JOINERY

JOINERY

Is one of the useful arts which contributes most materially to the comfort and convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and carpentry are often followed by the same individual, it appears at first view natural to conclude that the same principles are common to both these arts; but a closer examination of their objects leads us to a different conclusion.

Carpentry
defined.

The art of Carpentry is directed almost wholly to the support of weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be found in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the rough timber work necessary for support, division, or connection; and its proper object is to give firmness and stability. (See CARPENTRY.)

Joinery
defined.

The art of Joinery has for its object the addition in a building of all the fixed wood work necessary for convenience or ornament. It is the Intestinum opus of Vitruvius and Varro, and the Menuiserie des bâtiments of the French. In Italy it is called legname, carpentry being called grossa legname, expressions very analogous to our "whitesmith" and "blacksmith."

The joiner's works are many of them of a complicated nature, and require to be executed in an expensive material; therefore joinery requires much skill in that part of geometrical science which treats of the projection and description of lines, surfaces, and solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the structure and nature of wood.

It may also be remarked, that the rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree unfit to produce that kind of accurate and neat workmanship which is expected from a modern joiner.

Progress of
joinery in
England.

In early times, very little that resembles modern joinery was known; every part was rude, and joined in the most artless manner. The first dawns of the art appear in the thrones, stalls, pulpits, and screens of our cathedrals and churches; but even in these it is of the most simple kind, and is indebted to the carver for everything that is worthy of regard. Whether in these monuments the carver and the joiner had been one and the same person we cannot

now determine, though we imagine, from the mode of joining in some of them, that this was the case.

During several centuries joinery seems to have been gradually improving, but nothing appears to have been written on the art before 1677, when Mr Joseph Moxon, a Fellow of the Royal Society, published a work entitled Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handyworks. In this work the tools and common operations in joinery are described with a collection of the terms then in use. It must have been a valuable work at that time, but to a master in the art it would convey little if anything that was new. Sash-windows were introduced into England some time before the date of Moxon's work, but he has not noticed them. According to the observations of Dr Thomson, this important improvement had not found its way into Sweden at the time he wrote.¹

With the revival of classic art great changes took place in every sort of construction. Forms began to be introduced in architecture which could not be executed at a moderate expense without the aid of new principles, and these principles were discovered and published by practical joiners. As might naturally be expected, these authors had but confused notions, with a scanty portion of geometrical knowledge; and, accordingly, their descriptions are often obscure, and sometimes erroneous. The change from the heavy mullioned casement and its guard of iron bars to the sash windows, necessitated some new method of protection, and boxing shutters were invented. The framed wainscot of small panells gave way to the large bolexion moulded panelling. Heavy doors, which were formerly hung on massive posts, or in jambs of cut stone, were now framed in light panells, and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The scarcity of oak timber, and the expense of working it, led to the importation of fir timber from the North, which gradually superseded all other material except for the choicest and dearest works. But, of all introductions, that of the geometrical staircase, or stair supported by the wall only, invented, says Palladio, by the famous Luigi Cor-

¹ Travels in Sweden, p. 8.

Joinery. nary (the first English example of which is said to have been erected by Sir Christopher Wren in St Paul's), led to the greatest changes in the art of joinery, inasmuch as the lines for their setting out necessitated a very considerable knowledge of geometry.

The hand-rails of these stairs offered most difficulties, and an imperfect attempt to remove them was first made by Halfpenny, in his Art of Sound Building, published in 1725. Price, the author of the British Carpenter, published in 1733, was more successful, and his remarks show a considerable degree of knowledge of the true nature and object of his researches.

The publication of Price's work must have produced a considerable sensation among joiners, for it was soon followed by many other works of different degrees of merit. Of these the works of Langley and Pain were the most popular.

The establishment of the principles of joinery on the sound basis of geometrical science was reserved for Nicholson. In his Carpenter's Guide, and Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant, published in 1792, he has made some most valuable corrections and additions to the labours of his predecessors.

Corresponding improvements were also made in the practice of joinery, for which we are much indebted to the late Mr James Wyatt. But the art is still far short of perfection. In fact, in some respects it seems to have retrograded. It is seldom we find large glued-up panells will now stand well. Mouldings of great girth give at the mitres, doors wind, and skirtings shrink from the floors, in a way seldom seen in old houses. Our sashes, perhaps, are made better than the heavy barred windows of a century and a half ago. In no other respect, however, has joinery made the progress which has been made in other arts. The improved state of machinery has also done but little for its excellence, though the circular saw-bench, the planing machines, the moulding machines, and the mortising machines, have done much to reduce the cost of labour. This last machine was suggested by us in the last edition of this work (1830), our attention having been drawn to it from the improvements in the art of block-making (see BLOCK-MACHINERY), and we are glad to find it is now used in most of the large establishments through the country.

The principles of joinery were cultivated in France by a very different class of writers. The celebrated Blondel had given details for the construction of shutters, wainscoting, doors, hinges, fastenings, &c., in his work Palais et Maisons de Campagne. In the extensive work of Frezier, entitled Coupé des Pierres et des Bois, 3 vols. 4to, 1739, all the leading principles are given and explained with tedious minuteness, offering a striking contrast to the brevity of our English writers. The first elementary work on that part of geometrical science which contains the principles of joinery appeared in France in 1705, from the pen of the celebrated Gaspard Monge, who gave it the name of Géométrie Descriptive. Much of what has been given as new in English works had been long known on the Continent; but there does not appear to have been much, if any, assistance derived from these foreign works by any writer prior to Nicholson. In fact, this writer has been the founder of all the subsequent works on the subject: Peter Nicholson's Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant has been published again and again, in various forms, with additions from time to time, by different hands. For revived medieval and Elizabethan joinery, particularly as adapted to windows and staircases, Weale's Carpentry, 4to, 1849, will be found of great value;

and most modern improvements are given in Laxton's Examples of Building Construction, now in course of publication.

The most celebrated French work which treats of joinery is Rondelet's L'Art de Bâtir. It is also the best foreign work on the subject that we have seen; but it is little adapted to the state of joinery in England. In practice the French joiners are very much inferior to our own. Their work is rough, slovenly, and often clumsy, and at the best is confined to external effect. The neatness, soundness, and accuracy, which is common to every part of the works of an English joiner, is scarcely to be found in any part of the works of a French one. The little correspondence, in point of excellence, between their theory and practice, leads us to think that their theoretical knowledge is confined to architects, engineers, &c., instead of being diffused among workmen, as it is in this country. Rondelet's work occupied fourteen years (from 1802 to 1816), in publication, since which Nosban, Manuel de Menuiserie, 4to, 1849; and Thiollet et Roux, Nouveau Recueil de Menuiserie for 1837, are the most celebrated works published in France. The latter is expressly to be commended. Much also may be learned from the famous work of Col. Emery—Traité de la Charpente, atlas, fol., 1847—particularly with regard to framing.

In cabinet-work the French workmen are certainly superior, at least as far as regards external appearance; but when use, as well as ornament, is to be considered, our own countrymen must certainly carry away the palm. The appearance of French furniture is much indebted to a superior method of polishing, which is now generally known in this country.¹ For many purposes, however, copal varnish (such as coachmakers use) is preferable; it is more durable, and bears an excellent polish.

Geometry is useful in all, and absolutely necessary in Geometrical some parts of a joiner's business; but it is absurd to en- counter difficulties in execution, and to sacrifice good taste, knowledge necessary. convenience, economy, and comfort, merely for the purpose of displaying a little skill in that science. It is, however, a common fault among such architects as are better acquainted with geometrical rules than with the production of visible beauties, to form designs for no other purpose than to create difficulties in the execution.

But, when geometrical science is properly directed, it gives the mind so clear a conception of the thing to be executed, that the most intricate piece of work may be conducted with all the accuracy it requires.

The practice of joinery is best learned by observing the Practice of methods of good workmen, and endeavouring to imitate joinery. them. But the sooner a workman begins to think for himself the better; he ought always to endeavour to improve on the processes of others, either so as to produce the same effect with less labour, or to produce better work.²

We intend, in this article, to give a plain and simple exposition of the most valuable principles of the art of joinery, which will, we hope, place many parts of the practice under a new point of view, and ultimately tend to improve them.

Cabinet-making, or that part of the art of working in Cabinet-wood which is applied to furniture, has little affinity with making. joinery, though the same materials and tools be employed in both. Correctness and strict uniformity are not so essential in moveables as in the fixed parts of buildings; they are also more under the dominion of fashion, and therefore are not so confined by rules as the parts of buildings.

Cabinet-making offers considerable scope for taste in beautiful forms, and also in the choice and arrangement of

¹ The method of making and using the French polish is minutely described in Dr Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, vol. xi., pp. 119 and 371.

² Descriptions of the tools, with instructions for using them, may be found in Moxon's work before quoted, and in Nicholson's Mechanical Exercises, Taylor, London, 1812.

Joinery. coloured woods. It requires considerable knowledge of perspective, and also that the artist should be able to sketch with freedom and precision.

If the cabinet-maker intend to follow the higher departments of his art, it will be necessary to study the different kinds of architecture, in order to make himself acquainted with their peculiarities, so as to impress his works with the same character as the rooms they are to furnish.

In as far as regards materials, and the principles of joining work, the cabinet-maker will find some useful information in the second and third sections of this article. Many curious works on furniture were published in the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV., also by Chambers and the Adams. Cruden's Joiner's and Cabinet-Maker's Darling, 8vo, 1770, is also a curious book. In ornamental composition he may derive much benefit from Tatham's Etchings of Ancient Ornamental Architecture, London, 1799; Percier and Fontaine's Recueil des Decorations Intérieures comprenant tout ce qui a rapport à l'ameublement, Paris, 1812; and, for general information, the Cabinet Dictionary and the Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing-Book, of Sheraton, may be consulted. But the most important works that could be consulted are the various publications relative to the Great Exhibitions in London and Paris, 1851 and 1855, where some of the finest specimens in the world were exhibited. The most accessible to the English reader are those given in the Art Journal and Illustrated London News.

SECT. I.—ON MAKING WORKING DRAWINGS.

1. In this section we propose to lay before the reader the most important part of the principles of describing, on a plane surface, the lines necessary for determining bevels, forming moulds, or any other purpose required in the practice of joinery. The limits within which such an article as joinery must be confined, in a work like this, will not permit us to enter much into detail on the various points to be illustrated in this section; but we hope, by judicious selection, to place under one point of view the principles that are most useful to the joiner.

Projection of Bodies.

2. A clear idea of the nature of projection is so essential in making working drawings, that, in our endeavours to illustrate it, we cannot proceed upon principles too simple. In the first stage of such an inquiry, experiment furnishes at once the most clear and satisfactory evidence, particularly to those who are not familiar with mathematical subjects.

If some small pieces of wood, or pieces of wire, were joined together, so as to represent the form of a solid body, a cube for example, and if this figure were held between the sun and the surface of a plane board, then the shadow of the figure upon the board would be its projection upon that plane. From this simple experiment it will appear, that the projection of any line placed in the direction of the sun's rays will be a point: the projection of any line parallel to the plane will be of the same length as the line itself, and the projection of any line inclined to the plane will be always shorter than that line.

3. We have supposed the board to be placed at any angle with the direction of the rays of the sun; but, for our present purpose, it is sufficient to consider them to fall perpendicularly upon it; hence it is obvious, that to project a straight line upon a plane, a perpendicular to the plane should be let fall from each end of the line, and the line joining the points where the perpendiculars meet the plane will be the projection required.

When a projection is made upon a horizontal plane, it is

usually called a plan of the body. When the projection is upon a vertical plane, it may be an elevation or a section of the body; it is a section when a portion is supposed to be cut off; and the plane of projection is usually parallel to the plane of the section.

4. Bodies may be divided into three classes, according to the kinds of surfaces by which they are bounded. The first class comprehends those which are bounded by plane surfaces, such as cubes, prisms, pyramids, and the like. The second class contains those which are bounded in part by plane surfaces, and the rest by curved surfaces, as cylinders, cones, &c. The third including those which are bounded by curved surfaces only, as spheres, spheroids, &c.

The projections of the first class of bodies will consist of straight lines; those of the second class, of curved as well as straight lines; and those of the third class, of curved lines only.

5. Let ABCD and CDEF (fig. 1), be two plane sur-

faces, connected by a joint at CD, so that while the plane of lines CDEF remains horizontal, the plane ABCD may be placed perpendicular to it, and thus represent a vertical plane. Then, if a line be so placed in space that ab is its projection on the vertical plane, and a'b' its projection on the horizontal plane, its projection on any other vertical plane, HGEC, may be determined. This is easily effected, for we have seen, that if a perpendicular be drawn to the plane from each end of the given line, they will give the positions of the ends of the line in the projection (art. 3.) Now, the same thing will be done, by drawing a'a' and b'b' perpendicular to EC, and setting off the points a' and b' at the same height above EC respectively, as a and b are above CD, then the line a'b' is the projection required.

The heights may be transferred from one vertical plane to another when they are both supposed to be laid flat, by drawing the line IC, so as to bisect the angle ECD, and if cb be parallel to CD, meeting IC in c, then a line drawn parallel to EC, from the point c, will give the height of the point b', and so may be found the height of any other point.

6. In the particular case we have drawn, none of the projections represent the real length of the given line. To obtain this length, draw ae parallel to CD, and with the radius ab describe the arc be cutting ae in e; draw de perpendicular to CD, cutting the line cb in d; join ad, and it is the length of the given line.

The real lengths of lines frequently are not given, therefore another general method of finding them will be useful, and which may be stated as follows:—the length of an inclined line projected upon a plane is equal to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which one side is the projection upon the plane, and the other side is the difference between the perpendicular distances of the extremes of the line from the plane.

7. In fig. 2, a'b'cd represents the horizontal projection, or plan, of a rectangular surface, and the elevation ab shows its inclination; and its projection against another vertical plane, making any angle ECD with the former, or plane of elevation, is shown by a'b'cd. GC being perpendicular to EC, and AC perpendicular to CD, the heights may be transferred by means of arcs of circles described from C as a centre. This is a better method than that by bisecting the angle given in fig. 1; but neither of them so good, in practice, as setting off the heights with the compasses, or with a lath. In our figures it is desira-

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Joinery. able to show the connection of corresponding parts as much as possible; therefore, the reader will bear in mind that many of the operations we describe may be done with fewer lines when the operator is fully master of his subject.

8. It may be further noticed in this place, that when a point is to be determined in one line by the intersection of another, the lines should cross each other as nearly at right angles as possible; for, when the intersecting lines cross very obliquely, a point cannot be determined with any tolerable degree of accuracy.

Projection of curved surfaces. 9. A curved line can seldom be projected by any other means than by finding a number of points through which the curve may be traced. Rules for all these cases, and for the development of surfaces, will be found under the heads GEOMETRY, CONIC SECTIONS, PROJECTION, &c., &c., and would swell our work to too great a length were we to repeat them. They are also more applicable to the carpenter than the joiner. An exceedingly good practical treatise is furnished in Weale's Carpentry, 4to, 1849, vol. i., where full directions are given to find the lines for the development of circular niches, circular-headed sashes, domes, niches, groins, &c., &c.

To determine the Angle formed by two Inclined Planes.

To find the angle of planes inclined to one another. 10. The angle made by two planes which cut one another, is the angle contained by two straight lines drawn from any (the same) point in the line of their common section, at right angles to that line; the one in the one plane, and the other in the other. This angle is the same as that which the joiner takes with his bevel, the bevel being always applied so that its legs are square from the arris, or common section of the planes.

If two lines, AB and CD, be drawn upon a piece of pasteboard, at right angles to one another, crossing at the point E, and the pasteboard be cut half through, according to the line AB, so that it may turn upon that line as a joint; then, to whatever angle, CED (fig. 3), the parts may be turned, the lines EC and ED will be always in the same plane. Also, a line FD, drawn from any point D, in the line ED, to any point F, in the line EC, will be always in the same plane. From these self-evident properties of planes, it is easy to determine the angle formed by any two planes, when two projections, or one projection and the development of the surfaces, are given.

11. Let ABC (fig. 4), be the plan of part of a pyramid, and BD the elevation of the arris, or line formed by the common section of the planes in respect to the line EB; EB being the projection of that arris upon the plan.

Draw AC perpendicular to EB, cutting it in any point E, and from E draw EF perpendicular to DB. With the radius EF, and centre E, cross EB in f, and join Af and fC; then the angle AfC is the angle formed by the planes of the pyramid.

The angle may be constructed when the plan and elevation of any two lines drawn in the planes, so as to intersect in the arris, are given; but as these projections are not often given in drawings of joiners' work, we have inserted the preceding, though it be a less general method.

The backing, or angle for the back of hip-rafters in car-

penry, and of hipped sky-lights, is found in this manner: ABC being, in that case, supposed to be the plan of an angle of the roof or sky-light, and DB the inclination of the hip-rafter.

12. To show how the angle formed by two planes may be found when the plan and development are given, let it be required to find the angle contained by the two faces of a square pyramid, fig. 5. Let ABC be the plan of a square pyramid, draw aC perpendicular to, and bisecting AB, and make aC equal to the slant height of the pyramid; then with the centre C, and radius AC, describe the arc A123, and make A1, 12, 23, respectively equal to AB. Join C1, C2, C3, and the four triangles will show respectively the four surfaces of the pyramid.

Next draw FB perpendicular to AC, and with the radius BF, and centre B, describe the arc FG. Then, with the radius DB, and centre F, cross the former arc in G, join BG, and FBG is the angle formed by the two inclined faces of the pyramid.

Mouldings

Used in joinery are generally composed of parts of circles, and differ somewhat from those used in stone.

(See ARCHITECTURE.) Those which present the convex side to the eye are fig. 6, which is merely a rounded edge; fig. 7, if of small size, a bead; if large (fig. 8), a torus; fig. 9 shows the torus and bead together; if there is a deep sinking under a bead (fig. 10), it is called a quirked or cock bead; if there be two such sinkings, so as to show three quarters of a circle in the bead, it is called (fig. 11), a double quirked bead; two or more beads, side by side (fig. 12), are called reeds; the fourth part of a circle, or half a bead (fig. 13), is called an ovolo, or quarter round.

13. A moulding composed of two convex parts is also called an ovolo, and is delineated thus.—Let the points A, B (fig. 14), represent the height of the moulding and extremities of the curves, from C as a centre draw any circle at pleasure, touching a perpendicular let fall from A, join AB and draw a line parallel to this, touching the circle at D, join DC and produce it towards E, then join DB and make the angle DBE, equal to BDE. From E as a centre draw the rest of the curve BD.

14. In concave mouldings, a simple curved grooving (fig.

Joinery. 13), is called a hollow, two or more such grooves (fig. 16), are called flutes; a hollow forming the fourth of a circle (fig. 17), is called a cavetto; if the curve die into a plane face, and the line be continued (fig. 18), it is a scape or listel, a deep hollow, generally used as a base moulding (fig. 19), is called a scotia, it is set out thus.—Let $ab$ be the height of the required moulding, divide the same into three equal parts,

one of which will be at $c$, from which as a centre draw the circle $aed$; draw $ed$ parallel through $c$, and from $d$, with the distance $de$, draw the quarter circle $ef$.

15. In mouldings which are partly convex and partly concave, there are two sorts, the cyma recta and cyma reversa, or ogce; these may be drawn in two ways, as they are required to be bolder or flatter (figs. 20, 21, 22, 23). Grecian mouldings are all drawn on similar principles, but are parts of conic sections instead of circles: they are often struck by hand.

A plain square sinking on the edge of a board (fig. 24), for the purposes of framing, is called a rebate; if away from the edge (fig. 25), a groove; placed under a cap (fig. 26), or as a necking (fig. 27), it is called a fillet; three such

fillets under an ovolo, when composing part of the capital of a column (fig. 28), are called annulets.

In all kinds of framing, the mouldings which rise above the styles are called bolextion mouldings. See infra, fig. 44.

Raking Mouldings.

Joinery. 16. When an inclined or raking moulding is intended to join with a level moulding, at either an exterior or an in-

terior angle, the form of the level moulding being given, it is necessary that the form of the inclined moulding should be determined, so that the corresponding parts of the surfaces of the two mouldings should meet in the same plane, this plane being the plane of the mitre. It may be otherwise expressed, by saying that the mouldings should mitre truly together.

If the angle be a right angle, the method of finding the form of the inclined moulding is very easy; and as it is not very difficult for any other angle, it may perhaps be best to give a general method, and to illustrate it by examples of common occurrence.

General Method of describing a Raking Moulding, when the Angle and the Rake, or inclination of the Moulding, is given.

17. Let ABC (fig. 29), be the plan of the angle of a building, piece of framework, or any other method.

body, which is to have a level moulding on the side AB; and this level moulding is to mitre with an inclined moulding on the side BC. Also, let CBD be the angle the inclined moulding makes with a level or horizontal line BC.

Produce AB to $b$, and draw $Cb$ perpendicular to AB; also make DC perpendicular to BC, and $dC$ perpendicular to $bC$. Set off $Cd$ equal to CD, and join $bd$; then the inclined moulding must be drawn on lines parallel to $bd$.

Let 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., be any number of points in the given section of the level moulding; from each of these points, draw a line parallel to $bd$, and draw A6 perpendicular to $bd$. Set off the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., at the same distances, respectively from the line A6, as the corresponding points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., are from the line AB, and through the points 1, 2, 3, &c., draw the moulding. The moulding thus found will mitre with the given one; also, supposing the inclined moulding to be given, the level one may be found in like manner.

If the angle ABC be less than a right angle, the whole process remains the same; but when it is a right angle, BD coincides with $bd$; and the method of describing the moulding becomes the same as that usually given; as it does not then require the preparatory steps which are necessary when the angle is any other than a right angle.

18. It is in pediments, chiefly, that the method of forming raking mouldings is of use. Fig. 30 represents part of a pediment.

a pediment; AB is that part of the level moulding which mitres with the inclined moulding; all that part of the cornice below B being continued along the front, the lower members of the raking cornice stop upon it, and, therefore, do not require to be traced from the other.

In that part of the cornice marked AB, set off a sufficient number of points; and from each of these points draw

Joinery. a line parallel to the rake, or inclination of the pediment. Also, let a vertical line be drawn to each of the same points from the horizontal line rs. Make St perpendicular to the inclination of the pediment, and with a slip of paper, or by means of arcs of circles, transfer the distances on rs to the line rS, and from the points thus found, draw lines parallel to St; the intersection of these, with the inclined lines, will determine the form of the moulding, as is indicated by the letters.

When a pediment has a cornice with modillions, the caps of the modillions require to be traced by the same method.

For skirtings, &c. 19. It sometimes happens that an inclined base-moulding has to mitre with a level one at an angle; and as the same thing occurs still more frequently with other moulding, such as cornices under the steps of stairs, &c., we shall give another example, which will serve still farther to illustrate the method of proceeding in such cases.

In fig. 31 a raking base-moulding is shown, where the

inclined moulding B is traced to mitre with the horizontal moulding C; and the horizontal moulding A is traced to mitre with the inclined one B. The preceding examples being understood, the lines and letters in the figure will be sufficient to show the mouldings are traced. On the same principle the lines for the angle bars of shop sashes, may be readily found.

Remarks on mouldings. 20. Mouldings being almost the only part of modern joiners' work which can, in strictness, be called ornamental, and consequently that in which the taste of the workman is most apparent, we shall offer a remark or two that may have their use. The form of moulding should be distinct and varied, forming a bold outline of a succession of curved and flat surfaces, disposed so as to form distinct masses of light and shade. If the mouldings be of considerable length, a greater distinction of parts is necessary than in short ones.

Mouldings for the internal part of a building should not, however, have much projection; the proper degree of shade may always be given, with better effect, by deep sinkings judiciously disposed. The light in a room is not sufficiently strong to relieve mouldings, without resorting to this method; and hence it is that quirked mouldings are so much esteemed.

SECT. II.—ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINERS' WORK.

Qualifications of a good joiner. 21. The goodness of joiners' work depends chiefly upon the care that has been bestowed in joining the materials. In carpentry, framing owes its strength to the form and position of its parts; but in joinery, the strength of a frame depends upon the strength of the joinings. The importance, therefore, of fitting the joints together as accurately as possible, is obvious. It is very desirable that a joiner

should be a quick workman, but it is still more so that he should be a good one; that he should join his materials with firmness and accuracy; that he should make surfaces even and smooth, mouldings true and regular, and the parts intended to move so that they may be used with ease and freedom. It is also of the greatest importance that the work when thus put together, should be constructed of such sound and dry materials, and on such principles, that the whole should bear the various changes of temperature, and of moisture and dryness, so that the least possible shrinkage or swelling should take place. This last point will be treated further on.

Where dispatch is considered as the chief excellence of a workman, it is not probable that he will strive to improve himself in his art further than to produce the greatest quantity of barely tolerable work with the least quantity of labour. In some articles of short duration, dispatch in the manufacture may be of greater importance; but in works that ought to remain firm for years, it certainly is bad economy to spare a few shillings' worth of labour at the risk of being annoyed with a piece of bad work as long as it will hold together.

We have seen, with no small degree of pleasure, the effect of encouraging good workmanship in the construction of machinery, and would recommend that a like encouragement should be given to superior workmen in other arts.

Joining Angles.

22. When the length of a joint at an angle is not considerable, it is sufficient to cut the joint, so that when the parts are joined, the plane of the joint shall bisect the angle. This kind of joint is shown for two different angles, by fig. 32, and is called a mitre.

When an angle of considerable length is to be joined, and the kind of work does not require the joining should be concealed, fig. 33 is often employed; the small bead renders the appearance of the joint less objectionable, because any irregularities, from shrinkage, are not seen in the shade of the quirk of the head.

A bead upon an angle, where the nature of the thing does not determine it to be an arris, is attended with many advantages; it is less liable to be injured, and admits of a secure joint, with-

out the appearance of one. Fig. 34 shows a joint of this description, which should always be used in passages.

Fig. 35 represents a very good joint for an exterior angle, whether it be a long or short one. Such a joint may be nailed both ways. But the joint represented by fig. 36 is superior to it; the parts being drawn together by the form of the joint itself, they can be fitted with more accuracy, and joined with certainty. The angles of pilasters are often joined, as fig. 36.

Interior angles are commonly joined, as

Joinery. shown by fig. 37. If the upper or lower edge be visible, the joint is mitred, as in fig. 32, at the edge only, the other part of the joint being rebated as in fig. 35. In this manner are put together the skirting and dado at the interior angles of rooms, the backs, and back-linings of windows, the jambs of door-ways, and various other parts of joiners' work.

Fig. 38 is an excellent method of joining angles for drawers, frames for lead cisterns, boxes, &c., and is commonly called a dovetail; if a portion of the junction is cut off at an angle of 45° (fig.

39), while the portion at b is dovetailed, it is called a mitre dovetail; while if the portion at a (fig. 40), passes the other portion at right angles, it is called a lap-dovetail.

A very good joint is shown at fig. 41, the angles being brought together at an angle of 45°, two or more saw curls are cut with a dovetail saw, and thin pieces of wood glued in as shown; this is called a keyed mitre.

Framing.

The object of framing. 23. Frames in joinery are usually connected by mortise tenon joints, with grooves to receive panells. Doors, window-shutters, &c., are framed in this manner. The object in framing is, to reduce the wood into narrow pieces, so that the work may not be sensibly affected by its shrinkage; and, at the same time, it enables us to vary the surface without much labour. Besides this, as the strains from the grain of the wood are in different directions, the work is prevented from winding on its face.

From this view of the subject, the joiner will readily perceive, that neither the parts of the frame nor the panells should be wide. And as the frame should be composed of narrow pieces, it follows that the panells should not be very long, otherwise the frame will want strength. The panells of framing should not be more than 15 inches wide, and 4 feet long, and panells so large as this should be avoided as much as possible.¹ The width of the framing is commonly about one-third of the width of the panell.

It is of the utmost importance in framing that the tenons and mortises should be truly made. After a mortise has been made with the mortise chisel, it should be rendered perfectly even with a float; an instrument which differs from a single cut, or float file, only by having larger teeth. An inexperienced workman often makes his work fit too tight in one place, and too easy in another, hence the mor-

tise is split by driving the parts together, and the work is never firm; whereas if the tenon fill the mortise equally, without using any considerable force in driving the work together, it is found to be firm and sound. The thickness of tenons should be about one-fourth of that of the framing, and the width of a tenon should never exceed about five times its thickness, otherwise, in wedging, the tenon will become bent, and bulge out of the sides of the mortise. If the rail be wide, two mortises should be made, with a space of solid wood between; fig. 42 shows the tenons for a wide rail.

If the tenon occurs at the end of a piece of framing, it must be set back a little, so as to allow sufficient solid wood to form a sound mortise; this is called a haunching (see e, fig. 43).

In thick framing, the strength and firmness of the joint is much increased by putting a cross or feather tongue in on each side of the tenon; these tongues are about an inch in depth, and are easily put in with a plough proper for such purposes. The projected figure of the end of a rail (fig. 42), shows these tongues put in, in the style there are grooves ploughed to receive them.

Sometimes these projections are left in the solid wood itself, in which case they are called stump tenons.

Sometimes, in thick framing, a double tenon in the thickness is made; but we give the preference to a single one, when tongues are put in the shoulders, as we have described; because a strong tenon is better than two weak ones, and there is less difficulty in fitting one than two.

The panells of framing should be made to fill the grooves,

so as not to rattle, and yet to allow the panells to shrink without splitting. When the mouldings are stuck on the framing, as is often the case in large stuff, it becomes necessary to find the lines to bring the angles together. In square framing, this is done simply by cutting ab, cd at a mitre; but if the framing be oblique angle, it is done by scribing; the angle at ab being determined by eye, cd is cut parallel thereto.

Where large projecting or bolexion mouldings are used the French have a very excellent way of framing (fig. 44), which it would be well to imitate in this country. Here C is the panell round which the moulding B is framed and mitred, the whole is then framed into A, which is a section both of the styles and rails.

24. When a frame consists of curved pieces, they are often joined by means of pieces of hard wood called keys. Fig. 45 is the head of a Gothic window frame, joined with a key, with a plan of the joint below it. A cross tongue is put in on each side of the key, and the joint is tightened by means of the wedges a, a.

It is, however, a better method to join such pieces by means of a screw

¹ Panells of external doors and shutters may be rendered more secure by boring them, and inserting iron wires. See Trans. of the Society of Arts, vol. xxv., p. 100.

Joinery. bolt instead of a key, the cross tongues being used whichever method is adopted. Where the ends of the bolts cannot be allowed to project, they should be fixed as bed-bolts.

Joining with Glue.

Joining with glue. 25. It is seldom possible to procure boards sufficiently wide for panells without a joint, on account of heart shakes, which open in drying. In cutting out panells, for good work, shaken wood should be carefully avoided. That part near the pith is generally the most defective.

If the panells be thick enough to admit of a cross or feather tongue in the joint, one should always be inserted, for then, if the joint should fail, the surfaces will be kept even, and it will prevent light passing through. A very good way also is to glue a piece of strong canvas on the back of the panell when the work is not intended to be seen on both sides.

Sometimes plane surfaces of considerable width and length are introduced in joiners' work, as in dado, window backs, &c.; such surfaces are commonly formed of inch, or inch and quarter boards joined with glue, and a cross or feather tongue ploughed into each joint. When the boards are glued together, and have become dry, tapering pieces of wood, called keys, are grooved in, across the back, with a dovetail groove. These keys preserve the surface straight, and also allow it to shrink and expand with the changes of the weather.

Gluing up curved work. 26. It would be an endless task to describe all the methods that have been employed to glue up bodies of such varied forms as occur in joinery; for every joiner forms methods of his own, and merely from his being most familiar with his own process, he will perform his work, according to it, in a better manner than by another, which, to an unprejudiced mind, has manifestly the advantage over it. The end and aim of the joiner, in all these operations, is to avoid the peculiar imperfections and disadvantages of his materials, and to do this with least expense of labour or material. The straightness of the fibres of wood renders it unfit for curved surfaces, at least when the curvature is considerable. Hence short pieces are glued together as nearly in the form desired as can be, and the apparent surface is covered with a thin veneer; or the work is glued up in pieces that are thin enough to bend to the required form. Sometimes a thin piece of wood is bent to the required form upon a cylinder or saddle, and blocks are jointed and glued upon the back; when the whole is completely dry it will preserve the form that had been given to it by the cylinder. The curve should be made a little "quicker" than the curve intended, as the stuff will always spring back a trifle on being released.

A piece of work glued up in thicknesses should be very well done; but it too often happens that the joints are visible, irregular, and in some places open; therefore other methods have been tried.

Bending by steaming or boiling. 27. If a piece of wood be boiled in water for a certain time, then taken out and immediately bent into any particular form, and it be retained in that form till it be dry, a permanent change takes place in the mechanical relations of its parts; so that though, when relieved, it will spring back a little, yet it will not return to its natural form.

The same effect may be produced by steaming wood; but though both these methods have been long practised to a considerable extent in the art of ship-building, we are not aware that any general principles have been discovered, either by experiment or otherwise, that will enable us to apply it to an art like joinery, where so much precision is required. We are not aware that it has been tried; but, before it can be rendered extensively useful, the relation between the curvature to which it is bent, and that which it assumes, when relieved, should be determined, and also

the degree of curvature which may be given to a piece of a given thickness. Joinery.

The time that a piece of wood should be boiled, or steamed, in order that it may be in the best state for bending, should be made the subject of experiments; and this being determined, the relation between the time and the bulk of the piece should be ascertained.

A novel and very simple and effective way of boiling sash-bars or thin articles has been done thus (fig. 46). Take a piece of common cast-iron pipe of sufficient diameter, stop

Fig. 46.

up one end with a plug of wood driven tight, fill the pipe with water, raise one end in a sloping position, leaning it on a pile of bricks, and kindle a fire as shown in the diagram.

For the joiner's purposes we imagine that the process might be greatly improved, by saturating the convex side of each piece with a strong solution of glue, immediately after bending it. By filling, in this manner, the extended pores, and allowing the glue to harden thoroughly before relieving the pieces, they would retain their shape better.

28. Large pieces of timber should never be used in Gluing up joinery, because they cannot be procured sufficiently dry wooden columns. to prevent them splitting with the heat of a warm room. Therefore, the external part of columns, pilasters, and works of a like kind, should be formed of thin pieces of dry wood; and, if support be required, a post, or an iron pillar, may be placed within the exterior column. Thus, to form columns of wood, so that they shall not be liable to split, narrow pieces of wood are used, not exceeding five inches in width. These are jointed like the staves of a cask, and glued together, with short blocks glued along at each joint.

Fig. 47 is a plan of the lower end of a column glued up in staves; the bevel at A is used for forming the staves, that at B is used for adjusting them when they are glued together. A similar plan must be made for the upper end of the column, which will give the width of the upper end of the staves. The bevels taken from the plan, as at A and B, are not the true bevels; but they are those generally used, and are very nearly true, when the columns are not much diminished. To find the true bevels, the principle we have given in art. 19 should be applied. The same method may be adopted for forming large pillars for tables, &c.

If a column have flutes, with fillets, the joints should be in the fillets, in order to make the column as strong as possible; also, if a column be intended to have a swell in the middle, proper thickness of wood should be allowed for it.

When columns or pillars are small, they may be made of Small co-dry wood; and to secure them against splitting a hole should lumns, ta- be bored down the axis of each column. ble legs, &c.

Fixing Joiners' Work.

29. We have hitherto confined our remarks to that part Fixing of joinery which is performed at the bench; but by far the work is- most important part remains to be considered. For, how-ether.

Fig. 47.

ever well a piece of work may have been prepared, if it be not properly fixed, it cannot fulfil its intended purpose. As in the preceding part, we shall state the general principles that ought to be made the basis of practice, and illustrate those principles by particular examples.

If the part to be fixed consist of boards jointed together, but not framed, it should be fixed so that it may shrink or swell without splitting or winding. The nature of the work will generally determine how this may be effected. Let us suppose that a plain back of a window is to be fixed. Fig. 48

is a section showing B the back of the window, A the window-sill, D the floor, C the skirting, and E the wall of the house. The back is supposed to be prepared, as we have stated in art. 29, and that it is kept straight by a dovetailed key a. Now, let the back be firmly nailed to the window-sill A, and let a narrow piece d, with a groove, and cross tongue, in its upper edge, be fixed to bond timbers or plugs in the wall; the tongue being inserted also into a corresponding groove in the lower edge of the back of B. It is obvious, that the tongue being loose, the back B may contract or expand, as a panel in a frame. The dado of a room should be fixed in the same manner. In the principal rooms of a house, the skirting C is usually grooved into the floor D, and fixed only to the narrow piece d, which is called a ground. By fixing in this manner, the skirting covers the joint, which would otherwise soon be open by the shrinking of the back, and from the skirting being grooved into the floor, but not fastened to it, there cannot be an open joint between the skirting and floor. When it is considered, that an open joint, in such a situation, must become a receptacle for dust, and a harbour for insects, the importance of adopting this method of fixing skirting will be apparent. As grooving a floor is attended with considerable labour, and as the boards will sometimes twist, it is more common now to nail a small fillet to the floor, against which the back of the skirting rests, and, of course, has every room for expansion.

In fixing any board above five or six inches wide, similar precautions are necessary; otherwise it is certain to split when the house becomes inhabited. We may, in general, either fix one edge, and groove the other, so as to leave it at liberty, or fix it in the middle, and leave both edges at liberty.

Sometimes a wide board, or a piece consisting of several boards, may be fixed by means of buttons, screwed to the back, which turn into grooves in the framing, bearers, or joists, to which it is to be fixed. If any shrinking takes place the buttons slide in the grooves. In this manner the landing of stairs are fixed, and it is much the best mode of fixing the top of a table to its frame.

30. The extension of the principle of ploughing and tonguing work together is one of the most important of the improvements that have been introduced by modern joiners. It is an easy, simple, and effectual method of combination, and one that provides against the greatest defect of timber work, its shrinkage. By means of this method, the bold mouldings of Gothic architecture can be executed with a comparatively small quantity of material; and even in the mouldings of modern architecture it saves much labour. For example, the moulded part of an architrave may be joined with the plain part, as shown by fig. 49. If this method be compared with the old method of gluing one piece upon another, its advantage will be more evident.

31. The architraves, skirtings, and surbase mouldings, are fixed to pieces of wood called grounds; and as the

straightness and accuracy of these mouldings must depend upon the care that has been taken to fix the grounds truly; it will appear, that fixing grounds, which is a part often left to inferior workmen, in reality requires much skill and attention; besides, they are almost always the guide for the plasterer. Where the plasterer's work joins the grounds, they should have a small groove ploughed in the edge to form a key for the plaster. In old work the ground was generally hidden, but in modern work it is frequently shown, which is a saving of stuff; thus, instead of architraves being prepared as in fig. 49, they are made thus (fig. 50)—A is the rebated and beaded door-jambs, B the ground which is generally splayed at the back as a key to the plastering instead of being grooved. On this a thin piece of stuff is bradded to form the double-faced architrave, instead of sinking out of the solid, and on this the ogee, or ovolo moulding, is nailed. Again, with base mouldings A (fig. 51), is the ground fixed against the wall, on the top of which B is nailed as the upper moulding, and C forms the skirting and lower moulding.

32. In our remarks on construction, we must not omit to say a few words on laying floors, because it will give us an opportunity of pointing out a defect which might be easily remedied. The advice of Evelyn, to tack the boards down only the first year, and nail them down for good the next, is certainly the best, when it is convenient to adopt it; but, as this is very seldom the case, we must expect the joints to open more or less. Now, these joints always admit a considerable current of cold air, and also, in an upper room, unless there be a counter floor, the ceiling below may be spoiled by spilling a little water, or even by washing the floor. To avoid this, we would recommend a tongue to be ploughed into each joint, according to the old practice. When the boards are narrow, they might be laid without any appearance of nails, in the same way as a dowelled floor is laid, the tongue serving the same purpose as the dowels. In this case we would use cross or feather tongues for the joints. A new system of floors has lately been used in London, to which the name of "Victoria floors" has been given. A rough floor of boards, three quarters of an inch thick, is first laid, and the rest of the joiners' work fixed, and the plastering finished. When all is done, an inch or inch and quarter floor of plank, ripped down the middle, and consequently very little more than five inches wide, is laid; the rough boarding being first covered with a layer of shavings, or old newspapers, or other waste paper. The boards are then dowelled on one edge and nailed on the other, and a very sound floor is thus formed, which neither springs nor creaks. We should fear, however, that insects would harbour between the boards, and if frequently washed the damp would get in between the joints, and remain some time in the paper.

There is a method sometimes used in laying floors, which workmen call folding; according to this method, two boards are laid, and nailed at such a distance apart, that the space is a little less than the aggregate width of the boards intended for it; these boards are then put to their places, and, on account of the narrowness of the space left for them, they rise like an arch between its abutments. The workmen force them down by jumping upon them. Accordingly, the boards are never soundly fixed to the joists, nor can the floor be laid with any kind of evenness or accuracy. We merely notice this method here, in order that it may be avoided, except in very common work.

Fig. 50: A cross-section diagram showing a door jamb (A) with a groove, and a ground (B) splayed at the back. A thin piece of stuff is bradded to form the double-faced architrave.

joints, it is usual, except in very inferior work, to join the ends with a tongued joint, as shown in fig. 52, where B is the joint. The etched board is first laid, and nailed to the joint.

In oak floors, the ends are forked together sometimes, as shown at A (fig. 53), in order to render the joints less conspicuous.

The joints should be kept as distant from one another as possible.

Hinging.

33. It requires a considerable degree of care to hang a door, a shutter, or any other piece of work in the best manner. In the hinge, the pin should be perfectly straight, and truly cylindrical, and the parts accurately fitted together.

The hinges should be placed so that their axes may be in the same straight line, as any defect in this respect will produce a considerable strain upon the hinges every time the hanging part is moved, will prevent it from moving freely, and is injurious to the hinges.

In hanging doors, centres are often used instead of hinges; but, on account of the small quantity of friction in centres, a door moves too easily, so that a slight draft of air accelerates it so much in falling to, that it shakes the building, and is disagreeable. We have seen this in some degree remedied by placing a small spring to receive the shock of the door.

The greatest difficulty, in hanging doors, is to make them to clear a carpet, and be close at the bottom when shut. To do this, that part of the floor which is under the door, when shut, may be made to rise above a quarter of an inch above the general level of the floor, which, with placing the hinges so as to cause the door to rise as it opens, will be sufficient, unless the carpet should be a very thick one. Several mechanical contrivances have been used for either raising the door, or adding a part to spring close to the floor as the door shuts. The best method now in use, and the simplest, is the invention of the skew-butt hinge. The parts of this which bear on each other are made with a double bevel, so that, if more than half opened, the door falls against the wall by its own weight; if less than half open, it closes itself.

34. Various kinds of hinges are in use. Sometimes they are concealed, as in the kind of joints called rule joints; others project, and are intended to let a door fold back over projecting mouldings, as in pulpit doors. When hinges project, the weight of the door acts with an increased leverage upon them, and they soon get out of order, unless they be strong and well fixed.

The door of a room should be hung so that, in opening the door, the interior of the room cannot be seen through the joint. This may be done by making the joint according to fig. 54. The bead should be continued round the door, and a common butt-hinge answers for it.

The proper bevel for the edge of a door or sash may be

found by drawing a line from the centre of motion C (fig. 55) to e, the interior angle of the rebate; draw ed perpen-

dicular to Ce, which gives the bevel required. In practice the bevel is usually made less, leaving an open space in the joint when the door is shut; this is done on account of the interior angle of the rebate often being filled with paint.

Stairs.

35. The construction of stairs is generally considered the highest department of the art of joinery, therefore we treat of it under a distinct head.

The principal object to be attended to in stairs is, that they afford a safe and easy communication between floors of different levels. The strength of a stair ought to be apparent as well as real, in order that those who ascend it may feel conscious of safety. In order to make the communication safe, it should be guarded by a railing of proper height and strength; in order that it may be easy, the rise and width, or tread, of the steps should be regular and justly proportioned to each other, with convenient landings; there should be no winding steps, and the top of the rail should be of a convenient height for the hand.

The first person that attempted to fix the relation between the height and width of a step, upon correct principles, was, we believe, Blondel, in his Cours d'Architecture. His formula is applicable to very large buildings, but not to ordinary dwellings. Mr Ashpétel, who has investigated the subject at great length, gives the following rules for buildings of seven different classes:—

These dimensions give angles of ascent varying from 24° to 37°. Of course the projection of the nosing is not reckoned.

36. The forms of staircases are various. In towns, where space cannot be allowed for convenient forms, they are often made triangular, circular, or elliptical, with winding stairs, steps, or of a mixed form, with straight sides and circular ends. In large mansions, and in other situations, where convenience and beauty are the chief objects of attention, winding steps are never introduced when it is possible to avoid them. Good stairs, therefore, require less geometrical skill than those of an inferior character.

The best architectural effect is produced by rectangular staircases, with ornamented railing and newels. In Gothic structures scarcely any other kind can be adopted, with propriety, for a principal staircase. Modern architecture admits of greater latitude in this respect; the end of the staircase being sometimes circular, and the hand-rail continued, beginning either from a scroll or a newel.

37. When a rectangular staircase has a continued rail, it is necessary that it should be curved so as to change gradually from a level to an inclined direction. This curvature is called the ramp of the rail. The plan of a staircase of this kind is represented by ABCD (fig. 56); and fig. 58 shows a section of it, supposing it to be cut through at ab, on the plan.

The hand-rail is supposed to begin with a newel at the bottom, and the form of the cap of the newel ought to be determined, so that it will mitre with the hand-rail. Let H (fig. 57) be the section of the hand-rail, and ab the radius of the newel; then the form of the cap may be traced at C by the methods we have already described. (Arts. 17, 18, and 19).

The sections of hand-rails are of various shapes; some of the most common ones are too small; a hand-rail should never be less than would require a square, of which the side is $2\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ inches, to circumscribe it.

For the level landings of a staircase the height of the top of the hand-rail should never be more than about 40 inches, and in any part of the inclined rail the height of its upper side above the middle of the width of the step should be 40 inches, less the rise of one step, when measured in a vertical direction.

To describe the ramps of rails. To describe the ramps, let $rs$ (fig. 58) be a vertical line drawn through the middle of the width of the step; set $ru$ equal to $rs$, and draw $ut$ at right angles with the back of the rail, cutting the horizontal line $st$ in $t$. From the point $t$, as a centre, describe the curve of the rail. When there is a contrary flexure, as in the case before us, the method of describing the lesser curve is the same.

To describe a spiral. 38. The hand-rail of a stair generally begins with a scroll, and the first step of the stair is generally finished with what is called a curtail or form, corresponding as much as possible to the scroll.

There are a great variety of geometrical spirals, which are described and investigated under their proper heads; but as they all finish on a point, and as all architectural scrolls and volutes finish on a circle or eye, the usual mathematical scrolls are inapplicable. The earliest spiral adapted to architecture was that of De Lorme. Since that several systems have been invented, particularly that of Goldmann, but the best is clearly that derived from the Ionic volute, and is drawn thus—

The height, eye, and number of revolutions of the im-

proved spiral being given to describe the curve, let AB

(fig. 59) be the total height, and AC the intended height of the eye, and let the spiral be required to make two revolutions. Divide BC into four times as many parts as there are revolutions required ($4\; \backslash times\; 2\; =\; 8$), because there are four quadrants in every revolution. Draw any line DE equal to the height of the spiral. Set down from D half the number of parts, and one other part ($4\; +\; 1\; =\; 5$), this is the top of the eye. Set down half AC at O, and describe the eye; then at O set up half a part to F, and make FG, FH = OF; then (fig. 60) draw OG, OH, GI, and from O draw a line parallel to GH, and divide the same into as many parts as there are to be revolutions. Fig. 60 is for one, fig. 61 for two revolutions. Divide the part OI at X, and proceed to draw the quarter circles, as in the diagram; HD being the first opening of the compasses, HP the next, and H, G, I, K, L, M, and N being the centres. To describe the scroll let AB (fig. 62) be the width across, usually about 10 or 12 inches; let EB be the intended diameter of the eye; and let the scroll be required to make one revolution and a half, or six quadrants (these are shown at greater size by the side of fig. 63), then proceed as last directed, and complete the scroll, also dot in the lines of the nosings and risers.

For the curtail step transfer the lines of nosings $a$, and the lines of the risers $b$, to another place, as fig. 63, and set step out the thickness of the veneer within the line of nosing, the part within this represents the solid block of the curtail. The places of the ballusters are shown in fig. 62.

It is obvious that in every geometrical staircase, the half of a cylinder placed upright in the well-hole would touch the wreathed string in all parts, another a little less would touch all parts of the hand-rail. Let us suppose ACB (fig. 64), to be the plan of half a cylinder so set upright in the well-hole, and let us suppose A'E to be the height of the same. Divide the curved line ACB into any convenient number of parts, and set the same off by compasses on the straight line from C to A' and C to B'. Or, in case ACB is a semicircle, divide the line AB, draw the diameter CD, making aD equal to three-fourths of the radius, and draw DA, DB', and the rest of the lines through the points of division, as shown in the diagram. Then A'B' is the stretch out or length of the circumference ACB unrolled. But A'E is said to be the whole height. From E set down the respective heights of the winders, step by step, as shown. Now let G

Joinery. be the representation of the cylinder, with the different lines squared up and across, these will give a representation of the curve at which the winders must ascend, and which, of course, must regulate the hand-rail. The other faint lines show the edge of the covering, and is the same as finding a mould for a soffit.

39. Let us now turn to fig. 67. This represents the plan of a staircase, beginning with a scroll, and having steps winding round the circular part of the well-hole.

In the first place, let the end of the steps be developed according to the method we have just given (fig. 65 shows this development). Now the hand-rail ought to follow the inclination of a line drawn to touch the nosings of the steps,

except where there is an abrupt transition from the rake of the winding to that of the other steps; at such places it must be curved,—the curve may be drawn by the help of intersecting lines, as in fig. 66, if the workman cannot trust to his eye.

The part which is shaded in fig. 65 represents the hand-rail and ends of the steps when spread out, and the hand-rail is only drawn close to the steps for convenience, as it would require too much space to raise it to its proper position. This development of the rail is called the falling-mould.

We will now refer to fig. 68, and will suppose the inner semicircle of ACB to be the plan of the well-hole; eA, aB, the width of the rail, then the outer shaded part ACB will be the plan of the rail on the level; ADEB is the cylinder referred to before—ADE being the angle at which the stairs ascend. Now we have shown before (CONIC SECTIONS) that the oblique section of a circular cylinder is an ellipse, if the cylinder be circular the lines may then be found by a trammel. Be it of what section it may the delineation of a cylinder cut at any angle ADE may be found by dividing it into equal parts, and setting up the ordinates a1, b2, &c., as shown. This delineation is a plan on the oblique, or the face-mould of the rail, to be cut "on the plumb."

The wood used for hand-rails being of an expensive kind, it becomes of some importance to consider how the plank may be cut so as to require the least quantity of material for the curved part of the rail. Now, if we were to suppose the rail executed, and a plain board laid upon the upper side of it, the board would touch the rail at three points; and a plank laid in the same position as the board

would be that out of which the rail could be cut with the least waste of material.

Let it be required to find the moulds for the part ab of the rail (fig. 67), and to avoid confusing the lines in our small figure, the part ab has been drawn to a larger scale in fig. 69. The plain board mentioned above would touch the rail at the points marked C and B in the plan; draw the line CB, and draw a line parallel to CB, so as to touch the curve at the point E. Then E is the other point on the plan; and a', e', and b', are the heights of these points in the development (fig. 65).

Erect perpendiculars to CB, from the points C, E, and B (fig. 69), and set off Ca', on fig. 69, equal to a'e' (fig. 65); Ee' equal to de', and Bb' equal to fb'. Through the points C and E, draw the dotted line Ch; through a'e' draw a line to meet CE in h; and through the points ab', draw a line to meet CB in g; then join hg, and make Ci perpendicular to hg.

Now, if Cd be equal to Ca, and perpendicular to Ci; and di be joined, it will be the angle which the plank makes with the horizontal plane, or plan. Therefore, draw FD parallel to Ci, and find the section by the process before described. This section is the same thing as would be obtained by projecting vertical lines from each point in the hand-rail against the surface of a board, laid to touch it in three points. The inexperienced workman will be much assisted in applying the moulds if he acquires a clear notion of the position when executed.

To find the thickness of the plank, take the height to the under side of the rail cr in the development (fig. 65) and set it off from s, in the line Ci, to r, in fig. 69; from the point r draw a line parallel to di, and the distance between those parallel lines will be the thickness of the plank.

The mould (fig. 69), which is traced from the plan, is called the face-mould. It is applied to the upper surface of the plank, which being marked, a bevel should be set to the angle idC, and this bevel being applied to the edge will give the points to which the mould must be placed to mark out the under side. It is then to be sawn out, and wrought true to the mould. In applying the bevel, care should be taken to let its stock be parallel to the line di, if the plank should not be sufficiently wide for di to be its arris. In the method fig. 68, ADE, on the rise of the stair, is the bevel.

After the rail is truly wrought to the face-mould, the falling-mould (fig. 65), being applied to its convex side, will give the edge of the upper surface, and the surface itself will be formed by squaring from the convex side, holding the stock of the square always so that it would be vertical if the rail were in its proper situation. The lower surface is to be parallel to the upper one.

The sudden change of the width of the ends of the steps causes the soffit line to have a broken or irregular appearance; to avoid it, the steps are made to begin to wind before the curved part begins. Different methods of proportioning the ends of the steps are given by Nicholson, Roubo, Rondelet, and Krafft. We cannot in this place enter into a detail of these methods, nor can we give the varied systems of cutting the rail in the spring and in the plumb, about which so much has been written, but for the reader's information a list of the principal writers on staircases is subjoined:—

Joinery. Price, in his British Carpenter, 4to, 1735; Langley, Builders' Complete Assistant, 8vo, 1738; Prezier, Coupe des Pierres et des Bois, 4to, 1739; Roabo, L'Art de Menuiserie, folio, 1771; Skafte, Key to Civil Architecture, 8vo, 1774; Nicholson, Carpenters' New Guide, 4to, 1792; Carpenters' and Joiners' Assistant, 4to, 1792; Architectural Dictionary, 4to; Transactions Society of Arts, &c., for 1814; Treatise on the Construction of Staircases and Hand-rails, 4to, 1820; Rondelet, Traité de l'Art de Bâtir, tome iv. 4to, 1814; Kraft, Traité sur l'Art de la Charpenterie, part ii., folio, 1820; Jenkes, Orthogonal System of Handrailing, 1849; Ashpitel on Hand-rails and Staircases, 4to, 1851; and Riddell, Handrailing Simplified, folio, Philadelphia, 1856.

40. There is no art in which it is required that the structure and properties of wood should be so thoroughly understood as in joinery. The practical joiner, who has made the nature of timber his study, has always a most decided advantage over those who have neglected this most important part of the art.

In the article ANATOMY, Vegetable (vol. iii., pp. 61 and 82), the structure of wood is described; in this place, therefore, we shall only show how the joiner may, in a great measure, avoid the warping caused by its irregular texture.

41. It is well known that wood contracts less in proportion, in diameter, than it does in circumference; hence a whole tree always splits in drying. Mr Knight has shown that, in consequence of this irregular contraction, a board may be cut from a tree that can scarcely be made by any means to retain the same form and position when subjected to various degrees of heat and moisture. From the ash and the beech he cut some thin boards, in different directions relatively to their transverse septa, so that the septa crossed the middle of some of the boards at right angles, and lay nearly parallel with the surfaces of others. Both kinds were placed in a warm room, under perfectly similar circumstances. Those which had been formed by cutting across the transverse septa, as at A in fig. 70, soon changed their form very considerably, the one side becoming hollow, and the other round; and in drying, they contracted nearly 14 per cent. in width.

The other kind, in which the septa were nearly parallel to the surfaces of the boards, as at B in fig. 70, retained, with very little variation, their primary form, and did not contract in drying more than three and a half per cent. in width.¹

As Mr Knight had not tried resinous woods, two specimens were cut from a piece of Memel timber; and to render the result of our observation more clear, conceive fig. 70 to represent the section of a tree, the annual rings being shown by circles. BD represents the manner in which one of our pieces was cut, and AC the other. The board AC contracted 3.75 per cent. in width, and became hollow on the side marked b. The board BD retained its original straightness, and contracted only 0.7 per cent. The difference in the quantity of contraction is still greater than in hard woods.

From these experiments, the advantages to be obtained merely by a proper attention in cutting out boards for panels, &c., will be obvious; and it will also be found that panels cut so that the septa are nearly parallel to their faces, will appear of a finer and more even grain, and require less labour to make their surfaces even and smooth.

But as this system would necessitate the rejection of all

but the heart of the tree for superior work, a method has lately been pursued which it is said was first used by the billiard-table makers. Let

AC (fig. 71) represent the piece above referred to by the same letters. It will be-

come hollow on the side marked b, no doubt because the rings of the wood when cut across are relieved from tension, and endeavour to expand themselves. To counteract this it is customary, in all good work, to rip the plank down the centre, and then to "turn the stuff inside out" as it is popularly called. This is done by reversing the wood end for end, so as to bring the heart against heart, and the outside against outside (without which the glue joints are sometimes liable to fly); and also so as to reverse the circular parts of the grain, as is shown in fig. 72.

In wood that has the larger transverse septa, as the oak, for example, boards cut as BD will be figured, while those cut as AC will be plain.

42. There is another kind of contraction in wood whilst Cause of drying, which causes it to become curved in the direction of its length. In the long styles of framing we have often observed it; indeed, on this account, it is difficult to prevent the style of a door, hung with centres, from curving, so as to rub against the jamb. A very satisfactory reason for this kind of curving has been given by Mr Knight,¹ which also points out the manner of cutting out wood, so as to be less subject to this defect, which it is most desirable to avoid. The interior layers of wood, being older, are more compact and solid than the exterior layers of the same tree; consequently, in drying, the latter contract more in length than the former. This irregularity of contraction causes the wood to curve in the direction of its length, and it may be avoided by cutting the wood so that the parts of each piece shall be as nearly of the same age as possible. But as this would also necessitate the rejection of a great deal of stuff, a simpler method is found, which is always to turn the heart of the wood outwards. Thus, in framing a door, the heart should always go against the jambs, and the sap side to the panels.

43. Besides the contraction which takes place in drying, wood undergoes a considerable change in bulk with the variations of the atmosphere. In straight-grained woods the change in length is nearly insensible;² hence they are sometimes employed for pendulum rods; but the lateral dimensions vary so much, that a wide piece of wood will serve as a rude hygrometer.³ The extent of variation decreases in a few seasons, but it is of some importance to the joiner to be aware, that even in very old wood, when the surface is removed, the extent of variation is nearly the same as in new wood.

It appears, from Rondelet's experiments,⁴ that in wood of a mean degree of dryness, the extent of contraction and expansion, produced by the usual changes in the state of the atmosphere, was—

In fir wood, from $\backslash frac\{1\}\{360\}$ to $\backslash frac\{1\}\{75\}$ part of its width;

And, in oak, from $\backslash frac\{1\}\{412\}$ to $\backslash frac\{1\}\{84\}$ part of its width.

Consequently, the mean extent of variation in fir is $\backslash frac\{1\}\{124\}$, and in oak, $\backslash frac\{1\}\{140\}$; and, at this mean rate, in a fir board about 12½ inches wide, the difference in width would be

¹ Philosophical Transactions, part ii. for 1817; or Philosophical Magazine, vol. 1., p. 437.

² Mr Ramsden and General Roy made some experiments on the expansion in length. See Account of the Trig. Survey, vol. i., pp. 46 and 49.

³ See Philosophical Transactions, Lowthorpe's Abridg., vol. ii., p. 37.

⁴ Traité Théorique et Pratique de l'Art de Bâtir, article MENUISERIE, tome iv., p. 425, 1814.

Joint-Stock $\backslash frac\{1\}\{8\}$th of an inch. This will show the importance of attending to the maxims of construction we have already laid before the reader; for, if a board of that width should be fixed at both edges, it must unavoidably split from one end to the other.

Kinds of wood. 44. The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are,—the oak, the different species of pine, mahogany, and sometimes lime-tree and poplar.

Oak. Of the oak, there are two species common in this island; that which Linnaeus has named Quercus robur is the most valuable for joiners' work; it is of a finer grain, less tough, and not so subject to twist as the other kind. Oak is also imported from the Baltic ports, from Germany, and from America. These foreign kinds being free from knots, of a straighter grain, and less difficult to work, they are used in preference to our home species. Foreign oak is also much used for cabinet-work; and lately, the fine curled oak that is got from excrescences produced by pollard, and other old trees, has been used with success in furniture. When well managed, it is very beautiful, and makes a pleasing variety. It is relieved by inlaid borders of black or white wood, but these should be sparingly used. Borders of inlaid brass, with small black lines, give a rich effect to the darker coloured kinds.

Fir. The greater part of joiners' work is executed in fir, imported from the north of Europe. Yellow fir is used for outside work, as doors, sashes, and for floors where there is likely to be much wear. Some very good red pine deals have been imported from Canada. Inside work is almost always framed of white fir. Some very good panells when

not too wide, and excellent mouldings, are made of American pine. White fir is often used for internal work, and yellow pine is much used for mouldings.

The forest of Braemar, in Aberdeenshire, furnishes yellow fir of an excellent quality, little inferior to the best foreign kinds.

For the general purpose of joinery, the wood of the larch tree seems to be the best; this useful tree thrives well on our native hills. We have seen some fine specimens of this wood from Blair-Athol. It makes excellent steps for stairs, floors, framing, and most other articles.

Mahogany, in joinery, is only used where painted work is improper, as for the hand-rails of stairs, or for the doors and windows of principal rooms. For doors it is not now so often used as it was formerly; its colour is found to be too gloomy to be employed in large masses. In cabinet-work it is almost the only kind used for ornamental work.

Lime-tree, and the different species of poplar, make very good floors for inferior rooms, and may often be used for other purposes, in places where the carriage of foreign timber would render it more expensive. Lime-tree is valuable for carved work, and does not worm-eat; but carving is at present seldom used in joinery.

For farther information on wood, in addition to the works referred to, the reader may consult Evelyn's Silex, Dr Hunter's edition; Duhamel, Du Transport, de la Conservation, et de la Force des Bois, Paris, 1767; Barlow's Essay on the Strength and Stress of Timber, 1817; Tredgold's Elementary Principles of Carpentry, sect. x., 1820; and the article DRY-ROD. (A. A.)

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES are a species of partnership in which a number of persons contribute funds or "stock" for the accomplishment of some trading or other profitable object. The peculiarity from which the term is derived is the contribution of stock apart from joint management. In an ordinary partnership the members bring more or less of their own personal management into the affairs of the company; and although, in peculiar circumstances, a partner may abstain from any interference, such a person, called in the trading world "a sleeping partner," is treated by the law in all respects as if he participated in the privileges and responsibilities of his working brethren. The distinctive peculiarity of the joint-stock company is, that the members throw their stock into the venture without directly participating in the management, which may be either in the hands of a selected number of the shareholders, or in that of persons who do not contribute at all to the undertaking. The subject thus presents considerations stretching far beyond the boundary of the mere laws affecting the rights and obligations of individual partners into the field of politics and history. It is at once obvious that these arrangements, by which the wealth of indefinite numbers can be concentrated in the hands of a few, are capable of creating a political influence which will have more or less the character of a ruling or governing power, according to the strength of the otherwise constituted authorities with which it may come in contact. It was by this sort of concentration of the wealth of many in the hands of a few that some of the religious societies of the middle ages became formidable rivals of the monarchies; the Society of the Knights Templars rising conspicuously above all others, and threatening to establish a sort of corporate empire, presiding over the European monarchies. Subsequently the Jesuits, in their government of Paraguay, afforded evidence of the power at the command of clever men regulating a common

fund, which alarmed crowned heads no less than the usurping tenor of their doctrines. The great union of the Hanse towns, before which the robber monarchies and aristocracies of Central Europe fell, was again an instance of the power of concentrated wealth when measured against pure monarchical and aristocratic authority; and the expanding resources of the republic of Venice, and of other wealthy oligarchies, seemed to be raising a new ruling power which would gradually absorb and supersede the old dynasties, whether autocratic or aristocratic, by which nations were ruled. The expansion of trade by the discovery of America and a new passage to India, and still more perhaps the recasting of the political state of Europe by the Reformation, broke up these great concentrated masses, and distributed the power of collective wealth into smaller groups. Still the influence of joint-stock associations has ever, from time to time, arisen in formidable rivalry with other forms of political power, sometimes creating an effectual barrier to political oppression, but at others threatening the liberties and just rights of communities by a spirit of aggrandizement and rapacity. Perhaps the most curious single instance of a struggle between concentrated wealth and a ruling dynasty will be found in the history of Russia. The merchants of Novgorod increased in wealth and influence until they became a virtual republican government, gradually absorbing under their influence the surrounding territory. "Who can resist God and the great Novgorod?" became a saying of the fifteenth century. The Grand Dukes of Muscovy commenced a systematic war against this royal company of merchants, and it seemed for some time a question whether Russia should be ruled by a commercial company or an autocracy. After many scenes of cruelty and rapacity, the latter prevailed. But the influence of Novgorod was not entirely extinguished until the foundation of St Petersburg drew the northern trade of Russia into a

¹ When the roof of Westminster Hall was under repair, an opportunity was taken to examine the wood of which it is constructed; and it was found to be of oak, and not of chestnut, as stated in the article DRY-ROD, vol. viii., p. 213. The oak has been of an excellent kind, but is now much worm-eaten.

Joint-Stock new channel, where it came effectually under imperial Companies control.

British history affords many memorable instances of the influence of joint-stock operations. It became the policy of the crown, from Queen Elizabeth's reign downwards, to cherish commercial combinations, as a balance against the power of the aristocracy, and sometimes the body thus started with a stock of exclusive privileges acquired an influence dangerous alike to the authority of the crown and the rights of the subject. The Russian Company, which had been licensed just before the accession of Elizabeth, acquired so much influence under her fostering care as to spread its transactions into Persia on the one hand, and embark in the whale fishery of Spitzbergen on the other. This potent body was in use to send ambassadors to the Grand Duke of Muscovy. But his successors, the czars, were not inclined to encourage such fellowship, and gradually enfeebled the haughty corporation by restricting its foreign privileges, and encouraging the rival company of Holland. The celebrated Turkey or Levant Company was chartered in 1581. Just eighteen years afterwards was formed, under far less pompous auspices, that East India Company which has been destined to rule over a greater empire than that of Julius Caesar or Charlemagne. (See INDIA.) Many African and American companies were formed in the seventeenth century, and created much excitement by their aggressions and rivalries. The Scots, excited by witnessing the enterprise and prosperity of England, in which the invidious navigation law of Charles II. prohibited them from participating, resolved to establish a great national joint-stock company for themselves. In 1695 they formed the "African Company," better known as the Darien project, subscribing a capital of four millions, the greater portion of which was paid up. This was held in its day to be a marvellous pecuniary effort for a portion of the empire which, a century and a half later, entered on railway projects involving in one year an outlay of sixteen millions. The company obtained from the Scottish parliament more absolute powers than even the great corporations of England; being authorized to hold a monopoly of certain trades, to occupy and govern territories, and to make peace and war. It commenced the execution of a variety of projects on a grand scale, and their disastrous result was a signal instance of that unscrupulous spirit of aggrandizement and oppression to which trading corporations are so liable. The Scottish company, probably, like many of the other bodies of adventurers, committed some questionable acts, but none sufficient to justify the rancorous hatred of the English rival companies, which, while the Scots were prevented, as an alien nation, from having their share in the English companies, denounced the corporation set up by the nation, which they thus counted separate and independent, for an infringement of a monopoly purely English. King William was too dependent on the monied power in England to hold an even balance of justice between opponents so unequally matched, and the Scottish colony was ruined.

Among the English companies of that age, several were successively established for trading with Africa and America. Their chief object and source of gain was one that would be fortunately held in detestation by the greater portion of British speculators at the present day,—the supply of captured negroes to the plantations, foreign as well as British. The culmination of these projects in the great South Sea scheme of 1719 is a well-known chapter in English history. The names of the many preposterous satellite schemes by which it was surrounded have often been cited as instances of folly calculated to tax the credulity of soberer periods, as projects in which the inhabitants of the wisest of nations actually embarked. If it were any consolation to find their neighbours guilty of greater follies than their own, the

British of that age might find such consolation in a view of Joint-Stock the French Mississippi scheme. The corporate power thus Companies, created not only possessed to absorb the trade, finance, and banking of France, but projected the creation of a transatlantic empire, which, from its centre in Louisiana, should gradually absorb the American continent.

Since the passing of the Patents Act in the reign of James I., the crown alone was precluded from granting powers of trading monopoly in royal charters, and the companies which, since that period, have obtained any monopolies in England beyond those created by the simple instance of their large capital, have held their powers from parliament. The crown continued to grant monopolies in foreign trade till 1693, when, in the celebrated question of the old East India Company, the practice was condemned by a vote of the House of Commons. A remarkable instance lately occurred of an attempt by some enterprising men to carry out a project something like that of the East India Company, independently of authority either from the crown or parliament. It was represented that the islands of New Zealand were admirably suited for colonization, and should be immediately attached to the British colonial empire by the right of occupancy. There was, however, a strong disinclination on the part of British statesmen at that period to encumber the imperial government with the management of additional colonies. The adventurers conceived the idea of occupying the islands with independent British emigrants. The novelty of their views, and the energy and eloquence with which these were enforced, attracted a number of ardent spirits around them, who were taught that in these happy islands, possessed of all the advantages of our British climate without its drawbacks, they were to found that empire of Anglo-Saxon origin, by which the southern portion of the world was to be eventually ruled. It seemed hard that the government, declining to occupy the colonies, should discourage this project; but there were many grounds for dreading from it evil consequences, among which the most obvious and immediate was, that when the colony began slightly to prosper, it would attract the cupidity of some other European power, from which it could not be protected without an interference which might involve the British government in formidable disputes. Hence, in the year 1840, the British flag was hoisted in New Zealand, and although "The New Zealand Company" was incorporated, and afterwards became the medium for the disposal of large tracts of land, its position was so humble in comparison with the splendid visions entertained by its promoters, that after a long series of intricate disputes, they resigned their charter to the government in 1850.

The chief objects for which joint-stock companies have lately been constituted are Banking, Insurance, works for the supply of cities with Water and Gas, Canals, Shipping, and Harbours, and, at the head of all, Railways. The railway system, indeed, is the form in which both the government and the people have of late felt the pressure of joint-stock power, and known the influence of which it is susceptible. The history and effect of the railway system will be found under its proper head; and it is only necessary here to remark, that although there has been, throughout the rise and progress of the system, a contest on the part of the legislature to keep the interests of the public at large duly protected against the natural consequences of endowing a body of affluent companies with a monopoly of the function of conveying persons and property from place to place, yet the result is felt to be, that the companies have got, on the whole, more power than a watchful legislature should have confided to them. As each railway work required the sanction of an act of parliament, it was supposed that the interests of the public must be safe in the hands of the legislature. But when railway bills crowded in, it was impossible for the members of the legislature at large to take