PAPAL STATES

PAPAL STATES. Under ITALY the origin and growth of the temporal power of the Roman pontiffs is taken up. In the article ROME there is sketched a view of the rise

and progress of that great state. The present article will be limited to a view of the actual condition of the temporal dominions of the sovereign pontiff.

The Stato Pontificio, as the Papal States are called in Italian, is situated in the centre of Italy, being bounded by the Adriatic Sea on the eastern, and the Mediterranean on the western side. It extends in N. Lat. from 41. 9. 8. to 44. 49. 54., and in E. Long. from 10. 26. 2. to 12. 49. 30.; and has an area of 12,041 geographical, or 16,155 English square miles, with a population of 3,124,758 inhabitants. The whole is connected together, with the exception only of the delegation of Benevento, which is surrounded by the Neapolitan province of Principato Ulteriore, and the small state of Pontecorvo, inclosed within the province of Terra di Lavoro, belonging to the same state. The Papal States are bounded on the N.W. by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, on the N.E. by the Adriatic Sea, on the S.E. by the kingdom of Naples, on the S.W. by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the W. by the grand-duchy of Tuscany and the duchy of Modena.

The western coast of the States is by far the shortest. It commences a little to the S.E. of Orbitello, in the Tuscan territory, and proceeds by a bay, not deep, to Civitavecchia. It has no towns on the shore; but about 3 miles inland, and visible from the sea, is the small town of Corneto. Civitavecchia is well fortified with good walls and ditches, several half-moon batteries, and various other works; and upon a peninsula is a fine castle, from which a mole is projected, whilst another mole about 180 fathoms in length is carried into the sea. Between these two is the harbour, having 17 feet of water at one of the entrances, and 12 feet at the other. Ships are safe everywhere within the harbour, and have 20 feet of water. Though the principal seaport on this side, Civitavecchia has no great commercial importance, its trade being chiefly confined to the supplies of Rome. In 1856 it was declared a free port. Proceeding to the S.E. of this port, and passing Cape Linaro, a view is obtained of the church of St Peter's at Rome. The miserable villages of Marinella, Palo, and Monterone, about 2 miles from the sea, are visible. The river Tiber has two outlets to the sea, which are divided by the Isola Sacra, a tract of land about 2 miles in breadth and 9 miles in circumference. Of these, the first or northernmost is called the Fiumicino, and the second the Fiumara. All the land near and about the mouths of the Tiber is low and marshy, and not easily distinguished from the sea, which renders the approach dangerous, especially when, as is often the case, it is covered with dense fogs. The Fiumara was the old channel of the Tiber; the Fiumicino, which is now the only navigable mouth, was excavated by Trajan from Porto to the sea, and from him called Fossa Trajani. It has a bar at its mouth, with 7 or 8 feet of water, and within it from 2 to 4 fathoms. The Fiumara has only 2 feet of water on its bar, and consequently can be entered by nothing larger than boats. There is good anchorage at from 3 to 6 miles from the shore, where there is a depth of water of from 6 to 13 fathoms, with good holding ground of stiff mud.

From the mouths of the Tiber the land continues low and marshy, and it has no town, but a few houses and towers at intervals; and, like the rest of the Campagna di Roma, of which it forms a part, is frequently so obscured by haze and fog, that the objects on the shore are not easily distinguishable. At the distance of about 30 miles from the Tiber, and 37 miles from Rome, under a projecting headland called Capo d'Anzio, is Porto d'Anzio, the ancient Antium, the birthplace of Nero, and one of the most important seaports of imperial Rome. The two moles constructed by Nero, about 30 feet in thickness, one 2700, and the other 1600 feet long, still exist, but the extensive basins they inclosed are now useless except for vessels of

small burthen, owing to the accumulation of sand caused by the filling up in the seventeenth century of the open arches on which the moles were originally built. The papal government has sundry projects for restoring this port, and converting it into a refuge harbour. Two miles E. of Porto d'Anzio is the small dilapidated town of Nettuno, supposed to have derived its name from an ancient temple to Neptune. The whole coast between Porto d'Anzio and Nettuno is covered with vaults, grottoes, baths, pillars, and other remains of Roman villas. At 20 miles from Nettuno is Monte Circello, the Promontorium Circellum of the ancients, an isolated perpendicular mass of limestone at the south extremity of the Pontine Marshes. On the S. side of the promontory is the village of San Felice, near to which good anchorage, in 6 or 7 fathoms water, is found; but there is no shelter against winds from the S.E. At 10 miles from thence is Terracina, the ancient Anxur of the Volscians, and the last town of the Papal States on the Neapolitan frontier. The harbour, once of celebrity, is now choked up; and the town, though fortified, is inconsiderable. The country around is fruitful, but marshy and unwholesome.

The E. sea-coast of the Papal States, bordering on the Adriatic Sea, extends about 120 miles in length. It commences to the south at the river Tronto (the ancient Truentus), by which it is divided from the kingdom of Naples, and extends to the S. mouth of the river Po, where the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom commences. From the Tronto towards the N. there are along the shore a number of small towns and villages, defended by towers, but no harbour or place of shelter, and the coast generally is low and sandy. At a short distance inland, on a hilly range, there are several small flourishing towns, such as Ripatransone, Fermo, Macerata, Recanati, Loreto, and Osimo. About 45 miles from the Tronto, the land trending N. by W. half W., is the city of Ancona, beautifully situated, and spreading like an amphitheatre between the two promontories of Monte Ciriacco and Monte Comero. Its famous port, constructed by the emperor Trajan, and enlarged by Clement XII., who made it a free port to encourage its commerce, is protected by two moles, of which the one erected by Trajan is 2000 feet in length, 100 feet in breadth, and 68 feet in height. On its point there are a battery and a lighthouse, and near it a triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan, and considered as one of the most perfect and imposing monuments of Roman magnificence still existing. The port has a lazaretto, where the quarantine regulations are very strict. The city is defended by several forts and strong fortifications near the harbour and on the heights of Monte Pelago and Monte Cardeto. The harbour of Ancona is the best on the Italian coast of the Adriatic, and vessels may lie in it secure from all winds, as the mole towards its termination has a turn to the west, forming a hook; it is, however, too full of shoals ever to be of consequence as a naval port. Three or four frigates may be well sheltered within the lighthouse, moored by the head and the stern; but in no part of the harbour could ships of that class swing to their anchors. The city is walled, has the best arsenal in the Roman dominions, and carries on considerable trade, arising chiefly from the exportation of corn, wool, and silk. The most appropriate merchant ships for Ancona are those not drawing more than 16 feet of water.

From Ancona to Rimini, a distance of about 50 miles, the coast is of moderate height, and the shore is sandy. The chief towns are Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, and Rimini; but at none of these is there a harbour for shipping. Sinigaglia has only a mole to protect small craft. A great fair is held here, to which many of the Greeks resort, and exchange honey, wax, tar, and other articles, for hemp, wheat, and silk. Fano and Pesaro possess little or no trade,

but are ancient places, each furnished with a great number of churches. Rimini is a decayed, but still elegant town, situated in a rich plain between the Rivers Ausa and Marecchia. Near the mouth of the latter river there is good anchorage on muddy ground, in 7 fathoms water; but there is no shelter from the sea-winds. At 4 leagues farther to the north there is good anchorage opposite the town of Cesenatico, a place inhabited for the most part by fishermen. It is connected by a canal with the episcopal town of Cervia, near which there is an extensive plain, used in summer for the production of salt by natural evaporation. On the river Montone, about 5 miles distant from the sea, stands the city of Ravenna, once an important place, and the seat of government, but now fallen into decay, though still possessing several silk manufactures and some commerce. Its port, which is still frequented by the coasting crafts of the Adriatic, is connected with the sea by the Canale Naviglio, 7 miles long, opened in 1737; its entrance is denoted by a beacon or moat, on which a light is hoisted at night. At the tower of Volano is the little port of Goro, the westernmost branch of the river Po, within which ships may enter and be secure in 6 fathoms water; and at that point the Roman territory is terminated by the S. stream of the Po. The alluvial matter of the different branches of that powerful stream has formed numerous shoals, which extend to a considerable distance from the shore, and the bank extends outwards to the distance of 2 leagues. Within the shoals vessels may haul up, and do so occasionally, in from 6 to 10 fathoms water. The mouths of the Po present a figure much resembling those formed by the Mississippi in America. The river, from its source in the Alps, has a course of nearly 380 miles to the sea, and is augmented by many smaller rivers which fall into it, most of its branches being navigable by small vessels. The current is very strong, and its bed having become so elevated that the level of its waters, in the lower part of its course, is several feet above that of the neighbouring lands, great injury has often been done by inundations. To prevent this, strong dykes have been gradually raised on its banks.

On the whole of the eastern coast, which has been here surveyed, there are a great number of small streams running to the sea. They have their source in the range of the Apennines at no great distance, and are consequently of short but rapid course. Many of them are dry, or nearly so, in the summer, at which season the whole district suffers very severely from the want of fresh water.

The surface of the Roman territory, with the exception of those parts on the N. which form part of the valley of Po, and the portion to the S. on the banks of the Tiber, is hilly, and much of it mountainous. The chain of the Apennines, after forming the boundary between the Bolognese and Tuscan, enters the S. part of the Papal States near Borgo San Sepolcro, and runs through them in the direction of N.W. and S.E. much nearer the Adriatic than the Mediterranean Sea, and then is continued through the Neapolitan provinces of the Abruzzi, leaving on their W. slope the Campagna di Roma, in the centre of which the city of Rome stands. From this range of mountains spurs project on both sides, some of them extending to the Mediterranean Sea, and others to the Adriatic; and between these projections are to be found valleys of much beauty, and of the highest degree of fertility. Without any visible communication with this ridge of mountains stand the lofty volcanic range of Monte Cimino, near Viterbo; Monte Santo Oreste (the ancient Soracte), a mass of secondary limestone projecting to a height of 2250 feet from the midst of the volcanic tufa of the Campagna; and the volcanic group of Albano, of which Monte Cavo, the highest peak, is 3130, and Rocca di Papa 2648 feet above the level of the sea. The Apennines here are nearly as naked and as

desolate as those in Tuscany and in the vicinity of Genoa, but much more lofty. The Velino, to the N.W. of Rome, rises 8180 feet above the level of the sea; Monte Sibilla, on the border of the Abruzzi, is 7200 feet; and Monte Terminillo is 6998 feet. The great northern plain, which is bounded by the Apennines, the river Po, and the Adriatic Sea, has the same character as the plains of Austrian Lombardy. It is covered with a rich marshy soil, which, near Comacchio, terminates in an almost useless, and always insalubrious swamp. Along the south-western coast extend vast swamps, which are occasionally flooded by the sea. They are scarcely habitable, though sometimes shepherds resort to them. The pestilential air causes them to be avoided. These districts, from the mouth of the river Astura to Terracina, contain the Pontine Marshes, which neither the emperors of ancient, nor the popes of modern Rome have been able to render of any real value. What Pope Pius VI. performed has been of no great avail, though it has produced a certain improvement, and has enabled some tracts of them to be changed into rich pastures.

The Mediterranean Sea receives the water of but one considerable river in the Papal States. The celebrated Tiber rises in the Apennines, under Monte Coronaro, below the village of Le Balze, in the duchy of Tuscany, enters the Roman territory at the town of Borgo San Sepolcro, and taking a south-westerly direction, and passing through Rome, after a course of nearly 250 miles, during which it receives forty tributary streams, falls into the sea at Ostia. It is only navigable for the last 15 miles between the metropolis and its mouth. The principal river of the Roman States is that which forms one of its boundaries, the Po. From the Roman States its water is augmented by the streams of the Panaro, the Reno, the Riola, the Porotto, the Idice, the Santerno, the Senio, and the Lamone. These various streams are for the most part united by canals, and rendered navigable; and they also greatly contribute to cultivation by affording easy means of irrigating the fields near them. Besides the Po, the other principal streams which empty themselves into the Adriatic from the Papal Territory are,—the Montone, which runs into the sea near Ravenna; the Savio, which empties itself S. of it; the Uso, a small stream near Forlì, which Benedict XIV., by a papal bull, decided, in 1756, was the Rubicon, though the arguments preponderate in favour of the Fiumicino or Pisatello, a small stream near it, as that at which Julius Cæsar hesitated; the Metauro, which runs by Fano; the Foglio, near Pesaro; the Musone, the Leta, the Asone, and the Tronto, which last forms the boundary between the Roman States and the territory of Naples.

There are several lakes in the Papal States. The largest of these is that of Perugia (the ancient Thrasimenus), celebrated for the victory obtained upon its banks by Hannibal over the Romans. It is nearly 30 miles in circumference, is surrounded by gentle eminences covered with oak and pines, and contains three small islands. Its greatest depth is 21 feet. It is well stored with fish, and the outlet is into the Tiber. The Lake of Bolsena (the ancient Vulsiniensis), near the town of that name, is about 26 miles in circumference, and has two small islands. Its shores are deserted in consequence of the most fatal malaria. The Lake of Bracciano (the ancient Sabatinus), near the town of that name, is 20 miles in circumference. Besides these lakes, there are many smaller, such as the Lake of Vico (the Ciminus of the ancients), 3 miles in circumference; the charming lakes of Albano and of Nemi, in the vicinity of Rome; the Lake of Piè di Luco, near Rieti; &c.

The mountainous parts of this territory abound in mineral springs of various degrees of medicinal celebrity. Those most frequented are,—the acid springs near Rome; the baths of Bracciano; the baths of Stigliano, near Tolla; the baths of Palazzi, near Civitavecchia; the warm baths and

acid springs of the Bulicame, between Montefiascone and Viterbo; the baths of La Porretta, 32 miles from Bologna, on the road to Florence by Pistoia, &c.

The climate of the Ecclesiastical States varies much according to the local position of the several parts. Some of those produce the orange in perfection, whilst others are covered with snow during great part of the year. The tops of the Apennines are clothed with snow in October, and it generally remains till May. The northern part, in the valley of the Po, has the climate of Lombardy, and the environs of Rome that of Naples. At Terracina the gardens are inclosed with fences formed by the aloe. The heat is tempered by breezes from the sea. The air upon and between the Apennines is generally favourable to health; but on the Pontine Marshes, and near the mouths of the Po, as well as near to Rimini, the marshes are gradually extending, and their pestiferous influence is observable in the increase of dense fogs, and the diminution of the population.

The description of the agriculture of Lombardy, given under that head in the present work, will apply to the portion of the territory of the Church near the Pô, in the four legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forlì. In the other parts the art is most negligently exercised, as well in the Apennines as in the plains of Rome itself. The Roman States produce a sufficiency of corn for their own consumption; and, in ordinary years, even for exportation. Wheat, maize, and barley, are the chief grain; but the great mass of the poorer people eat but little bread, and, especially in the Apennines, substitute for it chestnuts, onions, and beans. A great part of their food consists of fruits, culinary vegetables, and salads. They rarely taste animal food, except a little bacon or sausages. Flax and hemp are raised in great quantities to supply the inhabitants, and for exportation. Saffron is also produced to a considerable extent, and is an article of export. Some cotton is raised, and the growth of it is rapidly extending. In some parts many plants are raised that are applied by the perfumers to their preparations, such as spikenard, anise, and others. The olive grows everywhere, but is almost exclusively reserved for home consumption.

Vines are generally cultivated, but their management is careless, and the selection of the kinds of them very negligent and injudicious. The best wine is made about Montefiascone, Orvieto, and Albano; but the greater part of the common wine is very indifferent. Some little of a moderate quality is made about Bologna and Ravenna, part of which finds a market in Venice. The land produces a great variety of fruits. In the plain of Rome oranges, citrons, pomegranates, and figs ripen; and amongst the Apennines there is an abundance of almonds, walnuts, and chestnuts. The forests produce wood for fuel, and some little is sent to the Isle of Elba to supply the iron-works. On several parts of the coast much soda is prepared. The woods of Terracina have many cork-trees, the bark of which forms an article of foreign commerce.

Formerly the breeding of horses was carefully attended to, but of late it has been negligently pursued; and the celebrated race known by the name of Borghese has deteriorated, and nearly disappeared. On the Apennines asses and mules are used as beasts of burden and for riding; and for the plough, oxen are almost universally employed. The breed of cows is very fine; and they roam about the Campagna di Roma almost without attendance. The milk is not converted into cheese or butter, but the profit they yield to the proprietors, some of whom have herds of nearly two thousand, arises from the sale of the calves, and of the mothers when fattened. Sheep are very numerous, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean. There are two distinct races. One of these, called negretti, are small, with very strong and very white wool, as fine as that of Aragon, whence the race, as well as the name they bear, has been

derived. They give abundance of milk, from which much cheese is made. These flocks, like their ancestors in Spain, are migratory. In the month of May they march from the plains near Rome to the mountains of Norcia and the Abruzzi, and return again in October. The other race of sheep, called puglia, are inferior in their wool, and are stationary on the Apennines and the lands situated on the Adriatic shore. Goats are very numerous, both on the plains and on the Apennines. They yield abundance of milk, which is converted into cheese; but much of it serves to sustain the swine, of which large herds are bred and fattened upon some of the most extensive farms. The production of silk is one of the most important objects in Roman agriculture, and gives occupation to almost every member of certain families for the season. The soil is favourable to the growth of the white mulberry, the leaves of which yield the finest silk; that of the best quality, collected near Fossombrone, is chiefly exported to England and Germany.

The manufacturing operations of the Ecclesiastical States are very limited, and chiefly adapted to domestic consumption. The chief seat of the silk manufactory is Bologna, which formerly had the monopoly of the trade in

crapes, but now divides it with the fabrics of other parts of Europe. Linen and woollen cloths are made, some good paper is produced, and leather is made in several parts; also glass, pottery, rosaries from Loreto, artificial flowers, tallow, and wax candles, with a variety of small articles.

There are no mines worked within the Roman territory, but considerable quantities of excellent alum and of sulphur are furnished, and some saltpetre; and on the coast there are lagunes, from which culinary salt is made by the natural evaporation of the sun's rays.

The Papal States are divided into twenty provinces, the first of which is the Comarca of Rome, which includes within its jurisdiction the Capital and the Agro Romano, and is governed by a president, who is always a cardinal. The other nineteen provinces are divided into Legations, which are governed by cardinals, though of late years this rule has not been strictly adhered to, and Delegations, governed by prelates, who are styled Monsignori. Each legation or delegation is divided into districts, each district into governorships, and these into communes. The following table will show the extent and population of each province, as well as of its capital, according to the official returns of the last census, completed in 1853:—

The annexed table, showing the sex and the various ages of the population, will give an idea of the comparative longevity in the Papal States:—

The population was grouped in 608,280 families, each of

an average number of 5.14 members, nearly one-half of them living in towns, and the other half in the country; but commerce and manufactures are so insignificant that many of the inhabitants of the towns also are more or less dependent upon agriculture. The subjoined table, showing the value of the total yearly imports and exports, as well as of some of the principal articles, from 1850 to 1853, will give an idea of the chief produce of agriculture, as well as of the state of the manufactures of the country.

The foreign trade of the States, which is not considerable as compared with their extent of coast both on the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, is chiefly carried on at Ancona, but varies much in different years. Thus, the number of vessels of various nations which entered that port in 1854 was 1421, of 80,612 tons; in 1855 it was 941, of 76,002 tons; in 1856, 1296, of 121,691 tons; and in 1857, 684, of 110,704 tons. The vessels that cleared it were,—1274 in 1854, 919 in 1855, 1259 in 1856, and 652, of 104,786 tons, in 1857.

The government of the Papal States is an unlimited elective hierarchy, presided over by the Pope, and administered by a Council of Ministers, of whom the Cardinal secretary of state and of foreign affairs is the chief and most influential member. The other ministers,—interior, grace and justice, finance, war, police and commerce, public works and fine arts,—though they may be laymen, are generally ecclesiastics or prelates. The latter are a class peculiar to the Papal States. Any one who has passed the degree of Doctor of Laws, and enjoys a small independent income, may be admitted into the Prelatura, which entitles to employment in the Pope's household, and in the various departments of the state, and is the stepping-stone to preferment to most of the highest offices,—such as nuncio, delegate, governor of Rome, &c., and possibly even cardinal. The prelate wears a peculiar costume, is styled Monsignore, though he is neither a bishop nor necessarily an ecclesiastic, and is bound by celibacy as long as he retains office. If not in holy orders, on retiring from office, he becomes a layman, and may marry. The election of the Pope originally rested with all the clergy and the people of Rome; it was made, as Anastasius Bibliothecarius tells us, "A cunctis sacerdotibus seu proceribus, et omni clero nec non et optimatibus, vel populo cuncto Romano." Before his consecration the new Pope had to receive the imperial sanction, and, by a decree of the Emperor Otho I., had to swear to respect the rights of the clergy, of the people, and of the emperor. In the year 1059 a great change was introduced by Pope Nicholas II., who vested the College of Cardinals with the exclusive right of electing the Pope out of their own body. Eventually, and after a long contest, not only the Popes emancipated themselves from any imperial sanction to their election, but, under Gregory VII., the church asserted its pre-eminence over the empire.

On the death of a Pope, and till his funeral on the ninth day, the supreme power of the state is in the hands of the Cardinal Camerlengo, who, during that time, has even the privilege of coining money bearing his own name and arms. On the tenth day the cardinals are to meet in secret Conclave, and by secret voting, and a majority of two-thirds of their number, appoint a successor.

The number of cardinals, who at first were the parish priests of Rome (parochi cardinales), was limited to seventy by Sixtus V. in 1586, in allusion to the number of disciples commissioned by our Lord to preach the Gospel. They constitute the Sacred College, are appointed for their lifetime by the Pope, and are designated as Princes of the Church. They rank in six classes,—1st, Six cardinal bishops of the suburban dioceses of Ostia (Velletri), Porto (Civitavecchia), Sabina, Palestrina, Albano, and Frascati; 2d, Fifty cardinal priests; 3d, Fourteen cardinal deacons. Their part in the government and in decisions alike on spiritual and temporal affairs, and their share in the revenues of the church, were agreed upon in the conclave that was held after the death of Martin V., and were framed in nine articles ratified after his election by Eugene IV. in 1431, which may be called the Magna Charta of the Sacred College.

In the Papal States, exclusive of Rome, there are nine archbishoprics and fifty-two bishoprics. The archiepiscopal sees are Bologna, Ravenna, Ferrara, Spoleto, Fermo, Camerino, Bevagna, Urbino, and Benevento. The inhabitants all adhere to the Roman Catholic religion, with the exception of about 12,500 Jews, who reside at Rome, Ancona, and Ferrara, and have eight synagogues. At Rome they are compelled to live in a separate confined quarter, called the Ghetto. The clergy is very numerous—21,415 monks and friars, occupying 1800 monasteries; and 16,905 priests; forming a total of 38,200, or more than one for every 82 inhabitants. There are, besides, about 8000 nuns, with 600 nunneries. In Rome alone there are nearly 4500 priests, monks, and friars, and 1800 nuns.

The education of the people is very little attended to, and, with the exception of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the instruction of the lower classes in reading and writing is less spread than in any other part of Italy. In all the communes that can afford it there are schools for primary education, under the superintendence of the parish priest; the teachers, always ecclesiastics, are appointed by the communal council. In the episcopal towns there are the bishops' schools, for the education of persons intended for the church. For the higher branches of knowledge there

Papenburg are eight universities, two primary and six secondary ones. The primary are,—the Sapienza at Rome, founded in 1244; and the university of Bologna, which dates from 1119. The secondary universities are those of Ferrara (1264), Perugia (1307), Macerata (1548), Fermo (1589), Camerino (1727), and the Gregoriana, or Collegio Romano, at Rome itself. The number of young men who receive in them an academic education is reckoned at about 3400. The education of women is greatly neglected, and the little education they receive is almost entirely acquired in convents.

The Corpus Juris and the Jus Canonicum, or the civil law and the canon law, and a Motu Proprio of July 10, 1831, by Gregory XVI., are the texts by which justice is imparted in the Papal States. The judges are appointed by the Pope, and are removable. There are tribunals of first instance in the capital of every province, and courts of appeal at Bologna, Macerata, and Rome. Over the latter is the Corte della Segnatura, sitting at Rome, which resembles the French Cour de Cassation. It revises the judgments of the courts of appeal, and in case of any violation of the law, annuls them, and sends the parties before another court for a new trial. At Ancona, and in the other principal towns, there are tribunals of commerce, to decide commercial cases. When an ecclesiastical, however, is concerned in a lawsuit, the jurisdiction belongs to the bishop's court, from whose judgment an appeal may be interposed to the court of the metropolitan. In all the courts the proceedings are public, except in state trials, which are brought before the Consulta, a secret tribunal, in which the prisoner is allowed neither to see the witnesses nor to have communicated to him the nature of the evidence to be adduced; and he can only be defended by the official advocate of the Consulta. The Vicario's court at Rome, and the bishop's courts in the provinces, have arbitrary powers summarily to imprison any person of either sex on the grounds of immorality; a power which often leads to acts of great injustice.

The whole military force of the Papal States in 1857 Papenburg amounted to 16,900 infantry, and 1315 cavalry. It consisted of two Swiss regiments, two regiments of Italian infantry, a battalion of chasseurs de Vincennes, one regiment of dragoons, one of artillery, a corps of military engineers, the Pope's noble guard of 80 noblemen, the Swiss body-guard (126 in number), 4540 gendarmes, and 1760 custom-house guards. The principal fortresses are, Ancona, Ferrara, Civitavecchia, and Castel St. Angelo, in Rome, of which the two former are now held by the Austrians, and the two latter by the French. A gun-brig, two steamboats, and some small craft, form all the Papal navy.

The finances of the country have long been in an embarrassed state. Since 1828 there has been a yearly deficit, which has occasionally been met by an additional loan. According to the official returns lately published by the minister of finance, the revenue of the state, which in 1851 was L.2,269,445, in 1857 had increased to L.3,009,524; but the expenditure, which in 1851 was L.2,621,504, had also swelled to L.3,104,692. From the table we give below of the estimated amount of each branch of the public revenue and expenditure from 1853 to 1857, it will be seen that the expense of collecting the revenue amounts to nearly 25 per cent. on the gross receipts; and that the lotteries, which have a most demoralizing influence, and check the benefit of savings-banks among the lower classes, give the state a net yearly income of only about L.63,000, nearly 75 per cent. of the gross receipts being swallowed up by the machinery of collecting it. It also will be seen that in 1857, 5,076,018 scudi, or more than one-half of the net revenue of 9,716,638 scudi, went to pay the interest on the public debt. The yearly deficit, it must be observed, is greater than that given in the subjoined table, as for the last four years no returns are given of the expenses of the ministry of the interior and the ministry of police.

The only railway as yet constructed in the Roman States is the short line of 10 miles from Rome to Frascati, which was opened in 1856. Another line from Rome to Civitavecchia is not yet (1858) completed. (* * *)