The name of Barbary, or the Barbary States, is applied by the moderns to an extensive district, occupying, with the exclusion of Egypt, the whole northern coast of Africa. It comprehends also that portion of the western coast which lies to the north of the Great Desert. The States included within this district are entirely independent of, and even hostile to each other; and they also differ in some particulars of their political constitution. There prevails, however, a striking similarity in the whole of their moral and physical circumstances. Throughout all these states, we see the same races inhabiting the towns, the plains, and the mountain districts; the same forms of social life; the same degraded and corrupted barbarism succeeding to ancient grandeur and civilization. Nature presents a corresponding similarity in all the peculiar qualities of aspect, soil, and climate. These resembling features constitute Barbary decidedly one region; and it will, therefore, be convenient to include its various states in one general article.
In the body of the work will be found, under the head of Barbary, and under those of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, a pretty copious account of the history of these states, and an outline of their peculiar constitution. It remains to give a general view of the physical aspect of this extensive region, of the various classes of its inhabitants, and of its present political and social condition.
Among the natural objects which this region presents, the most prominent is that immense and celebrated mountain chain which, under the name of Atlas, traverses nearly its whole extent. The loftiest portion is that which towers over the plain of Morocco, which, notwithstanding the intense heat of the climate, presents a range of summits clad in perpetual snow. The most recent traveller in this country, known by the name of Ali Bey, states that, after a very careful measurement, he found this portion to be 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The lower stages are well cultivated, and of luxuriant fertility; while, in ascending, they exhibit every variety of climate, from the torrid to that of the frigid zone. In skirting the kingdoms of Algiers and Tunis, its height is greatly diminished, and is represented by Dr Shaw as not exceeding the loftier eminences of our own island. The greater part of its declivity is here covered with vines and forests; and only occasionally a rocky precipice rears its head above the rest. This part of the range separates into various branches, bearing different names. The most elevated is Mount Jarjura, in the province of Algiers, which is covered with snow during a great part of the year. It forms a species of chain by itself, and rises very high above all others east of Morocco. Besides the grand chain, there is found, between it and the sea, another, called the Little Atlas, extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to Bona in Algiers.
The structure and component parts of this vast range have been very imperfectly explored. It appears probable, however, that, as in other mountain groups of the first magnitude, the central mass, as well as the loftier pinnacles, are composed of granite. Ali Bey states, that the rocks on the coast consist of secondary granite, with sandstone resting on it; a combination which seems deserving of notice, from its resemblance to that which occurs at the southern extremity of Africa. Marble also is said to occur abundantly in the western regions. The lower and eastern branches appear, however, to contain a large proportion of calcareous rocks. The chain, considering its extent, is thought not peculiarly rich in metallic ores, though this character may have been derived from the supine neglect of the inhabitants in exploring its mineral treasures. Silver and copper are procured to a considerable amount in the Tunisian territory. Algiers has lead, and a small proportion of iron. Morocco contains no mines that are known or worked, unless in the province of Suse, the southern extremity of the empire. There, iron is found at Idaultit, and copper, in considerable quantity, in the vicinity of Tessellert. The report of gold and silver mines is treated as a fable by Chenier; but Jackson asserts that he saw evident traces of them in the neighbourhood of Messa. He confirms the report of Leo, that the sovereigns of Morocco discourage the working of these mines, lest the natives, who at present can with difficulty be retained under the yoke, should thus be enabled to set them completely at defiance.
That narrow tract between the Atlas chain and the sea, which comprises the Barbary States, forms a plain of luxuriant fertility, traversed by innumerable streams, descending from this mighty storehouse of waters. Chenier calculates, that upwards of six thousand are poured down from the western Atlas upon the plains of Morocco. The vicinity, however, of the receptacle to their source, prevents their ever forming rivers of great magnitude. The principal are, in Morocco, the Seboo, the Morbeya, the Tensift, and the Suse; in Algiers, the Shelliff; in Tunis, the Mejerdah. The soil, which is naturally of the same loose and sandy character which prevails over northern Africa, is, by this profusion of moisture, rendered equal in fertility to any in the world. Its lightness is even beneficial, by enabling it to be worked with the utmost facility, so that, according to Dr Shaw, a yoke of oxen can plough an acre in the day. But wherever water fails, deserts are produced, which present, on a smaller scale, the same appearances with those immense wastes which extend south of the Atlas. The moisture then, which these mountains supply, is the sole spring of fertility to northern Africa; and Tripoli, where they terminate, borders almost immediately on the sandy waste.
Along the southern base of the Atlas extends a vast region, called Bledulgerid, or more properly Bled-el-Jereede—the dry country. It forms a gradual transition from the luxuriant plains of Barbary to the sterile desolation of the Sahara. Large streams, descending from the great chain, traverse it from north to south, till they expand into lakes, or are lost in the sands of the desert. The moisture, evaporated by the scorching winds which blow from the south, is not sufficient for the production of wheat, barley, or the finer fruits; dates are its abundant and almost sole product. They form the food of its inhabitants, and the basis of their commerce. Considered in a political view, this region is nominally subject to those states of Barbary which lie in contact with it; but the subjection scarcely amounts to more than the payment of a certain tribute. The part contiguous to, and dependent upon Morocco, is known by the names of Tafilet and Sigilmessa.
The whole of Barbary abounds, in a very remarkable degree, with different species of saline substances. Common salt particularly is found in every form, and in the greatest abundance. That drawn from the mines of Morocco is of a red colour, very strong and coarse; a white and finer kind is produced by evaporation on the sea coast. The lakes of Barbary are almost all salt, to an equal degree with the sea itself; and in the course of the summer, many of these dry up entirely, leaving the mineral encrusted on their beds. Near the lake of Marks, in the Algerine territory, there is a mountain composed entirely of salt, and all the chains which traverse it contain copious repositories of this mineral. Most of the springs which are not warm are salt; and in the territory of Tunis, there is no fresh water, unless from rain. Many of the rivers, when they dry up in summer, leave their banks copiously encrusted with nitrous and saline exudations. Salt-petre is not found in a concrete state; but at Tlem- san, Kairwan, and many other places, the earth is so impregnated with it, that six ounces are obtained from a quintal of soil.
The Atlas mountains, so far as hitherto known, are not the seat of any volcanic eruptions. In East Barbary, earthquakes are frequent during the hot and dry season; they have sometimes thrown down houses, and even carried them to a considerable distance; but these are rare instances; for their effects are by no means so great and terrible as in the south of Europe, and other countries exposed to their ravages. The interior heat, however, manifests itself by that which it communicates to a large proportion of the waters, which flow through this territory. Most of the streams of the Jereede are at least lukewarm; and near Oran, Tlemsan, Gabs, and other places in the territory of Algiers, they acquire a temperature which fits them for warm baths. About 40 miles to the east of Constantina, are those called the Hammam Meskouten, the heat of which is so intense, as to boil animal food in a quarter of an hour. The rocks over which this rivulet flows are entirely calcined by its influence, which, acting variously on the different substances, consuming some and leaving others nearly entire, produces some curious phenomena. The rocks at one place represent a line of regular cones, believed by the Arabs to be the tents of their ancestors converted into stone. At another place, the action is still deeper and more irregular; the figures of sheep, horses, camels, even of men, women, and children, are presented to the eye, all of which are believed by the natives to have undergone the same transformation.
The productions of the soil in Barbary are not materially different from those of southern Europe, the climate being brought, by the vicinity of the mountains, to pretty nearly the same temperature. The grains chiefly cultivated are wheat and barley; of which the crops are abundant, though there is not above one in the year. Oats are not frequent, but beans and lentils are very common. Pease have been introduced by Europeans. Pot herbs and fruits are abundant, and nearly resemble those of Europe, with addition, in the last branch, of the palm tree and the lotus.
The animal world, particularly in its wild members, presents an interesting field of observation. The Numidian lion still retains its ancient character of strength and ferocity. To guard against its attacks, the villages and encampments are surrounded with a species of palisade, and upon the slightest alarm, large fires are kindled; yet these multiplied precautions are not always sufficient to prevent the irruption of this lord of the forests. The animal called here a tiger is in reality only a panther. Wild boars are very numerous, and the hunting of them affords a favourite amusement. The hyaena is common, and is called the dubbah. Jackson mentions an animal, called the aondad, which inhabits the most lofty and precipitous regions of the Atlas; but, on account of its rugged and inaccessible haunts, has never been sufficiently observed or described. The Barbary antelope, or gazel, from its beauty, is the favourite of the Arabs. The Barbary females paint their eyes with a preparation of lead called Elkahol-filley, in order that they may rival the largeness and blackness of those of the gazel. Gazel here, as angel with us, is the most flattering epithet that can be applied to female beauty. Although the antelope be the swiftest of all animals, he is soon fatigued, so that the greyhound at length comes up with him. The flesh is valued, and is similar to venison. Among the smaller animals, the most noted are the jerboa and jird, which are about the size of a rat, burrow in the ground, and afford agreeable food.
Among birds, the chief is the ostrich, an often described species, and which occurs along the whole northern border of the desert. Those about We-dinoon and Cape Bojador are said to be the largest, and to have the finest feathers of any in the world. The feathers form a considerable article in the commerce of Morocco.
The serpent species is very numerous. The great Boa Constrictor is frequently found in the Sahara. It is not poisonous, and destroys merely by its immense strength and ferocity. There are several species, which contain a very active poison; but these, Dr Shaw conceives, do not exist in that great variety which is enumerated by ancient writers. There are also domestic serpents, which are of a more harmless nature, are never molested, and held even in a kind of veneration. The most destructive of this class are the scorpions, which swarm to such a degree, that, in summer, they are often found in the beds. It is believed in Morocco, that the flesh of this animal affords a cure for its bite; and most of the inhabitants, on that account, keep a bottle of scorpions preserved in olive oil. Shaw observes, that those of Algiers and Tunis, to the north of the Atlas, are not very noxious, causing only a slight inflammation and fever, but that, in the Sahara, they are much larger, and their venom more malignant.
The insect tribe, in this country, presents a much more terrible enemy, the locust. This destructive insect is bred on the confines of the desert; but at irregular intervals, impelled by some unknown cause, its swarms take their direction towards the cultivated regions. They move in vast bodies, and with an order which resembles that of regular armies. The march is all in one direction, led by a chief, called by the natives Sultan Jeraad. All attempts to stop their course by digging deep pits, or by kindling fires, have proved abortive. The foremost, indeed, fall victims to these means of annoyance; but the vast mass behind, undismayed by the fate of their forerunners, continue to pour on, file after file, in close and uninterrupted succession. The fires are extinguished; the pits are filled up; and the husbandman abandons in despair every attempt to arrest their progress. Every thing green is thoroughly consumed; and the fields, from being clad in all the verdure of spring, assume at once the aspect of wintry desolation. This scourge sometimes continues for several years, and is not unfrequently followed by the still more terrible evil of plague. It forms a very inconsiderable compensa- tion to the inhabitants, that they use the locusts as food, and, in that view, regard them even as a delicacy.
The domestic animals do not differ materially from those of Europe, with the exception of the camel, which, though frequent in Barbary, belongs more properly to the desert. The excellence of the horse was formerly the boast of Numidia; and Barbary horses have been highly valued, even in modern times. But the breed is said to have degenerated, chiefly in consequence of the best horses being liable to be seized by persons in power. The ass, and still more the mule, are the animals chiefly employed in labour. The cows are small, and produce little milk. The sheep fed on the Atlas are often of exquisite flavour. The wool being left entirely to nature, is of various quality, some of it coarse, but some very fine. The goats of Morocco produce that species of leather, the softness and pliability of which make it to be held in such high estimation.
After surveying the aspect of nature, our attention is next drawn to the ruins of ancient art. The whole extent of Algiers and Tunis, and even deep into the desert, is covered with the most superb monuments of Roman grandeur. Constantina (the ancient Cirta), Spaitla (Suffetula), El Gemme, and many other places, exhibit specimens of the architecture of that people in its highest perfection. The temple at Spaitla is considered by Bruce as the most perfect example of the composite order existing. It seems matter of regret, as well as of surprise, considering the general interest taken in these objects, that the drawings made by Bruce, or under his direction, said to be very fine, should never have been given to the public. The remains of Carthage are entirely subterraneous; yet these still convey an idea of the greatness and industry of that celebrated people. Of that immense aqueduct which conveyed water to the city from the distance of sixty miles, many hundred arches are still to be seen, and several cisterns, nearly entire, are used as habitations by the Arabs. A few years ago, in digging among the ruins of Utica, some labourers found a number of beautiful statues, some mutilated, but others in complete preservation. Among them were two statues of Tiberius and Augustus, the former very finely executed, and four female figures, two of them exquisite specimens of Grecian sculpture. The spirit of antiquarian research seems to be active among the Christian inhabitants of Tunis; and many, even of the poorer classes, are said to be in possession of medals, engraved stones, and other curiosities. These, however, by being dispersed, are in some measure lost to the public. M. Fagan, the British consul at Palermo, lately applied for permission to make excavations, which would no doubt be obtained, provided an adequate pecuniary compensation were offered. In that case, very interesting discoveries would probably be made.
The population of the Barbary States is made up of a number of distinct races. A particular survey of each will therefore be necessary, in order to afford any complete view of the subject.
The first and most numerous class are the Moors. This is an European term, derived from the ancient Mauri, of whom probably no traces are now to be found. It is applied to the inhabitants of the cities of Barbary, and the country in their immediate vicinity. Their manners and habits of life have been described in considerable detail in the body of the work, under the head of Morocco. Generally speaking, a Mahometan city presents an uniform aspect. Everywhere the same silence and seclusion, the same absence of all gaiety, bustle, and animation; narrow and dirty streets, bordered on each side by lines of dead wall,—each individual burying himself in the interior of his family, and shrouding his existence, as it were, from every other eye; while the female sex, who, in Europe, form the ornament of society, are immured in the apartments of the haram, bought and sold almost as slaves. With all this is combined an outward deportment of great gravity, solemnity, and decorum, with which neither the sentiments nor actions are found to correspond. All this is more particularly true of the cities of Morocco; for in Algiers and Tunis, an unsettled government, and the habits of a seafaring life, have produced, especially in the lower orders, a greater appearance of activity and turbulence, though without any departure from the general tenor of oriental habits.
The Letters lately published, written by a female relation of Mr Tully, formerly consul at Tripoli, give a very lively picture of the manners of a Barbary court, and particularly of female society. This she had very peculiar access to observe, through the intimate footing on which she lived with the ladies of the palace. The wives of the bashaw, and the other grandees, are generally Georgian or Circassian captives, who are purchased at Constantinople at an early age, and trained in all those accomplishments which fit them for the harams of the great. By the Mahometan law, each individual may have four wives, and an equal number of concubines; but there is one principal wife, who alone shares the sovereign power. She has usually the same origin with the others, and enters the haram as a slave, but succeeds, by address and superior powers of captivation, in raising herself to this envied dignity. It is unlawful for the daughters of the sovereign to marry a subject; and as they do not usually form alliances with foreign states, they have no resource but to marry Turks and renegadoes, the refuse of the society. They thus often choose as companions for life, persons unworthy even to appear in their company. Accordingly, the husband is ruled with the most absolute sway, and treated usually worse than their slaves; to all which he quietly submits, in consideration of the lucrative offices to which this connection secures his advancement.
The toilet of a Moorish lady is said to be formed entirely after the ancient model. No dressing-table is used; but a number of slaves attend, to each of whom a different office is assigned. One plaits and perfumes the hair, another arranges the eyebrows, a third paints them, and so on. A profusion of the richest Arabian perfumes and scented waters is used, and powdered cloves, in vast quantity, are stuffed into the hair. The eyelashes are, by a very tedious process, painted black, and, by pulling out a number of the hairs, are formed into a particular shape. This operation, though attended with very acute pain, is cheerfully submitted to. In short, a Moorish lady cannot be fully dressed under several hours; and her appearance is then so completely altered, that her nearest relations could scarcely be able to recognise her.
These ladies are represented, in the letters alluded to, as by no means spending their time, as usually supposed, in listless indolence. It is their task to overlook the numerous slaves who grind, spin, and perform all the necessary domestic offices. They are particularly expected to superintend the culinary operations, in order to guard against poison, the administering of which at meals is not unusual in these countries. These cares, with those of their family, fill up the time of the more amiable and domestic members of the harem; while those of a lighter turn find full occupation in the difficult and dangerous intrigues to which their disposition prompts them. With a few exceptions, however, they seem tolerably cheerful; and the view which these letters give of their character is, on the whole, favourable.
The inhabitants of the towns do not form a race by themselves, but are aggregated from the various races who inhabit, or have inhabited, the country districts—the Arabs, the Brebers, probably in part also the ancient possessors, and the Vandal conquerors of northern Africa. All these have been cast into that mould which Moslem despotism invariably forms. There is, however, a peculiar race, called Andalousie, descendants of those Moors, expelled from Spain by the stupid despotism of that government. They inhabit chiefly the northern cities of the empire of Morocco. They pique themselves on their descent, and seem to retain somewhat of that pride of birth which was probably formed during their residence in Europe.
The sciences, which anciently formed the glory of the Saracen name, are now, throughout the whole of this region, entirely extinct. Instruments are still shown, which display the most exquisite mechanical skill; but they are preserved merely as antique curiosities, without any knowledge of the principles by which they were constructed. Astronomy does not extend to the construction of a sun-dial, nor chemistry beyond the making of rose-water. With regard to medicine, the estimation in which that science, once so flourishing, is held, may be judged by the emolument reaped by its professors. The fee of a physician scarcely ever exceeds sixpence; and the most serious operations are performed for a shilling. These humble practitioners succeed tolerably, when only external wounds are to be healed; but in all internal maladies, it appears very doubtful whether most patients die of the disease, or of the remedies administered.
The Jews form a numerous class throughout all the cities, both of Eastern and Western Barbary. They seem to exist there nearly on the same footing as in Europe during the middle ages, the objects of universal hatred, contempt, and derision, and their plunder the invariable resource, whenever the sovereign finds himself in pecuniary embarrassment. Yet their knowledge of trade, and entire devotion to it, have almost secured to them the monopoly of mercantile and money transactions; and they are thus enabled to make such enormous profits as induces them to endure all this oppression. In Morocco, however, long suffering appears at length to have wearied their patience, and their numbers have been considerably thinned. In the capital, they are not now supposed to exceed 2000. No such diminution seems to have occurred in the other states. Tunis is calculated to contain above 15,000.
The country Moors, or those who cultivate the plains of Barbary, appear to differ very widely from the inhabitants of the cities. The property, or rather the occupation of land, is, as usual in despotic countries, much subdivided. The manners of the cultivators have been little observed, but they are said to be characterized by a peculiar degree of ignorance and simplicity.
The inhabitants of the pastoral districts intermediate between the sea coast and the Sahara, are known by the name of Arabs. They appear, in fact, to comprise such of the descendants of the conquerors of Barbary as have adhered to their original and native employments. They exhibit the same migratory habits, the same simplicity of life, and the same union of hospitality and plunder, which distinguish their countrymen in Arabia. The touch of despotism has, however, taken from them much of that sense of honour and dignity which elevate the latter above the common level of barbarous tribes. They live in tents, thirty or forty of which united form a camp or douar, under the command of a sheik: the supremacy over a number of these camps constitutes a Great Sheik or Emir. The tents are made by themselves, of camels' hair and the fibres of the palm tree; they are arranged generally in three concentric circles, around the habitation of the sheik. The cattle go out to pasture during the day, and are tended by the men and boys; at night they are withdrawn within the circle of the tents. They are farther guarded by a number of vigilant dogs, who bark incessantly. The complexion of the Arabs is of a deep copper. The females possess beauty when young, but quickly lose it. They adorn themselves by puncturing and tattooing, practices unknown to the other inhabitants of Barbary. When the spot occupied by a douar is exhausted, they remove to another; the women are then conveyed in groups generally of three, upon the back of each camel; while the children, lambs, and kids, are lodged in panniers on each side. The sheiks embrace every opportunity of acting independently; and whenever a weak government or civil war occurs, immediately begin to plunder. Of all the inhabitants of Barbary, the Arabs are animated with the most bigoted zeal for the Moslem tenets, and the deadliest enmity to the Christian name. This disposition, the effects of which have been felt by all European visitors, has probably darkened somewhat beyond reality the picture drawn by them of these tribes.
From the inhabitants of the plains, we ascend to those of the mountain districts. The greater part of the declivity of the Atlas chain is cultivated by a very remarkable people, called the Brebers. They have been named also Brebes, Berchbers, Barbaris; and from them the name of Barbary is supposed to be derived. The Brebers appear to be descended from the original possessors of this region; they view themselves still as its rightful owners, and regard with boundless indignation all the other nations by whom it is now occupied. Their subjection has always been very imperfect, and the slightest injury has been sufficient to drive them into rebellion. Their chiefs are elective, and they alone, in this part of Africa, have a government moulded into somewhat of a republican form. Their character is extremely warlike, and they excel the inhabitants of the plains in the management of fire-arms. The army of Morocco has often been completely defeated by them, and pursued to the gates of the capital. In general, however, they carry on war chiefly by surprise and ambuscade. The idea formed of them by the Saracen conquerors may be conceived by a passage in a celebrated Arabian writer (Bakoui), who gravely informs us, that they are the offspring of the giant Goliah, whom they resemble in strength and wickedness. They are divided into various tribes, of whom the Errifi, inhabiting a province of the same name between Algiers and Morocco, are the most powerful and ferocious.
The Brebers are distinguished from the other inhabitants of Barbary by a language which has nothing in common with any of the rest. It is considered by Adelung to be the same (allowing for some variation of dialect) with that of the Tibbo, the Tuarick, and of all the indigenous population of this part of Africa. Marsden and Langlaz have supposed it to be a corruption of the ancient Punic language; but Mr Pinkerton forcibly argues, that a language which has no abstract terms, none belonging to the arts and sciences, and no written characters, could scarcely be even a corruption of the language of a civilized people. Its high antiquity, however, cannot be doubted.
The Shelluhs inhabit the southern parts of Morocco. They are smaller in stature than the Brebers, and in character somewhat less rude. In all other respects, they exactly resemble, and may be considered as a branch of that race. Some writers have asserted their language to be different; but the vocabulary given by Chenier, and the information of Dupuis, seem to leave no doubt that it is merely a dialect with very slight variations.
To these different classes we may finally add one which is not inconsiderable,—that of the negroes. Originally brought as slaves from Soudan and Tombuctoo, they have multiplied greatly, and have even risen to distinguished estimation. The sovereigns of Morocco, unable, from the natural jealousy of despotism, to trust their own subjects, have placed their entire confidence in negro troops. These form the standing army of the empire, the body guard of the sovereign, and the garrison of all the principal fortresses. Their pay is very small, not exceeding a penny a-day; but its smallness is compensated by the licence in which they are allowed to indulge. A person, well acquainted with Morocco, being asked what their pay was, answered, "Whatever they can rob or steal." Muley Ishmael maintained nearly 100,000 of these troops. Their fidelity to their monarch is said to be exemplary. Negro slaves still continue to be imported in great numbers, particularly into Morocco.
We proceed now to take a view of the political state of this extensive region, which has sustained no change from the lapse of time, and is that of a savage, uncontrolled, and turbulent despotism. In Turkey and the Asiatic empires, there are public bodies, rendered venerable by religion, by law, and even by knowledge, who share and moderate the power of the despot. In Barbary, there are none such; the will, or rather momentary caprice of the sovereign rules every thing. Yet the throne, though thus absolute, is not thereby rendered secure; resting on no basis, it is overturned by the slightest storm that arises. The death of a sovereign is almost invariably followed by disputed succession and civil war; so that tranquillity, the sole boast of despotism, is not even secured by it to this unfortunate country.
The present sovereign of Morocco is named Mouley Soliman. He has three brothers, two of whom contended with him for the sovereignty, and being overcome, now live in exile. He is about forty, rather handsome, and of a quick comprehension. He is a fakih or doctor, deeply versed in the Mahometan faith, and passes the greater part of the day in prayer. His religious austerity prompts him to shun every appearance of luxury in his dress and manner of life. Requiring still greater simplicity in his ministers and attendants, he has completely banished that splendour which usually accompanies a court. The most pernicious effect of this bigotry consists in the hostility with which it inspires him against various branches of industry. He has ordered all the plantations of tobacco to be destroyed, because, although the prophet has not forbidden the use of that plant, there is no evidence of his having used it himself. In the same spirit, he opposes every possible obstruction to commerce with Europeans, whom, as infidels, he regards with horror. In other respects, his government is said to be milder than that usually experienced by the people of Morocco.
Algiers holds the next rank; but nearly a century Algiers has elapsed since any narrative of its internal state has been published by any European visitor. The most recent information regarding its interior that we have seen, is contained in an American publication, drawn up from the statements of the American captives who were confined there from 1793 to 1795. At that time the Dey was a Turkish soldier, named Hassan, about fifty, who had been brought from near Smyrna in the year 1786. Having insinuated himself into the favour of the reigning monarch, he gradually rose through the different offices to that of prime minister. The old Dey dying, Cedelli, a Greek, and a creature of Hassan, urged, and even ostensibly compelled him to assume the sovereignty. He prevailed; and another candidate who started up was put to death by the bow-string. There have probably been several changes since; and a new Dey is said to have come into power within the last six months. The Divan, it appears, have lost almost entirely the influence which they once possessed, and do little more than sanction the measures determined on by the Dey.
The present sovereign of Tunis is called Hamooda Bey, and is certainly an extraordinary character. He has displayed a most energetic policy, and has seated himself more firmly on the throne than any of his predecessors. He is now (1816) about fifty-five years of age, and has reigned twenty-nine, a period quite unexampled in the tumultuous annals of Tunis. He has, in a great measure, thrown off that dependence on the Turkish power, by which the state was formerly enthralled; he even chooses his ministers and favourites, in preference, out of other nations. The mere vigour of his character and administration seems to have freed him from that dread of conspiracy and insurrection, by which former Beys were perpetually haunted. His brother, and his two cousins, though the rightful heirs to the throne, live on the most friendly terms with him, and partake of all his amusements. He extends a very liberal protection to all classes of his subjects, even Christians and Jews, who, before his time, might be insulted or killed with perfect impunity. He is indefatigable in the dispatch of business, and spends very little time in sleep, or in the haram. At seven in the morning, he generally receives the consuls of foreign nations in the hall of audience. From eight to twelve, he sits in the hall of justice. He is supreme judge throughout his own dominions; all his subjects, from the highest to the lowest, attend and plead their own cause. Unfortunately; wherever the Bey's personal interest is concerned, justice is entirely out of the question. His hand is always open for bribes from either party, and sometimes from both. Where such all-powerful motives do not interfere, he administers justice with equity, and even discovers a peculiar tact in eliciting the truth. His decisions are always given and executed with equal promptitude. Upon the whole, the security of person and property, and the general state of society, has been greatly ameliorated since his accession to power. Nothing seems to prevent him from being a good prince, except an avarice which knows no bounds, and hesitates at no means of gratification. This induces him to restrain the freedom of trade, to load it with monopolies, and often, which is worst of all, to become a merchant himself. He takes every opportunity of extorting money from his opulent subjects, without any pretence, and by the most arbitrary exactions. The following affords a curious example of Tunisian economy. He has erected a new palace, which will, it is said, be one of the most splendid edifices in Barbary; but, in order to lighten the expence, the ground floor has been fitted up into shops. He has given up the use of wine, in which he formerly indulged to great excess; but he is much addicted to other shameful species of debauchery.
The ministers and favourites of Hamooda are of the lowest description, both as to birth and character. The Zapatapa, or keeper of the seals, and Soliman Kiaya, commander of the army, are both Georgian slaves. The former is stained with every vice, but the latter exhibits an honourable and humane disposition, very rare in this country. The Bey's private secretary is a Christian slave; and the important and lucrative post of guardian of the slaves is held by a Neapolitan renegade.
For some time past, a furious war has raged between the states of Algiers and Tunis; the former, the more powerful of the two, being ambitious of conquering its weaker neighbour. The Bey of Tunis can call out a force of from 40,000 to 50,000 men; but they are merely an armed mob, and scarcely present the semblance of a regular army. The Algerine troops, however, are precisely of the same description. In the spring of 1807, the two armies took the field. That of Tunis was highly appointed, and thought of nothing less than the conquest of the Algerine province of Constantina. But so soon as the advanced guard of the Algerines was seen reconnoitring, the whole Tunisian army turned, threw down their arms, and fled with the utmost rapidity in every direction. Many are said to have arrived at Tunis, without having once ventured to look behind. The Algerines took possession of their camp, baggage, and 15,000 camels, laden with every kind of supplies. It is supposed that nothing but the dread that so easy a victory might be the effect of stratagem, prevented the enemy from marching forward, and entering Tunis.
The army of the Bey, however, reassembled almost as quickly as it had dispersed; and in July he was again able to take the field. On the 13th, the two armies approached each other; and the advanced guards having met, the troops of Tunis began to fly in confusion. But a Greek slave having ventured to fire a cannon, the Algerines took the alarm, and retreated precipitately to their own camp. The Tunisians having thereafter rallied, the two armies remained all next day in sight of each other. In the evening, however, Soliman Kiaya, having gone up the mountains to reconnoitre with a small body of cavalry, the Algerines began to dread, that an attempt was making to surround them; upon which, the whole army broke up, and fled precipitately in every direction, leaving their camp, baggage, and 10,000 camels, in the hands of the victors. The latter, satiated with plunder, were not inclined to advance, otherwise they might easily have taken possession of Constantina. We need scarcely add, that such combats were not attended with serious bloodshed; they were sufficient, however, to deter these heroes from again taking the field, and the war was thenceforth carried on by petty skirmishes.
The government of Tripoli presents a still darker picture than that of Tunis. The flourishing era in the history of this state, was the reign of Hamet the Great, at the commencement of the last century. He freed Tripoli from the Turkish yoke, in a manner worthy indeed of so barbarous an administration. He invited to a feast 300 of their chiefs, each of whom, as they successively entered, were strangled. At the same time, a general massacre took place in the city. The Porte being propitiated by presents, he was left to reign in tranquillity. He reduced to complete subjection the hitherto untractable possessors of the mountain districts of Garian and Mesulata; and even succeeded in rendering Fezzan his tributary. He invited foreigners to settle in his dominions, and promoted the manufactures of woollen stuffs, Morocco leather, &c. His popularity enabled him to render the crown hereditary in his family. The late Bashaw reigned for thirty years with great moderation and mildness; and Tripoli assumed a civilized and pacific character, very unusual in this part of the world. A most unfavourable change has taken place in his son Yusuf, the present Bashaw. He began his career by murdering his elder brother, an amiable prince, in the most barbarous manner. Then surrounding himself by negro slaves and Arabs, he gained an ascendancy over the more pacific inhabitants of the city. He thus succeeded in driving out his second brother, and seizing on the sovereignty. He is represented as uniting in himself all the vices of that worst of characters, a Barbary despot. He has, in a great measure, ruined commerce, by monopolizing to himself all the lucrative and important branches. His principal minister is Sidi Hamet, who shares with his master the most decided partiality to the French, and enmity to the English. Lord Nelson, in 1798, sent a line of battle ship to demand that the Bashaw should for ever remove from his councils so dangerous a subject. A feigned compliance took place, but lasted only till the English ship was out of sight of Tripoli. This personage has since been raised to a higher situation, that of minister for foreign affairs, while his creature Mustapha has been appointed captain of the port. The place of first admiral is held by a person bearing the name of Murat Rais, but who is in reality a Scotsman, named Peter Lyle. Being at Tripoli in 1792, as mate of an English vessel, and accused of plundering part of the cargo, he fled to the castle, embraced Mahometanism, and received a command in the Tripoline navy. He soon distinguished himself in the capacity of a pirate, and rose by degrees to his present high situation. He is said, however, to enjoy it but little, and to sigh still for the loss of his country, and his friends.
The religion of Barbary is well known to be throughout Mahometan, professed with a degree of rigour and intolerance unknown in any other region of the globe. There is not, however, as in Turkey, any great body, like the Ulema, to act as the depositary of its doctrines and influence. This influence is here enjoyed by individuals who raise themselves, by personal merit or demerit, to the character of saints. Saints, in Morocco, almost share with the sovereign the power of the empire. Sidi Ali and Sidi Alarbi are the two most eminent reigning saints. Their consideration is chiefly supported by working miracles, and does not require any sacrifice of the pleasures of life. They indulge in all these without reserve, and, besides the usual number of wives, keep numerous concubines. The districts in which these saints reside pay no taxes, and are subject to no authority, except theirs; and they are perpetually surrounded by a body of armed men, to chastise their own enemies and those of the prophet. At some distance from Tripoli, there is a fortified village possessed by a saint, called the Lion, which serves as an asylum for every species of criminals, even those who are guilty of high treason. Idiots, throughout Barbary, are generally reputed saints; and some, in order to maintain the reputation of sanctity, find it expedient to counterfeit the total absence of reason.
The population of Barbary has been very variously reported, and has never been fixed on any precise or authentic data. We shall collect the different statements made on the subject. Mr Jackson gives the population of Morocco at 14,886,600; of whom the cities and towns contain 895,600; the provinces within Atlas 10,341,000; the Berebbers amount to 3,000,000, the Taflets to 650,000. He states these numbers to be founded upon information extracted from the Imperial Register. They are quite improbable, and yet far beyond any estimate formed by preceding travellers. Chenier does not conceive that the empire can contain above six millions; and some have even reduced the estimate so low as two. Mr Macgill heard the population of the Tunisian territory generally estimated at five millions; but is inclined to reduce the estimate to half that amount. Of these he supposes that 7000 may be Turks, 100,000 Jews, 7000 Christians; the rest Moors, Arabs, and renegadoes. Of the Algerine territory we have seen no estimate; but being more extensive and equally cultivated with that of Tunis, it must contain a greater population. Tripoli is reckoned by Ali Bey to contain two millions; probably beyond the truth. Of the great cities, Morocco is generally supposed to contain 30,000; Fez, by Jackson, 380,000; by Ali Bey, only 100,000; Tunis, by Mr Macgill, 100,000; by Mr Blaquiere, 130,000; Algiers, by Dr Shaw, 117,000; Tripoli, by Mr Blaquiere, 25,000; by Ali Bey, only 15,000.
With a soil so fertile, and where manufacturing industry is in so low a state, the productions of the earth must form the staple articles of export. Barbary, in ancient and even in modern times, has been the granary of southern Europe. Of late, however, this branch of trade has been nearly cut off by a general prohibition, in all the states, against the exportation of corn. The materials for export are thus reduced to fruits, gums, hides, wax, and the produce of the very few manufactures which flourish throughout these states. Of these, Morocco leather is the most important. Fez is the place where this manufacture flourishes in the highest perfection; but it is also carried on in the other cities of Morocco, as well as those of Eastern Barbary. Fez is also distinguished by the manufacture of woollen haiks, a species of long cloths universally worn by the Moors when they go abroad; of sashes and silk handkerchiefs; and of carpets, which are little inferior to those of Turkey. Tunis is famous for the manufacture of a species of conical woollen caps, called scull-caps, universally worn, not only in Barbary, but over the Levant. This fabric formerly employed fifty thousand persons; but the manufacturers of Leghorn and Marseilles now imitate it, and succeed in underselling the Tunisians, though, in the quality of the stuff, the latter remain still unrivalled. Robes and shawls of woollen gauze are also made to a great extent. Concerning the manufactures of Algiers and Tripoli, we have few details; but with the exception of caps, they appear to be nearly similar to those of Tunis.
The caravan trade with the interior of Africa is chiefly carried on from Morocco and Tripoli. From the former it is very extensive. The caravans carry chiefly salt, tobacco, and European goods; they bring back slaves, ivory, and gold dust. Lempiere estimates the amount of the former at one million; the latter at ten millions; which, if correct, would imply the profits on this trade to be immense. The trade from Tripoli has been greatly diminished, in consequence of the Bashaw having embroiled himself with his Arab neighbours, who, occupying the route by which the caravans must pass, render the communication extremely precarious.
The European goods for which there exists a demand in the Barbary States, are exceedingly various. They include more or less of almost every article both of manufacture and of colonial produce. In the former class are such articles as, being of inferior quality, can be afforded at a cheap rate; Yorkshire cloths, particularly druggets and serges; muslins of the coarsest and cheapest sort; coarse linen, particularly German. Raw silk and Spanish wool were imported to a great extent when their manufactures were more flourishing. French wines are imported into the eastern states, where the precepts of Mahomet are less rigidly observed. The other imports are tin and lead to a considerable extent, English is preferred, coffee, sugar, and the different kinds of spices: hardware, cutlery, toys, are in some demand: also alum, vitriol, cochineal, gum-lac, and vermilion, for their manufactures.
The commerce of Morocco is greatly diminished by the senseless bigotry of the reigning Emperor. The intercourse with Europe is now confined to the port of Mogadore, and is subject to various restrictions. The articles of export, suited to the European market, appear, by Mr Jackson's enumeration, to be chiefly sweet and bitter almonds, about 1,000,000 lbs.; gum Barbary, gum Senegal, and gum Sandarac, upwards of 100,000 lbs.; cow and calf skins, 260,000 lbs.; goat skins, 10,000 dozen; wool, 30,000 lbs.; ostrich feathers, olive oil, citrons, and some minor articles.
The commerce of Eastern Barbary has hitherto been carried on chiefly from Leghorn and Marseilles. Louis XIV. established at the latter port a Royal African Company, which formed several establishments upon the coast of the Algerine province of Constantina. The objects were the corn trade and the coral fishery, which they shared at first with an English company already established; but the latter failing, the whole trade fell into the hands of the French. Their first establishment was at the Bastion de France, at the western extremity of Algiers; but this was abandoned, and they settled at La Cala, Bona, II Col, and Tabarca. They paid L.4000 a-year to the Dey of Algiers, and 100 per cent. to the Bey of Constantina, on the grain exported; in addition to which, they were obliged to submit to various species of extortion and humiliation. The Continental war, and the extinction of the French naval power, threw a large proportion of this trade into the hands of the British; and Malta became the channel through which it was conducted. In 1806, the British Government contracted with the Dey of Algiers for the possession of La Cala, Bona, and II Col; in consideration of which, they stipulated to pay him the sum of 50,000 dollars (L. 11,000 Sterling). Mr Blaquiere, and other persons acquainted with this coast, are of opinion, that very important advantages might be derived from this settlement. The coral fishery alone might employ 500 boats and 9000 men; besides which, there is a large export of hides, wax, and wool. It is added, that the country produces ship-timber, particularly oak, of the best quality, and in inexhaustible abundance, and that excellent hemp and flax might be raised. As yet, however, the British Government have continued to pay the money, without forming any establishment, or deriving any benefit from the privilege thus purchased. The coral fishery is carried on by a small number of French and Neapolitan boats; and the spirited attempts made by the merchants at Malta to open a communication with this quarter have been frustrated. From the pressure of the war, or other causes, no military establishment has yet been formed at La Cala. The place, however, is said to be admirably suited for such a purpose, and, at a very small expence, might be rendered impregnable.
We shall finally consider these states under the Christian view, which has so justly excited the interest and sympathy of the British nation, that of Christian slavery. To be placed under the absolute control of the most brutal and corrupted of mortals, whom religious antipathy has divested besides of every human sympathy—without any law or earthly power to appeal to—the hopeless victims of brutal cruelty, and still more brutal voluptuousness;—this is certainly the most dreadful fate to which human beings were ever devoted. Yet such has been the fate of thousands of Europeans, among whom were often those who, from rank, sex, and cultivation of mind, must have been most keenly sensible of its horrors. Painful as the subject is, it seems indispensable to give some details which may illustrate the extent of the evil, and the necessity which existed for some arrangements to remedy it.
The most particular and authentic account of the treatment of slaves at Algiers is that given in the American work already alluded to. On the 23d October 1792, the ship President saw approaching an armed xebec, bearing Spanish colours, till she came within gun-shot, when she instantly hoisted the bloody flag, and fired. Escape was now impossible; the xebec instantly put out a boat, with thirty armed men, who rowed furiously towards the vessel, and boarded it with the wildest shouts and outcries. No resistance being made, they began to strip the crew with a fury of avarice, of which it was impossible to form an idea. Sometimes several fell upon one American, and fought over him for the clothes of which he was stript. Having ransacked every corner, they then ordered the Americans to descend into the boat; and those who showed any hesitation were instantly knocked down, and kicked over into it. On reaching Algiers, the distribution took place. The Dey made first his choice, which was formerly limited to an eighth of the whole, but now extends to as great a number as he chooses to demand. For this purpose, they were conducted to the palace, and drawn up in files along a court, where they passed under this review. Having made his selection, he dismissed the rest with the compliment, "Go, you Christian dogs, and eat stones." The youngest were employed in menial offices about the palace, the rest were put to work in the-marine and in public buildings. Whenever a foreign vessel was in the port, they were loaded with thirty or forty pounds weight of chains, in order to prevent their escape. Their heaviest labour consisted in dragging immense stones from a neighbouring quarry, for the repair and enlargement of the mole. A body of Turks attended to urge them on, but gave no aid, unless by continually roaring out Hyomoly, "heave away," with a noise so tremendous, that it was heard at the distance of more than a league. At night, they were locked up in two huge buildings, called bagnios, the lower part of which was employed for shops, and the upper for the joint accommodation of the captives and of the wild beasts belonging to the Dey. There was no bed in the place, and they were obliged to lie on the floor, till their own ingenuity enabled them to erect some humble substitute. The daily allowance of food was a pound of very bad bread, and a small quantity of oil. Many sunk under this accumulation of distress, and were carried to the Spanish hospital, the only relief provided for their miseries. The sympathy of the American people having been at length excited by reports of their sufferings, they opened a negociation; and, at the expence of nearly 800,000 dollars, procured the release of the captives.
The observations made by Captain Croker, during his visit in 1815, agree with the narrative of the Americans, and prove that no improvement had taken place since that time. At the period of his arrival, three hundred Christian captives had been driven in from Bona, exposed to such treatment that fifty died within six days after reaching Algiers. They were still employed in the quarries, and loaded with chains, as before. His description of the house in which they were locked up is, that, "if it had light," it would resemble those in which the West Indian negroes keep their pigs. Being now at peace with the great powers, their piracy is chiefly exercised on Naples and Sardinia, with whom they have always taken care to continue at war. European, and even English colours, are assumed to entrap the unfortunate victims. They frequently also make descents on the coast, and sweep away all the inhabitants, without distinction of age and sex. The Tunisians, at the commencement of the reign of the present Bey, landed on the island of St Pierre, belonging to Sardinia, and carried off the whole population, amounting to upwards of a thousand. At Tunis and Tripoli, the treatment of slaves is not so utterly inhuman as at Algiers. The most dreadful fate is that of those who are judged fit to be received into the harem of the prince, or any of his principal officers; which, in consequence of the depraved propensities here prevalent, is not confined to one sex. Of those who become the slaves of private persons, both at Tunis and Algiers, some are tolerably, and a few very well treated.
It is not easy to ascertain the precise extent in which this enormous evil lately existed. Mr Blaquierc, though he represents its horrors in the most glowing colours, considers the whole number of captives as amounting only to a thousand. Mr Macgill calculates two thousand in Tunis alone, and the Americans the same number at Algiers. The first estimate, however, is probably the more correct, as, by a calculation of the amount and rate of ransoms returned, the number in Algiers, at the time of Lord Exmouth's first expedition, appears to have been four hundred and fifteen.
The outrageous conduct of the Barbary corsairs has repeatedly roused the indignation of the principal European states. Yet it has happened, that most of the expeditions undertaken to repress or intimidate them have been not only unsuccessful, but attended with the most disastrous issue. We may particularly mention the expedition of Charles V., which will be found narrated in the body of the work. More recently, in 1776, the Spaniards sent a large fleet into the road of Algiers, which lauded 13,000 or 14,000 troops. Through a want of harmony, however, between the commanders, the army reembarked, and the fleet sailed off without attempting anything of importance. They returned in 1783, when the fortifications were greatly strengthened, but by means of gunboats, they were enabled to bombard the city in a terrible manner. Yet the Dey, though obliged to leave his palace, was neither moved by his own danger, nor by the sufferings of his subjects, to sue for peace; and the Spaniards at length retired. They returned next year; but the Dey had now prepared a large force of gunboats, which kept them at a distance; and they were obliged to move off, without having effected anything whatever. The Algerines now believed themselves invincible; and the Spaniards were fain to purchase peace with a million of dollars, besides a large sum for the ransom of their captives.
In 1800, the Americans waged war against Tripoli, in consequence of a vessel belonging to them having been seized, and the crew made slaves. They repeatedly attacked the harbour, and did some damage to it, but were not able to make any serious impression, or to produce any effect, besides that of impelling the tyrant to a more rigorous treatment of his captives. They then adopted a different course. They landed in Egypt, where they were joined by Hamet, the elder brother of Yusuf, the reigning Bashaw, and to whom the throne rightfully belonged. The confederates having collected 500 men, marched through the Lybian desert, and took Derne, the frontier town of Tripoli. Notwithstanding the smallness of this force, Yusuf, alarmed by the popularity of his brother, accepted the mediation of the Danish consul, and a treaty was concluded. The prisoners were restored at a moderate ransom, and Hamet, now abandoned, returned to Egypt. Upon the whole, there seems to have been very little ground for the boast which has been made, respecting the conduct and success of this American expedition.
After the termination of the Continental war, which had absorbed every other interest, a deep feeling was excited in the British nation, for the fate of their fellow Christians, who were groaning under this horrible slavery. Sicily and Sardinia, the chief sufferers, were our intimate allies; besides which, Britain, as mistress of the seas, seemed called upon to put down a system of naval warfare and depredation, inconsistent with all those ties by which civilized nations are united together. Urged by this impulse, the British Government directed Lord Exmouth (late Sir E. Pellew) to sail with a squadron against Algiers and Tunis. The appearance of this armament was sufficient to induce both states to a compliance with the terms demanded, which were, peace with Sicily and Sardinia; the restoration of their captives at a moderate ransom; and an engagement, in every future war, to treat prisoners in the manner customary among civilized nations. Scarcely, however, had this treaty been signed, when it was violated, on the part of Algiers, in the most outrageous manner. Several hundred boats, chiefly Neapolitan, being employed under sanction of the British flag, in carrying on the pearl-fishery on the coast near Bona, a gun was suddenly fired from the castle, when two thousand Turks and Moors rushed down upon the unfortunate fishermen, and, aided by fire from the forts, massacred the whole of them. The English flag was seized, and trampled under foot. Lord Exmouth had already sailed, and was arrived in England before he heard of this dreadful tragedy. The utmost expedition was then employed to equip a new and more formidable armament. In a few weeks Lord Exmouth again sailed, and being joined at Gibraltar by a Dutch squadron under Admiral Capellen, arrived before Algiers, on the 26th August last (1816), about three months from the time at which he had left it. On the morning of the 27th, a flag of truce was sent in, stating the conditions on which alone peace would now be granted, and allowing two hours for their acceptance. Three hours elapsed, without an answer, but also without any hostile movement; and Lord Exmouth began to hope the intentions of the Dey might be pacific, when several shots were fired from the harbour. A combat of the most terrible description immediately began, the batteries being attacked with all the characteristic valour of British seamen, and defended with all the fury of barbarian desperation. The British fleet suffered severely; but after seven hours fighting, the enemy's batteries were reduced to a state of ruin; and the flotilla having succeeded in setting fire to some of the Algerine vessels, the flame spread to such a degree, that the whole fleet, arsenal, and gunboats, were ere long reduced to ashes. On the following morning, the Dey submitted unconditionally to the terms prescribed by the British Government. These were—the abolition, for ever, of Christian slavery; the immediate delivery, to Lord Exmouth, of all captives, of whatever nation, who were within the territory of Algiers; the repayment of the ransoms formerly received; with apology and reparation to the British consul, for insults that had been offered to him. All these stipulations were executed with the utmost promptitude.
Thus terminated an achievement, than which none has ever reflected a purer glory on the British name—one undertaken, not from any merely British motives, but to defend the general cause of humanity, and vindicate the rights of the civilized world. All observers agree that, in the case of a race at once mean and barbarous, fear is the only motive which can act with sufficient force; and that a signal chas- tisement, such as cannot be soon forgotten, affords the only security for their future moderation. The lesson which the Algerines have now received is of this description; and there is therefore every reason to hope that its influence may be long and salutary.
See Shaw's Travels; Jackson's Account of Morocco; Macgill's Account of Tunis; Blaquiere's Letters on Sicily; Tully's Letters; Ali Bey's Travels; Keatinge's Travels; Appendix to Robert Adam's Travels in the Interior of Africa; Account of Algiers, and of the Treatment of American Captives, by James Wilson Stephens, of Philadelphia. Brooklyn, 1800.