (June 5). Bombardment of Prague, and suppression of the insurrection (June 15 and 19). Padua surrendered to the Austrians (June 15). Election of Prince Louis Napoleon to the French National Assembly (June 12). Renewed conflicts in Berlin (June 16). Insurrection in Paris suppressed after great loss of life and property (June 23). Venice and Trieste blockaded (July 3). Revolt of Slavonia and Croatia against Hungary (July 9). Duke of Genoa proclaimed king of the Sicilians by the Sicilian parliament (July 11). Sardinian army defeated by the Austrians and forced to retreat towards Milan (July 27). Skirmishes with the Irish rebels (July 29). The Sardinian army capitulated to the Austrians (Aug. 4). The Emperor of Austria returns to Vienna (Aug. 12). Armistice signed between the Danes and Prussians (Aug. 26). Rebellion at the Cape quelled by Sir H. Smith (Aug. 29). Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans (Sept. 7). Insurrection in Frankfurt suppressed by the troops (Sept. 17). Prince Louis Napoleon again elected to the National Assembly (Sept. 20). Armistice concluded between Sardinia and Austria (Sept. 21). The Ban of Croatia defeated by the Hungarians at Valaneze (Sept. 29). Insurrection at Vienna and assassination of Latour (Oct. 6). Prince Windischgrätz attacks and captures Vienna (Nov. 1). Constitution of the French republic adopted (Nov. 4). The Sikhs defeated before Mooltan (Nov. 7). The Austrians defeated by the Hungarian insurgents (Nov. 8). Death of Ibrahim Pasha (Nov. 10). General Wrangel enters Berlin and dissolves the Assembly (Nov. 10). Berlin in a state of siege (Nov. 12). Count Rossi assassinated, and the Pope compelled to accept a democratic ministry (Nov. 15). Engagement between the Sikh and British troops on the Chenab (Nov. 22). The Pope fled in disguise from Rome to Gaëta (Nov. 24). Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria, abdicates in favour of his nephew (Dec. 2). The king of Prussia proclaims a new constitution (Dec. 5). Provisional government appointed at Rome (Dec. 11). Austrian forces enter Presburg, and the Hungarians defeated at Weisselburg (Dec. 18). Louis Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed president of the French republic (Dec. 20). Hungarians defeated by the Croats (Dec. 29). Gold discovered in California (Dec. 30).

1849 Mooltan stormed (Jan. 2). Hungarians driven across the Waag. Buda-Pesth taken by the Austrians (Jan. 5). Sikhs defeated at Chillanwallah (Jan. 13). Conspiracy in Paris suppressed (Jan. 29). Brazilian insurgents repulsed from Pernambuco (Feb. 2). Constituent assembly meets in Rome (Feb. 5). The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies from Siena, and provisional government proclaimed in Florence (Feb. 7). Republic proclaimed at Rome (Feb. 8). Sikh army defeated at Goojerat by Lord Gough (Feb. 21). King of Naples accepts the ultimatum of France and Spain (March 4). Austrian diet dissolved and a new constitution proclaimed (March 6). The Sardinian government

renews hostilities with Austria (March 12). The Sikh chiefs surrender (March 14). Death of William II. king of Holland (March 17). Sardinians defeated by the Austrians (March 21). Rout of the Sardinian army at Novara (March 25). Bombardment of Brescia by Haynau (March 30). Insurrection at Genoa (April 2). Surrender of Syracuse to the Neapolitan troops (April 8). Defeat of the Danes by the German army opposite the island of Alsen (April 13). Danish forces again defeated by General Bonin (April 23). Pesth evacuated by the Austrians. Insurrection in Montreal (April 26). Civita Vecchia occupied by the French under Oudinot (April 26). Insurrection at Dresden (May 3). Dresden bombarded and taken (May 7). Capture of Leghorn by the Austrians (May 12). Convention signed between the French and Argentine republics (May 23). Ancona bombarded by the Austrians (May 28). Battle of Eperies between the Hungarians and Russians (June 23). Death of Mehmet Ali (July 2). French troops enter Rome (July 3). Insurrection in Bosnia; Germans defeated by the Danes at Fredericia (July 6). Armistice between Prussia and Denmark (July 10). Defeat of the Croats by the Hungarians at St Thamas (July 14). Battle of Waitzen (July 17). Pope restored to temporal power (July 15). Battles of Komorn, Miskolcz, and Schässburg between the Russians and Hungarians. Defeat and surrender of the Hungarian army (Aug. 13). Surrender of Venice to the Austrians (Aug. 22). Insurrection in Cephalonia and Corfu (Aug. 27). Riots near Montreal (Sept. 15). Komorn surrenders to the Austrians (Sept. 28). Cholera rages in England. Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarians from Turkey (Nov. 5). British fleet anchors in Basika bay (Nov. 13). Hungarian refugees sent to Konieh, and friendly relations resumed between Russia and Turkey (Dec. 31).

1850 Admiral Sir W. Parker blockades the Piraeus (Jan. 18). Death of the Emperor of China (Feb. 25). Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg (Feb. 27). Submission of the Greek government (April 25). A buccaneering party take possession of Cuba (May 19). Insurrection in Bulgaria (June 12). Death of Sir Robert Peel (July 2). Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Sweden guarantee the integrity of Denmark (July 4). The Danes occupy Flensburg (July 17). Defeat of the Schleswig-Holsteiners by the Danes at Idstedt (July 25). California added to the United States (Aug. 15). Elector of Hesse-Cassel declares his dominions in a state of siege (Sept. 13). The Schleswig-Holstein army repulsed by the Danes at Missunde (Sept. 13). Pius IX. issues a bull establishing a hierarchy in England (Sept. 24). Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg establish an alliance (Oct. 4). Schleswig-Holsteiners repulsed from Friedrichstadt by the Danes (Oct. 6). An Austro-Bavarian force enters Hesse-Cassel (Nov. 9). Prussian troops retreat from Cassel (Dec. 5). Martial law established at the Cape of Good Hope.

1851 Turkish Croatia in rebellion (Jan. 29). Bosnian insurgents defeated by Omar Pasha at Mostar (Feb. 9). Russell ministry resigns (Feb. 22); but is immediately reinstated (March 3). Revolt in Senaar against the pasha (March 16). Census in England, Ireland, and Scotland (March 31). Insurrection in Lisbon headed by the Duke of Saldanha (April 10). Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations opened (May 1). Chinese rebellion. Austro-Bavarian army evacuate Hesse-Cassel (Aug. 1). General Lopez invades Cuba (Aug. 12). Coup d'Etat at Paris. Louis Napoleon perpetual President of the French republic (Dec. 2).

1852 The Emperor of Austria revoked the constitution of 1849 (Jan. 1). Buenos Ayres capitulated to an Argentine and Brazilian force, and a provisional government appointed (Feb. 3). Austrians evacuate Holstein and Hamburg. The Derby ministry supplants the Russell (Feb. 27). Martaban and Rangoon stormed. The Duke of Tuscany re-establishes constitution previous to 1848 (May 7). General Urquiza assumes extraordinary powers as provisional director of the Argentine republic (June 23). Capture of Prome (July 9). Independence of Paraguay conceded by the Argentine republic (July 17). Cholera rages at Warsaw. General Urquiza deposed (Sept. 10). Death of the Duke of Wellington (Sept. 18). Recapture of Prome (Oct. 9). Capture of Pegu (Nov. 21). Louis Napoleon proclaimed Emperor (Dec. 2). The Derby ministry succeeded by that under the Earl of Aberdeen (Dec. 28). Vera Cruz blockaded (Dec. 30).

1853 Revolution in Mexico. Insurrection suppressed in Milan (Feb. 6). Termination of the Caffre war (Feb. 22). Nankin taken by the insurgents (March 21). Prince Menzikoff claims for the Czar the protectorate of the Greek Christians in Turkey (May 3). The Porte rejects the Russian ultimatum (June 16). Russian army crosses the Pruth (July 2). Exportation of grain prohibited in Naples, Italy, France, &c. Chinese imperialists attack Amoy (Aug. 25). Cholera breaks out in England. The Porte declares war with Russia. Anglo-French fleet enters the Bosphorus (Oct. 22). Russians occupy the Danubian principalities, and Turks cross the Danube. Disaster at Sinope (Nov. 30).

1854 Alliance concluded between Great Britain, France, and Turkey. Declaration of war between Great Britain and Russia (March 24).

A. D.

In the following Table, b denotes the year of birth, d of death, and l an approximation to the medium year of the author's life. The letters immediately following the name denote the country in which the author was born: thus, R. stands for Roman; It. for Italian; Ger. for German, &c. Where no indication is given, the country to be supplied is Greece.

1433-1499 Marsilius Ficinus, It. Translation of Plato.
John von Gmünden, Ger. Astronomy.
Peter von Andlo, Ger. "De Imperio Ro-
mano."
Breydenbach, Ger. Topography.
Lord Berners, Br. Translation of Froissart.
Stephen Hawes, Br. "Passetyme of Plea-
sure."
Douglas of Glastonbury, Br. Chronicles of
England.

From this point the Literary Chronology of Britain is
given in a separate table.

1502 d. Bonfinius, It. History of Hungary.
1445-1509 Philippe de Commynes, Fr. History of his times.
1433-1513 Demetrius Chalcondyles. Philology.
1462-1516 John Trithemius, Ger. Natural Philosophy.
1437-1517 Francis Ximenes, Sp. Polyglot Bible.
1452-1520 Leonardo da Vinci, It. "Treatise on Painting."
G. Abrosi, It. Astronomy.
1482-1528 Machiavelli, It. Politics, History.
1478-1529 B. Castiglione, It. "The Courtier."
1530 d. Baber, Arab. Autobiography.
1484-1531 Zuinglius, Ger. Theology.
1474-1533 Ariosto, It. "Orlando Furioso."
1486-1535 Cornelius Agrippa, Ger. Physics, Theology.
1476-1536 Erasmus, Dutch. Theology, Literature.
1503-1536 Garcillasso de la Vega, Sp. Poems.
1482-1540 Guicciardini, It. History of Italy.
1492-1540 J. Luis Vives, Sp. Philosophy, Theology.
1493-1541 Paracelsus, Ger. Chemistry.
1472-1543 N. Copernicus, Pole. Astronomy.
1544 l. Damian Goez, Port. History, Travels.
1544 l. Nic. Tartaglia, It. Mathematics.
1544 d. Olaus Magnus, Sicde. "Customs of the North-
ern Nations."
1483-1546 Martin Luther, Ger. Theology.
1470-1547 Bembo, It. History of Venice.
1483-1553 F. Rabelais, Fr. Satires.
1555 l. A. Zarate, Sp. "Discovery of Peru."
1484-1558 J. C. Scaliger, Fr. Philology.
1503-1559 R. Stephens, Fr. Philology.
1497-1560 Melancthon, Ger. Theology.
1523-1563 Fallopius, It. Medicine.
1475-1564 M. Angelo Buonarroti, It. Poems.
1509-1564 John Calvin, Fr. Theology.
1516-1565 Conrad Gesner, Ger. Natural History.
1500-1570 Benvenuto Cellini, It. Autobiography.
1516-1571 G. Fabricius, Ger. Topography.
1515-1572 P. Ramus, Fr. Logic.
1512-1574 P. Manutius Aldus, It. Commentaries.
1493-1575 Bernardo Tasso, It. "Amadis."
1509-1575 F. Commandino, It. Mathematics.
1501-1576 Cardan, It. Mathematics, Philosophy.
1524-1579 Camoens, Port. "The Lusiad."
1580 d. Gonzalvo Illescas, Sp. "Lives of Popes."
1515-1580 V. Borghini, It. History.
1513-1590 A. de Morales, Sp. History of Spain.
1590 d. Al Jannabi, Arab. Universal History.
1529-1590 Hen. Stephens, Fr. Philology.
1533-1592 Mich. de Montaigne, Fr. Essays.
1512-1594 Gerard Mercator, Ger. Geography.
1544-1595 Torquato Tasso, It. "Gierusalemme Liberata."
1537-1600 J. Accosta, Sp. History of West Indies.
1535-1600 Luis Molina, Sp. Metaphysics.
1546-1601 Tycho Brahe, Dane. Astronomy.
1519-1603 Andrea Cesalpino, It. Botany.
1540-1603 F. Vieta, Fr. Algebra.
1543-1603 Pierre Charron, Fr. Theology.

1563-1603 F. Bracciolini, It. "La Croce Racquistata."
1603 l. John Bayer, Ger. "Uranometria."
1522-1605 U. Aldrovandi, It. Natural History.
1529-1606 B. Davanzati, It. History of the English Re-
formation.
1606 l. Jan van Heemskerck, Dutch. "Arcadia."
1538-1607 C. Baronius, It. Ecclesiastical Annals.
1607 l. Ferishta, Arab. History of India.
1519-1609 Theodore Beza, Ger. Theology, Philology.
1540-1609 J. J. Scaliger, Fr. History, Criticism.
1545-1609 Orazio Torsellino, It. Grammar.
1533-1611 Possevini, It. Description of Muscovy.
1611 l. G. Marini, It. Romances.
1538-1613 Guarini, It. "Il Pastor Fido."
1560-1613 C. Ritterhuis, Ger. Law.
1573-1613 M. Regnier, Fr. Satires.
1565-1614 Marq. Freher, Ger. History of Germany and
France.
1549-1616 Cervantes, Sp. "Don Quixote."
1616 d. C. Schevenkfield, Ger. Natural History.
1553-1617 J. A. de Thou, Fr. History of France.
1570-1617 B. de Brito, Port. History of Portugal.
1585-1619 L. Vanini, It. Theology.
1619 d. J. Fabricius, It. Comparative Anatomy.
1542-1621 Bellarmino, It. Polemics.
1544-1621 P. Matthieu, Fr. History of France.
1555-1621 J. Buxtorf, Ger. Philology.
1541-1622 J. Guevara, Sp. Publicist.
1552-1623 P. R. Sarpi, It. Hist. Council of Trent.
1580-1623 P. Cluver, Ger. Geography.
1537-1624 Juan Mariana, Sp. History, Chronology.
1565-1625 Her. y. Tordesillos, It. History of Spain.
1556-1628 F. Malherbe, Fr. Odes.
1585-1629 G. Bartholine, Sicde. Anatomy.
1566-1631 Bart. di Argensola, Sp. Tragedy, History.
1571-1631 John Kepler, Ger. Astronomy.
1576-1631 E. C. Davila, It. Hist. Civil Wars of France.
1633 d. A. de Andrada, Port. Travels in Thibet and
Cathay.
1561-1635 A. Tassoni, It. "Secchia Rapita."
1562-1635 Lope de Vega, Sp. Drama.
1576-1635 M. Goldast, Ger. History.
1636 l. Matheo Riberio, Port. Romance.
1567-1637 Ab. Bzovius, Pole. Ecclesiastical Annals.
1568-1639 T. A. Campanella, It. Philosophy.
1639 l. F. de Vasconcellos, Port. Poems.
1545-1640 Arn. Jonas, Iceland. History of Iceland.
1584-1640 An. Du Chesne, Fr. Collection of Histories.
1591-1640 J. I. Pontanus, Dane. Danish History.
1609-1640 Paul Fleming, Ger. Poems.
1597-1641 C. Acuña, Sp. Description of the Riv. Amazon.
1564-1642 Galileo, It. Astronomy.
1568-1643 Hen. Spondanus, Fr. History.
1577-1644 J. B. van Helmont, Dutch. Chemistry.
1579-1644 G. Bentivoglio, It. Hist. Civ. Wars, Flanders.
1644 d. B. Castelli, It. Mathematics.
1644 d. John Maccor, Pole. Theology.
1570-1645 F. Quevedo, Sp. Tales, Satires.
1583-1645 H. de Groot (Grotius) Dutch. "De Jure
Belli et Pacis."
1646 d. L. V. de Guevara, Sp. "El Diablo Coxuelo."
1646 d. E. de Almeyda, Port. History of Ethiopia.
1567-1647 Fabio Colonna, It. Botany.
1587-1647 P. C. Hooft, Dutch. Drama, History of Ne-
therlands.
1594-1647 Beverwyk, Dutch. Medicine.
1647 d. B. Cavalieri, It. Mathematics.
1571-1649 F. Strada, It. History of Wars in Flanders.
1576-1649 C. Scioppius, Ger. "Ars Critica."
1596-1650 Des Cartes, Fr. Metaphysics, Mathematics.