the name of two celebrated Platonic philosophers, one of whom was a native of Chalcis, and the other of Apamea in Syria. The first, whom Julian compares to Plato, was the disciple of Anatolius and Porphyry, and died under the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The second also enjoyed great reputation. Julian wrote several letters to him; and it is said he was poisoned under the reign of Valens. It is not known to which of the two we ought to attribute the works which have reached us in Greek under the name of Jambilicus. These are, 1. Protrepticus, seu adhortatio ad philosophiam, Leipzig, 1813, in 8vo; 2. De Vita Pythagorae, Amsterdam, 1707, in 4to, Greek and Latin, with the corrections and notes of Ludolf Kuster; 3. In Nicomachi Geraseni Arithmetican Introductionem et De Fato liber, nunc primum editus Graece, in Latinum Sermonem conversus, notis illustratus a Sam. Temnulio, Arnheim, 1688, in 4to; 4. De Mysteriis Ægyptiorum, Venet. Aldus, 1497, in folio, a work filled with theurgic and extravagant notions. Hebenstreit has published a learned dissertation De Jambilichi philosophi Syri doctrina, Christiane religioni quam imitari studet, noxia, Leipzig, 1764, in 4to. The system of the Neo-Platonists was built on the doctrine of emanation, according to which all beings are destined, after undergoing several degrees of purification, to return to the Deity, whence they emanated. By this system, the sage may, even in this life, attain to the intuition of the divinity, the most sublime end or aim of philosophy. This school admitted the existence of a class of demons, or spirits of an inferior order, mediators between God and man. To enter into communication with them required great purity of manners, and a holiness which disengaged man from every thing terrestrial. Fallen souls inhabit bodies which serve as their prison; and if, during their lives, they have not laboured to divest themselves of their vices, they are, after death, sent back to other bodies still more vile, until they be entirely purified; a doctrine which approximates closely to metempsychosis. The Neo-Platonists also admitted a species of trinity; the soul, according to them, emanated from the intelligence, or second divine essence (νοῦς), which again emanates from the infinite and perfect being. In order to oppose the progress of Christianity, which began to ruin all established religions, it was believed necessary to envelop in obscurity this doctrine of emanations; and hence they affected to regard as the authors of this system Zoroaster in Persia, Orpheus in Thrace, and Hermes in Egypt. (Schoell, Hist. Abrég. de la Littér. Grecque, tom. i. p. 203.) JAMES, Sr., called the Greater, the son of Zebedee, and the brother of John the Evangelist, was born at Bethsaida in Galilee. He was called to be an apostle, together with St John, as they were mending their nets with their father Zebedee, who was a fisherman; when Christ gave each of them the name of Boanerges, or Son of Thunder. They then followed Christ, were witnesses, with St Peter, of the transfiguration on Mount Tabor, and accompanied our Lord in the garden of olives. It is believed that St James, St James first preached the gospel to the dispersed Jews; and afterwards returned to Judea, where he preached at Jerusalem, when the Jews raised up against him Herod Agrippa, who put him to a cruel death, about the year 44. Thus St James was the first of the apostles who suffered martyrdom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his accuser was so struck with his constancy, that he became converted, and suffered with him.

James, St, called the Less, an apostle, the brother of Jude, and the son of Cleophas, and Mary the sister of the mother of our Lord, is called in Scripture the Just, and the brother of Jesus, who appeared to him in particular after his resurrection. He was the first bishop of Jerusalem, when Annanias II. high priest of the Jews, caused him to be condemned and delivered into the hands of the people and the Pharisees, who threw him down from the steps of the temple, when a fuller dashed out his brains with a club, about the year 62. His life was so holy, that Josephus considers the ruin of Jerusalem as a punishment inflicted on that city for his death. He was the author of the epistle which bears his name.

St James of the Sword (San Jago del Espada), a military order in Spain, instituted in 1170, under the reign of Ferdinand II. king of Leon and Gallicia. Its object was to put a stop to the incursions of the Moors, these knights obliging themselves by a vow to secure the roads. An union was proposed and agreed to in 1170, between these and the canons of St Eloy; and the order was confirmed by the pope in 1175. The highest dignity in that order is that of grand-master, which has been united to the crown of Spain. The knights were obliged to give proof of their descent from families that had been noble for four generations on both sides; they also were required to make it appear that their ancestors were neither Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called in question by the inquisition.

James, the name of several kings of Scotland and of Great Britain.

James I. king of Scotland in 1423, the first of the house of Stuart, was not only the most learned king, but one of the most learned men, of the age in which he flourished. This ingenious and amiable prince fell into the hands of the enemies of his country in his tender youth, when he was flying from the snares of his unnatural and ambitious uncle, who governed his dominions, and was suspected of designs against his life. Having secretly embarked for France, the ship was taken by an English privateer off Flamborough Head; and the prince and his attendants were confined in a neighbouring castle until they were sent to London. The prince was conducted to the Tower immediately after he was seized, on the 14th of April 1405 (in the thirteenth year of his age), and there kept a close prisoner till the 10th of June 1407, when he was removed to the castle of Nottingham, from which he was brought back to the Tower on the 1st of March 1414, and there confined till the 3rd of August in the same year, when he was conveyed to the castle of Windsor, where he was detained till the summer of 1417, when Henry V., for political reasons, carried him with him into France in his second expedition. In this melancholy situation, so unsuitable to his age and rank, books were his chief companions, and study his greatest pleasure. That he wrote as well as read much we have his own testimony, and that of all our historians who lived near his time. Bowmaker, the continuator of Fordun, who was his contemporary, and personally acquainted with him, spends ten chapters in his praise, and in lamentations for his death; and, amongst other things, states that his knowledge of the Scriptures, of law, and philosophy, was incredible. Hector Boyce tells us that James V. Henry IV. and Henry V. furnished their royal prisoner with the best teachers in all the arts and sciences; that, by their assistance, he made great proficiency in every part of learning and the fine arts; and that he became a perfect master in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, music, and all the secrets of natural philosophy, and was inferior to none in divinity and law. This prince's skill in music was remarkable. Walter Bower, abbot of Inchcolm, who was intimately acquainted with him, assures us that he played on eight different instruments, which he names, and especially on the harp, with such exquisite skill, that he seemed to be inspired. Above a century after his death he was celebrated in Italy as the inventor of a new and pleasing kind of melody, which had been admired and imitated in that country. This appears from the following testimony of Tassoni, a writer who was well informed, and of undoubted credit. "We may reckon amongst us moderns, James king of Scotland, who not only composed many sacred pieces of vocal music, but also of himself invented a new kind of music, plaintive and melancholy, different from all other; in which he had been imitated by Carlo Gesualdo, prince of Venosa, who, in our age, has improved music with new and admirable inventions." After spending almost twenty years in captivity, and encountering many difficulties on his return into his native kingdom, he was murdered by barbarous assassins in the prime of life. Many of the productions of his pen have perished, for only three poems that have been ascribed to him are now extant, viz. Christ's Kirk on the Green; Peebles at the Play; and the King's Quair. But slender as these remains are, they afford sufficient evidence that the genius of this royal poet was not inferior to that of any of his contemporaries, and that it was equally fitted for the gayest or the gravest strains. (See Poetical Remains of James I. Edinburgh, 1783; and Warton's History of Poetry, vol. ii. p. 12.)

James V. king of Scotland, was but eighteen months old when his father fell in the battle of Flodden Field in 1513. When of age he assisted Francis I. king of France against the Emperor Charles V.; a service for which, in 1535, Francis gave him his eldest daughter in marriage. This princess died in two years; and James married Mary of Lorraine, daughter of Claude duke of Guise, and widow of Louis d'Orleans, by whom he had only one child, Mary queen of Scots, born only eight days before his death, which happened on the 13th of December 1542, in the thirty-fifth year of his age. This was the first prince of his family who died a natural death since its elevation to the throne. He is said to have been the author of a humorous composition called the Goberlunzie Man.

James VI. king of Scotland in 1567, and of England in 1603, was son of Mary queen of Scots, whom he succeeded in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in England. He valued himself much upon his polemical writings, and was so fond of theological disputations, that, to keep them alive, he founded Chelsea College for the express purpose of attaining this object; but it was converted to a much better use by Charles II. His Basilicon Doron, his Commentary on the Revelation, his writings against Bellarmine, and his Daemonologia, or doctrine of witchcraft, are sufficiently known. A collection of his writings and speeches was published in one folio volume. He died in 1625, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and twenty-third of his reign.

James, Thomas, a learned English critic and divine, was born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, about the year 1571. Having completed his preliminary studies at West- minister School, he entered New College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1593; took his degree as master of arts in 1599; and having collated several manuscripts of the Philobiblon of Richard of Durham, which he published in 4to, dedicated to Sir Thomas Bodley, he recommended himself to the favour of that munificent patron of learning, and through his influence was in 1602 appointed keeper of the public library, an office which he held during eighteen years. In 1614 he was created doctor in divinity, promoted to the archdeaconry of Wells, and about the same time presented to the rectory of Mongeham in Kent, not to mention other spiritual preferments. In 1620 he resigned his situation as librarian, and applied himself chiefly to the readings of old manuscripts, in which he assures Archbishop Usher that he had restored three hundred stations, or rescued them from corruptions.

Having been chosen a member of the convocation held with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, he there moved to have commissioners appointed to collate the manuscripts of the fathers in all the libraries of England, with the Roman Catholic editions; but as this project did not meet with the desired encouragement, he himself undertook the arduous task, and continued to prosecute it until his death, which took place in August 1629. He left behind him a great number of learned works, the principal of which are, 1. Philobiblon Ricardi Dunelmensis, 1599; 2. Cyprianus Redivivus, London, 1600; 3. Catalogus Librorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, Oxford, 1605, in 4to; 4. Concordantiae SS. Patrum, Oxford, 1607, in 4to; 5. Apology for John Wickliffe, Oxford, 1608, in 4to; 6. Specimen Corruptelarum Pontificiorum in Cypriano, Ambrosio, Gregorio Magno, &c. London, 1626; 7. Index librorum prohibitorum a pontificibus, Oxford, 1627, in 8vo; and, 8. some pieces in manuscript.

James, Dr Robert, an English physician, particularly distinguished by the preparation of a fever powder, was born at Kinverston, in Staffordshire, in 1703; his father was a major in the army, his mother a sister of Sir Robert Clarke. He was of St John's College in Oxford, where he took the degree of bachelor of arts; and afterwards practised physic at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birmingham successively. He then removed to London, and became a licentiate in the college of physicians; but in what year is not known. At London he applied himself to writing, as well as practising physic; and in 1743 published a Medical Dictionary, in three vols. folio. Soon afterwards he published an English translation, with a supplement by himself, of Ramazzini de morbis artificum; to which he also prefixed a piece of Frederic Hoffman upon Endemical Distempers, 8vo. He also published, in 1746, The Practice of Physic, 2 vols. 8vo; in 1760, On Canine Madness, 8vo; in 1764, A Dispensatory, 8vo. In June 1755, when the king was at Cambridge, James was admitted by mandamus to the doctorship of physic. In 1788 were published, A Dissertation upon Fevers, and A Vindication of the Fever Powder, 8vo; with A Short Treatise on the Disorders of Children. This was the eighth edition of the Dissertation, the first of which had been printed in 1751; and the purpose of it was to set forth the success of this powder, as well as to describe more particularly the manner of administering it. The Vindication was posthumous and unfinished; for he died in March 1776, whilst he was employed upon it.

James, St, a town of the arrondissement of Avranches, in the department of the Channel, or, as it is sometimes called, of La Manche, in France. It is situated on the river Beuvron, and has a castle, 406 houses, and 2696 inhabitants.

Jameson, George, an eminent artist, the Vandyck of Scotland, was the son of Andrew Jameson, an architect, and born at Aberdeen in 1586. He studied under Rubens at Antwerp; and, after his return, applied with indefatigable industry to portraits in oil, though he sometimes practised in miniature, and also in history and landscape. His largest portraits were generally somewhat less than life. His earliest works are chiefly on boards, but he afterwards painted on a fine linen cloth, smoothly primed with a proper tone, to help the harmony of his shadows. His excellence is said to consist in delicacy and softness, with a clear and beautiful colouring; his shades are not charged, but helped by varnish, with little appearance of the pencil. When King Charles I. visited Scotland in 1633, the magistrates of Edinburgh, knowing his majesty's taste, employed Jameson to make drawings of the Scottish monarchs, with which the king was so pleased, that he sat to him for a full-length picture, and rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger. Jameson always drew himself with his hat on, either in imitation of his master Rubens, or from having been indulged in that liberty by the king when his majesty sat to him. Some of Jameson's works are in the colleges of Aberdeen; and the Sibyls there he is said to have drawn from living beauties in that city. But the greatest collection is that at Taymouth, the seat of the Marquis of Breadalbane; Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, ancestor of the noble marquis, having been the chief patron of Jameson, who, in fact, attended him in his travels. This artist died at Edinburgh, and was interred in the Greyfriars church-yard, but without a monument. Jameson was but little known in England, and has not been noticed by any English writer on the fine arts, except Lord Orford. But he was much esteemed in his own country; and Arthur Johnston, the poet, addressed to him an elegant Latin epigram on his portrait of the Marchioness of Huntley.

Jampol, a town of the province of Podolia, in Russia, the capital of a circle of the same name, and situated on the river Dnieper. It is the frontier town towards the Turkish dominions, and has a quarantine and custom-house. Long. 28. 24. E. Lat. 48. 15. N.

Jamtland, a province in the north of Sweden, extending over 17,732 square miles, and bounded on the west by Norway, and on the other sides by Swedish provinces. It is mountainous, as there are five chains of alpine elevations that cross it from west to east, several of whose points are 7000 feet in height. Through some of these ranges routes have been opened, which are still passed with difficulty, from their steepness and ruggedness. Between the ranges are some valleys, which would be fruitful but for the severity of the climate, which is an impediment to the growth of any corn besides oats, with which the inhabitants often mix the bark of the pine-trees to make their bread. The chief nourishment of the inhabitants is supplied by the dairy and the fisheries, but chiefly by the latter. The province yields abundance of timber, and some supplies of copper, lead, iron, and alum. It has but two towns, both small; Ostersund is the capital, with only 200 inhabitants. The whole population is about 32,000 persons. It is between latitude 61. 39. and 65. 6. north.

Jamyn, Amadis, a French poet of the sixteenth century, was born at Chaource, in Champagne, about the year 1540. His parents, who were respectable, neglected no means calculated to promote his education. He received instructions from Dorat, Turnebus, and other learned men, who early inspired him with a taste for letters; and he also studied philosophy and the mathematics with some success; but an invincible predilection led him to poetry, in the cultivation of which he appears to have received marked encouragement from Ronsard, who was then regarded as the greatest man in France. From a passage in one of his elegies, it has been conjectured that in his youth Janiculum he travelled through part of Greece and of Asia Minor; it is more certain that he visited Dauphiné, Provence, and Poitou, since he cites the names of the cities where he had sojourned, and complains of the reception which he had met with at Poitiers. Ronsard procured him the situation of secretary and reader to the king, Charles IX.; but after the death of his benefactor, he quitted the court, and retired to his native city, where he died about the year 1585, at comparatively an early age. The Œuvres Poétiques of Jamyn were published at Paris in 1575, and again in 1577, in 4to. This collection is divided into five books, the first of which contains the pieces addressed to Charles IX. and the great lords of the court, and the four following, sonnets, eclogues, elegies, and other amatory pieces. Jamyn completed, in Alexandrine verses, the translation of the Iliad of Homer, which Hugues de Salel had commenced in decasyllabic measure, and which stopped at the twelfth book; and he had also the merit of perceiving that Homer could only be translated into stately and majestic verses. After having given a first edition of the thirteen last books of the Iliad (Paris, 1574, in 4to), he revised and corrected the work of Salel, which he published along with his own (Paris, 1580 and 1584); and this addition is augmented by a translation of the first three books of the Odyssey. In these translations by Jamyn, there are beautiful verses, and passages rendered in a manner truly poetical; but he has thrown ridicule on his own performance by assigning modern titles to the heroes of the Iliad, and thus giving it the air and appearance of a travesty.

JANEIRO. See Rio Janeiro.

JANICULUM, a hill on the opposite side of the river Tiber from Rome, said to have derived its name from the city built on its summit by Janus. (Virgil, Æn. viii. 354.) At the foot Numa was buried, and many centuries afterwards his tomb is said to have been found here. (Liv. xi. 29.) This part of Rome was at first peopled by the inhabitants of certain Latin cities transferred thither by Ancus Martius. (i. 33.)

JANIZARIES, or Janissaries, an irregular infantry, which, until the year 1826, formed the principal strength of the Turkish army. Vossius derives the word from genizers, which in the Turkish language signifies nori homines or milites. But D'Herbelot tells us that jenitcheri signifies a new band or troop, and that the name was first given by Amurath I. called the Conqueror, who, having selected one fifth of the Christian prisoners whom he had taken from the Greeks, and instructed them in the discipline of war and the doctrines of Islamism, sent them to Hagi Bektasche, a person whose pretended piety rendered him extremely revered amongst the Turks, that he might confer his blessing on them, and at the same time give them some mark to distinguish them from the rest of the troops. Bektsache, after blessing them in his manner, cut off one of the sleeves of the fur gown which he had on, and put it on the head of the leader of this new militia; and from that time, namely, the year 1361, they retained the name of jenitcheri, and the fur cap.

At the time when the janissaries were thus instituted, there was not a single power in Europe which maintained a regular body of troops in its pay. The Christian armies were raised at the will of the nobility, who brooked no superior, and seized the first pretext to leave the armies of their sovereign, and return with their vassals to their strongholds. The advantage of union against a common enemy was not felt or appreciated; and victory declared in favour of those troops who to courage and enthusiasm united some degree of discipline, and a blind obedience to the will of their leaders. Such were the janissaries originally. They swept all before them; and, whilst the capture of Christians furnished slaves to supply the vacancies in their ranks, fortune smiled on their prowess and daring. But when this body ceased to form a class separate from the nation; when they were allowed to marry and enrol their children, and the odas (companies or regiments) were encumbered with men who preferred an inglorious life in the retirement of their families to the fatigues and dangers of the field; then the janissaries ceased to be formidable to their enemies, and, like the praetorian guards of Rome, were only dreaded by the sultans. Yet on this class did the Porte, until recently, depend for defence against its enemies; and although their inefficiency became daily more apparent, no reform could be effected in the system. In vain did Selim attempt to remodel them; his life paid the forfeit of his temerity. In vain did Mahmoud, upon his accession to the throne, wish to enforce the regulations of Suleiman the Magnificent. The consequence was an insurrection, which, during three days, inundated his capital with blood, and obliged him, in self-defence, to command the execution of his own brother. But the stern disposition of Mahmoud was in no degree daunted by this failure. He now saw that nothing less than the entire destruction of the janissaries would enable him to improve the condition of his empire; and he waited patiently until he could strike a blow with the certainty of success. In 1826, the janissaries again mutinied; but this time they found the sultan prepared, and they gave but the signal for their own destruction. The artillery-men and other troops faithful to the sultan surrounded them in the Etmeidan. They attempted to defend themselves, but without success, and about twenty thousand perished in the hopeless conflict. The suppression of this body, which immediately followed, left Mahmoud at liberty to remodel his army in such a manner as appeared best suited to the times; and, accordingly, he lost no time in taking measures to supply the void occasioned by the destruction of the only military force in the empire. See Turkey.

JANSEN, Cornelius, bishop of Ypres, one of the most learned divines of the seventeenth century, and principal of the sect called from his name Jansenists. He was born in Holland, of Catholic parents, and studied at Louvain. Being sent into Spain to transact some business of consequence relating to the university, the Catholic king, viewing with a jealous eye the intriguing policy of France, engaged him to write a book to expose the French as doubtful Catholics, since they made no scruple of forming alliances with Protestant states. Jansen performed this task in his Mars Gallicus, and was rewarded with a mitre, being promoted to the see of Ypres in 1635. Before this he had maintained a controversy against the Protestants, upon the points of grace and predestination; but his Augustinus was the principal labour of his life, upon which, it is said, he spent above twenty years.

JANSENISTS, a sect of Roman Catholics in France, who followed the opinions of Jansen or Jansenius in relation to grace and predestination.

In the year 1640, the universities of Louvain and Douay, and particularly Father Molina and Father Leonard Celsius, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on grace and free will. This having set the controversy on foot, Jansenius opposed to the doctrines of the Jesuits the sentiments of St Augustin, and wrote a treatise on grace, which he entitled Augustinus. This treatise was attacked by the Jesuits, who accused Jansenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opinions, and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatise; but the partisans of Jansenius gave out that this bull was spurious, or, in other words, composed by a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the death of Urban VIII. the affair of Jansenius began to be more warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infinite num- ber of polemical writings concerning grace. And what occasioned no little mirth was the titles which each party gave to their writings; one writer published The Torch of St Augustin, another found Snuffers for St Augustin's Torch, and Father Vernon formed A Gag for the Jansenists. In the year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of France subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X. to obtain an inquiry into, and condemnation of, the following propositions, extracted from Jansenius's Augustinus: 1. Some of God's commandments are impossible to be observed by the righteous, even though they endeavour with all their power to accomplish them. 2. In the state of corrupted nature, we are incapable of resisting inward grace. 3. Merit and demerit, in a state of corrupted nature, do not depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a liberty which excludes constraint. 4. The Semi-Pelagians admitted the necessity of an inward preventing grace for the performance of each particular act, even for the beginning of faith; but they were heretics in maintaining that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man was able either to resist or obey it. 5. It is Semi-Pelagianism to say that Jesus Christ died or shed his blood for all mankind in general.

In the year 1652, the Pope appointed a congregation for examining into the dispute in relation to grace. In this congregation Jansenius was condemned; and the bull of condemnation, published in May 1653, filled all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarms against the heresy of the Jansenists. In the year 1658, Pope Alexander VII. issued another bull, in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansenius. However, the Jansenists affirm that these propositions are not to be found in his book; but that some of his enemies, having caused them to be printed on a sheet, inserted them in the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Clement XI. put an end to the dispute by his constitution of the 17th July 1705, in which, after having recited the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this affair, he declares, "That in order to pay a proper obedience to the papal constitutions concerning the present question, it is necessary to receive them with a respectful silence." The clergy of Paris, in the same year, approved and accepted of this bull, and none dared to oppose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitus, so denominated from its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei Filius.

JANSSEN, Cornelius, called Johnson, an eminent painter of portraits, was born at Amsterdam, though, in the Chronological Tables, and in Sandrart, it is asserted that he was born in London; but he resided for several years in England, where he was engaged in the service of King James I. and painted several excellent portraits of that monarch, as also of his children, and of the principal nobility of his court. He had not the freedom of hand, nor the grace, of Vandyck; but in other respects he was accounted his equal, and in the finishing of his pictures superior. His paintings are easily distinguished by their smooth, clear, and delicate tints, and by that character of truth and nature with which they are strongly marked. He generally painted on boards; and his draperies are for the most part black, probably because the opposition of that tint made his flesh colours appear more beautifully bright, especially in his female figures. He frequently painted in a small size in oil, and often copied his own works in that manner. His fame began to be somewhat obscured on the arrival of Vandyck in England; and the civil war breaking out some time afterwards, induced him to return to his own country, where his paintings were held in the highest esteem. He died in 1685.

JANSSENS, Abraham, an historical painter, was born at Antwerp in 1569. He was contemporary with Rubens, and also his competitor, and in many of the finest parts of the art was accounted not inferior to that celebrated master. It is reported, that having wasted his substance by a life of dissipation and pleasure, and falling in consequence into necessitous circumstances, which, however, he imputed to ill fortune rather than to his own neglect of his business, he grew envious of the grandeur in which Rubens appeared, and, impatient of his merit and success, challenged him to paint a picture with him for fame alone. But Rubens rejected the proposal, answering with modesty, that he freely submitted to him, and the world would certainly do justice to them both. Sandrart, who had seen several of his works, assures us, that he not only gave a fine roundness and relief to his figures, but also such a warmth and clearness to the carnations, that they had all the appearance of real flesh; and his colouring was as durable as it was beautiful, retaining its original lustre for a number of years. His capital performance is said to have been the resurrection of Lazarus, which was in the cabinet of the elector-palatine, and an object of admiration to all who beheld it.

JANSSENS, Victor Honorius, an historical painter, was born at Brussels in 1664. He was a disciple of Volders, under whose direction he continued for seven years, during which time he gave many proofs of a superior genius. He afterwards went to Rome, where he studied particularly the works of Raffaelle. He designed after the antiques, and sketched the beautiful scenes around that city. In a short time his paintings rose in esteem, and the principal nobility of Rome were desirous to employ him. He associated for several years with Tempesta, the celebrated landscape painter, and painted the figures in the works of that great master as long as they resided together. Janssens composed historical subjects, both in a small and a large size; but he found the demand for his small pictures so considerable, that he was induced to paint most frequently in that size. He continued at Rome during eleven years, which barely sufficed for his finishing those pictures which he was engaged to paint; nor would he have even then been at liberty, had he not limited himself to a number, and determined not to undertake more. On his return to Brussels, his performances were as much admired there as they had before been in Italy; but having married, and become the father of eleven children, he was compelled to change his manner of painting in small, and to undertake only those of the large kind, as being more lucrative, more expeditious, and also more agreeable to his genius and inclination. He adorned with his compositions most of the churches and palaces of his own country.

JANUARIUS, St., the patron saint of Naples, where his head is occasionally carried in procession, in order to stay the eruption of Vesuvius. The liquefaction of his blood is a famous miracle, or rather jugglery, at Naples. The saint suffered martyrdom about the end of the third century. When he was beheaded, a pious lady of Naples caught about an ounce of his blood, which has ever since been carefully preserved in a bottle, without having lost a single grain of its weight. This of itself, were it equally demonstrable, might be considered as a greater miracle than the circumstance on which the Neapolitans lay the whole stress, namely, that the blood, which has congealed, and acquired a solid form by age, is no sooner brought near the head of the saint, than, as a mark of veneration, it immediately liquefies.

JANUARY, the name of the first month of the year, according to the computation now used in the West. The word is derived from the Latin Janarius, a name given to it by the Romans from Janus, one of their divinities, to whom they attributed two faces, because on the one side the first day of January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. The word *Janus* may also be derived from *janua*, a gate; because this month being the first, is, as it were, the gate of the year. January and February were introduced into the year by Numa Pompilius, the year of Romulus having commenced in the month of March. The kalends of this month were under the protection of Juno, and in a peculiar manner consecrated to Janus by an offering of a cake made of new meal and new salt, with new frankincense and new wine. On the first day of January a beginning was made of every intended work; the consuls elect took possession of their office, and, with the flamens, offered sacrifices and prayers for the prosperity of the empire. On this day all animosities were suspended, and friends gave and received new year's gifts, called *Strenae*.

JANUS, in the heathen worship, the first king of Italy, who, it is said, received Saturn into his dominions, after he was driven from Arcadia by Jupiter. He tempered the manners of his subjects, and taught them civility; and from him they learned to improve the vine, to sow corn, and to make bread. After his death he was adored as a god. This deity was thought to preside over new undertakings. Hence, in all sacrifices, the first libations of wine and wheat were offered to Janus; all prayers were prefaced with a short address to him; and the first month of the year was dedicated to and named from him. Janus was represented with two faces, either to denote his prudence, or that he views at once the past and approaching years. He had a sceptre in his right hand, and a key in his left, to signify his extensive authority, and his invention of locks. Though this is properly a Roman deity, the Abbé la Pluche represents it as derived from the Egyptians, who made known the rising of the dog-star, which opened their solar year, with an image having a key in its hand, and two faces, the one old and the other young, to typify the old and new year.

Temple of Janus, in ancient history, a square building at Rome, erected by Romulus, and so large as to contain a statue of Janus five feet high, with brazen gates on each side, which were always kept open in time of war, and shut in time of peace. But the Romans were so much engaged in war, that this temple was shut only twice from the foundation of Rome till the reign of Augustus, and six times afterwards.

**JAPAN.**