SILK

SILK. Under the head SILK-WORM, will be found an account of the first introduction of the insect, and the commencement of the manufacture in the western empire. From thence it spread into Sicily and Italy; and during the time that the French occupied Milan (1521), artisans were conveyed by Francis I. to Lyons, and under his protection the manufacture of silk made great progress.

When the Duke of Parma took and plundered the city of Antwerp in 1585, a great proportion of the merchants and artisans took refuge in England; these introduced the silk manufacture into this country, which was fostered and encouraged by the English government. Before this period the produce of the silk-worm had been little seen in England.

The climate of England has not been found favourable for the rearing of silk-worms: repeated attempts have been made to cultivate the breed with profit, but they have always failed. It was supposed that the British settlements in America would prove more favourable for this purpose, and in several of them the experiment was made; but though a large quantity of excellent silk was produced, the business of planting mulberry-trees and rearing worms in the northern United States having been made the basis of a monstrous stock exchange speculation, and consequent ruin to many, the whole effort has become nearly abortive, for the present at least.

The manufacture of silk goods has been the object of solicitous care to the British government, and various enactments were made by successive monarchs, with the view of encouraging it in this country. It received a great stimulus in 1685, when the revocation of the edict of Nantes banished from France multitudes of her most industrious and skilful artificers, which greatly benefited the countries that sheltered the injured emigrants. About 70,000 took refuge in England and Ireland, and transplanted various branches of the useful arts to different districts of this country. A large body of silk-weavers settled in Spitalfields, where descendants of many of them may still be found.

Table of Imports and Exports of Silk to and from the United Kingdom in 1856, 1857, and 1858.

The silk in 1858 paid in customs duties, £270,596.

England was, however, entirely dependent on foreigners for organzine silk thread, till Mr Lombe of Derby, in the year 1718, having gone to Italy in the disguise of a common workman, took drawings of the silk-throwing machinery in Piedmont, and, on his return, erected a large mill on the river Derwent at Derby. The extensive and powerful machinery of this mill contained 26,586 wheels, and 97,746 movements, which worked 73,726 yards of organzine silk thread, by every revolution of the water-wheel, which revolved three times in the minute, and thus produced 318,504,960 yards of organzine per day. The same amount of motive-power employed upon the beautiful, compact, and simplified throwing machinery now at work at Derby and elsewhere, would bring out far greater results both in quantity and quality.

The silk manufacture continued to increase in England, though the workmen were constantly clamouring against the importation of foreign goods. With a view to encourage the manufacture, an act was passed (3 Geo. I. cap. 15) for granting bounties on the exportation of silk fabrics; this was, however, no more than a drawback of part of the duties paid on the importation of the raw silk. In 1741, permission was given to the Russian Company to import the raw silk of Persia at the same rate of duty as from the Levant; and, in 1749, the same reduction was made on the duties on raw silk imported by the East India Company from China. In 1764, the fashion of the times running in favour of French silks, and the wages of the English weavers being low, and work scarce, the operatives assembled in great multitudes, and in a tumultuous manner presented petitions to Parliament, praying for the total prohibition of foreign wrought silks. By the representation which the operatives made of their sufferings, Parliament was induced to reduce the duties on raw and thrown silk, and entirely to prohibit the importation of certain articles of manufactured silk goods. The operative weavers did not, however, derive those benefits from the prohibitions against importation which they expected, and they had frequently recourse to combinations

to force their masters to raise their wages. These disputes between the masters and workmen having led to violence and riot, an act was passed in 1773, and confirmed by two subsequent acts, empowering the aldermen of London, and the magistrates of Middlesex, to fix the wages of the Spitalfields weavers. But it is unnecessary to recapitulate the applications of the operatives and manufactures for protection against foreign competition, and the attempts of the legislature to encourage the manufacture by restrictive and prohibitory enactments from 1773 to 1824; the silk trade in England, from the futile attempts to bolster it up, was kept in an artificial and languishing state. The manufacturer, depending upon the protection of parliamentary restrictions on foreign competition, rather than on his own skill and exertions, was not anxious to discover and introduce improvements into the manufacture. Since the change of system, the imports of the raw material, and the exports of the manufactured article have rapidly increased. In 1825 there

All silks are now imported free of duty.
Manufactures of silk pay on average of 15 per cent. duty on importation.

were at most 24,000 English silk looms employed. In 1855 at least 110,000, using 5,400,000 lb. of thrown silk, and producing goods valued at L.8,800,000, besides spun-silk and mixed goods of uncertain amount. The English consumed in 1855 of her own silk goods, L.7,200,000; and imported L.4,000,000. In 1856 the probable returns of the English silk manufactures were L.11,000,000. In 1857 L.19,000,000. In 1858 (a year of panic) L.10,000,000. 1859 will be about L.14,000,000.

Nothing more fully demonstrates the folly of attempting to encourage manufacturers by prohibiting importation than the history of the silk trade. The greatest importation of raw and thrown silk which took place in any one year, previous to the repeal of the prohibitory system, was in 1833, when the quantity imported was 2,432,286 lb.; while, by the foregoing table, it appears that 11,266,820 lb. were imported, on an average of the years 1856, 1857, 1858, at the same time that the official value of our silk manufactures exported during the same period was L.140,520 during 1823, and L.1,622,270 on the three years average, together with L.1,027,220, the average annual value in 1856, 1857, 1858, of English thrown silk and spun-silk exported. The larger proportion of both classes was to France. Total of silk manufactured goods exported from England in 1844, L.736,455; in 1858, L.2,391,506.

It is an inquiry of great interest, what may be considered a fair approximation to the amount of silk produced in various countries of the world, and from which English manufacturers must seek their supplies. We shall endeavour to give reliable figures, so far as enabled to collect them, confining ourselves to weights rather than the excessively fluctuating values. The inferences which must be drawn by a due comparison and estimate of them, are exceedingly important in regard to the future extent and profitable employment of labour and capital in European silk business, especially that of the United Kingdom.

There are few of the four hundred millions of its population, except the lowest classes in China, but what are clad in silk garments. The weight or value of the silk thus produced for home consumption is unknown. The exportation to England from 1795 to 1810, averaged in sixteen years 85,810 lb. per annum; from 1810 to 1822 inclusive, twelve years, 164,166 lb.; 1830 to 1841, eleven years, average was 808,000 lb. The export from China in 1858 was 78,154 bales, equal to about 9,376,000 lb. weight of silk. The average of English imports of China silk for 1856, 1857, 1858, was 4,133,100 lb. No doubt, inasmuch as in all China proper, except the northernmost districts, silk is grown, its power of extended export is indefinite. The price has as yet gradually increased with the surprisingly enlarged demand. The China silk production and reeling is almost entirely a peasant one.

The production of "filature" silk under the management of the East India Company, was from 15,723 reeling basins, in 12 principal silk factories; the cocoons being produced by "ryots" (peasants), and paid for at prices fixed by the company's agents. Private traders at length were permitted to enter into this business. At present it is also

together an ordinary commercial operation, except that the company lay a double tax on land used for the growth of mulberries. In 1750 England imported 80,000 lb. Bengal raw silk; 1795 to 1809, an average of 401,600 lb. a year; 1810 to 1820, 814,600 lb. The average import of the years 1856, 1857, 1858, from Bengal (including a small amount from Egypt) into England was 3,818,666 lb., of the annual value of L.3,603,000. How the intrinsic value per lb. might be raised is shown elsewhere in this article. The supply might certainly be made an unlimited one with great advantage both to India and England.

How much raw silk of commerce is consumed in India is not known, probably not much. Tussah and other wild silks are used immensely. In Cochin-China and Siam, there is a considerable production of silk. Of the amount we have no reliable statement. The like may be said of Japan; from which country, however, at the time of writing, we learn that a shipment of 1000 bales of strong coarse silk is on its way to this country. It is said, on fair authority, that the price amongst natives of these countries is from 5s. to 6s. English per pound weight. In the Island of Madagascar silk-worms of great size are fed in open fields on pigeon-pea (ambiravaty) and give very large cocoons.

Persia grows silk for home use largely, and exports considerably. The imports into England from 1830 to 1840, was, on average, 125,000 lb. a year. This amount is now increased. The quality is low, being ill reeled and irregular. From Asia-Minor a silk is exported to England and France in large quantity, because of its rapidly improved manipulation of the cocoons (which are of unsurpassed excellence, and largely importing now into France), in reeling into skeins of small instead of large circumference. Of Brutia "old long reel" we imported 251,850 lb.; and of "new short reel," 319,000 lb.; making a total of 570,850 lb. annually, on an average of ten years ending 1840. The actual production is about 1,200,000 lb. per annum, of which England uses 500,000 lb. It is computed that in 1836 Syria produced 856,800 lb., and Asia 132,000 lb.; Cyprus and Crete about 50,000 lb. Tripoli produced in 1842 45,000 oques, or 126,000 lb. English of silk, worth 20s. per oque. Of the produce of Turkey in Europe no exact account can be given. The government levies 20 per cent. or more on silk exported, and prohibits export of

cocoons. The Morea produced, in 1824, 71,000 oques, or 200,000 lb. English of silk, inferior in quality. The average amount of silk raised in Hungary was lately estimated at more than 200,000 lb. yearly, produced in 40 localities, and from a million and a half of mulberry-trees. In Poland, and even in Russia, silk is produced, but at present in small quantities. Spain produced in 1842 about 2,000,000 lb. weight of silk, three-fifths of which was obtained in Valencia, and one-fifth each in Murcia and Granada. The Catalonians used 400,000 lb., and there were exported 1,400,000 lb. The cocoons are excellent, and may be exported free. Peasant reeling is very irregular; and raw silk resulting from it, not of even and clean quality. The growth of silk might be greatly extended; for the otherwise barren soil of many tracts in Spain could be made, with little trouble and expense, to grow mulberry-trees, and to vast advantage. As the Valencia silks, where reeled skilfully, are of magnificent quality, and the stuffs manufactured from them command high prices and ready sale, there only needs capital and internal tranquillity to make Spain a far greater silk-producing country than at present.

The Milanese has long been a large field for the cultivation of silk. In 1825, we took an account of the basins reeling silk (averaging 1½ lbs. per day, for about 100 days, included in the reeling season, if by proprietors of filatures, and 1 lb. by smaller producers), and were enabled to enumerate 20,395 basins, which, in that year, gave 2,652,000 lb. raw silk, value L.2,387,000; probably, 4000 or 5000 basins were not seen. In 1800, 1,800,000 lb. of raw silk was said to have been collected. But, in 1858, the quantity was believed, by Italian silk dealers, to have been increased threefold at least—say 5,400,000 lb.; and the money value certainly would be fivefold in amount to that paid for this article to the Lombard growers in 1800. Nearly all was exported in 1825; 2400 looms only being at work in Milanese. At present, a larger proportion is consumed in the territory where grown. In 1825, Piedmont produced 1,440,000 lb., of a superior quality, all things considered, to any other silk, except that of the Cévennes, France. The greater part is thrown now, as then, and exported to Germany, France, and England. The present weight of Piedmontese silk grown is not known to us. A very large amount is of white colour (Noti), and a larger worm is bred, and produces cocoons so large as only to require 100 to 120 to the pound. Tuscany, the Romagna, Naples, and Calabria, produced, in 1825, 1,500,000 lb. of raw silk, from very excellent cocoons; but reeled with various degrees of care and success. Amongst them, Fossombrone is a celebrated quality. The Royal Neapolitan Filature produces superior silk. Calabria stands low in the scale of quality. The "Annuario Statistico Italiano," of 1858, estimates the total Italian production to be of the annual value of L.8,000,000 sterling to L.10,000,000 sterling. But this must be much below the real amount. The selling price of all raw silk has been for several years 50 per cent. higher than in 1825, when, undoubtedly, the value of the Italian production was at least L.6,000,000 sterling. The increased quantity grown in Lombardy alone would therefore raise the total annual value of Italian silk beyond L.10,000,000 sterling. From an official source we learn, that, in 1851, the Austrian dominions produced L.4,340,000 sterling, in raw silk, and L.2,840,000 sterling, in manufactured silks, making a total of L.7,200,000 sterling. This total had been raised, in 1855, to L.12,000,000. The increase must have included a large proportion of Milanese raw silk. This advance in quantity is to be attributed to the great excellence attained by reeplers in the north of Italy. Prussian silk manufacture has rapidly increased. In 1831, the number of looms was 8956; in 1837, 14,111; in 1855, there were nearly 25,000.

It may here be stated, that, in the Swiss cantons, Basle and Zurich, the looms, chiefly alimented with silk from

Northern Italy and Bengal, and which, in 1851, were under 30,000, had increased, in 1855, to 40,000, and produced about L.4,000,000 sterling of manufactured goods; importing the raw materials, and exporting nearly all the stuffs produced (which are amongst the best in the world), without intervention, or protection, premiums, or custom-houses. The Zollverein exports ribbons and broad silks largely to France. In 1854, in those states, 1,600,000 lb. weight of raw silk, worth L.1,760,000 sterling, was worked up, on 40,000 looms, into L.3,055,000 sterling of articles of silk entirely, and 1,050,000 lb. weight of mixed materials. The silk business of France is one of its most important sources of agricultural wealth, in the growth of the mulberry, of domestic employment in tending the caterpillars, and of factory capital, skill, and labour, in breeding worms, on the larger scale; as also in reeling and throwing raw silk. Subsequent processes in weaving, dyeing, &c., are alike extensive and valuable.

The report of French jury, in 1855, makes the following remarks:—"Every day shows more and more the advantage to the health of silk-worms, of breaking up the large establishments for breeding silk-worms (Magnaneries); i. e., returning to peasant or small "recuits," and, on the other hand, of improving the reeling of cocoons and throwing of silk, by increasing the size of establishments for those purposes. It is now incontestable, that small separate growths of cocoons produce more cocoons, and of superior quality, while the excellence of the silk from them is greatly promoted by cessation of domestic reeling. In both these respects, Piedmont and France are making great progress, followed very closely by Lombardy. In each, the growth of the mulberry, species of worms and their management, together with the arts and mechanism for reeling and throwing silk, are receiving successful attention." In 1789, France produced 1,000,000 lb. of raw silk. In 1812, 590,750 lb. raw, and 342,000 lb. orgazine; total, 932,750 lb., worth L.1,000,000 sterling; and imported 900,000 lb., valued at L.1,350,000; in 1825, 1,600,000 lb., worth L.1,750,000. From henceforth, about half was produced by peasants. The French consumed, this year, L.3,000,000 lb. Looms, which had been in seven of the principal towns, 27,432 (in Lyons, 10,720) in 1812, had become in Lyons alone, in 1824, 24,000. These increased, so as that, in 1839, Lyons employed 40,000 looms, and 80,000 workmen. The whole of France, 84,648 looms, and 169,280 workmen, and the same number of assistants. The produce was a return that year of L.4,000,000 sterling at Lyons; that of the whole of France being L.9,260,000 sterling. Of this sum the silk cost L.5,600,000 sterling, and wages and profits were L.3,660,000 sterling. The value of the silk grown in France, in 1850, was L.6,000,000 sterling. Silk goods were produced there that year of L.15,000,000 sterling value; of which about L.5,000,000 sterling was for home consumption, and L.10,000,000 sterling for export. The home consumption of France had increased in 1855, 47 per cent., the home consumption 33 per cent.; so that the whole production of French goods, pure and mixed, in 1855, was about L.21,300,000 sterling. This consisted of materials two-thirds, and one-third labour and profit; i. e., of imported silk 5,000,000 lb. costing L.5,300,000 sterling; French raw silk, 6,100,000 lb., costing L.7,600,000 sterling. Other materials, as cotton, wool, linen, silver, &c., of the value of L.1,300,000 sterling. Total materials, L.14,200,000; workmanship and profits, L.7,100,000 sterling. Entire home consumption of silk goods of French origin L.7,000,000, and exported L.14,000,000 sterling. The annual production of a French silk-loom is rather below L.100 sterling. The number of looms was, in 1855, about 220,000. The importation of raw and thrown silk into France rose from L.3,346,000 sterling, in 1851, to L.5,280,000 sterling, in 1855. The exports rose from L.654,360 sterling, in

1851, to L1,560,000 sterling in 1855. There were about 500,000 people employed; which is about one in eighty of the entire population. The excellence of materials used, solidity of workmanship, unsurpassed taste in colour and design, and plan pursued by best manufacturers only to work to order, render the continued increase of the silk production and manufacture of France certain. It is but justice to French public spirit and enterprise to state, that in all the eight principal silk growing departments, as well as, particularly, in Lyons and Paris, unexampled efforts are putting forth, in regard to the great and vital questions—breeding and cross-breeding of silk-worms, causes of epidemics which have been sweeping over silk growing countries of late years, and the true economy in management, in all other respects, both of trees, worms, and their produce. Results have been arrived at by experiments on a small scale, which, if verified by a lengthened experience, will certainly tend to considerable decrease of cost, and, of course, increase in demand both at home and abroad. The annexed table shows that the average weight of raw and thrown silks imported into England in 1856, 1857, and 1858, was 11,266,918 lb., and we have already seen that the English silk trade returns this year about L14,000,000 sterling. To this sum being added for France, L21,300,000 sterling; Zollverein, L4,105,000 sterling; Switzerland, L4,000,000 sterling; Austrian States, L7,200,000 sterling; and L5,000,000 sterling for Spain, Italy, Turkey, Greece, &c. the total of silk manufactures produced in Europe would amount to L55,605,000 per annum.