the name of a hot southerly wind common in Egypt, of which we find the following description in Mr Volney's Travels.—These winds, says he, are known in Egypt by the general name of winds of 50 days; not that they last 50 days without intermission, but because they prevail more frequently in the 50 days preceding and following the equinox. Travellers have mentioned them under the denomination of poisonous winds, or, more correctly, hot winds of the desert. Such in fact is their quality; and their heat is sometimes so excessive, that it is difficult to form any idea of its violence without having experienced it; but it may be compared to the heat of a large oven at the moment of drawing out the bread. When these winds begin to blow, the atmosphere assumes an alarming aspect. The sky, at other times so clear in this climate, becomes dark and heavy; the sun loses his splendor, and appears of a violet colour; the air is not cloudy, but grey and thick, and is in fact filled with an extremely subtle dust, which penetrates everywhere. This wind, always light and rapid, is not at first remarkably hot, but it increases in heat in proportion as it continues. All animated bodies soon discover it by the change it produces in them. The lungs, which a too rarefied air no longer expands, are contracted, and become painful. Respiration is short and difficult; the skin parched and dry, and the body consumed by an internal heat. In vain is recourse had to large draughts of water; nothing can restore perspiration. In vain is coolness sought for; all bodies in which it is usual to find it receive the hand that touches them. Marble, iron, water, notwithstanding the fun no longer appears, are hot. The streets are deserted, and the dead silence of night reigns everywhere. The inhabitants of towns and villages shut themselves up in their houses, and those of the desert in their tents or in wells dug in the earth, where they wait the termination of this destructive heat. It usually lasts three days, but if it exceeds that time it becomes insupportable. To the traveller whom this wind surprizes remote from shelter, he must suffer all its horrible effects, which sometimes are mortal. The danger is most imminent when it blows in squalls; for then the rapidity of the wind increases the heat to such a degree as to cause sudden death. This death is a real suffocation; the lungs being empty are convulsed, the circulation is disordered, and the whole mass of blood driven by the heart towards the head and breast; whence the hemorrhage at the nose and mouth which happens after death. This wind is especially destructive to persons of a phlegmatic habit, and those in whom fatigue has destroyed the tone of the muscles and the vessels. The corpse remains a long time warm, swells, turns blue, and soon becomes putrid. These accidents are to be avoided by stopping the nose and mouth with handkerchiefs; an efficacious method likewise is that practised by the camels. On this occasion these animals bury their noses in the sand, and keep them there till the squall is over. Another quality of this wind is its extreme aridity; which is such, that water sprinkled on the floor evaporates in a few minutes. By this extreme dryness it withers and strips all the plants; and by exhaling too suddenly the emanations from animal bodies, crisps the skin, closes the pores, and causes that feverish heat which is the constant effect of suppressed perspiration.

KAMCHATKA, KAMSCHATKA, or Kamchatka; a large peninsula on the north-eastern part of Asia, lying between 51° and 62° of north latitude, and between 173° and 182° of east longitude from the island of Ferro. It is bounded on the east and south by the sea of Kamchatka, on the west by the seas of Ochotsk and Penshinsk, and on the north by the country of the Koriacs.

This peninsula was not discovered by the Russians before the end of the last century. It is probable, however, that some of that nation had visited Kamchatka before the time above mentioned. For when Volodimir Atlasoff entered upon the conquest of this peninsula in 1697, he found that the inhabitants had already some knowledge of the Russians. A common tradition as yet prevails among them, that, long before the expedition of Atlasoff, one Feodotoff and his companions had resided among them, and had intermarried with the natives; and they still show the place where the Russian habitations stood. None of the Russians remained when Atlasoff first visited Kamchatka. They are said to have been held in great veneration, and almost deified by the natives; who at first imagined that no human power could hurt them, until they quarrelled among themselves, and the blood was seen to flow from the wounds which they gave each other; and soon after, upon a separation taking place, they were all killed by the natives.

These Russians were thought to be the remains of a ship's crew who had sailed quite round the north-eastern promontory of Asia called Tschukutkoi Noi. The account we have of this voyage is as follows.—In 1648, seven ketches or vessels sailed from the mouth of the river Kovyma or Kolyma, lying in the frozen ocean about 72° north latitude, and 173° or 174° east longitude from Ferro, in order to penetrate into the eastern ocean. Four of these were never more heard of; the remaining three were commanded by Simon Dezhnev, Gerafim Ankudinoff, two chiefs of the Cossacks, and Feodotoff Alexeev, head of the Promysheleens or wandering Russians, who occasionally visited Siberia. Each vessel was probably manned with about 30 persons. They met with no obstructions from the ice; but Ankudinoff's vessel was wrecked on the promontory above mentioned, and the crew were distributed on board the two remaining vessels. These two soon after lost sight of each other, and never afterwards rejoined. Dezhnev was driven about by tempestuous winds till October, when he was shipwrecked on the northern part of Kamchatka. Here he was informed by a woman of Yakutsk, that Feodotoff and Gerafim had died of the scurvy; that part of the crew had been slain; and that a few had escaped in small vessels, who had never afterwards been heard of; and these were probably the people who, as we have already mentioned, settled among the Kamchatkans.

As the inhabitants of this country were neither numerous nor warlike, it required no great force to subdue them; and in 1711 the whole peninsula was finally reduced under the dominion of the Russians. For some years this acquisition was of very little consequence to the crown, excepting the small tribute of furs exacted from the inhabitants. The Russians indeed occasionally hunted, in this peninsula, foxes, wolves, ermines, sables, and other animals, whose skins form an extensive article of commerce among the eastern nations. But the fur-trade carried on from thence was very inconsiderable, until the series of islands mentioned in the next article were discovered; since which time the quantities of furs brought from these islands have greatly increased the trade of Kamchatka, and rendered it an important part of the Russian commerce.

The face of the country throughout the peninsula is chiefly mountainous. It produces in some parts birch, poplars, elders, willows, underwood, and berries of different sorts. Greens and other vegetables are raised with great facility; such as white cabbage, turnips, radishes, beet-root, carrots, and some cucumbers. Agriculture is in a very low state, owing chiefly to the nature of the soil and the severe frosts; for though some trials have been made with respect to the cultivation of grain, and oats, barley, and rye, have been sown, yet no crop has ever been procured sufficient in quantity or quality to answer the trouble of raising it. Hemp, however, has of late years been cultivated with great success.—Every year a vessel belonging to the crown sails from Ochotsk to Kamchatka laden with salt, provisions, corn, and Russian manufactures; and returns in June or July of the following year with skins and furs.

Many traces of volcanoes have been observed in this peninsula; and there are some mountains which are in a burning state at present. The most considerable of these is situated near the middle of the peninsula. In 1762, a great noise was heard issuing from the inside of that mountain, and flames of fire were seen to burst forth. KAM

These flames were immediately succeeded by a large stream of melted snow-water, which flowed into the neighbouring valley, and drowned two natives who were there on a hunting party. The ashes and burning matters thrown from the mountain were spread over a surface of 300 versts. In 1767 was another discharge, but less considerable. Every night flames of fire were observed streaming from the mountain; and considerable damage was done by the eruption which attended them. Since that year no flames have been seen; but the mountain emits a constant smoke.

Kamchatka is divided by the Russians into four districts; and the government of the whole is dependent upon, and subject to, the inspection of the chancery of Ochotnik. The whole Russian force stationed in this peninsula amounts to no more than 300 men. The present population of Kamchatka is very small, amounting to scarce 4000 souls. Formerly the inhabitants were more numerous; but in 1768, the smallpox carried off 5368 persons. There are now only about 700 males in the whole peninsula who are tributary, and few more than 100 in the neighbouring islands, called the Kuril Isles, who are subject to Russia. The fixed annual tribute consists in 279 fables, 464 red foxes, 50 sea-otters with a dam, and 38 cub otters. All furs exported from Kamchatka pay a duty of 10 per cent. to the crown; the tenth part of the cargoes bought from the neighbouring islands is also delivered into the customs.

The natives of Kamchatka are as wild as the country itself. Some of them have no fixed habitations, but wander from place to place with their herds of rein-deer; others have settled habitations, and reside upon the banks of the rivers and the shores of the Penchinsk sea, living upon fish and sea-animals, and such herbs as grow upon the shore: the former dwell in huts covered with deer-hkins; the latter in places dug out of the earth; both in a very barbarous manner. Their dispositions and tempers are rough; and they are entirely ignorant of letters or religion. The natives are divided into three different people, namely, the Kamchatkans, Koreki, and Kuriles. The Kamchatkans live upon the south side of the promontory of Kamchatka: the Koreki inhabit the northern parts on the coast of the Penchinsk sea, and round the eastern ocean almost to the river Anadir, whose mouth lies in that ocean almost in 68° N. Lat.: the Kuriles inhabit the islands in that sea, reaching as far as those of Japan. The Kamchatkans have this particular custom, that they endeavour to give every thing a name in their language which may express the property of it; but if they do not understand the thing quite well themselves, then they take a name from some foreign language, which perhaps has no relation to the thing itself; as, for example, they call a priest bogbog, because probably they hear him use the word bogbog, "God;" bread they call brightain aug/b, that is, Russian root; and thus of several other words to which their language is a stranger.

It appears probable, that the Kamchatkans lived formerly in Mungalia beyond the river Amur, and made one people with the Mungals; which is farther confirmed by the following observations, such as the Kamchatkan having several words common to the Mongal Chinese language, as their terminations in ong, Kamchatting, oang, chin, char, ching, kui, klung; it would be still a greater proof, if we could show several words and sentences the same in both languages. The Kamchatkans and Mungals also are both of a middling stature, are swarthy, have black hair, a broad face, a sharp nose, with the eyes fasting in, eye-brows small and thin, a hanging belly, slender legs and arms; they are both remarkable for cowardice, boasting, and slavishness, to people who use them hard, and for their obstinacy and contempt of those who treat them with gentleness.

Although in outward appearance they resemble the other inhabitants of Siberia, yet the Kamchatkans differ in this, that their faces are not so long as the other Siberians; their cheeks stand more out, their teeth are thick, their mouth large, their stature middling, and their shoulders broad, particularly those people who inhabit the sea-coast.

Before the Russian conquest, they lived in perfect freedom, having no chief, being subject to no law, nor paying any taxes; the old men, or those who were remarkable for their bravery, bearing the principal authority in their villages, though none had any right to command or inflict punishment.

Their manner of living is slovenly to the last degree: they never wash their hands nor face, nor cut their nails; they eat out of the same dish with the dogs, which they never wash; they never comb their heads, but both men and women plait their hair in two locks, binding the ends with small ropes. When any hair starts out, they sew it with threads to make it lie close; by this means they have such a quantity of lice, that they can scrape them off by handfuls, and they are nasty enough even to eat them. Those that have not nourishment sufficient, wear false locks, sometimes as much as five pounds, which makes their heads look like a haycock.

They place their chief happiness in idleness, and satisfying their natural lust and appetites; which incline them to singing, dancing, and relishing of love stories; and they think it more eligible to die than to lead a disagreeable life; which opinion often leads them to self-murder. This was so common after the conquest, that the Russians had great difficulty to put a stop to it. They have no notion of riches, fame, or need of honour; therefore covetousness, ambition, and pride, murder, are unknown among them. On the other hand, they are careless, lustful, and cruel: these vices occasion frequent quarrels and wars among them, sometimes with their neighbours, not from a desire of increasing their power, but from some other causes; such as the carrying off their provisions, or rather their girls, which is frequently practised as the most summary method of procuring a wife. Their trade is almost entirely confined to procuring the immediate necessaries and conveniences of life. They sell the Koreki fables, fox and white dog-skins, dried mushrooms, and the like, in exchange for cloaths made of deer-skins and other hides. Their domestic trade consists in dogs, boats, dishes, troughs, nets, hemp, yarn, and provisions: and this kind of barter is carried on under a great show of friendship; for when one wants anything that another has, he goes freely to visit him, and without any ceremony makes known his wants, although... though perhaps he never had any acquaintance with him before: the host is obliged to behave according to the custom of the country, and give his guest what he has occasion for; but he may afterwards return the visit, and must be received in the same manner. They fill almost every place in heaven and earth with different spirits, and offer them sacrifices upon every occasion. Some carry little idols about them, or have them placed in their dwellings; but with regard to God, they not only neglect to worship him, but in case of troubles and misfortunes they curse and blaspheme him.

It is very diverting to see them attempt to reckon above ten: for having reckoned the fingers of both hands, they clasp them together, which signifies ten; then they begin with their toes, and count to twenty; after which they are quite confounded, and cry, Metcha? that is, Where shall I take more? They reckon ten months in the year, some of which are longer and some shorter; for they do not divide them by the changes of the moon, but by the order of particular occurrences that happen in those regions. They commonly divide our year into two, so that winter is one year and summer another: the summer year begins in May, and the winter in November. They do not distinguish the days by any particular appellation, nor form them into weeks or months, nor yet know how many days are in the month or year. They mark their epochs by some remarkable thing or other; such as the arrival of the Russians, or the first expedition to Kamchatka.

Their laws. If any one kills another, he is to be killed by the relations of the person slain. They burn the hands of people who have been frequently caught in theft; but for the first offence the thief must restore what he hath stolen, and live alone in solitude, without expecting the assistance of others. They never have any disputes about their land or their huts, every one having land and water more than sufficient for his wants. They think themselves the happiest people in the world, and look upon the Russians who are settled among them with contempt. However, this notion begins to change: for the old people who are confirmed in their customs drop off; and the young ones being converted to the Christian religion, adopt the customs of the Russians, and despise the barbarity and superstition of their ancestors.

In every ostrog or large village, by order of her imperial majesty, is appointed a chief, who is sole judge in all causes except those of life and death; and not only those chiefs, but even the common people, have their chapels for worship. Schools are also erected in almost every village, to which the Kamchatkans send their children with great pleasure: by this means it is to be hoped that barbarity will be in a short time rooted out among them.

Under the name of ostrogs, is understood every habitation consisting of one or more huts, all surrounded by an earthen wall or palisado.—The huts are built in the following manner: they dig a hole in the earth about five feet deep, the breadth and length proportioned to the number of people designed to live in it. In the middle of this hole they plant four thick wooden pillars; over these they lay balks, upon which they form the roof or ceiling, leaving in the middle a square opening which serves them for a window and chimney; this they cover with grass and earth, so that the outward appearance is like a round hillock; but within they are an oblong square, with the fire in one of the long sides of the square: between the pillars round the walls of their huts they make benches, upon which each family lies separately; but on that side opposite to the fire there are no benches, it being designed for their kitchen furniture, in which they dress their victuals for themselves and dogs. In those huts where there are no benches, there are balks laid upon the floor, and covered with mats. They adorn the walls of their huts with mats made of grass. They enter their huts by ladders, commonly placed near the fire-hearth; so that, when they are heating their huts, the steps of the ladder become hot, and the smoke so thick, that it is almost impossible for a stranger to go up or down, without being burnt, and even stifled to death; but the natives find no difficulty in it; and though they can only fix their toes on the steps of the ladder, they mount like squirrels; nor do the women hesitate to go through this smoke with their children upon their shoulders, though there is another opening through which the women are allowed to pass; but if any man pretend to do the same, he would be laughed at. The Kamchatkans live in these huts all the winter, after which they go into others called balagans: these serve them not only to live in during the summer, but also for magazines. They are made in the following manner: nine pillars, about two fathoms long, or more, are fixed in the ground, and bound together with balks laid over them, which they cover with rods, and over all lay grass, fastening spars, and a round sharp roof at top, which they cover with bramble, and thatch with grass. They fasten the lower ends of the spars to the balks with ropes and thongs, and have a door on each side, one directly opposite to the other. They make use of the same kind of huts to keep their fish, &c. till winter comes on, when they can more easily remove it; and this without any guard, only taking away the ladders. If these buildings were not so high, the wild beasts would undoubtedly plunder them; for notwithstanding all their precaution, the bears sometimes climb up and force their way into their magazines, especially in the harvest, when the fish and berries begin to grow scarce.

The southern Kamchatkans commonly build their villages in thick woods and other places which are naturally strong, not less than 20 versts from the sea; and their summer habitations are near the mouths of the rivers; but those who live upon the Penchinika sea and the eastern ocean build their villages very near the shore. They look upon that river near which their village is situated as the inheritance of their tribe.

In order to kindle fire, they use a board of dry wood with round holes in the sides of it, and a small kindling stick; this they rub in a hole till it takes fire; fire, and instead of tinder they use dry grass beat soft. These instruments are held in such esteem by the Kamchatkans, that they are never without them, and they value them more than our steel and flints; but they are are excessively fond of iron instruments, such as hatchets, knives, or needles; nay, at the first arrival of the Russians, a piece of broken iron was looked upon as a great present; and even now they receive it with thankfulness, finding use for the least fragment, either to point their arrows or make darts, which they do by hammering it out cold between two stones. As some of them delight in war, the Russian merchants are forbidden to sell them any warlike instruments; but they are ingenious enough to make spears and arrows out of the iron pots and kettles which they buy; and they are so dexterous, when the eye of a needle breaks, as to make a new eye, which they will repeat until nothing remains but the point.

The Kamchatkans make their boats of poplar-wood; but the Kuriles not having any wood of their own, make use of what is thrown on shore by the sea, and is supposed to come from the coasts of Japan, China, or America. The northern inhabitants of Kamchatka, the settled Korets and Tschukotskoi, for want of proper timber and plank, make their boats of the skins of sea-animals. They sew the pieces together with whale's beard, and caulk them with moss or nettles beat small. These boats hold two persons; one of which sits in the prow, and the other in the stern. They push them against the stream with poles, which is attended with great trouble; when the current is strong, they can scarcely advance two feet in ten minutes; notwithstanding which, they will carry these boats, fully loaded sometimes twenty versts, and when the stream is not very strong, even thirty or forty versts. The larger boats carry thirty or forty pood; when the goods are not very heavy, they lay them upon a float or bridge resting upon two boats joined together. They use this method in transporting their provisions down the stream, and also to and from the islands.

Their cloaths for the most part are made of the skins of deer, dogs, several sea and land animals, and even of the skins of birds, those of different animals being frequently joined in the same garment. They make the upper garment after two fashions; sometimes cutting the skirts all of an equal length, and sometimes leaving them long behind in form of a train, with wide sleeves of a length to come down below the knee, and a hood or caul behind, which in bad weather they put over their heads below their caps; the opening above is only large enough to let their heads pass: they sew the skins of dogs feet round this opening, with which they cover their faces in cold stormy weather; and round their skirts and sleeves they put a border of white dog-skin; upon their backs they sew the small shreds of skins of different colours. They commonly wear two coats; the under coat with the hair-side inwards, the other side being dyed with alder; and the upper with the hair outwards. For the upper garment they choose black, white, or speckled skins, the hair of which is most esteemed for the beauty of its colour.

Men and women without distinction use the above-mentioned garments, their dress only differing in their under-cloathing and in the covering of their feet and legs. The women have an under-garment, which they commonly wear at home in the house, consisting of a breeches and waistcoat sewed together. The breeches are wide like those of the Dutch skippers, and tie below the knee; the waistcoat is wide above, and drawn round with a string. The summer habits are made of dressed skins without hair; their winter-garment is made of deer or stone-ram skins with the hair on. The undress or household habit of the men is a girdle of leather with a bag before, and likewise a leather apron to cover them behind; these girdles are sewed with hair of different colours. The Kamchatkans used formerly to go hunting and fishing during the summer in this dress; but now this fashion is changed, and they wear linen shirts, which they buy from the Russians.

The covering of their feet and legs is made of skins of different sorts; in the summer-time, during the rains they wear the skins of seal with the hair outwards; but their most common covering is the skin of the legs of the rein-deer, and sometimes of the legs of other beasts, the shaggiest they can find, to preserve them against the cold. But the buskins which both the Cossacs and Kamchatkans use in their finest dress, are made in the following manner: the sole is of white seal skin, the upper part of white fine leather, the hind quarters of white dog skin; what comes round the legs is of dressed leather or dyed seal-skin; the upper parts are embroidered. These buskins are so extraordinary, that if a bachelor is observed to wear them, he is immediately concluded to be upon a scheme of courtship.

They wear the same sort of caps as the people of Yakutsk. In summer they have a sort of hats of birch bark tied about their head. The Kuriles use in the summer-time caps made of plaited grass. The women's head-dress is the periwigs that we formerly mentioned; and these were so dear to them, that when they came to be Christians they were with difficulty prevailed upon to quit this dress for one more decent; however, at present, round the Rufs settlements, all is entirely changed, the women wearing shirts, ruffles, waistcoats, caps, and ribbands; which change nobody now complains of except the very old people. The women do all their work in mittens; they formerly never washed their faces, but now they use both white and red paint; for white paint they make use of a rotten wood; and for red a sea-plant, which they boil in seal's fat, and rubbing their cheeks with it, make them very red. They dress most in the winter time, especially when they either receive or pay visits.

The common cloaths for a Kamchatkan and his family will not cost him less than 100 rubbles; for the coarsest worsted stockings, which cost in Russia 20 kopeeks, cannot be bought here for less than a ruble; and all other things are sold in the same proportion. The Kuriles are more able to buy good cloaths than the Kamchatkans; for they can purchase for one sea-beaver as much as the Kamchatkans can for twenty foxes; and one beaver costs the Kuriles no more trouble than five foxes do the Kamchatkans; for he must be a good hunter who catches more than ten foxes in the winter; and a Kurile thinks himself unlucky if he doth not catch three beavers in the season; besides which, great numbers are thrown upon the shore by storms.

The Kamchatkans divide their fish into six parts: Their diet; the sides and tail are hung up to dry; the back and thinner thinner part of the belly are prepared apart, and generally dried over the fire; the head is laid to four in pits, and then they eat it like salt fish, and esteem it much, though the flint is such that a stranger cannot bear it; the ribs and the flesh which remain upon them they hang up and dry, and afterwards pound for use; the larger bones they likewise dry for food for their dogs: in this manner all these different people prepare the yokola, which is the principal food, or, one may say, household bread; and they eat it for the most part dry.

Their second favourite food is caviar, or the roes of fish, which they prepare three different ways. They dry the roe whole in the air; or take it out of the skin which envelopes it, and spreading it upon a bed of grass, dry it before the fire; or, lastly, make rolls of it with the leaves of grass, which they also dry. They never take a journey or go to hunting without dry caviar; and if a Kamchatkan has a pound of this, he can subsist without any other provision a great while: for every birch and alder tree furnishes him with bark, which, with his dried caviar makes him an agreeable meal; but they cannot eat either separately, for the caviar sticks like glue to the teeth; and it is almost impossible to swallow the bark, chewed ever so long by itself. There is still a fourth method, which both Kamchatkans and Koreki use in preparing their caviar: the first having covered the bottom of a pit with grass, they throw the fresh caviar into it, and leave it there to grow four: the Koreki tie theirs in bags, and leave it to sour; this is esteemed their most delicate dish.

There is a third sort of diet, called by the Kamchatkans chupriki, which is prepared in this manner: in their huts, over the fire-place, they make a bridge of flakes, upon which they lay a heap of fish, which remains there until the hut becomes as warm as a bagnio. If there is no great thickness of fish, one fire serves to dress it; but sometimes they are obliged to make two, three, or more fires. Fish dressed in this manner is half roasted, half smoked, but has a very agreeable taste, and may be reckoned the best of all the Kamchatkan cookery: for the whole juice and fat is prepared with a gradual heat, and kept in by the skin, from which they may when done enough be easily separated; and as soon as it is thus dressed, they take out the guts, and spread the body upon a mat to dry: this they afterwards break small, and putting it into bags, carry it along with them for provision, eating it like the yokola.

The Kamchatkans have a dish which they esteem very much, called huigul: it is fish laid to grow four in pits; and though the smell of it is intolerable, yet the Kamchatkans esteem it a perfume. This fish sometimes rots too much in the pits, that they cannot take it out without ladles; in which case indeed they use it for feeding their dogs.

As for the flesh of land and the larger sea animals, they boil it in their troughs with several different herbs and roots; the broth they drink out of ladles and bowls, and the meat they take out upon boards, and eat in their hands. The whale and sea-horse fat they also boil with roots.

There is a principal dish at all their feasts and entertainments, called selaga, which they make by pounding all sorts of different roots and berries, with the addition of caviar, and whale and seal's fat.

Before the conquest, they seldom used anything for drink but plain water, unless when they made merry; then they drank water which had stood some time upon mushrooms. At present they drink spirits as fast as the Ruffians. After dinner they drink water; and when they go to bed at night, set a vessel of water by them, with the addition of snow or ice to keep it cold, and always drink it up before morning. In the winter-time, they amuse themselves frequently by throwing handfuls of snow into their mouths; and the bridegrooms, who work with the fathers of their future brides, find it their hardest task to provide snow for the family in summer-time; for they must bring it from the highest hills be the weather what it will, otherwise they would never be forgiven.

The Kamchatkans commonly travel in sledges drawn by dogs. The animals used for this purpose travelling differ very little from the common house-dogs; they are of a middling size, of various colours, though there seem to be more white, black, and grey, than of any other. In travelling, they make use of those that are castrated, and generally yoke four to a sledge. They drive and direct their dogs with a crooked stick about four feet long, which they sometimes adorn with different coloured thongs; this is looked upon as a great piece of finery. They drive their sledge fitting upon their right side, with their feet hanging down; for it would be looked upon as a disgrace for a man to sit down at the bottom of the sledge, or to make use of any person to drive him, nobody doing this but the women. It is very difficult to travel in these sledges; for unless a man keeps the exactest balance, he is liable every moment from the height and narrowness of them to be overturned: in a rugged road this would be very dangerous, as the dogs never stop till they come to some house, or are entangled by something upon the road; especially in going down steep hills, when they run with all their force, and are scarcely to be kept in; for which reason, in defending any great declivity, they unyoke all the dogs except one, and lead them softly down. They likewise walk up hills; for it is as much as the dogs can do to drag up the sledge empty. After a deep snow, before it has been hardened by a frost, there is no travelling with dogs till a road be made, which is effected by a man going before upon snow-shoes, whom they call brodovshika. The snow-shoes are made of two thin boards, separated in the middle, bound together at the ends, and with the fore part bent a little upwards. The brodovshika, having one of these shoes upon each foot, leaves the dogs and sledge, and going on clears the road for some way; then returning, leads forward the dogs and sledge so far as the road is made; a method which he must continue till he comes to some dwelling-house. This is very laborious; and it happens so often, that no driver ever gets out without his snow-shoes. When a storm of driven snow surprizes them, they are obliged with all haste to seek the shelter of some wood, and stay there as long as the tempest lasts, which sometimes is a whole week. If they are a large company, they dig a place for themselves. themselves under the snow, and cover the entry with wood or brambles. Sometimes they hide themselves in caves or holes of the earth, wrapping themselves up in their furs; and when thus covered, they move or turn themselves with the greatest caution lest they should throw off the snow, for under that they lie as warm as in their common huts: they only require a breathing place; but their cloaths must not be tight or hard put about them, for then the cold is insufferable. Another danger attending travellers is, that in the feverish frost several rivers are not quite frozen over; and as the roads for the most part lie close upon the rivers, the banks being very steep, scarce a year passes without many being drowned. A disagreeable circumstance also to those who travel in these parts, is their sometimes being obliged to pass through copses, where they run the risk of having their eyes scratched out or their limbs broken; for the dogs always run most violently in the worst roads, and, to free themselves, very often overturn their driver. The best travelling is in the month of March or April, when the snow is turned hard or frozen a little at top; however, there is still this inconvenience attending it, that sometimes travellers are obliged to lodge two or three nights in desert places; and it is difficult to prevail upon the Kamchatkans to make a fire either for warming themselves or dressing victuals, as they and their dogs eat dried fish, and find themselves so warm wrapped in their furs, that they want no other heat; nay, all the people of this climate bear cold so well, that they sleep in the open air as sound as others in a warm bed, and awake next morning perfectly refreshed and alert. This seems to be so natural to all here, that some of them have been seen to lie down with their backs uncovered against a fire, and notwithstanding the fire has been burnt out long before morning, they continued to sleep on very comfortably, and without any inconvenience.

Islands in the Sea of Kamchatka. So many of these have been discovered by the Russians, that the existence of almost a continued chain of islands between the continents of Asia and America is now rendered extremely probable. Many further discoveries of great importance to science, however, remain yet to be made. The principal islands already known are the Kuril islands, which stretch south-west towards the coasts of China or Japan, and are almost uninhabited; those called Beering's, and Copper islands, the Aleutian islands, and Fox islands, or Lychee Ophirva, lie almost directly east, stretching nearly to 230° of longitude east from Ferro. The first project of making discoveries in that tempestuous sea which lies between Kamchatka and America was set on foot by Peter the Great of Russia. Captains Beering and Tichirikoff were employed in the undertaking; the former of whom was shipwrecked and died on the island which is still called by his name. As this lies at no great distance from Kamchatka, the inhabitants of the latter soon ventured over to it, as the sealers and other animals of that kind were accustomed to resort thither in great numbers.

Mednoi Ostroff, or Copper island, which lies in full sight of Beering's island, was next visited. This island has its name from the great quantity of copper with which the north-east coast of it abounds, the only tide which is known to the Russians. It is washed up by the Kamchatka, and covers the shores in such abundance that many ships might be loaded with it. Perhaps an India trader might make a profitable voyage from thence to China, where this metal is in high demand. This copper is mostly in a metallic or malleable state, and many pieces seem as if they had formerly been in fusion. The island is not high; but has many hillocks, each of which has the appearance of having formerly been a volcano. With this kind of hillocks all the islands in the sea of Kamchatka abound, inasmuch that not a single island, though ever so small, was found without one; and many of them consisted of nothing else. In short, all the chain of islands above mentioned may without any stretch of imagination be considered as thrown up by some late volcanoes. The apparent novelty of every thing seems to justify this conjecture; nor can any objection be derived from the vegetable productions with which these islands abound; for the summer after the lower district of Zuuthen in Holland was gained from the sea, it was covered over with wild mustard.—All these islands are subject to frequent and violent earthquakes, and abound in sulphur. We are not informed whether any lava is found upon them; but a grey-coloured stone as heavy as iron, probably a lava, is mentioned as being found there. From this account it is by no means improbable that the copper above mentioned has been melted in some eruption.

Beering's island is situated due east from Kamchatka; Beering's island and Kamchatka, in the 185th degree of longitude; and Copper island, the Aleutian islands, about one degree more to the eastward, and in the latitude of 54° north. The former is from 70 to 80 versts long, and stretches from north-west to south-east in the same direction as Copper island. The latter is about 50 versts in length. About 300 versts east-by-south of Copper island lie the Aleutian islands; of which Attak is the nearest; it is rather larger than Beering's island, and stretches from west to south-east. From thence about 20 versts eastwards is situated Semifish, extending from west to east; and near its extremity is another small island. To the south of the strait which separates the two latter islands, and at the distance of 40 versts from both of them, lies Shimiya in a similar position, and not above 25 versts in length. All these islands lie between 54 and 55 degrees of north latitude.

The Fox islands are situated east-north-east from the Fox islands; Aleutians: the nearest of these, Atchak, is about 800 versts distant; it lies in 56° north latitude, and extends from west-south-west to east-north-east. It greatly resembles Copper island, and is provided with a commodious harbour on the north. From thence all the other islands of this chain stretch in a direction towards north-east by east. The next to Atchak is Amak, and about 15 versts distant; it is nearly of the same size, and has a harbour on its south side. Next follows Saugagamak, at about the same distance, but somewhat smaller; from thence is 50 versts to Amucha, a small rocky island; and the latter to Yunakfan, another small island. About 20 versts from Yunakfan there is a cluster of five small islands, or rather mountains, Kigalgit, Kagamila, Thigulac, Ulaga, and Tana Unok; and which are therefore called by the Rufians... Kamchatkans Pat Sopki, or the Five Mountains. Of these Tana-Unok lies most to the north-east, towards which the western point of Umnak advances within the distance of 20 versts.

Umnak stretches from south-west to north-east; it is 150 versts in length, and has a very considerable bay on the west end of the northern coast, in which there is a small island, or rock, called Adugak; and on the south side Shemalga, another rock. The western point of Aghunalafsha, or Unalafsha, is separated from the east end of Umnak by a strait near 20 versts in breadth. The position of these two islands is similar; but Aghunalafsha is much the larger, and is above 200 versts long. It is divided towards the north-east into three promontories, one of which runs out in a westerly direction, forming one side of a large bay on the north coast of the island; the second stretches out north-east, ends in three points, and is connected with the island by a small neck of land. The third, or most southerly one, is separated from the last-mentioned promontory by a deep bay. Near Unalafsha towards the east lies another small island called Shirkin. About 20 versts from the north-east promontory of Aghunalafsha lie four islands: the first, Akutan, is about half as big as Umnak; a verst further is the small island Akun; a little beyond is Akunok; and lastly, Kigalga, which is the smallest of these four; and stretches with Akun and Akunok almost from north to south. Kigalga is situated about the 61st degree of latitude. About 100 versts from thence lies an island called Unimak, upon which a Russian navigator (Captain Krenitzin) wintered; and beyond it the inhabitants said there was a large tract of country called Algofka, of which they did not know the boundaries.

The Fox-islands are in general very rocky, without containing any remarkably high mountains: they are destitute of wood; but abound in rivulets and lakes, which are mostly without fish. The winter is much milder than in Siberia; the snow seldom falls before the beginning of January, and continues on the ground till the end of March. There is a volcano in Amuchta, and sulphur is produced on another island; in some others are springs hot enough to boil provisions. Sulphurous flames also are sometimes seen at night upon the mountains of Unalafsha and Akutan.

The Fox-islands are tolerably populous in proportion to their size. The inhabitants are entirely free, and pay tribute to no one; they are of a middle stature, and live, both in summer and winter, in holes dug in the earth. No signs of religion were found among them. Several persons indeed pass for sorcerers, pretending to know things past and to come; and are accordingly held in high esteem, but without receiving any emolument. Filial duty and respect towards the aged are not held in estimation by these islanders. They are not, however, deficient in fidelity towards each other; they are of a lively and cheerful temper, though rather impetuous, and naturally prone to anger. In general, they do not observe any rules of decency; but follow all the calls of nature publicly and without the least reserve. Their principal food consists in fish, and other sea-animals, small shell-fish, and sea-plants; their greatest delicacies are wild lilies and other roots, together with different kinds of berries. Kamchatka. When they have laid in a store of provisions, they eat at any time of the day without distinction; but in case of necessity, they are capable of fasting several days together. They seldom heat their dwellings; but when they are desirous of warming themselves, they light a bundle of hay, and stand over it; or else they set fire to train-oil, which they pour into a hollow stone. They feed their children when very young with the coarsest flesh, and for the most part raw. If an infant cries, the mother immediately carries it to the sea-side, and, be it summer or winter, holds it naked in the water until it is quiet. This custom, it is said, is so far from doing the children any harm, that it hardens them against the cold; and accordingly they go barefooted through the winter without the least inconvenience. They are also trained to bathe frequently in the sea; and it is an opinion generally received among the islanders, that by these means they are rendered bold and fortunate in fishing.

The men wear shirts made of the skins of cormorants, sea divers, and gulls; and in order to keep out the rain, they have upper garments of the bladders and other intestines of sea-lions, sea-calves, and whales, blown up and dried. They cut their hair in a circular form quite close to their ears; and shave also a round place on the top. The women, on the contrary, let the hair descend over the forehead as low as the eyebrows, and tie the remaining part in a knot upon the top of the head. They pierce the ears, and hang in them bits of coral, which they get from the Russians. Both sexes make holes in the gristles of their noses, and in the under-lips, in which they thrust pieces of bone, and are very fond of such kind of ornaments. They mark also and colour their faces with different figures. They barter among one another sea-otters, sea-bears, clothes made of birds' skins and of dried intestines, skins of sea-lions and sea-calves for the coverings of their canoes, wooden masks, darts, thread made of sinews and hair of reindeer.

Their household utensils are square pitchers and large troughs, which they make out of the wood driven ashore by the sea. Their weapons are bows and arrows pointed with flint, and javelins of two yards in length, which they throw from a small board. Instead of hatchets, they use crooked knives of flint or bone. Some iron knives, hatchets, and lances, were observed among them, which they had probably got by plundering the Russians.

According to the reports of the oldest inhabitants of Umnak and Unalafsha, they have never been engaged in any war, either amongst themselves or with their neighbours, except with the people of Alafsha, the occasion of which was as follows. The son of the toicon or chief of Umnak had a maimed hand; and some inhabitants of Alafsha, who came to visit upon that island, fastened to his arm a drum, out of mockery, and invited him to dance. The parents and relations of the boy were offended at this insult; hence a quarrel ensued; and from that time the people have lived in continual enmity, attacking and plundering each other by turns. According to the reports of the islanders, there are mountains upon Alafsha, and woods of great extent at some distance from the coast. The natives Kamchatkans wear clothes made of the skins of reindeer, wolves, and foxes; and are not tributary to any of their neighbours. The inhabitants of the Fox-islands seem to have no knowledge of any country beyond Alashka, which is one of the most easterly islands yet discovered in these seas, and is probably not far distant from the continent of America.

Feasts are very common among these islanders; and more particularly when the inhabitants of one island are visited by those of the others. The men of the village meet their guests, beating drums, and preceded by the women who sing and dance. At the conclusion of the dance, the hosts invite them to partake of the feasts; after which ceremony, the former return first to their dwellings, place mats in order, and serve up their best provision. The guests next enter, take their places, and, after they are satisfied, the diversions begin. First, the children dance and caper, at the same time making a noise with their small drums, while the owners of the huts of both sexes sing. Next, the men dance almost naked, tripping after one another, and beating drums of a larger size: when these are weary, they are relieved by the women, who dance in their clothes, the men continuing in the mean time to sing and beat their drums. At last the fire is put out which had been kindled for the ceremony. The manner of obtaining fire is by rubbing two pieces of dry wood against each other, or most commonly by striking two flints together, and letting the sparks fall upon some sea-otter's hair mixed with sulphur. If any sorcerer is present, it is then his turn to play his tricks in the dark; if not, the guests immediately retire to their huts, which are made, on that occasion, of their canoes and mats. The natives who have several wives do not withhold them from their guests; but where the owner of the hut has himself but one wife, he then makes the offer of a female servant.

Their hunting season is principally from the end of October to the beginning of December; during which time they kill great numbers of young sea-bears for their clothing. They pass all December in feasting and diversions similar to those above mentioned; with this difference, however, that the men dance in wooden masks, representing various sea-animals, and painted red, green, or black, with coarse-coloured earths found upon these islands.

During these festivals, they visit each other from village to village, and from island to island. The feasts concluded, masks and drums are broken to pieces, or deposited in caverns among the rocks, and never afterwards made use of. In spring, they go out to kill old sea-bears, sea-lions, and whales. During summer, and even in winter when it is calm, they row out to sea, and catch cod and other fish. Their hooks are of bone; and for lines they make use of a string made of a long tenacious sea-weed, which is sometimes found in these seas, near 160 yards in length.

Whenever they are wounded in any encounter, or bruised by any accident, they apply a sort of yellow root to the wound, and fast for some time. When their head aches, they open a vein in that part with a stone-lancet. When they want to glue the points of their arrows to the shafts, they strike their nose till it bleeds, and use the blood as glue.

Murder is not punished among them; for they have no judge. The following ceremonies are used in the burial of the dead. The bodies of poor people are wrapped up in their own clothes, or in mats; then laid in a grave, and covered over with earth. The bodies of the rich are put, together with their clothes and arms, in a small boat made of the wood driven ashore by the sea: this boat is hung upon poles placed croswise; and the body is thus left to rot in the open air.

The customs and manners of the inhabitants of the Aleutian isles are nearly similar to those of the inhabitants of the Fox-islands. The former indeed are rendered tributary and entirely subject to Russia; and most of them have a slight acquaintance with the Russian language, which they have learned from the crews of the different vessels who have landed there.