in general, is an instrument or machine designed for the production of some certain action or operation; in which sense the mechanic powers, machines, and even the veins, arteries, nerves, muscles, and bones of the human body, may be called organs.

ORGAN, in music, denotes the largest and most harmonious of all wind-instruments; on which account it is called the organ syrinx, the instrument by way of excellence; chiefly used for playing a thorough bass, with all its accompaniments.

That organs are the invention of remote antiquity has been argued, and seems now to be generally allowed; but the particular time and country in which the discovery was made appears to be lost amidst the ruins of time. In ancient authors there are a variety of passages where mention is made of the organ, but it is at least possible that an instrument is meant very different from that which now goes by the same name. From St Augustine's commentary on the 4th verse of the 150th psalm we learn, that the Greeks had another name for those instruments in which bellows were employed; that the name organ was appropriated to this particular instrument merely from the usage of the Latin tongue; and that it was indifferently given to all instruments used to accompany the voice in concert. We mention this, not because we doubt of the antiquity of the organ, but merely to show that the time of its invention cannot be determined by the era of the authors where its name occurs. As the following observations, extracted from a periodical work Gent. Mag., which has long been in deserved esteem with the public, are intended to ascertain its early use, we submit them, without commentary, to the judgment of our readers. Caffiodorus has described our organ in a few words, lib. i. Epil. 45. Praising that art, which makes Organa extraneis vocibus infonare, et peregrinis flabitibus compleat, ut musica possit arte cantare. And the emperor Julian has given an exact description of it in an epigram, which may be found in the Anthologia, b. i. ch. 86. In his time these instruments were in such request, that Ammianus Marcellinus, b. xiv. ch. 6, complains, that they occasioned the study of the sciences to be abandoned. However, those musical instruments whose melody is produced by wind, had been known at Rome long before. Witness that agreeable poem of Capa, which for its elegance has been ascribed to Virgil; where we find that the musician introduces the wind into her pipes by means of a pair of bellows, which she holds under her arms and blows. In the hydraulic organ, the water moves the air, instead of bellows. Cornelius Severus, in his Etyma, has given an exact description description of it (A). And though there were two kinds of hydraulic and pneumatic instruments, the first of which played by the inspiration and action of bellows, and the others by the action of water, it is certain nevertheless, that both of them were pneumatic, being inspired by the wind. And Heron of Alexandria, in his Pneumatics, has treated of hydraulics as belonging to pneumatics. This Heron lived in the time of Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt. When Suetonius says, that Nero Organa hydraulica novi et ignoti generis circumduxit, he did not mean that they were unknown at Rome before Nero, but that those of Nero were of a new construction. Those were the hydraulics of a new fabric, which he exhibited to the people at the public games, as Suetonius relates a little after. Heliodorus, one of the worthy successors of Nero, like him was fond of these hydraulics; and Alexander Severus, his cousin and successor, had the same inclination. Claudian, who lived some time after, has left us this elegant description of them:

*Et qui magna levi detrudens murmura taibu Innumerabas voces fegebit moderatur aeque; Intonet erranti digito, penitusque traditili Voce laborantes in carmina conicitur undas.*

This very construction, which is observed in the pipes of an organ, gradually decreasing in magnitude, has been represented in an epigram of Optatianus Porphyrius, who lived in the time of Constantine. This epigram, which is quoted in Pithon's collection of ancient epigrams, is composed of verses of unequal length, successively increasing. This corresponds with those words of the old scholar Juvenal, sat. 8. ver. 270.

*Tunica Galli utuntur in facies in medium organi utrinque decrementibus virgulis purpureis.*

On the whole, then, the antiquity of organs, or of instruments of a very similar nature, can scarcely be disputed; but nothing very particular respecting the time, place, or manner, of the invention can possibly be determined from those incidental observations which occur in the writings of the ancients (a). It appears indeed to have been borrowed by the Latins from the Greeks, but not to have been in general use till the eighth century; and it has been affirmed, that, in France, it was not known till the time of Louis the Debonair i.e. A.D. 815, when an Italian priest taught the use and construction of it, which he himself had learned at Constantinople. By some, however, it has been carried as far back as Charlemagne, and by others as far as Pepin. Bellarmine says that the organ began to be used in the service of the church about the year 660, as Platina relates out of the Pontifical; for when Pope Vitalian reformed the singing of the Roman church, he added to it organs in order to support and embellish it. Ammonius thinks, however, that this happened after the year 820, in the time of Louis the Pious. Perhaps the learned Bingham is our surest guide in determining this point. He positively affirms† that there were no such things as organs in use in the ancient church; and that though church-music was as old as the apostles, instrumental music was not so. He also says that it was the general opinion of the learned in his days, that organs were not introduced into churches till after the time of Thomas Aquinas, A.D. 1250; and for this opinion, as far as the authority of Aquinas will go, we have a positive proof; for in his summa we find these words. "Our church does not use musical instruments, as harps, and psalteries, to praise God withal, that she may not seem to Judaize (c)." From

(a) Which is thus translated by Mr Jabez Hughes:

As in an organ *, first the rushing air A mass of waters does before it bear; And then the waters, in their turn, we find Drive through the hollow pipes the vanquish'd wind; Which strongly from its strait confinement sent, Comes loudly rattling through the narrow vent: Still as the waters press, the spirits found, And spread the bubbling symphony around. So air and water meet, &c.

It is by no means certain that Cornelius Severus was the author of this poem, though it is published under his name by Le Clerc. Seneca's authority, on which the Younger Scaliger founds his opinion, enforces no such conclusion. He only says, that "Severus was not discouraged from writing on this subject, by its having been already treated by Ovid and Virgil." Barthius, in his notes on Claudian, refers it to Manilius, and in his Alberaria to some Christian writer. By others it has been ascribed to Virgil, and by Scaliger, the father, to Quintilius Varus. But though it is less clear and methodical than Virgil, and though it has been much mutilated by time, it certainly was penned by a masterly and truly poetical hand.

(b) Vitruvius describes an organ in his 10th book, and St Jerome mentions one with 12 pair of bellows which might be heard a thousand paces, or a mile; and another at Jerusalem, which might be heard at the Mount of Olives.

(c) The lawfulness of using organs in churches, has, however, been ably defended by an appeal to the use which the Jews made of instruments of music in divine service; and with much reason; for were the use criminal in us, as was asserted by many well-meaning men of the last century, and as it is still thought by some in this, it would unquestionably have been equally unlawful for the Jews. The Christians in Aquinas's time, however, acted wisely in avoiding the use of them, if by so doing they would have given offence to their weaker From hence it has reasonably been concluded, particularly by the learned Gregory*, that they were not used in churches in his time. Mr Wharton has also observed that Marinus Sanctus (who flourished A.D. 1290) first introduced wind-organs into churches; from this circumstance he derived the name Torcellus, the name for organ in the Italian language.

About this same time Durandus in his Rationale speaks of them as generally received in the church; and he, in Mr Gregory's opinion, is the first author who takes notice of it. These authorities are strong, and the opinions founded on them by the learned render them still more convincing: it appears, however, from the testimony of Gervas the monk of Canterbury, who flourished A.D. 1280, that organs were introduced upwards of 100 years even before that time; for in his description of Lanfranc's church, as it was before the fire in 1174, he has these words, "Crua aquarum sunt novem organa gestare solet." We do not say that this invalidates the reasoning of the learned Bingham; of that our readers are to judge, and in forming their judgments they will be determined by the credit of the testimonies which are here opposed to each other. If we suppose that of Gervas the strongest, and in opposition to the other conclude from it, that organs were introduced into England long before the 13th century, it will give some countenance to an opinion which prevails pretty generally, viz., that in Italy, Germany, and England, they became frequent about the 10th century. See Music, no. 19.

But however we are disposed to determine this matter (which is in itself but of little consequence), it is certain that the use of the organ was very common in the latter ages of the church, and the propriety of it was undisputed. In the last century, however, during the civil wars, organs were removed from the churches in England; and so generally reproached, that at the Restoration, there could scarce be found either organists, organ builders, or singers.

The organs in Germany (says Dr Burney) in magnitude, and the organists in abilities, seem unrivalled in any other part of Europe, particularly in the use of pedals. In Marpurg's Effays, vol. iii., there is a minute account of a variety of organs in Germany; of all which the longest pipe of the manuals is 16 feet long, and of the pedals 32. One of the largest organs in Germany, but which Marpurg has omitted in his list, is at Gorlitz in Upper Lusatia. It would be no purpose to enlarge our article with a more minute account of the state of organic music in different parts of the world: in various parts of the article Music, observations connected with this subject will be found, and to that we must refer. We may particularly mark, for the perusal of those who wish for further information on this subject, in addition to n° 19, above referred to, several passages of the article Music, beginning at p. 492. We need scarcely refer to the life of Handel, which all our readers who are fond of music of any kind, particularly sacred, have undoubtedly perused.

The church-organ consists of two parts; the main body, called the great organ; and the positive or little organ, which forms a small case or buffet, commonly placed before the great organ. The size of an organ is generally expressed by the length of its largest pipe: thus they say, an organ of 8, 16, 32 feet, &c. The organ in the cathedral church at Ulm in Germany is 95 feet high and 29 broad: its largest pipe is 13 inches diameter, and it has 16 pair of bellows.

The several parts of the church-organ are as follow:

HHH is the sound-board: which is composed of two parts, the upper board or cover HHH, and the under board HI, which is much thicker than the other; each of these consists of several planks laid with their edges to each other, and joined very close together. In the under side of the lower board there are made several channels, which run in the direction LL, MM, &c. and are continued as far as there are stops in the organ, and come almost to the edge HK. These channels are covered over very close with parchment or leather all the way, except a hole that is commonly at the fore-end next HK, upon which a valve or puff is placed. These channels are called partitions. When this valve or flap is shut, it keeps out the air, and admits it when open. On the upper side of the lower board there are likewise cut several broad square channels, lying across the former, but not so deep as to reach them; these lie in the direction LN, PQ, &c. To fit these channels, there are the same number of wooden flutes or registers f, f, f, &c. running the whole length; and these may be drawn out or thrust in at pleasure. The number of these is the same as that of the stops in the organ.

IKKK is the wind-chest, which is a square box fitted close to the under side of the lower board, and made air-tight, so that no air can get out but what goes through the valves along the partitions.

VV are the valves or puffs which open into the wind-chest; they are all inclosed in it, and may be placed in any part of it, as occasion shall require. One of these valves, with the spring that shuts it, and the wire that opens it, is represented by fig. 2.

C, D, E, F, &c. are the keys on which the fingers are placed when the organ is played: these keys lie over the horizontal bar of wood W, in which are stuck an equal number of wire-pins z, z, on which keys are fixed; and the keys move up and down on the bar, as on a centre. There is another bar, against which the keys fall when put down, and which is here marked 3: on this also are several wires, which go through the keys, to guide them; and on this bar a lift is fastened.

Weaker brethren. For though they are highly ornamental, and in some churches may be productive of good effects, yet the use of them is far from being essential, and may be easily dispensed with.

(d) Organs have never yet been used in the establishment of Scotland, since that became Presbyterian; but they are used in Holland, where that form of church-government also obtains. Bishop Horne, in a sermon which he preached at the opening of the new organ at Canterbury in 1784, says that he believes some Presbyterian dissenters in England have adopted it in their places of worship. See his Sermon, page 8. The keys are made to communicate with the valves several ways, as we shall now describe. First, \(a_1, a_2, a_3\) are the key-rollers, moving on the pivots \(i, j\); these rollers lie horizontally, one above another, and are of such a length as to reach from the valve to the key: \(a_4, a_5, a_6\) are arms or levers fixed to the key-rollers: \(w_1, w_2, w_3\) are wires fixed to the arms \(a_1, a_2, a_3\) and to the valves \(V\), and go through the holes \(b_1, b_2, b_3\) in the bottom of the wind-chest: \(l_1, l_2, l_3\) are likewise arms fixed to the key-rollers: \(d_1, d_2, d_3\) are the key-wires, fixed to the arms \(b_1, b_2, b_3\) and to the keys \(C, D, E\). Now, when the end of any one of the keys \(C, D, E\) is put down, it pulls down the arm \(b_1\) by the wire \(d_1\) which turns about the roller \(s\) with the arm \(a_1\) that pulls down the wire \(w_1\), which opens the valve that is shut by the spring as soon as the pressure is taken off the key. In this construction there must be a worm-spring fastened to the key, and to the bar \(W\) on the further side, to keep down the end of the key.

Another method of opening the valves is thus: \(x_1, x_2, x_3\) are slender levers, moveable on the centres \(i, j, k\); \(5x_1, 5x_2, 5x_3\) are wires going from the further ends of the keys to the ends \(x\) of the levers; \(yV, yV, yV\) are other wires, reaching from the ends \(y\) of the levers, through the holes \(l_1, l_2, l_3\) to the valves \(V\). So that putting down the key \(C, D, \&c.\) raises the end \(5x_1, 5x_2, 5x_3\) which thrusts up the end \(x\) of the lever, by the wire \(5x_1, 5x_2, 5x_3\) this depresses the end \(y\) of the lever, which pulls down the wire \(yV, yV, yV\) and opens the valve \(V\).

A third way of opening the valves is this: At the end of the key \(b_1\) is a lever \(8, g\), moving in the centre \(7\). This makes, with the key, a compound lever. From the end \(g_1\) a wire goes to the valve. Now the putting down the end \(6\) of the key, raises the end \(8\), which depresses the end \(9\), of the lever \(8, g\); pulls down the wire, and opens the valve. There is only one of these drawn in the scheme, and but a few of the others, to avoid confusion.

\(R, R\) are the rollers, to move the sliders, by help of the arms \(e_1, e_2, e_3\) which are fixed horizontally in the rollers: \(k_1, k_2, k_3\) are also levers fixed in the rollers: \(l_1, l_2, l_3\) are the handles, which lie horizontally, and pass through the holes \(l_1, l_2, l_3\); they are fastened to the lever \(k_1, k_2, k_3\) being moveable about a joint at \(e_1\).

Now, any handle \(l_1\) being drawn out, pulls the end \(e_1\) toward \(l_1\) which turns about \(R_1, R_2, R_3\) along with the arm \(e_1\); and the end \(f_1\) pulls out the slider \(f_2, f_3\); and when \(f_1\) is thrust in, the arm \(e_1\) likewise thrusts in the slider \(f_2, f_3\).

Upon the several rows of holes which appear on the top of the upper board, there are set up an equal number of rows of pipes. The pipes of an organ are of two kinds; the one has a mouth like a flute, the other with reeds. The first, called pipes of mutation, consist of (1.) of a foot \(AABB\) (fig. 3.), which is a hollow cone, that receives the wind that is to found the pipe: (2.) To this foot is fastened the body of the pipe \(BBDD\). Between the foot and the body of the pipe is a diaphragm or partition \(FEF\), that has a long but narrow aperture by which the wind comes out; over this aperture is the mouth \(BBC\), whose upper lip \(C\), being level, cuts the wind as it comes out.

No. 253. communication is stopped, so that no wind can get to the pipe.

To every large organ there must be at least two pairs of bellows, which are marked in fig. 1. by TU, TU, O, O, are the handles, moving upon the axis n n, n n. Each of these bellows consist of two boards, the lowest of which is immovable; and in this there is a valve r, opening inwards, and a tube leading to it, called the conveying tube. There is also a hole in this under board, from which a tube leads to the port-vent, which is a square tube marked 4, rising upward, and inserted into the under side of the wind-chest at 2. In the tube leading to the port-vent, there is a valve that opens towards the port-vent, and suffers the air to go up the port-vent, but not to return. Now the handle O being pulled down, raises the upper board T, and the air enters through the valve r; and when the handle is let go, the weight of the upper board, which carries three or four pound to every square foot, continually descending, drives the air through the port-vent to the sound-board: and as the bellows work alternately, one pair is constantly descending, which occasions a continual blast through the port-vent. In chamber-organs there is but one pair of bellows; but they are formed of three boards, in the manner of a smith's bellows, and so have a continual blast. All the internal structure of the organ is concealed from the sight by the front of the instrument, which stands upon the part between the numbers 3 and 6 (fig. 1.)

In every organ the number of partitions LL, MM, &c. there are in the sound-board (fig. 1.) that of the valves VV, that of the rollers rr, or of the levers xy or 89 and their wires, and that of the keys ABC, &c. must be always equal. Large organs have commonly four or five sets of keys, before those that belong to the pedals or large pipes, the stops to which are played by the feet; said to be the invention of Bernhard, a German, about the year 1400. These command certain pipes, which, to increase the harmony, are turned below the diapason. The keys of an organ are usually divided into four octaves; which are, the first sub-octave, second sub-octave, middle octave, and first octave. Each octave is divided into 12 stops or frets, of which seven are black and five white; the former mark the natural notes, and the latter the artificial notes, that is, flats and sharps. The number of keys, therefore, when there are four octaves, must be 48. Some organists add one or more stops to the first and second sub-octaves. The pedals have two or three octaves, at the option of the organist; so that the number of stops is indeterminate. The keys are placed between GG (fig. 1.), but the scheme could not contain them all. There are also as many handles l, l, &c. rollers RR, &c. sliders f, f, &c. as there are stops upon the organ; and it must be observed, that between the sliders f, f, &c. there are as many sliders on the right hand, and the same number of handles and rollers, and other rows of pipes placed between LN, PQ, which could not be expressed in the figure.

The least pipes and partitions are placed toward the middle of the organ, and the greatest on the outside. The stops of an organ have various denominations, according to the sounds they are to produce; some of which are diapason, principal, fifteenth, twelfth, teare, cornet, trumpet, French horn, vox humana, flute, bassoon, cremona, &c. The foreign organs, especially those of Germany, have many more: particularly that in the abbey church of Weingarten, a town in the upper Palatine, which has 66 stops, and contains no fewer than 6666 pipes. The organ at Haerlem is said to have 60 stops, many of them but little known to the English workmen, and distinguished by names that express the sound which they produce.

When this magnificent instrument is played, the handle O of the bellows is first put down, which raises the upper board T, and gives room for the air to enter by the valve r. Then the other handle O is put down: in the mean time the board T, belonging to the first handle, descending, and shutting the valve r, drives the air through the other valve, up the port-vent, and into the wind-chest. Then drawing out any handle, as that of the flute-stop p, which draws out the slider f, all the pipes in the set LN are ready to play, as soon as the keys C, D, E, &c. are put down: therefore, if the key D be put down, it opens the corresponding valve m V, through which the air enters into the pipe X, and makes it sound. In the same manner any other pipe in the set LN, will sound when its key is put down; but no pipe, in any other set, will sound till the slider be drawn out by its corresponding handle.

Among the modern improvements of the organ, the most remarkable are the swell and the tremulant: the former, invented by an English artist, consists in a number of pipes placed in a remote part of the instrument, and inclosed in a kind of box, which, being gradually opened by the pressure of the foot, increases the sound as the wind does the sound of a peal of bells, or suppresses it in like manner by the contrary action. The tremulant is a contrivance by means of a valve in the port-vent or passage from the wind-chest, to check the wind, and admit it only by starts; so that the notes seem to stammer, and the whole instrument to sob, in a manner very offensive to the ear. There is a tremulant in the organ at the German chapel in the Savoy. See Hawkin's History of Music, and Burney.

Hydraulic Organ, denotes a musical machine that plays by water instead of wind. Of these there are several in Italy, in the grottos of vineyards. Ctesibius of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptolemy Euergetes, is said to have invented organs that played by compressing the air with water, as is still practised. Archimedes and Vitruvius have left us descriptions of the hydraulic organ.

In the cabinet of Queen Christina is a beautiful and large medallion of Valentinian, on the reverse whereof is seen one of these hydraulic organs; with two men, one on the right, the other on the left, seeming to pump the water which plays it, and to listen to its sound. It has only eight pipes, placed on a round pedestal. The inscription is PLACEA SPETRI, if it be not wrong copied, which we suspect to be the case.

ORGASM εργασμός, denoting violence or turbulence; formed from εργάζομαι, "I wrestle," an ecstasy or impetuous desire of coition, occasioned by a turbulence of the seminal vessels, which are no longer able to restrain their contents. The ancients also extend