an island forming part of the great East-Indian Archipelago. Next to New Holland, which may be considered as a species of continent, it seems indisputably the largest in the known world. It reaches from about 7° north to 4° south latitude, and from 109° to 118° east longitude. Its length may be estimated at 750 miles, its greatest breadth at 600, and its average breadth at 350. It exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of lofty mountains in the centre, sloping gradually down to level and alluvial tracts along the sea shore. It is watered by many fine rivers, of which those of Borneo Proper, Banjar Massin, and Passir, are navigable for more than fifty miles above their junction with the sea. All these rivers were understood by Dr Leyden to be derived from an immense lake in the interior, called the Sea of Manilla. It is more probable that they all rise from the mountainous district of greatest elevation. The interior of Borneo is covered with immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly orang-outangs. A great part of the coast is marshy, so that it is in portions only that it displays the exuberance of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo ranks lowest as to civilization and improvement. Nothing, perhaps, has tended so powerfully to check its progress as the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or inland seas which have always proved the nursery of commerce.

The Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526, though, from the superior wealth promised by the Spice Islands, it attracted comparatively little attention. Yet they, as well as the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English, formed establishments on different parts of the coast; but the small force defending them, and the fierce animosity of the na- The physical structure of Borneo, the vast forests, mountains, and jungles of the interior, obstruct communication between the different parts of its coast, as completely as if an extent of sea had intervened. It is thus split into a number of petty districts, entirely detached from each other, and which cannot be satisfactorily described, unless in detail. In this manner, therefore, we shall consider the principal states, beginning with Borneo Proper, and thence making the circuit of the island; after which we shall attempt some general views of its population and commerce.

Borneo Proper occupies the northern coast, and is reckoned a state of great antiquity. The soil is comparatively fertile, supplying rice sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants, as well as most of the camphire for which the island is celebrated. The city, called also Borneo, is built upon alluvial ground, about ten miles above the mouth of the river of the same name. It is compared to Venice; canals are conducted through every street, and all business is conducted in boats, usually rowed by women. The houses are built upon posts, and ascended by ladders. The river is navigable for large vessels considerably above the town; but there is a bar at its entrance, over which there is scarcely a depth of seventeen feet at high water. The sultan is treated with those marks of peculiar respect which in this part of the world usually indicate an ancient dynasty; but the chief power rests in the council of the nobles. This state has little communication with Europeans; and the English, who were accustomed to deal to a small extent in piece-goods, have in a great measure discontinued the traffic. The commerce of this city and district is almost entirely engrossed by the Chinese, who bring annually from Amou four or five junks, of about 500 tons burden. As the neighbourhood abounds in excellent timber, they frequently build their junks here, and carry them away loaded with the commodities of the country.

On the eastern coast of Borneo, Minggedava and Pappal are populous, fertile, and well-watered districts. Malloodoo possesses these advantages in a still superior degree, and grows also a large quantity of rattans. Tiroon produces sago in abundance, and birds' nests more copiously than any other part of the eastern Archipelago. None of these states, however, are much frequented by or known to Europeans. The chief state on the eastern coast is Passir, situated about fifty miles up a river of the same name. This district is very low and flat; and, were it not cooled by the sea breezes, would be intensely hot. Being marshy and filled with woods, it is extremely unhealthy. The town is said not to contain above 300 wooden houses, which are built along the river. The sultan has a palace and wooden fort along the northern bank. The people of Passir have an extremely bad reputation as to their conduct in mercantile transactions. They use false weights and measures, manufacture counterfeit articles, and embrace, in short, every opportunity of cheating that offers. The English East India Company made an attempt, in 1772, to establish a factory here, but it did not succeed.

Banjar Massin is the principal state on the southern coast of Borneo; and, like the others, it owes its prosperity to a large river, on the banks of which it is situated. This river is five or six fathoms deep; but, unfortunately, the bar does not allow above twelve or thirteen feet of water, and requires the aid of the tide to produce even that depth. Ships, however, may anchor in the port of Tombangou or Tombornio, near the mouth of the river, where they are well supplied with water and provisions. Banjar Massin, in 1780, was estimated to contain a population of 8500 Mahommedans, chiefly Javanese, with a considerable proportion of Bugis, Macassars, and Malays. The Chinese are also pretty numerous. The sultan resides at Martapurn, about three days' journey up the river, to which place he is attached by the circumstance of its being an uncommonly fine hunting station. The district of Banjar produces gold and diamonds, both of superior quality to those found in other parts of the island. Pepper is so abundant that, in a commercial view, it may be considered as the staple commodity. The iron is very excellent, and peculiarly fit for steel; though Dr Leyden asserts that the inhabitants do not themselves understand the art of manufacturing it. In 1790 the English East India Company formed a settlement at Banjar Massin. A rage then prevailed for multiplying establishments, and the present one was soon so far extended as to equal that of Calcutta. But the expectations of extensive trade, which prompted to such an enlargement, were in a great measure illusory; a thousand tons of pepper being the most valuable article drawn from the settlement. Before the company could be fully aware of its unproductive nature, however, this settlement was brought to a premature end. An attack was made by the natives on so great a scale, and with such fury, that, though repulsed, it seemed to leave no choice but the immediate evacuation of the factory, without even removing the stores. The damage sustained on the occasion is estimated at 50,000 dollars.

Succadana, or, as Dr Leyden calls it, Sacudina, was anciently the most powerful state on the western coast of Borneo. The Dutch began to trade there in 1604, but they soon afterwards attached themselves, in preference, to Sambas. In 1623 they abandoned their factory at Succadana. In 1786 they united with the sultan of Pontiana in an expedition against this place, which they took and entirely destroyed. It appears to have been since rebuilt, but is entirely in the hands of the Malays, and scarcely ever visited by Europeans. Pontiana is a state of very recent origin, but it now exceeds in wealth and power all others upon the western coast of Borneo. This distinction it owes to the wisdom of the Arab prince by whom it was founded. He renounced from the first the pernicious policy, almost universal in these petty states, of embarking in trade, and monopolizing its principal articles. He confined himself to his proper functions, of dispensing justice, and securing protection to all, of whatever country or religion, who resorted to his dominions. Under this salutary policy Pontiana soon rose to be the greatest emporium in those seas. It is situated on a large river, formerly called Laua, and the country behind produces diamonds the most abundantly of any district in Borneo. The Dutch established a factory here in 1776, and maintained ever after a good understanding with the sultan. In 1813, after the British force had taken possession of Batavia, that prince, dreading an attack from Sambas, solicited the protection of a British garrison, which was immediately sent; and he afterwards assisted our troops in the reduction of Sambas. Momparwa, situated a little to the north of Pontiana, is the best market for opium upon this coast. The city lies nineteen miles up the river, the entrance of which is obstructed by a bar and by several small islands. This is probably the same district called Mattan by Dr Leyden, who says that the king possesses the finest diamond in the world, for which a high price was offered by the Dutch, which he refused to accept. Sambas is situated about thirty miles up the river of the same name. Like most other towns in Borneo, it is built of timber and bamboos, and raised by stakes above the swampy foundation. Sambas has always been a powerful state, but for some time past has devoted itself so entirely to piracy as to render its existence scarcely compatible with that of its civilized neighbours. Upon this principle the British, in 1812, undertook an expedition against it; but they were repulsed with great loss in the attack, and suffered still more from the malignant influence of the climate. In the following year, however, a new expedition was undertaken under Colonel Watson, who, on the 3d of July, carried the fort by storm, and obliged the rajah to retire into the interior of his dominions.

On a general view of the state of culture and civilization in Borneo, Mr Hamilton estimates the population at 3,000,000, which we should suppose to be rather above than under the truth. The interior is entirely occupied by a native race, called variously, according to the parts of the island which they inhabit, Dayak, Idan, and Tiroom. Those which subsist by fishing are commonly called Biajoos. The appellations of Horaforas and Maroots have also been applied to these races. The whole may be considered as one, almost savage, and nearly similar to that which occupies the interior of Sumatra. Some, indeed, cultivate the ground, some display considerable industry in fishing, and a few employ themselves in collecting gold; but their institutions in general indicate the very rudest state of human society. It has been strongly asserted that they devour the flesh of their enemies; an assertion not noticed by Dr Leyden, and which has in many instances been made without foundation. All accounts agree, however, as to the existence of another truly savage custom, by which every man is debarred from the privilege of matrimony till he has, with his own hand, cut off the head of an enemy. Those, therefore, who are desirous of entering into that state form themselves into what Dr Leyden calls head-hunting expeditions. They make an inroad into the territories of a neighbouring tribe, and, if their strength appears sufficient, endeavour to effect their object by force; if otherwise, they conceal themselves behind thickets, till an unfortunate individual passes, whom they can make their prey. Some are also said to immolate human victims on the altars of their divinities.

The inhabitants of the towns along the coast consist chiefly of that race so universally diffused throughout the Indian islands under the name of Malays. This name, to an European ear, has usually suggested every extreme of perfidy and atrocity. We have perused, however, a very different estimate of their character, formed by an intelligent gentleman, who spent several years in this part of India. He describes them as honest, frank, simple, and even gentle in their manners, decidedly superior, in a moral view, to the degenerate Hindoos. The sanguinary deeds which have exposed them to so much reproach he ascribes to a proud and almost chivalrous sense of honour, which makes them regard blows, or any similar personal insult, as an offence only to be expiated by blood. The coarse and unfeeling treatment which they often experience from Dutch and Chinese masters drives them to these dreadful extremities. Piracy, however, is a vice of which this race cannot be acquitted; and the western coast of Borneo, situated on the great naval route to China, may be viewed as the grand field for its exercise. To a poor and hardy race, who see half the wealth of Asia passing along their shores, the temptation is almost irresistible. Like the Arabs, they have formed for themselves a code of morality, in which plunder is expunged from the list of vices. Yet, though individually brave, they possess no skill or discipline which could render them formidable to the crew of an European vessel. The cowardice of the Lascars, by whom Indian trading vessels are usually navigated, is the only circumstance which has made our trade suffer so severely from their ravages.

Next to the two classes above enumerated, the most numerous are the Chinese. These, by the gentleman above alluded to, are considered as the most valuable subjects whom an uncivilized state can receive into its bosom. Borneo. The difficulty of finding subsistence in their own country has led them to emigrate in vast numbers into Borneo. Nothing, perhaps, except the law which prohibits females from leaving the empire, could have prevented this almost unoccupied island from being entirely filled with a Chinese population. From this circumstance, however, the colonists are composed entirely of men in the vigour of life, and of the most enterprising and industrious character. Their chief settlement is at Sambas, on the western coast, where the numbers cannot be estimated at less than 30,000, composing a sort of independent state. Their almost sole occupation is that of extracting the gold which abounds upon this coast. It is found in alluvial soil, and is purified by the simple process of passing a stream of water over the ore. The processes employed for this purpose are daily improving, and it is conceived that the produce here and at other quarters will be sufficient to remove all future apprehensions of the East proving a drain upon the gold of Europe.

The commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its extent and natural capacities, is by no means inconsiderable. Gold is its principal export. Mr Milburn estimates the annual quantity exported at 200 peculs, or 26,000 lbs. avoirdupois, which would coin into upwards of 900,000 guineas. Like some other commodities, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three kinds, called the head, the belly, and the feet; the first being the best, and the two others gradually diminishing in value. Camphire is exported to the extent of thirty peculs (3990 lbs.), all to China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. The singular Chinese luxuries of biche de mer or sea slug, and edible bird-nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount, canes and rattans of various descriptions, sago, and a little tin, complete the list of exports. The chief import is opium to a very great extent, with piece-goods, hardware, coarse cutlery, arms, and toys. By far the greater portion of the trade is in the hands of the Chinese. (Leyden's Description of Borneo, in the Asiatic Journal; Hamilton's Gazetteer; Milburn's Oriental Commerce; MS. of a Gentleman long resident in India.)