The extensive and powerful empire of Japan consists of several large islands on the eastern coast of Asia, which extend in a direction north-east and east-north-east, from the 30th to the 41st degrees of north latitude, and from the 129th to the 143rd of east longitude. The largest of these islands is called Nippon, which name is also sometimes applied to the whole empire. It is about 700 miles in length, though not more than eighty in breadth, and runs lengthwise from east to west in a winding form. It is separated by a narrow channel full of rocks and islands, several of them uninhabited, from Sikokt, next to it in size, and which is ninety miles long and fifty broad. The third island, Kiusiu, of a square figure, and divided into four provinces, lies between the other two, and is 200 miles long by 140 broad. These islands are surrounded with numerous others, generally small, rocky, and barren; some of them, however, large, rich, and fruitful, and governed by petty princes. There are several other islands which are subject to the authority of Japan, though they form no integral part of the empire. Among these is the large island of Jesso, which has been colonized by the Japanese, and is the most northerly island they have beyond their own empire. The coasts are rocky and mountainous, and they are washed by a tempestuous sea, which, by reason of its shallowness, admits none but small vessels, and even these not without imminent danger, the depth of most of its gulfs and harbours being not yet known, and others that have been sounded being too shallow for ships of any bulk. Several dangerous whirlpools also occur amongst the rocks and shallows, by which vessels are frequently drawn in and dashed to pieces. It is remarked by Kæmpter, in his ample and accurate account of Japan, that nature seems purposely to have designed these islands to be a sort of little world, separate and independent of the rest, by making them difficult of access, and by endowing them plentifully with all that is necessary both for luxury and comfort, and thus enabling them to subsist without any commerce with other nations. The Japanese policy, of rigidly forbidding all intercourse with strangers, which, in other circumstances, might have been difficult, if not impracticable, has been greatly facilitated by these natural advantages of the country.

These islands are in general rugged and irregular in their surface, intersected by ranges of lofty mountains, which are frequently steep and broken into precipices, try, etc. Some of the mountains rise to a great elevation, as the main mountain of Fusi, in the southern part of Nippon, which is considered to be the most elevated, and is covered with perpetual snow. In the northern part of the same island are also extensive and lofty mountains. The narrow valleys between these mountains are generally fertile and well cultivated; but the greater part of the country is rocky and barren, and it is only by the indefatigable care and industry of the natives that it has been rendered productive, and that it yields an abundant supply of food. The great staple of agriculture is rice, of which there are several varieties: the best sort is perfectly white like snow, very nutritive, and when boiled is used at meals instead of bread. A certain sort of bean, of which they make a mealy pap, and use in the dressing of victuals as butter is used in Europe, is held in much esteem. Barley, which they call great corn, is cultivated, though not in great quantities: they use it in the feeding of cattle and horses, whilst others dress their victuals with the flour, or make cakes of it. One sort of barley, which grows in Japan with purple-coloured ears, gives a very pleasing aspect to the fields. Wheat, which is called small corn, is extremely cheap, and is baked into a particular sort of cakes, though it is but little used. Peas, beans, and Indian corn, are cultivated; and almost all the varieties of nutritious grains and pulse. Turnips grow plentifully in the country, and to a large size. Horse-radish, carrots, gourds, melons, cucumbers, parsnips, fennel, and some sorts of lettuce, grow wild; and parsley and other vegetables, which are cultivated by the Dutch, thrive well. There are numerous other plants, which grow in the fields, the woods, and forests, and in marshy grounds, of which the leaves, roots, or the flowers and fruits, afford sustenance for the common people, and even luxuries for the great.

The Japanese excel in agriculture. Being cut off from all intercourse with other nations, they rely on their own resources; and this, with the extreme populousness of the country, gives a stimulus to cultivation, as well as to every other branch of industry. Not only are the fields and flat country laid out in the cultivation of rice, being seldom converted into pasture, but likewise the hills and mountains afford corn, rice, peas, pulse, and numerous other edible plants. Every inch of ground is improved to the utmost; and it is mentioned by Kaempfer, that he beheld, in his journeys to and from court, hills and mountains, many of them inaccessible to cattle, which would lie wholly neglected in other countries, cultivated to their tops. The law on this subject is strict and severe, enforcing on all the cultivation of the ground as a sacred duty, and punishing the neglect of it by the forfeiture of the land. The flat grounds are ploughed with oxen, the steep and high ones by men; and, where they have the command of water, the rice-grounds are intersected by canals. The rent of the landlord is reckoned at six tenths of the gross produce; and, with the view of accurately estimating the amount, surveyors are appointed, who, before the harvest, compute the probable returns with surprising accuracy, with a view to a just division of the produce.

From the laborious culture to which they are subjected, the Japanese islands abound in a great variety of useful and beautiful trees and plants. Amongst the most curious and finest trees is the varnish tree. It affords a milky juice, with which the inhabitants varnish, or, as we call it, Japan, all their dishes and plates of wood, from the emperor to the meanest peasant; for, even at court, services of lacquered ware are preferred to those of gold and silver. The mulberry tree grows in most parts of Japan, especially in the northern provinces, where many cities and villages depend almost wholly on the silk manufactures, though the silk which they weave is not the finest, nor equal to the Chinese silk. The tea shrub is one of the most useful plants growing in Japan; it is planted round the borders of rice and corn fields, and in barren places unfit for the culture of other things. All ranks drink of an infusion from this shrub; and it is the custom of the country to present it when friends come to visit, both when they come and when they depart. The common people use the coarser leaves, the young and tender leaves being used by the higher classes. The laurel tree is common in Japan. That which bears red berries resembles the cinnamon tree in shape, and in the figure and substance of its leaves; but the bark wants the peculiar sweetness of the true cinnamon tree, an imperfection which Kaempfer ascribes to the quality of the soil. The camphor tree is found in Japan; and the sasio, the leaves of which are eaten on account of their pleasant aromatic taste. Firs and cypress trees are common in the woods. They are planted in barren and sandy places which will produce nothing else, or along the roads, which makes travelling very pleasant. The wood is used in the construction of houses, ships, and household articles, and the branches for fuel. There are other hard woods, such as the oak, which is different from the European oak, and of which there are two varieties; and the iron tree, of which houses are generally built; and others that have a fine grain, and are used for cabinets, chests of drawers, &c. The baraban is common, and is of great use here, as also in India. Fruits in great variety and abundance are found in Japan; figs of different sorts, oranges, lemons, citrons, grapes, chestnuts, walnuts, nuts of different kinds, peaches, apricots, plums, brambleberries, strawberries, raspberries, &c. Cherry trees, apricot trees, and plum trees, are valued for the sake of their flowers, which, under proper culture, become large and luxuriant, and when they are in full blossom form a fine ornament around their temples, in their gardens, and in their walks, the trees being thickly covered with flowers, as with snow.

Japan is distinguished above all other countries for the great variety of beautiful plants and flowers which adorn its fields, hills, woods, and forests, and which, when they are transplanted into gardens, and improved by assiduity and culture, attain to a surprising degree of perfection. They mostly resemble either the rose or the lily. There is a large shrub, called tsukai, which grows in woods and hedges, of which there are many beautiful varieties, and for which there are about 900 names in the Japanese language. Of the shrub called satsuki, with lily flowers, which is to be met with in the gardens, there are a hundred varieties. Sakamandso, another shrub with lily flowers, of which there are only three varieties, is much larger than the former. There are numberless other flowers, some forming the chief ornament of houses and gardens, others of desert and uncultivated places. But of all these flowers, it is observed by Kaempfer, that as they exceed those in other countries in the show and exquisite beauty of their colours, they are greatly inferior to them in scent and fragrance. The same is also true of the fruits in Japan, which are far from equalling the pleasant aromatic taste of those which grow in China and other eastern countries.

The country is plentifully supplied with fresh water from the many fountains, lakes, and rivers which are scattered throughout the empire. There is no space in the country for the formation of great or navigable streams; but some of the rivers are so large and rapid, from the mountainous and rocky channels through which they make their way, and from the profuse showers of rain which frequently fall in the upper regions, that they are not to be passed without danger, arising from the impetuosity of their currents.

The climate of Japan, though it is upon the whole salubrious, is subject to frequent changes. The country lies without the range of the monsoons and the periodical rains; and accordingly it rains frequently throughout the whole year, but with the greatest profusion in the months of June and July, which are for this reason called the water-months. During the winter the ground is covered with snow, and there are often sharp frosts, whilst in the summer it is intolerably hot. At Nagasaki the thermometer ranges from 98° to 35°. Thunder and lightning are very frequent. Earthquakes are common, and happen so frequently that the inhabitants are familiarized to those dreadful phenomena when they are not uncommonly violent. Sometimes, however, the earth is shaken with so violent a commotion, which lasts so long, that whole cities are thereby destroyed, and many thousands of the inhabitants buried in the ruins. A great earthquake happened in the year 1586; when the earth yawned, and swallowed up one half of Nagafama, a small town containing 1000 houses; and the sea, violently breaking over its usual boundary, overflowed the rich and populous town called also Nagafama, and drowned all the inhabitants, besides destroying other smaller towns. Another occurred in 1703, by which, and by a great fire which happened at the same time, the whole city of Jedo was destroyed and laid in ashes, and about 200,000 inhabitants perished in the ruins. Some parts of these islands are entirely free from these concussions. Volcanoes are found in different parts of Japan, indicating the presence of those combustible materials which are imprisoned in the bowels of the earth, and which, suddenly bursting forth, and forcing an outlet, occasion earthquakes. Not far from Firando, where the Dutch had their factories before they removed to Nagasaki, lies a small rocky island, which has been burning and trembling for many centuries. Many mountains emit a perpetual flame. From the famous mountain of Fusi, which, Kaempfer observes, is only surpassed in height by the Peak of Tenerife, but "in shade and beauty hath not its equal," and which is covered with everlasting snow, a

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1 Vol. I. chap. ix. p. 119. Japan. black steam and smoke is observed to issue, the remains of its half-extinguished volcano, which formerly burned with a brighter flame. In many places the soil is burning hot, and is besides so loose and spongy, that it makes a cracking and hollow noise under the foot. Hot and sulphureous springs abound in the vicinity of these burning mountains, and are prescribed as specifics in many complaints.

Minerals. Japan abounds in mineral wealth; in all the metals, besides various useful minerals. Gold is found in several provinces of the empire, and is smelted from its own ore. It is gathered from the sands of several of the rivers, and is also found combined with copper. The richest mine, which also yields the finest gold, is situated in one of the northern provinces in the great island of Nippon; and here also is a very rich gold sand, which the prince of the district causes to be washed for his own benefit. Next to these the gold mines of Surunga are esteemed the richest; and here gold is found in all the copper that is dug up. There are other mines, affording ore which is productive, and would repay the labour of working; but some of them are filled with water, and the uninstructed natives know of no process for drawing it off. Silver is found in different parts, particularly at Kattami, in one of the northern provinces; but it is not so abundant as gold. The metal which is most important to the trade of Japan, and is also most abundant, is copper. There are very rich copper mines in different provinces of the empire; in Surunga, Atsingo, and Kijonkuni. The copper found in the mines of the latter place is the finest, most malleable, and fittest for work, of any in the world; and in some cases, as already mentioned, it contains a considerable quantity of gold, in the refining of which the Japanese have greatly improved. All the copper is brought to Saccai, one of the five imperial towns, where it is refined and cast into small cylinders. These are packed up in square boxes, and sold at a high price to the Dutch, copper being one of the staple articles of export from Japan. There is besides a coarser sort of copper, which can be bought at a lower price than the other, being much inferior in quality and appearance. Brass is very scarce in Japan, and brings a much higher price than copper. A small quantity of tin is found, but so exceedingly white and fine that it is almost equal to silver. This metal, however, is little used in the country. Iron is found in very large quantities on the confines of three provinces. It is refined on the spot, and is cast into cylinders two spans in length. It is fully as dear as copper; and household articles, hooks, and cramp-irons in buildings or in ships, which in other countries are made of iron, are in Japan made of copper or brass. In dressing their victuals they use a particular sort of kettles or pans, made of a composition of iron. The art of making this composition has been lost, so that the old articles of this sort bring a high price.

Of mineral substances, sulphur is found in great abundance. It is dug up in a neighbouring island, which, from the great plenty it affords of this substance, is called Sulphur Island. This island was formerly considered as inaccessible, by reason of the thick smoke which was observed continually to arise from it. But this fear having been overcome, its produce now yields a revenue to the prince of Satsuma, of about twenty chests of silver per annum. Coal abounds in the northern and several other provinces. Salt is made of sea-water; and it does not appear that they have any mineral salt. Agates of several sorts, some of them extremely fine, of a bluish colour not unlike sapphires, as also cornelians and jaspers, are brought from the northern extremities of the great province of Oaju, opposite to the country of Jedo. Naphtha is found in one of the rivers, and is taken up where the water has little or no run, by the natives, who burn it in lamps instead of oil. Some ambergris is obtained upon the coasts of Satsuma, and of the Riuku islands. It is found chiefly in the intestines of a whale which is caught frequently on the Japanese coasts, or floating on the surface of the sea, being torn up from the bottom by the violence of the waves. Pearls are found throughout almost the whole circuit of the island, in oysters and several other kinds of shell-fish; and every one is at liberty to fish for them. The largest and finest pearls are found in a small sort of oyster, called akkoja, which is not unlike the Persian pearl shell, about a hand broad, exceedingly thin and brittle, and shining on the outside, but within of a whitish colour, and glittering like mother-of-pearl. All sorts of submarine plants, shrubs, corals, stones, mushrooms, sea-fans, corallines, fuci, algae, and the like, as also shells of all kinds, are found plentifully in the Japanese seas, and nowise inferior in beauty to those found about Amboyna and the Spice Islands. These are, however, very little valued by the inhabitants.

Japan does not abound in animals, either wild or tame. Animals. This may be accounted for from the extent of cultivation, which leaves little room, and no great cover, for the wild animals; and the tame animals, not being used as food by the inhabitants, are not multiplied beyond the necessary uses for which they are designed. The horse serves for purposes of state, for riding, for carriage, and for ploughing. The breed is small; but some of them are not inferior in shape, swiftness, and dexterity to the Persian breed. A certain breed of little horses is very much esteemed. Oxen and cows are only used in ploughing and carriage. The people care nothing for milk or butter, which are not used as articles of food. They make use of a sort of large buffaloes, of an extraordinary size, with bunches on their backs like camels, for carriage and transport of goods. Of asses, mules, camels, and elephants, they know nothing. Sheep and goats were formerly kept at Firando by the Dutch and Portuguese, and might be bred in the country to great advantage if the natives were permitted to eat their flesh, or knew how to manage or manufacture their wool. They have few swine, and these few are brought from China, and bred for the use of the Chinese, who make an annual resort to these islands, and amongst whom they are in great demand. It is mentioned by Kaempfer, that whilst he was in Japan, dogs had multiplied in an extraordinary degree, owing to the partiality of the reigning emperor for that animal, in consequence of his being born in the sign of the dog. Greyhounds and spaniels are not known. The wild animals are deer, bears, wild boars, hares, foxes (which the natives hold in abhorrence, supposing them to be animated by demons), monkeys, wild dogs, a small animal called itutz, of a reddish colour, another called tin, both living in houses, and lodging themselves under the roofs, and so tame that they may be ranked amongst the domestic animals. The whole country swarms with rats and mice; the former animal is frequently tamed, and taught to perform several tricks for the amusement of the inhabitants.

All the varieties of the feathered race are met with in these islands. The falcon species are found in great numbers in the northern provinces, and are kept more for state than sport. Ravens, cranes, herons, wild geese, ducks, pheasants, wood-cocks, wild pigeons, storks, snipes, sparrows, swallows, larks, nightingales, &c. are common. The crane is protected by the particular order of the emperor, and can only be shot by his express commands, and for his own especial use. There is a singular species of duck, which is distinguished by the most surprising beauty of plumage. The pheasants are also of uncommon beauty. Neither the common European crow nor the parrot is to be met with in Japan. Snakes are seen, some of them of an enormous size; and insects are numerous and troublesome, especially the white ant, which is known for its de- The Japanese have invented, or borrowed from their neighbours the Chinese, a great many fictitious animals, which are either allegorical or connected with their mythology. The kirin is a winged quadruped of incredible swiftness, with two horns standing before the breast; its good nature and holiness are such that it takes care, even in walking, not to trample on any the least plant, nor to injure the most inconsiderable worm or insect. Besides this animal there are other chimerical creatures of the quadruped kind, to which the Japanese ascribe various imaginary qualities. Of these the dragon is the most remarkable, and the chronicles and histories of their gods and heroes abound in fabulous stories of this animal, which is also employed in the armorial bearings of the emperor. Foo is a beautiful large bird of paradise, somewhat resembling the phoenix of the ancients. It dwells in the higher regions of the air, and never descends, as the Japanese believe, to honour the earth with its blessed presence, except at the birth of an emperor, or at that of some such distinguished personage.

All our knowledge of the Japanese government and laws is derived from Kämpfer and Thunberg, who accompanied the Dutch in their annual commercial visit to these islands, the one in the year 1690, and the other in 1775. The account of Kämpfer is exceedingly full and accurate, and its accuracy is attested by Dr Ainslie, one of the British commissioners, who, in 1810, when the island of Java was in possession of the British, had been sent by Sir S. Raffles to accompany the Dutch ships on their annual visit to Japan. They were, however, strangers, ignorant of the language, and hence were but imperfectly qualified to describe with accuracy the political institutions of this state. Throughout all Asia pure despotism is the prevailing form of government, and to this Japan forms no exception; but, according to the accounts of Kämpfer and Thunberg, it is subjected to the double rule of a spiritual and a political sovereign, the respective limits of whose jurisdiction and duties do not appear to be very distinctly marked. Kubo is the name of the secular, and Dairi of the ecclesiastical emperor. To the latter are paid almost divine honours; but the real power of the state appears to be vested in his political competitor. The power of the sovereign is supreme; it is restrained by no positive law, though, as in all despotic countries, it may be tacitly modified by custom and immemorial usage. The emperor, according to Kämpfer, inherits, along with the crown, an absolute and unlimited power over all his subjects, from the meanest peasant to princes of the highest rank. As in all the eastern countries, where the art of government is in its infancy, the country is divided into large tracts of land, which are again subdivided into sixty-eight considerable provinces, and these again into 604 smaller districts or counties. The provinces are ruled by governors or princes appointed by the emperor. These governors are amenable, for the exercise of their delegated authority, to the supreme head of the empire, who may dismiss or banish them, and even inflict on them capital punishment. They are entitled to the revenues of their provinces, with which they maintain their rank and state, besides a military force for the maintenance of order, and out of which they also keep the roads in repair, and carry on all other necessary improvements. They are also bound to repair once in the year to the court, with all due splendour, and a great retinue, and to bring with them considerable presents, and, according to the jealous maxims of despotic countries, to leave their families constantly at the court as hostages for their allegiance. The residence of these princes is mostly in the large and maritime towns, or those situated on rivers; which are surrounded by walls and ditches, the prince's castle standing most frequently at the extremity of the town, defended by strong gates and high towers.

The ecclesiastical was at first the only ruler that governed the kingdom. But his generals, to whom he was obliged to confide the command of his armies, gradually usurped the real power, leaving to the high priest only the empty splendour of the throne. Syn Mu, the founder of the monarchy, flourished 660 years before the Christian era. He improved both the government and the laws of the country. The emperors of his race were usually denominated Dairi; and a hundred and nineteen Dairis have ascended the throne in succession from that period down to the year 1775, when Thunberg resided in Japan. For more than 250 years the authority of the Dairi, the old and lawful potentate of the country, has been confined chiefly to ecclesiastical matters, though he is still held in the same veneration as ever. His person is considered as too sacred to be exposed to the air and the rays of the sun, and still less to the view of any human creature, and he is consequently confined within doors; and when he goes out of his palace, he is generally carried on men's shoulders, that he may not come in contact with the earth. His person is accounted so sacred, that his hair, nails, and beard, are never suffered to be cleansed or cut by daylight, an opportunity being taken to perform these operations when he is asleep. He never eats twice from the same plate, nor uses any vessel a second time. They are invariably broken to pieces, lest they should fall into unhallowed hands. The right of bestowing titles of honour is to this day vested in the person of the ecclesiastical emperor, and is a source of revenue. Even Kubo, the name of the political emperor, is honoured by the titles which he receives from this sovereign pontiff of Japan. Those who have spiritual titles are distinguished, both at court and in the churches, by a particular dress, conformable to their rank and dignity. So august and holy is Dairi considered, that Kubo, though possessing the real power, is bound, either in person or by his ambassador, to pay him an annual visit, and to bring presents in acknowledgment of his title to rule in the state. At the court of Dairi literature is cultivated. It is the only university in the country where students are maintained and instructed. Poetry, history, and mathematics are here cultivated; and music is a favourite study, especially with the fair sex. Here it is that all almanacs are compiled. The secular emperor derives his revenues from a tax on the produce of the land. These have been estimated, though on no very certain data, to amount to a sum equal to L.28,000,000. But this is probably a gross exaggeration. The military force is estimated at about 100,000 foot and 20,000 horse, whilst the different governors of provinces maintain each a large force within his respective territory. There seems little occasion for so large an establishment of troops, as Japan, being separated from all other countries by a stormy sea, is in no danger of attack from ambitious neighbours. The descendants of Genghis Khan, who conquered China, also invaded Japan with a great army; but they were completely repulsed by the valour of the inhabitants. Since this period the Japanese have been engaged in war with the Coreans, but with little effect. The domestic peace of the country has, however, been occasionally interrupted by the rebellion of the provincial governors, or by a disputed succession.

The laws, as among all the half-civilized states of Asia, are implacable and severe. Death is the appointed punishment for almost every crime, sometimes by decapitation in prison, and, for higher offences, by impaling on the cross. Fines they consider as unequal and unjust, because they are less severe on the rich than on the poor; and from this absurd notion they confound in one common punishment all the different shades of crime. Where a murder is committed in a town or in the open street, not only the criminal, but his relations and dependents, and even neighbours or spectators, according as they have been more or less cognisant of the crime, or have not interfered to prevent it, are rendered amenable to justice. The master of a house is in like manner held responsible for his domestics, and parents for their children; and this cruel and bloody spirit pervades the whole system of their criminal justice. If one man draws his sword on another, it is a capital offence; and smuggling of all kinds is invariably punished with death, buyers and sellers being involved in the same penalty. Some offences are punished by perpetual banishment and confiscation of goods. Every criminal has a fair trial before the proper tribunal, and by a careful examination of witnesses. The prisons are gloomy and horrid abodes; they contain an apartment for trial by torture, another for private executions, a kitchen, a dining-room, and a bath. The towns are subjected to a very strict police, in which the same rigour prevails as in the administration of justice; and the consequence is, that, through the influence of terror, the most exact order prevails, each petty delinquent still incurring the penalty of death. Four officers are appointed in every town, of which number one presides every year. A commissioner is besides appointed for every street, who keeps an account of deaths, births, and marriages, and makes his report to the head officer. He has the power of casting offenders into prison, and of even putting them in irons; and he employs spies, who bring them accurate intelligence of all that takes place.

There are two leading religious sects in Japan, namely, the Sintos and the Buddos; though there are numerous other sectaries who hold the most opposite tenets, and yet live together in the greatest harmony. The religion of the Sintos is the more ancient of the two, and seems to be a system of polytheism, which, along with one Supreme Being, acknowledges a crowd of inferior deities, and often of deified heroes, who are supposed to exercise dominion over the earth, the water, the air, and over particular districts, and to have the power of making men either happy or miserable. They believe in a state of future rewards and punishments. The souls of the virtuous, according to their creed, dwell immediately under heaven; whilst those of the wicked are doomed to wander on the earth for a certain period, in expiation of their sins. The chief points of the Sinto religion are inward purity of heart, abstinence from whatever makes a man impure, and a diligent observance of solemn holidays, and of pilgrimages to holy places at certain seasons of the year. They abstain from animal food, and from the uncleanness of a dead body, and are loath to shed blood. Their system of divinity, according to Kämpfer, is such a tissue of monstrous and absurd fables, that their priests are ashamed of it, even in the presence of their own adherents. Their notions of the creation of the world resemble the wild extravagances of the Hindus. Kämpfer heard a sermon by one of their priests, which he describes as a confused composition of ridiculous stories and fables about their gods and spirits. The devils, they imagine, reside in the bodies of foxes; and this animal is accordingly held in general abhorrence by them. They have churches, in which they attend for worship on stated holidays. In these temples they have no visible idols, nor any image to represent the Supreme Being. But in the centre is generally placed a large polished mirror of cast metal, the purpose of which is to impress on those who worship, that as the mirror reflects a faithful image of their person, so the secret faults and impurities of the heart lie open to the all-searching eyes of the immortal gods. They never approach those temples unless they are perfectly clean; and accordingly they wash themselves with water, and, putting on their best apparel, they bow respectfully to the ground, preferring their prayers, and presenting their offerings. Kubo, the emperor, belongs to this sect, and is bound to pay a visit every year, either in person or by his ambassador, to one of their temples, and to make presents of great value, which is accounted the essence of piety by the priests of Japan, as by all other priests in every age and country. The doctrine of Buddo, identical with Buddha, whose votaries are spread over the East, was brought from Continental India into China, and thence introduced into Corea and Japan, and, being mixed with the existing doctrines and practices of Sinto, gave rise to the most monstrous superstitions. The Japanese follow Buddha's doctrine of the immortality of the souls of men and of beasts, of a future state of rewards and punishments, and of the transmigration of the souls of men into animals. The churches of all the different sects are adorned with alleys of cypress trees, and handsome gates; and most of them have a separate chamber for their idol, where he is exhibited sitting on an altar surrounded with incense, flowers, and other decorations. The churches are open every day, but there are festival days throughout the empire, which are more especially appropriated to religious worship by both Sintos and Buddos. These are the first and last days of every month, the new moon, and the first day of the year, which last is spent in eating and drinking, visiting the temples, and making merry. There is, besides these priests, a holy order of men called Jammabos, or Monks of the Mountain, devoted to religious exercises and holy contemplation; and an order of blind monks, who are dispersed all over the empire. Religious vows are frequently made by devotees; and in this, as in many other points, the Japanese superstition resembles that of Hindustan and other eastern countries. It is related of one of these persons by Thunberg, that having made a vow never to make use of shoes, he actually accompanied the Dutch embassy to the imperial court, walking on his bare feet, though it was the depth of winter. Kämpfer also mentions, that sometimes persons are met with in the streets running about quite naked, according to vows which they have made to visit in that state certain temples, provided they obtain by the mercy of the gods deliverance from some fatal distemper they themselves or their relatives have been subject to, or from other great misfortunes with which they are threatened. Multitudes of religious beggars, with their heads shaved, also crowd the streets; and to this tribe belong a singular religious order of young girls, who, if they be handsome and agreeable, easily obtain the privilege of begging in the habit of nuns. They watch particularly people of fashion, and accost them by singing a rural song; and if they prove liberal, they will accompany them for hours. Their voice, gestures, and apparent behaviour, are neither too bold nor daring; but free, comely, and seemingly modest. Kämpfer, however, intimates his idea of their true character, under whatever specious appearances it may be disguised. Nunneries have been established in the country upwards of a thousand years. Besides these idolatrous devotees, there is a sect of philosophers, who deride the popular worship, and merely inculcate the duty of leading a holy and virtuous life, and the belief of one great first cause, the divine author of all things.

The Dairi is the spiritual head of the Sinto religion; and since the retrenchment of his power the secular emperor has granted for the maintenance of his state and dignity the whole revenue arising from the city of Miaco and the adjacent districts. He has likewise an allowance from the imperial treasury, besides immense sums which he derives from his privilege of conferring titles of honour. But these allowances are not nearly so great as when the Dairi possessed the secular as well as the eccle- siastical power, and they fall short of the necessary expenses of his court. Hence many of his retainers are compelled to work at menial employments to procure a livelihood; and Kämpfer describes his court as being only remarkable for its splendid poverty.

The public revenue is derived, as far as we can gather from the necessarily imperfect accounts of those who have visited Japan, from a land-tax, and a tax on houses. The land is rated according to its produce, consisting for the most part of rice. The arable land is divided into three classes, according to its fertility; and the public tax amounts to more than one half, or even to two thirds of the produce. The land belongs to the crown, whose rights or claims none dare dispute; and unless the farmer cultivate it with care and attention, it is taken from him. In the towns each proprietor of a house is assessed in proportion to the breadth of his house towards the street, besides presents which are exacted from him by the civil officers, and taxes for the support of the temples and idols. The land-tax is collected by the receiver-general.

The national character of the Japanese, as described by Kämpfer, Thunberg, and others, has been corroborated by Dr Ainslie, who, by order of Sir Stamford Raffles, accompanied the Dutch in their annual visit to these islands in 1812. He describes them as a nervous, vigorous people, assimilated by their bodily and mental powers much nearer to Europeans than to Asiatics. The traits of a vigorous intellect are displayed in the greater progress they have made in the sciences and in the arts, which are carried to a much higher degree of perfection among them than among the Chinese, with whom they are frequently confounded, but to whom they consider it as a great disgrace to be compared; and the only occasion in which Dr Ainslie saw a Japanese surprised into a passion, and relinquishing his habitual politeness, lay his hand on his sword, was on an unguarded comparison being made between the two nations. Thunberg represents the Japanese as frugal, ingenious, sober, just, and friendly; yet distrustful, superstitious, proud, and implacable in their resentments; never forgiving an injury, but carefully concealing their hatred, and patiently waiting the favourable moment for striking their victim to the heart. This deep-rooted malignity is a common feature in the character of all barbarous nations; and hence the feuds that we hear of among them are handed down from generation to generation. This spirit of revenge arises from pride, and that lofty sense of honour by which the Japanese are distinguished. Thunberg, in depicting the character of this singular people, appears to ascribe to them qualities which are scarcely consistent with their state of improvement. He speaks of a love of liberty, not that liberty, he adds, which degenerates into licentiousness, as being the passion of the Japanese, who nevertheless enjoy no freedom, but are subjected to cruel laws and to the caprice of a tyrant, at whose mercy they hold both their lives and properties. The love of freedom can scarcely exist in a community so degraded; it can only flourish amongst a refined people, guarded by equal laws against the violence of power. Ceremonious manners, another feature of a comparatively rude and ignorant people, are much cultivated by the Japanese. In courtesy and submission to their superiors, few can be compared to them. Inferiors are accustomed to bow to the class above them, lowly and reverently; a consequence, probably, of severe laws, and of the habitual bondage in which the lower classes are held by their superiors. But the intercourse between equals in rank is also encumbered with a variety of troublesome ceremonies; a sure mark that true refinement has made little progress, seeing that, as mankind gradually improve, they insensibly relinquish these impediments to social intercourse, as inconvenient and absurd. The Japanese are extremely curious and inquisitive concerning the manners and habits of strangers; they are continually asking the Dutch for information, and wearying them with questions. It is related by Thunberg, that during the audience they had of the emperor, they were surveyed from head to foot by privy councillors and others, the higher officers of the state. Their hats, swords, clothes, buttons, lace, watches, and other articles of dress, were duly examined; and they were requested to write in the presence of the courtiers, that they might see the European characters and mode of writing. They are of friendly dispositions, of frugal and industrious habits, and honest in their dealings. Highway robberies are unknown, and thefts are seldom heard of, which perhaps may be partly ascribed to the severity and unrelenting vengeance of their laws. Dr Ainslie agrees with former writers in his representation of the Japanese as exhibiting an apparent coldness, like the stillness of the Spanish character, "eager of novelty, and warm in their attachments, open to strangers, and, bating the restrictions of their political institutions, a people who seemed inclined to throw themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelligence. They have at the same time a great contempt and disregard of everything below their own standard of morals and habits, as instanced in the case of the Chinese." Nor, according to Dr Ainslie, is that uniformity observable amongst them which prevails amongst the Chinese, where the heavy hand of the government may be said to have broken down all individuality, and left one Chinese the counterpart of another. Unlike the Chinese, also, and unlike all other eastern nations, women are not immured at home; they go abroad like the ladies in Europe, and mix freely in society. Whilst Dr Ainslie resided at Nagasaki with the Dutch, frequent invitations and entertainments were given; and at one of these entertainments a Japanese lady from the court of Jedo is represented to have done the honours of the table with "an elegance and address that would have graced a Parisian." In many important points they appear to have been misrepresented by the Dutch, for their own interested purposes. That their illiberality in religious matters, and their hatred and intolerance of Christianity, have been greatly exaggerated, is fully proved by the mission of Dr Ainslie. The story told of the annual ceremony of trampling on the crucifix as a test of their abhorrence of the Christian faith, was derided as a fable when it was mentioned to the priesthood. The Japanese were formerly adventurous navigators; they served as mercenaries throughout all Polynesia, and traded with all nations. They undertook voyages in their own vessels to Corea, China, Java, Formosa, and other places. They have since adopted an entirely different policy, and have rigidly forbidden all intercourse with other nations; and being in this manner confined within the limits of their own territory, their voyages are all along the coast, in trading vessels of different sizes, and in fishing smacks. The art of navigation has accordingly declined; and though they are provided with a mariner's compass, they seldom venture to lose sight of land. The natives are prohibited, on pain of death, from leaving their country, or from encouraging the visits of foreigners. The reasons of state which have induced the government to act upon these illiberal maxims are not well understood. Certain it is that the people do not participate in this jealousy of foreigners; they would willingly trade with them, and on all occasions evince the most frank and so-

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1 Life of Sir Stamford Raffles, p. 182, 4to edit. chap. vii. cial dispositions. There is every reason to believe that this aversion of the Japanese government to all intercourse with strangers has been aggravated by the interested misrepresentations of the Dutch, anxious to monopolize the lucrative trade of Japan, and to banish all competition, by instilling into the rulers of the country a jealousy and a dread of all other Europeans. The ill treatment experienced by the mission from Russia in 1814, under Count Kreusenstern, is ascribed to the exclusive influence of the Dutch factory, who continued to "rain upon them," says Dr Ainslie, "through the medium of an interested and avaricious factor, who dreaded competition, every possible ignominy which can be supposed to have flowed from the despotism of Japan." They were lodged in a warehouse, which was pointed out to Dr Ainslie, who observes, that as "the rats were let out, the count and his suite were let in, where they remained for six long months, with scarce room to turn, the mark of obloquy to the Japanese, and the laughing-stock to the European factory."

So deep an impression did the degrading treatment of the Russian embassy, and their meanness in submitting to it, make on the Japanese, that the chief officer asked the English commissioner if he would condescend to play the part of the Russian count; and, answering his own question, said, "No, I trust not." The insolence of the semi-barbarous nations of the East, such as the Japanese and the Chinese, which naturally leads them to trample on their European visitors, is best opposed by a spirited conduct, which inspires respect. Mean submissions, far from conciliating, only provoke fresh aggressions; as has been often proved in the intercourse of the Europeans with both Japan and China.

The Japanese are a proud, a brave, and a warlike people. Their arms consist of bows and arrows, scimitars, and guns. Their bows are very large, and their arrows long; and in discharging them the troops always drop down on one knee. Guns are not their usual weapons; and Thunberg mentions, that during all the time he was in Japan he never saw one discharged. They have cannon, but these are only fired every seven years; and so inexpert are the gunners, that they provide themselves with a long pole, and stand with averted eyes when they are firing off the gun. The scimitar, which is constantly worn by every one but the peasants, is their trusty weapon; it is a yard in length, of an incomparably good temper, and far surpassing the Spanish blades, which are so much renowned in Europe. With this weapon a Japanese will cleave his adversary asunder at a blow. In sciences and the useful arts the Japanese are far behind the Europeans. They study astronomy, but are unable, without the aid of the Chinese and Dutch almanacs, to compute a perfect calendar. They have made little or no progress in natural philosophy and chemistry, and even the scanty knowledge which they have acquired is borrowed from Europe. They appear to have studied botany and zoology with more success; and they have extensive works on these sciences, in which all the indigenous plants and animals are described, and exhibited in well-coloured plates. They have studied surveying, and possess maps of their own country, and of its towns, which are sufficiently accurate in topography, but without the divisions of longitude or latitude. When Dr Ainslie was at Nagasaki, a large detachment of officers of rank had just arrived, with a numerous and splendid retinue, who had been four years engaged in making a practical survey of every part of the empire and its dependent isles. "The survey," says Dr Ainslie, "appeared to be conducted on a scientific plan, to be most minute and accurate in its execution, and to have for its object a regular geographical and statistical survey of the country."

Nor are their literary acquirements inconsiderable. They study the history of their own country, and their annals are said to be more authentic than those of most other eastern nations. They have also translated several European works, and appear to be familiar with the account which Kemper gives of Japan, as they observed to the English commissioner, Dr Ainslie, that he was the very apostle of their faith, from whose works they knew even their own country. They have a college for interpreters, who study foreign languages; and it is an extraordinary fact, that notwithstanding the determination of the empire not to enter into foreign commerce, an edict of the emperor has been issued, enjoining on the college of interpreters the study of the English language; and it has accordingly been cultivated with success by the younger members of the college, who are extremely anxious in their inquiries after English books. Amongst other works in the English, they showed to Golovnin, Benyowsky's Conspiracy and Escape from Kamtschatka; an Account of the Expedition of the Russians and English to Holland in 1799; and a Geographical Description of the Russian Empire. The art of printing has long been known amongst the Japanese. They have also some knowledge of engraving; but in the art of drawing they are greatly inferior to Europeans. Poetry is employed by them chiefly to perpetuate the memory of their gods and heroes; and though music is held in high estimation amongst them, they have neither brought their musical instruments to any degree of perfection, nor do they understand musical science or harmony.

Although the Japanese in general are grave in their demeanour and manners, yet they frequently indulge in sports, festivities, and theatrical amusements. They have stated religious festivals, sometimes in honour of a particular god, which they celebrate not merely with devotional exercises, such as sermons and prayers, but with games, processions, public dances, and dramatic representations. These last are of the lowest description, consisting of exhibitions calculated rather to terrify than to entertain the audience. Artificial contortions of the body, and uncouth and extravagant dresses, seem to make up the whole amusement on these occasions. The story is generally some heroic exploit, or some adventure of their idols and heroes, composed in verse, and accompanied with music; diversified with low juggling tricks, which appear to be well adapted to the capacity of the audience. There are no decorations or machinery, nor anything in these exhibitions which can put them on a level with the theatrical amusements of Europe. Weddings and funerals are celebrated with great pomp and many ceremonies, though the ceremony by which the married pair are united is short and simple. The bridegroom and bride advance together to an altar erected for the purpose, each holding a torch; and whilst the priest recites a form of prayer, the bride lights her torch from a burning lamp, and holds it to the bridegroom, who lights his torch from hers; upon which the guests congratulate the new married couple. Their manners are far from being pure. Many of the women live for a time with Europeans and others, receiving the wages of prostitution; and afterwards, in the full knowledge of their character, they are well married. The Japanese either bury their dead in the earth, or burn the body to ashes. The latter method is not so common as formerly, but is still practised by persons of distinction.

Public schools are established, in which children are in- In many arts and manufactures they have made great progress, and some they have brought to such perfection as even to surpass those of Europe. They excel in the manufacture of copper, iron, and steel, of which the temper of their swords affords the best proof; and their silk and cotton manufactures are greatly superior to those of the other eastern countries. Their lacquering of wood, especially the ancient workmanship in this line, and which derives its name from their country, surpasses every attempt at imitation by any other nation. Their lacquered ware consists of the finest sort of firs and cedars, which they cover with the very best varnish, prepared from the *rhus vernix*, a tree that grows abundantly in many parts of the country. This varnish, which oozes out from the tree on its being wounded, is of so transparent a nature that every vein of the wood may be distinctly seen through it. In general a dark ground is spread under it, which causes it to reflect like a looking-glass; or it is mixed with some darker substance, and sometimes with gold leaf ground very fine, and is embellished with gold and silver flowers, and figures laid on upon the varnish. All articles made of wood, drawers, chests, boxes, scimitars, fans, tea-cups, and soup-dishes, the posts of their doors and windows, and most articles of household furniture, are covered with this varnish. They are acquainted with the art of making glass, coloured as well as uncoloured; they also grind glass for telescopes, for which purpose they purchase mirror-glass of the Dutch. Paper of all sorts is manufactured abundantly in the country, both for writing and printing, as well as for tapestry; and all coarser qualities for the packing of goods. It is prepared from the bark of a species of mulberry tree, which, by an ingenious process, is reduced to the consistence of a fine pulp, from which the sheets of paper are obtained. Japanese porcelain or china ware is manufactured out of a whitish fat clay, which is found there in great plenty. This clay requires a great deal of kneading, washing, and cleaning, before it acquires that degree of transparency which is the perfection of china ware; and the manufacture is altogether so laborious and troublesome, as to have given rise to the saying, "that human bones are an ingredient of China ware."

The temperature of the Japanese islands is in general salubrious. The most common diseases are colic, occasioned by the immoderate use of rice beer, which occasions violent pains, and often leaves behind it swellings in different parts of the body, and is especially productive of the hydrocele; red and watery eyes, occasioned amongst the poorer classes by the smoke in their confined apartments; and indurated glands, which frequently turn to cancers, dysenteries, small pox, measles, rheumatism, gout, pleurisy, water in the head, and certain eruptions on the skin. The physicians have no great knowledge of medicine, and their remedies consist generally of decoctions, diuretic or sudorific. Some profess only medicine, others the cure of internal disorders; and others, again, practise surgery, though they have no knowledge of anatomy. There is a class of persons for puncturing with needles, or for burning with a powder made from the dried leaves of a particular tree called *moza*, which, being laid on the body, is set on fire, and burns the skin, leaving a scar behind it. Those who perform the operation of puncturing with needles may be heard in the evening patrolling the streets, and making a tender of their services with great noise and vociferation. The burning with *moza* and puncturing with needles are supposed to be efficacious both for the prevention and cure of diseases; and they are resorted to by all classes, by rich and poor, old and young, especially in cases of pleurisy, gout, rheumatism, and toothache.

The Japanese, in selecting their food, range over the whole of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, using not only what is wholesome and nutritive, but some articles also which are poisonous, though, by their mode of preparation, they contrive to render these not only harmless, but useful. Their meat is always cut into small pieces, thoroughly boiled and stewed, and mixed with agreeable sauces. They sit at meals on soft floor mats, with a small square table before each guest; and the meat is served up in the neatest vessels, either of porcelain or japanned wood, furnished with a lid. The servant who attends kneels down as he places the dishes on the table and takes them away after dinner. They drink the soup out of the cup in which it is served; and they eat the solid parts of the meat with two lacquered pegs, which they hold so dexterously between the fingers of the right hand, that they can with the greatest nicety take up the smallest grain of rice, these pegs serving them as both fork and spoon. The company, before beginning to eat, salute each other with a low bow; and the ladies, says Thunberg, eat separately from the men, though this scarcely agrees with Dr Ainslie's account of the lady whom he commends for doing the honours of the table at an entertainment where he was present, with all the grace of a Parisian. Tea and rice beer are the only liquors used by the Japanese. Wines or distilled liquors are never seen amongst them; and they can hardly be persuaded to taste them, even when they are offered by the Dutch. Their only inebriating drink is *saki*, which, being warmed in a common tea-kettle, is poured out into flat tea-cups made of lacquered wood, and is in this manner drunk quite warm. Tea is drunk at all times of the day.

The dwelling-houses of the Japanese, whether public or private, are by no means to be compared to those in Europe, either for size or magnificence, being commonly low, generally consisting of one story, and built of wood, owing to the danger of earthquakes. Their apartments are small, but uncommonly neat and clean, and for the most part carefully and curiously furnished; the windows, doors, posts, and passages, are finely painted and varnished; and the ceilings neatly covered with gilt or silver-coloured paper, and embellished with flowers. They have few partition walls to divide the rooms from one another; but instead of these they use folding screens made of coloured or gilt paper, laid into wooden frames, which they can put on or remove at pleasure; and by this means they enlarge their rooms or make them narrower as best suits their fancy or convenience. These houses are built of cedar wood, of which there is great abundance in the country. The castles of the Japanese nobility are built either on great rivers or upon hills and rising grounds, and occupy a large space, consisting of three different fortresses or enclosures, which either cover or defend, or, if possible, encompass one another. Every enclosure is surrounded by a deep ditch, kept clean, and a thick strong wall built of stone or earth, with strong gates. The towns are mostly populous and well built; and the streets run straight forward, crossing at right angles. They have no fortifications. The two chief gates are shut every night. The villages along the highways are but thinly inhabited. The houses of the country people and husbandmen are small and poor, consisting of four low walls, covered with a thatched or shingled roof. "They have," says Kämpfer, "many children and great poverty, and yet, with some small provision of rice, plants, and roots, they live content and happy." The temples dedicated to Buddha, or to other foreign idols, are far superior to all other buildings, for their great height, curious roofs, and numberless other beautiful ornaments. They are built of the best cedars and firs, and adorned with carved images of their idols. A fine altar stands in the middle of the temple, with one or more gilt idols on it, and a beautiful candlestick with sweet-scented candles burning before it. The best situations in the country are chosen for these temples; those which afford a fine view of the adjacent country, or are in the vicinity of a spring, a rivulet of clear water, or a wood with pleasant walks.

There are excellent roads throughout Japan, so broad and large, that two companies, however numerous, can pass each other with ease. The country is divided into seven large provinces, every one of which is bounded by a highway; and all the smaller provinces into which the country has been subdivided are in like manner bounded by highways, which all lead into the greater, as a common centre, and unite at Jedo, the capital of the kingdom and the residence of the emperor. These highways are divided into measured miles, so that a traveller, in whatever part of the empire he may be, can ascertain at a glance his exact distance from the imperial residence. Bridges are laid over all the large rivers after they emerge into the plains; but they have no means of crossing the mountainous streams, which roll with too rapid a current to admit the building of arches, except by fording them. They have not the art of throwing across a bridge from bank to bank, or of even constructing rope bridges, which is the common resource in such cases in all mountainous countries, in the South American Andes, and amongst the Himalaya Mountains.

The number of travellers on the roads, according to Kämpfer, is scarcely credible, owing chiefly, as he supposes, to the populousness of the country, and to the frequent journeys undertaken by the natives. The princes and lords, who are bound to go once a year to pay their court to the emperor, commonly travel with great pomp and magnificence, and with a train which fills up the road for some days, consisting, for the first order of princes, of twenty thousand men; of ten thousand for one of the second order; and thus diminishing according to the quality or revenues of the nobles. This retinue is made up of numerous troops of forerunners, harbingers, clerks, cooks, and other inferior officers, whose duty it is to provide lodgings and victuals for the approaching train. The prince's heavy baggage follows, suitably attended, and carried in small trunks packed on horses, each bearing a banner with the coat of arms and name of the possessor. Then follow the chief officers and noblemen attending the prince, with pikes, scimitars, bows and arrows, umbrellas, palanquins, led horses, and other marks of grandeur. The prince himself is carried in a palanquin by six or eight men clad in rich liveries, sixteen pages, who are persons of the first rank, and richly clad, walking before, and others by his side; whilst the rear of the procession is brought up by numerous domestics, grooms, footmen, pike-bearers, all in liveries, and by numbers of led horses. The whole train are clad in black silk; and they march in order, in profound silence, without any noise except what is occasioned by the trampling of horses and men. On the other hand, the etiquette is, that the pike-bearers, and the carriers of the palanquin, have their clothes tucked up above the waist; and thus their naked bodies are exposed to view, with only a small piece of cloth for the sake of decency. What appears still more odd and whimsical to a European is, that the pages, pike-bearers, umbrella and hat-bearers, chest-bearers, and footmen, affect a strange mimic march or dance when they pass through any remarkable town or borough, or by the train of another prince or lord. Every step they make they draw one foot up behind them as high as their back, and stretch out the arm on the opposite side as far as they can, "putting themselves in such a posture," says Kämpfer, "as if they had a mind to swim through the air." The roads are besides crowded with numerous travellers, with pilgrims going on their annual visit to some holy temple, and with multitudes of beggars, in which character, indeed, many of the pilgrims travel. There are on all the roads idols of stone erected in honour of their gods, and other monstrous images and idols which occur on the highways in several places, at the turning in of sideways, near bridges, convents, temples, and other buildings. Coarse figures of these idols are also printed on entire or half sheets of paper, and pasted upon the gates of cities and villages, on wooden posts near bridges, and in other places on the highway most exposed to the traveller's view. But strangers are not expected to pay these idols any sort of homage. The Japanese are, contrary to the representations given of them, tolerant and liberal in matters of religion. The mission which was sent to Japan by Sir Stamford Raffles, and which Dr Ainslie accompanied, experienced this liberality in a manner that they by no means expected from the representations previously made to them. The English commissioner visited the great temple on the hills of Nagasaki, and was received with marked regard by the venerable patriarch, who entertained him sumptuously. On showing him round the courts of the temple, one of the English officers present, as mentioned by Dr Ainslie, heedlessly exclaimed in surprise, "Jesus Christus." The patriarch turning half round with a placid smile, bowed significantly, as if intimating that he was perfectly aware of the difference of their respective creeds; and they parted mutual friends, with a hearty shake of the hands.

For the accommodation of travellers, there is in all the chief villages and hamlets a post-house belonging to the lord of the place, where are procured horses, porters, footmen, or whatever else may be wanting for their journey, at settled prices. Travellers of all ranks and qualities resort to these post-houses, which lie at about one and a half to four miles distance from each other. They appear to have no carriages, but either travel on foot or on horseback, or along the coast by sea. At these post-houses messengers are walking day and night, in order to carry the letters, edicts, and proclamations of the emperor and the princes of the empire, which they convey from one post-house to another with all speed. Two messengers are always employed on these occasions, that in case any accident should befall the one, the other may forward the despatches, which are kept in a varnished box bearing the arms of the emperor, to the next stage; and all travellers, and even princes of the empire and their retinues, must retire out of the way in order to give a free passage to these messengers.

The Japanese are represented as a vigorous people, both in their bodily and mental habits. They are well made, active, free, and easy in their motions. The men are of the middling size, and in general not very corpulent. They are, says Thunberg, of a yellowish colour all over, sometimes bordering on brown, and sometimes inclining to white. The labouring classes, who, in summer, when they are at work, lay bare the upper part of their bodies, are sun-burnt, and consequently brown. Their features are masculine and perfectly European, with the exception of the small lengthened Tartar eye, which almost universally prevails, and is the only feature of resemblance between them and the Chinese. Dr Ainslie gives rather a different account of their complexion from Thunberg. He represents them as perfectly fair, and indeed blooming; though this seems to apply chiefly to the women, who, he says, are equally fair with Europeans, and have the bloom of health more generally prevalent amongst them than is usually found in Europe. Thunberg also mentions that ladies of distinction, who seldom go out in the open air without being covered, are perfectly white. Their eyes are generally dark-brown, or rather black; and the deep furrow which the eyelids form in the great angle of the eye discriminates the Japanese from other nations. They have generally large heads and short necks, with black, thick, and shining hair, from the oil which they put upon it. Their noses are rather thick and short, though by no means flat.

The dress of the Japanese is a complete uniform, from the monarch down to the lowest of his subjects; it is the same in both sexes, and has been unchanged for the space of more than two thousand years. It consists everywhere of long and wide gowns, one or more of which is worn by all ranks. The dress of the poor is distinguished from that of the rich only in the materials being made of cotton instead of the finest silken stuffs, which are frequently flowered, and sometimes interwoven with figures in gold. They reach down to the feet, and are frequently worn by women of quality with a train. Travellers, soldiers, and labouring people, either tuck them up, or wear them so short that they only reach to the knees. These gowns are fastened about the waist with a belt, which is of such a length as to go twice round the body with a large knot and rose, which is worn by the married women before, and by the single behind. To this belt the men fasten their sabre, fan, tobacco-pipe and pouch, and medicine-box. The gowns are rounded off about the neck; they are open before, and display the bare bosom. The sleeves are ill shaped and wide, and sewed together in front so as to form a bag at the bottom, in which they put their hands in cold weather, or use it as a pocket to hold their papers and other things. They wear, besides, breeches, which are more like a petticoat than breeches, being sewed between the legs, and left open at the sides for about two thirds of their length. There is, besides, a dress of ceremony, which is worn on the outside, over the gowns. It consists of two pieces; the undermost the above-described breeches, which are generally made of a blue stuff, printed with white flowers; the uppermost is a frock, not unlike a half-gown. Besides silk and cotton, they use a kind of linen, which is manufactured from a certain species of nettles. The silk worn by the richer classes far exceeds in tenacity and fineness the silks either of India or Europe. The shoes are the most indifferent part of the Japanese dress.

Of the population of Japan no accurate account has ever been obtained, and all our information on this subject is merely conjectural. Every spot is cultivated even to the mountain tops; and all Europeans who have ever visited Japan concur in representing it as extensively populous. On these grounds, and taking into account also the area of the country, it is supposed that the population cannot be less than fifteen or twenty millions. Sir Stamford Raffles' estimate, from the accounts brought to him by Dr Ainslie, is twenty-five millions.

It was from the Portuguese that the nations of Europe received the earliest accounts of the Japanese islands. The mariners of Portugal first adventured on the Indian Ocean in the year 1497, and they long carried on a lucrative commerce in the ports of the East. The conquest of Goa by Albuquerque, in the year 1510, laid the foundation of their future power; and from that time they pursued with success their conquests and discoveries in the East, and carried on an extensive trade. In 1542 one of their ships was forced by a storm on the yet unknown islands of Japan; and afterwards a ship, richly freighted, sailed every two years for one of their ports. In 1549, a young Japanese, who had fled to Goa, and there embraced the Christian faith and was baptized, held out to the Portuguese the most sanguine prospects of gain from a trade to Japan, and even gave hopes to the Jesuits of converting the people to the Christian faith. These pious fathers were not slow to profit by the hints of their new proselyte; and, with a view to a permanent establishment in Japan, the young Japanese was sent back to his own country on board a Portuguese ship, accompanied by several of the Jesuits, and by St Francis Xavier, the head of the mission. At that time no restraint was imposed on the intercourse of the Japanese with foreign states; the Portuguese were therefore allowed to trade with whatever parts of the empire they thought fit, and were much caressed by several of the princes, and invited to settle within their territories. The princes and nobles of the country vied with each other to obtain the favour of the strangers, and a most lucrative trade was carried on in European and Indian commodities, such as raw silk, fine silk stuffs, drugs, wines, medicines, and a great variety of other productions, both natural and artificial, which were exchanged for gold and other produce or manufactures of the country. By this traffic the merchants were enriched, and in a few years carried off a large amount of treasure, though not perhaps three hundred tons of gold every year, as Kämpfer says, with a boldness of assertion not very consistent with his usual caution and accuracy. The Jesuit missionaries on their part were not idle. They laboured diligently in their vocation, and they commended the doctrines of the gospel by their modest and virtuous life, and by their disinterested benevolence to the sick and the poor; whilst the pomp and majesty of the Catholic service arrested the attention and affected the senses of the Japanese. The first difficulties being surmounted, converts began to flow from all quarters; and many of the princes and nobles, being converted to the new doctrines, were baptized, and agreed to send an embassy to Pope Gregory XIII, with letters and presents, assuring him of their devotion to the Christian faith. In this manner the Portuguese prospered in all their concerns, both spiritual and temporal; and fresh supplies of missionaries and merchants from Manila, Macao, and Goa, daily flocked to this profitable mart of religion as well as of trade. But the fair prospect was at last overcast by the darkest clouds of bigotry and persecution; the Christian faith, which had been so successfully planted and propagated, was rooted up and completely extirpated; and, instead of the free intercourse formerly allowed with all nations, commerce was placed under the most severe restraints, and was finally restricted to one part, that of Nagasaki, and to two nations, the Chinese and the Dutch.

This great revolution originated in various causes. The great prosperity of the Portuguese appears to have filled them with insolence and pride; the priests and others no longer walked on foot, but, being carried about in stately chairs, mimicked in this and other matters the pomp of the pope and cardinals at Rome; whilst the Japanese priests, and others who profited by the prevailing religion, were displeased at the alterations which had been introduced, being fearful of the injurious consequences to their interest, and contrived to instil into the emperor a jealousy of the new sect. It is related of one of the Portuguese priests, that having met on the road one of the counsellors of state, the haughty prelate would not allow his chair to stop, according to the fashion of the country, in order to pay respects to the great man, but commanded his men to pass on without even showing him common marks of civility. This neglect inspired the nobleman with an unconquerable hatred of the Portuguese; and, in an interview with the emperor, he gave such an odious picture of the insolence, pride, and vanity of the whole nation, as raised the emperor's indignation to the highest pitch. In 1586 a proclamation was issued by the emperor, forbidding any of his subjects, under pain of death, to embrace the Christian religion; and the same year began the persecution, which is the most sanguinary ever recorded in any age or country. Several converts were executed for disobeying the imperial commands; and, according to the letters of the Jesuits, more than twenty thousand persons suffered death in the year 1590. Still the converts increased, for in 1591 and 1592, after all the churches had been shut up, twelve thousand new converts were made. In 1597 a new persecution was raised against the Christians, and twenty-six persons, including Jesuits, and several of the Franciscan fathers, were executed on the cross. It happened that the crown was about this period usurped by an adventurer of the name of Ijejas, whose doubtful title conspired with his fears and jealousy of the Christians to render him a cruel persecutor. He issued a proclamation, strictly forbidding the Portuguese missionaries any longer to preach the Christian faith; and directing all the governors, princes, and lords in the several provinces of the empire, to induce their subjects, either by force or persuasion, to renounce the Christian and adopt their former faith. The monks and priests already in the country were banished, and the Portuguese were strictly forbidden to bring any more of them to Japan. These orders, however, were not at first rigidly enforced. The Jesuits could not be persuaded to quit a country where their labours had been so successful in gaining both wealth and proselytes; and fresh supplies of ecclesiastics were still brought from the Portuguese settlements. But the rashness of the Franciscan friars, who were ambassadors at the imperial court, and who insisted on openly preaching in the streets of Mino, and built a chapel, in direct opposition to the edict that had been published, hastened the total ruin of the Portuguese interests in Japan. Many were also disgusted by their ambition and covetousness, when they saw that these spiritual fathers aimed fully as much at the possession of money and lands as the salvation of souls. From all these various causes a dreadful persecution was commenced against the Christians, who were put to death without mercy wherever they were found. This persecution lasted forty years, and, after the cruel butchery of thousands, ended at last in the total extirpation of the Christian faith, the ruin of the trade, and the final expulsion of the Portuguese and Castilians from Japan. It was long before this last severe measure was resolved on, as the Japanese, however intolerant in matters of religion, were still anxious to obtain the commodities of Europe; and they appointed the island of Desima, in the harbour of Nagasaki, as the residence of the Portuguese merchants. But the Dutch, who some time prior to the year 1600 had extended their navigation to these seas, were now the zealous competitors of the Portuguese and Spaniards for the eastern trade; and the two nations being at this time at war, were not scrupulous in using the most unworthy arts to supplant each other in the good opinion of the Japanese. It is asserted by Kämpfer that the Portuguese invented the most malicious stories in order to blacken the character of the Dutch, representing them as rebels and pirates, and altogether unworthy of trust. The Dutch on their part resorted to the same artifices, and with some success. It is stated, that in a Portuguese ship which was taken by the Dutch, they found letters to the king of Portugal, written by one Captain Moro, a Japanese by birth, and a Christian proselyte, containing the scheme of a conspiracy for overthrowing the existing government. The Dutch were not slow to profit by this precious discovery. They immediately communicated the letters to the Japanese authorities. Captain Moro was arrested, and, notwithstanding the most earnest protestations of innocence, was burned alive. In proof of the Portuguese treason, intercepted letters were shown, disclosing, as was alleged, the whole plot against the emperor's life and throne; the want the conspirators stood in of ships and soldiers, which were expected from Portugal; the names of the Japanese princes concerned in the conspiracy; and various other particulars, which were received as convincing evidence of this extensive treason. On this discovery the edict was forthwith issued, in 1637, forbidding, on pain of death, all intercourse with foreigners; prohibiting, under severe penalties, the propagation of the Christian religion, and the purchase of any article by a native of Japan from a stranger; banishing all the Portuguese to Macao, and shutting out for ever all other nations from the Japanese islands.

The Portuguese and Spaniards still lingered, in hopes of mitigation of this severe decree; but the Japanese court, being assured by the Dutch that they would supply them with European goods, proceeded to a rigorous execution of the edict, and from this period the trade of Japan has been entirely confined to the Dutch. An attempt to renew the trade, by sending an embassy from Macao, entirely failed, the ship being seized, and the crew executed, with the exception of twelve, who were sent back to their countrymen with an account of this tragic result, but who perished on their way home. It appears to have been chiefly by the intrigues of the Dutch that this great revolution was brought about. The persecutions to which the Portuguese were exposed might naturally enough have engaged them in plots against the Japanese government; but the whole story rests on the evidence of the Dutch, the rivals of the Portuguese, whom they were anxious to ruin, without much scrupling at the means of attaining their end; and in revealing the plot which produced an edict for the extirpation of the Christian faith, and the massacre and banishment of thousands of Europeans, it is plain that they were actuated by the basest motives.

By the ruin and expulsion of the Castilians and Portuguese from Japan, the Dutch acquired the monopoly of the trade, which they were so intent on securing that they cultivated the favour of the Japanese monarch by the most servile and criminal compliances. Their conduct was indeed most degrading. They made presents to the imperial court, of all the rare animals they could collect from the most remote quarters of the world; and they complied with all the commands of the emperor, however despotic or unjust. They were obliged, in 1638, to abolish their factory on the island of Firando, for no other reason but because it was built of hewn stones, and finer than the other buildings of the country, and because the Christian era was engraved on the front; and the part which they acted in the massacre of the Japanese Christians at Simabara leaves a deep stain on the national character, proving as it does that the love of gain had extinguished every sentiment of humanity in the breasts of these traders. The Japanese Christians, by the unparalleled cruelties and torments to which they were exposed, were driven to despair; and they had retired, to the number of forty thousand, to a fortified place in the neighbourhood of Simabara, where they were resolved to defend themselves to the last extremity. The emperor requested the aid of the Dutch in the siege of this last stronghold, in the massacre of these Christians, and in the utter extirpation of the Christian name in Japan. This aid was at once afforded. A Dutch vessel of war was sent to batter the town, and a breach was made in the defences of these unfortunate refugees, through which their enemies entered and perpetrated a massacre unparalleled for enormity even in the blood-stained annals of the East. According to the information received by Dr Ainslie from the Japanese, they were prompted to this massacre by European intrigue; and the alacrity of the Dutch in lending their aid, joined to their hatred of the Portuguese, concurs to fix on them a deep share in this shocking atrocity. But they were far from recommending themselves to the Japanese by their treacherous conduct. "By this submissive readiness," says Kämpfer, "to assist the emperor in the execution of his designs with regard to the final destruction of Christianity in his domi- nions, 'tis true indeed that we stood our ground so far as to maintain ourselves in the country, and to be permitted to carry on our trade, although the court had then some thoughts of a total exclusion of all foreigners whatever. But many generous and noble persons, at court and in the empire, judged quite otherwise of our conduct, and not too favourably for the credit we had thereby endeavoured to gain. It seemed to them inconsistent with reason that the Dutch should ever be expected to be sincerely faithful to a foreign monarch, and one, too, whom they looked upon as a heathen prince, whilst they showed so much forwardness to assist him in the destruction of a people with whom they otherwise agreed in the most essential parts of their faith, as the Japanese had been informed by the Portuguese and Manilhose fathers, and to sacrifice to their own worldly interest those who followed Christ the very same way, and entered the kingdom of heaven through the same gate; expressions which I have often heard the natives make use of when the conversation happened to turn upon this subject. In short, our humble, complaisant, and obliging conduct notwithstanding, we were so far from bringing this proud and jealous nation to any greater confidence, or more intimate friendship, that, on the contrary, their jealousy and mistrust seemed to increase in proportion to the many convincing proofs of sincerity and faithfulness we gave them; and that the better we deserved of them, the more they seemed to hate and despise us, till at last, in the year 1641, soon after the total expulsion of the Portuguese, orders were sent us to quit our old factory at Firando, to exchange the protection of a good and indulgent prince for the severe and strict government of Nagasaki, and under a very narrow inspection to confine ourselves within that small island, I should rather say prison, which was built for the Portuguese." In this island or prison, 600 feet long by 240 broad, the Dutch continue to carry on their trade, where they are guarded like thieves or pirates, and placed under the most degrading restrictions. Kempler gives a minute account of the guards that are placed over them, of the vigilance with which they are watched, of the daily musters that are made to see that none is missing, of the extraordinary precautions employed to prevent the introduction of contraband goods, and of the sure penalty of death that follows the violation of the law. He gives an account of the punishment of two men, Japanese, who were detected with camphor concealed about their persons, which they had purchased from the Dutch, and who for this crime had their heads struck off by the common executioner; a deputy from the Dutch establishment being expected to attend at the execution, and to witness, for the instruction of himself and his companions, this wholesome example of severity. On one occasion, also, he relates that a Dutch sailor had thrown himself over board, and that when he did not appear at the daily muster the Japanese were all in despair, being terrified that it might be a Roman Catholic priest, and that he might have escaped into the country. "All the officers," he observes, "ran about scratching their heads, and behaving themselves as if they had lost their senses; and some of the soldiers in the guard-ships were already preparing to rip open their bellies, before superior orders could compel them to answer for their carelessness and neglect of their duty." It was not till the man's body was got up from the bottom of the sea that this alarm began to subside.

The moment the Dutch vessels are seen steering for the harbour by the spy-guards with their glasses, the system of vigilance begins. The ship is boarded by three persons from the Dutch factory, and the public interpreter, and the deputies from the governor, demand forthwith the list of the cargo and crew, also the letters on board, which are carried to Nagasaki, where they are examined by the governors. On entering the harbour, two guard-boats, with a number of soldiers on board, are placed on each side of her, and continued in their position, the guards being regularly changed till her departure. All arms, namely, guns, cutlasses, swords, and also the ship's stock of gunpowder, are given into the custody of the proper officers. The persons and trunks of the sailors are all searched with the utmost strictness, also every corner of the vessel; and the different packages are rigidly examined. All the approaches to the island in which the Dutch are settled are strictly guarded, both day and night, by officers appointed for the purpose. There is a company or corporation of interpreters, amounting to one hundred and sixty, who also do the duty of spies; and during the time of the annual sale the vigilance of all these functionaries is redoubled. Those who come to trade with the Dutch must submit to a strict search of their persons before they are admitted within the gates leading to their residence. No letters can either be sent or received unless they are previously entered in a register book, and a copy left with the governors.

The Chinese, who are admitted to trade along with the Dutch, are subjected to similar restrictions. They formerly carried on a free intercourse with Japan; but it was intimated to the Japanese that the Jesuits, after their expulsion from the country, had experienced a most friendly reception in China, and it was discovered that several of their books had been brought over by the Chinese and privately sold. This, together with the vast influx of the Chinese into Japan, raised the jealousy of the emperor and the court, and the Chinese were finally laid under the same restraints as the Dutch.

The goods chiefly imported into Japan are raw silk from China, all sorts of silk and woollen stuffs, coarse cotton stuffs, woollen cloth from Europe, hides raw and tanned, sugar, coffee, spices of all kinds, quicksilver, cinnamon, saffron, lead, saltpetre, borax, musk, gums, coral, amber, various articles of glass, and iron, lead, tin. The returns are chiefly made in copper, and along with it camphor, lacquered ware, painted paper, and other articles of comparatively little moment. The trade of the Dutch and the Chinese with Japan was formerly very extensive. From the year 1611 to the year 1671 the speculations of the former were unrestricted, and their profits were enormous. According to the account of Kempler, the Dutch gradually fell into discredit with the Japanese; their commerce was curtailed, they were subjected to ignominious treatment, their profits were diminished, and the trade is now confined to two annual ships, which sail from the port of Batavia. The Chinese send annually ten junks to the port of Nagasaki, the only port which is open to foreigners.

In 1814, when the island of Java was in possession of the British, Sir Stamford Raffles, the governor, distinguished on all occasions by his enlightened zeal for the interests of science and of social improvement, was deeply impressed with the importance of opening a commercial intercourse with the Japanese, and of acquiring for Britain a participation in the trade hitherto monopolised by the Dutch. The Japanese islands, containing, according to his estimate, about twenty-five millions of inhabitants, who require woollens, hardware, iron manufactures, and glass, besides many other articles, might, he justly conceived, afford a very extensive market for British goods. With this view, when the time arrived for the annual visit of the Dutch to Japan, he joined two other gentlemen in the mission, one of whom was Dr Ainslie, for the purpose of obtaining accurate information respecting the Japanese, and the Dutch establishment in Japan. He confirms all the previous accounts that had been received of the narrow and exclusive policy of the government, in consequence of which few op- Japanning opportunities were afforded of a free communication with the natives. The commissioners, however, who were sent to Japan by Sir Stamford Raffles, state that the character of the Japanese had been greatly misrepresented by the Dutch for their own selfish purposes, and through fear of being interfered with by any other of the European states. So far from being a bigoted and intolerant race, as they are represented, they appeared to be remarkable for frankness of manner and disposition, for intelligence and the spirit of inquiry; and, in regard to religion or superstitious prejudices, to be perfectly inoffensive. The British commissioners were strongly of opinion that the commercial restrictions did not so much arise from the limitations or from the laws of the Japanese, as from the constitution of the Dutch factory. It is the interest of the resident and other functionaries to narrow the trade, that they may secure a larger profit for themselves; and, living at a distance from control, with a limited salary, they are compelled to scramble for every petty advantage to themselves, to the neglect of the general interests and prosperity of trade. From the degraded state of the Dutch factory, and the corruptions which prevail, the national character of this commercial people is lowered in the eyes of the Japanese, at whose hands they endure every species of humiliation. They prostrate themselves not only to the emperor, but also to the inferior chiefs, for which they are despised by the Japanese, as well as for all the other mean compliances which they submit to, rather than run the risk of sacrificing the trade. It was indeed intimated by the Japanese interpreters to Dr Ainslie, that the Dutch were the secret instigators of the massacre of the Christians at Siamabara, and it is certain that they lent their active aid in that bloody transaction. The English commissioners were most courteously received in Japan; the people evinced the most earnest desire to communicate with them; their presents were even graciously received by the emperor; and, from this suspicious commencement, the most favourable hopes were entertained of a closer and more friendly intercourse with this singular people. But the surrender of Java to the Dutch put an end to all these expectations of extended trade; and the intercourse with Japan has since been continued on its former footing, all competitors having been, as heretofore, rigidly excluded.

Various attempts have been made by the Russians to open an intercourse with these islands, from their establishments along the eastern coast of Asia. But all friendly overtures with a view to a commercial intercourse have been decidedly rejected. In 1792 a deputation arrived from Japan at Okhotzk, requesting the aid of the Russians to extricate some unfortunate Japanese who had been thrown upon the desolate island of Oonahaska. The Russians were extremely ready in lending their aid in the cause of humanity, and the Japanese expressed the utmost gratitude for the services which they rendered them. The opportunity was deemed favourable for renewing the offer of commercial intercourse, and Captain Laxmann was sent, by orders of the empress, to that part of the coast of Jesso or Matsmai which is occupied by the Japanese. He was kindly received, and loaded with presents; but all commercial intercourse was steadily rejected. In 1814 Count Kreusenstern, despatched to Japan on a similar errand, met with no better success. He was peremptorily told, by orders of the emperor, that his subjects traded only with the Dutch and the Chinese; and from the moment that he and his attendants arrived, they were exposed, as has already been related, to every possible ignominy, through the influence of the Dutch factory, jealous of competition; and they were finally requested to return to their own country, as they valued their lives, and never to come back. Since this time Captain Golounin, who was enticed on shore and detained in a severe captivity by the Japanese, reports that they are extremely jealous of the ascendancy both of the Russians and of the English in the East, from the establishments of the Russians along the northern, and of the English along the southern coasts of Asia. These jealousies, there is every reason to suppose, are fostered by the Dutch, who alone have access to the Japanese, and who have even persuaded them that the Europeans are intent on adding Japan to the other extensive conquests which they have acquired in the East. At present, therefore, there is no prospect of any change in the exclusive policy of this singular people. They are even more rigid in their maxims of exclusion than the Chinese, who, through the free port of Canton, trade indiscriminately with all nations. But the Japanese confine the privilege of commerce to one port and to two nations, who either cannot or do not find it their interest to supply them with foreign produce to the extent which would be required if the existing restrictions were abolished. The cession of Java to the Dutch at the peace of 1814 is deeply to be regretted on this account, that it closed the door against all further communication of the British with Japan, and for ever frustrated the judicious and enlightened plans of Sir Stamford Raffles for promoting a free intercourse and a more extended trade with these islands.

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**JAPANNING**, the art of varnishing and drawing figures on wood, after the manner of the Japanese, from whom it takes its name. The substances which admit of being japanned are almost every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too flexible; as wood, metals, leather, and prepared paper. The practice of japanning goods has varied from time to time. The following are some of the methods practised at present.

**Mix up some vegetable black with naphtha or spirit of cast and turpentine, and let it sour for a night; then add as much japan as will not take away the body of the black. After the article has been freed from rust, coat it with this, and put it into the stove. When dry, let it be coated with japan; two coats are sufficient if the japan be rich or old. If the article is intended to be polished, another coat or two may be given, according to the surface of the article; and let it be gently cooled between each coat. To polish the above, take a piece of close-grained pumice-stone, ground down to a smooth and perfectly level surface, and with this slightly rub down all the knots. When this is effect- In japanning tin, care must be taken to deprive the article of any rosin or grease. It then receives one coat of black and two coats of japan, as in the case of cast or sheet iron. If it has to be polished previously to being coated, it is rubbed smooth lengthways with a piece of wool-comber's card, or coarse sand-paper. This will greatly aid the polisher, and in some instances may save a coat of japan. The article is then polished and oiled as before described.

Clean the tin as before mentioned, and give it one coat of japan. Let it then be put into the stove, and when dry give it another. If a dark brown is required, it is subjected to a strong heat; and if a light brown, a coating and a gentle heat only is necessary. Care must be taken that each coat is well settled or stiffened in the air, by turning it upside down to keep it from flowing all one way, before putting it in the stove.

Grind some Venetian red in spirit of turpentine very fine, to which add three parts of mixing varnish with one part of japan, that is, as much as will not take away the body of the red. Coat the article, and put it into the stove till it dry. Then give it one coat of japan pretty fluid, and let it settle in the air, as mentioned above. Put it again into the stove, and when dry it will appear of a fine brown colour. All metals may be japanned in this way, especially old tin ware. If a polish is required, use common vermilion instead of Venetian red, as it will require more coats. Another brown, commonly called chocolate, may be produced by using purple brown in the same way.

In japanning wood in the same way as metal, it ought to be dried or seasoned well in the stove before coating. A black is obtained by using the same black as that already mentioned. After the article has been dried in the stove and taken out, it is coated with japan; and this is repeated until the surface becomes smooth. Care must be taken not to let the article cool between the periods of each successive application of the japan, else the air may insinuate itself into the pores of the wood, and cause it to blister when put into the stove again. The article made or turned must be in one piece.

In japanning table tops, the best Spanish mahogany, planed and smoothed with sand-paper, must be used. First put it in the stove between two plates of iron, with a sufficient weight on it to keep it from casting or warping, till it be properly seasoned. Take it out and coat it with black as above mentioned. Afterwards put it into the stove to dry. Then coat it with japan until it has a flowing appearance. Should it blister between the coatings, rub the blisters down with fine sand or glass-paper. After the last coat has been applied, allow it to become perfectly hardened, and then polish it in the same way as metal is polished. This method is not generally known or practised, a prejudice existing that it will not stand the heat; but Spanish mahogany, three fourths of an inch thick, will stand the same heat as tin.

Small fire-screens made of plain-tree and other kinds of wood may be japanned in the same manner; but as they are done on both sides, it requires a frame made of tin, tapered inwards, so that the screen may rest gently on the edges of it. Flat articles, which cannot stand the necessary temperature, are japanned in the following manner. Grind fine some ivory-black with turpentine, then add two parts of japan and two parts of drying copal varnish; and after the wood has been well dried, coat it over three times. When it is dry, smooth it down with wet rag and ground pumice-stone. The smoothing being finished, take extra quick copal varnish, tinged with ivory-black, and give the article two coats. When these are hardened it may be polished. If great care be taken in laying on the varnish, polishing may not be necessary.

To a white lead ground in turpentine add one part of drying copal varnish, and mix them together. Coat the japanning wood till the pores be filled up, and then rub it down as before described. Then take flake-white ground in turpentine, and add to it three parts of fine dial varnish; strain it grounds on through fine muslin, and let it stand for five or six hours; White, after which, coat the wood over twice, and let the first coat be properly hard before the other is applied. When sufficiently hardened, take a piece of fine flannel dipped in rotten-stone ground in water, and rub it till smooth, when it is rendered fit for working on. But if it is to be finished in the white, let it be rubbed all over with a mixture of sweet oil and flour, and then dusted with dry flour, which is afterwards wiped clean off with both hands, leaving a fine glossy surface.

The yellow ground may be filled up in the same way as the above with the lead. When it is filled up, take chrome-yellow ground in turpentine, and add three parts of fine drying copal varnish; strain this, and coat the article with it, as in the above case, and varnish and polish it in a similar manner.

Take common vermilion ground in turpentine, to which add one part of quick-mixing varnish. Fill up the ground with this, and then take Chinese vermilion ground in fine drying oil, thick, adding to it a small quantity of fine mixing varnish, to make it free in working. With this preparation the article is twice thinly coated, which method is preferable to laying on only one thick coat. When dry, it will be fit for working on. But if it is intended to be polished, give it two coats of fine quick-polishing varnish, and let the first coat be very hard before it receives the second. After it is properly hardened, take a woollen rag dipped in ground pumice-stone and water, and rub the ground all over. When it is smooth, take a flannel rag dipped in ground rotten-stone, and finish it, as in the case of the white.

Fill up the blue ground in the same manner as the Blue-white is filled up; and a little Prussian blue may be added to it. When filled up, Prussian blue and white lead are ground by themselves upon the same stone, and afterwards mixed together in proportions varying according to the shade required. The after-process for polishing is the same as that already described.

Fill the green ground as in the case of the white, adding lamp-black to make it of a lead colour, the quantity employed being in proportion to the shade required. When filled up and smoothed, take emerald-green ground in turpentine, and add a small quantity of mixing varnish to it, so that the green may be flat, for it will require three coats, as the green has a very little body. It is then smoothed and rendered fit for working on. If a dark hue is wanted, take Brunswick green, which may be made lighter by adding a little chrome-yellow; or darker, by adding Prussian blue and black. This green is more easily produced than any other. Varnish and polish the article as before described.

Take white lead ground in turpentine, and add crimson-lake and Prussian blue, according to the shade wanted. The article is then coated, varnished, and polished, in the same way as the red. All the above grounds may be enriched by giving each a coat of thin primitive colours ground in turpentine, and mixed up with fine clear mixing varnish. These are crimson-lake for red, yellow-lake for yellow, Prussian blue for blue, verdigris for green, and lake and blue for purple.

To produce damask grounds for white, when the ground is fit for working on, take fine dial varnish for size, so that it may not discolour the ground, and size the device. Let it stand till it slightly attaches itself to the finger; then take a piece of shamoy leather, dip it in silver powder, and shade the device with it, when it will appear like damask. For obtaining red or crimson, after the ground has been smoothed with the common vermilion, take japanners' gold size, thin, and size the device; when it adheres to the finger, take orange-bronze and shade it as above. This being dry, coat it with crimson lake ground in turpentine and mixed with fine polishing varnish; polish it as usual, and a rich damask ground will appear.

This ground must be a very light yellow. Use size and silver powder, the same as in the case of the white; coat it with yellow-lake ground in turpentine and mixed with polishing varnish; coating, varnishing, and polishing it as usual.

Make the ground a very light blue, almost approaching to white; use the size and silver as in the above case; take Prussian blue ground in turpentine and mixed with polishing varnish, and coat it to the shade required, then varnish and polish it as usual.

Make a light bluish-green with verdigris and white lead ground, use size and silver as in the case of the white, then take verdigris ground in turpentine, and mix it with slow-drying varnish, to prevent it from cracking, as the verdigris is very brittle; coat it to the shade wanted, and varnish and polish it as usual.

Make a ground of crimson lake and Prussian blue mixed with white lead, very light; then take lake and blue ground in turpentine and mixed with polishing varnish; coat it to the shade required, size and silver it as in the case of white, and varnish and polish it as usual.

Beautiful grounds are produced with the silver powder; and devices on black grounds with either of the above colours, which greatly enrich the appearance of the deep or pale gold ornaments that are wrought upon them.

All the above coloured grounds may be produced on metals in the same way, with the exception of the white. In filling up metals, take Venetian red ground in turpentine or tar spirits, add as much japan as will give it body enough, so as not to crack, and afterwards coat the article till it is filled up; then smooth it down with lump pumice-stone. Put it into the stove till dry every time it is coated, then lay on the ground colour as before mentioned.

With regard to sizing and gilding on japan grounds, take the gloss off the part that is to be worked on, by which means the size will be better seen. In ornamenting any article, as, for instance, a tea-tray, with various golds, bronze, and colour, proceed thus: After tracing or drawing out the ornaments, size the parts for your deep gold first, and then gild them, the parts for the pale gold being also gilt; and care must be taken that the size has but a slight adhesive feel before the gold is put on. If bronze shaded is introduced, size the part first, and then take a hair pencil and dip it into the bronze or gold powder gently; then rub the sized part, and it will produce a soft shade. If it is to be solid bronze, let it be nearly dry; rub the sized part gently over with a piece of shaggy leather dipped in bronze, then warm the tray, and rub the part over smartly, when it will appear solid with a metallic lustre. After all is gilt and bronzed, take a common pen and etch up all the finer parts of the ornament with it; but for the stronger parts take a fine camel-hair pencil dipped in black, to open up the ornament. The gold may be shaded with terre senna, and then put into the stove till dry, when it may be varnished and polished in the usual way.

In putting on raised work, take Chinese vermilion two parts, and white lead two parts; mix them thick together with turpentine, adding a small quantity of japan so as to make it adhere to the ground. Then take a long hair pencil and dip it amongst the raising, keeping the pencil upright so as to feed the point. Although the raising appear flat or dull, it will take a bright polish by rubbing it with the finger, after which it is sized and gilt.

In imitating Japanese or Chinese, this must be done on Japan gloss or polished ground. As this kind of work is not varnished, a little oil-colour may be mixed with the gold size, such as white lead or chrome-yellow, which will enable the fine lines to be better seen, and make the work more closely resemble gilding.

In painting on japan work, either oil or varnish colour may be used. The varnish colour looks clearest, and is most showy, but it requires great practice to blend the colours so as to appear soft; oil-colour is at present that most frequently used.

In varnishing white wood-work, or work covered with paper, take sheep-skin size in a liquid state, dip into it a camel-hair flat brush, and come over the work swiftly with it, so as not to wash up the painting. When this is dry, take hard white spirit varnish and a camel-hair flat brush, and coat the work over smartly. It will appear whitish at first, but it will become clear as it dries. After it has received four coats, let it stand for a day, until small cracks appear all over it. Rub the gloss off the work, or any knots, with the dry fingers, and then wipe it clean; after which give three or four coats more, when the varnish will appear full and flowing. Allow it to stand for a day or two, then take a piece of woollen cloth wet with water, dip it in ground pumice-stone, and smooth down the work with it, and then wipe it clean. After this take a piece of woollen cloth and dip it in rottenstone ground in sweet oil, with which rub the work till a glass appears. After wiping it, dip a piece of fine flannel in sweet oil mixed with flour, and rub the work smartly; powder it with dry flour, then rub it quickly off with the palms of the hands, and a brilliant gloss will appear.

In japanning paper after it comes out of the dip-stove, it must be coated till a full flowing body of japan is produced. In polishing the above, care must be taken that the ground is not overheated in the rubbing. If it be brought up with amber varnish, it must stand till it be thoroughly cool, otherwise the attraction of the ground will draw the size out of the pencil before the work can be executed. As black japan is generally the colour that paper-grounds are filled up with, it greatly depends on the japan or varnish being rich or old, as either will produce a good gloss to the number of coats given. For any other colour that is required, rub down the above ground smooth; for the first coat let it be white, but tinged a little with the colour wanted, unless it be maroon. The first coat must be a light-olive colour smoothed down, thinly coated with crimson lake; if a dark maroon, purple-lake is the pigment employed. The best polishing varnish ought to be used in the finishing. Paper trays are brought up in boards, sheet above sheet, with paste, to the thickness required, with the exception of the edges, which are done upon iron moulds, and then taken off, planed, glued, and nailed together, like a piece of wood. With regard to Bristol board, or any other paper, it is japanned in the usual manner, with a first coat of sheep-skin size to make it bear out.

JAPETUS, a son of Cœlus and Terra, who married Asia, Asope, Theonis, or Clymene, and had four sons, Atlas, Menetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. He was thus considered as the author of the Hellenic race. (Apollod. i. 1, 2; Diodor. v. 65, 67; Hesiod, Theog. 134. Iapetionides, a son of Japetus; Atlas, Ovid, Met. iv. 631). He is supposed to be the same as Japheth, the son of Noah.

JAPHETH, the son of Noah. His descendants possessed all Europe and the islands in the Mediterranean, as well those which belong to Europe, as those which depend on Asia. They had all Asia Minor, and the northern parts of Asia above the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. Noah, when he blessed Japheth, said to him, "God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem; and Canaan shall be his servant." This blessing of Noah is supposed to have been accomplished when the Greeks, and after them the Romans, carried their conquests into Asia and Africa, where were the dwellings and dominions of Shem and Canaan.

JAPYDES, or Iapodes, a people who stretched along the coast of the Adriatic, from the Gulf of Quarnero, as far as Zara, the ancient Jadra, for a distance of 1000 stadia. They occupied the valleys of Mons Albius, which form the extreme point of the Alps to the east, extending in the interior to the Pannonia and the Ister or Danube. They were finally subdued by Augustus after they had twice defeated the Romans within twenty years, attacked Aquileia, and plundered Tergestum or Trieste. Their towns were Metulum, Arpennum, Monetium, and Veudum. They were in the habit of tattooing their bodies. (Strab. vii. 315; Appian. Illbr. 18, 19.)

JAQUELOT, Isaac, a learned French Protestant divine, was born on the 16th December 1647, at Vassy in Champagne, of which place his father was minister. The revocation of the edict of Nantes having obliged him to quit France, he took refuge first at Heidelberg, and then at the Hague, where he procured an appointment in the Walloon church. Here he continued till that capital was taken by the king of Prussia, who, having heard him preach, appointed him his French minister in ordinary at Berlin, to which city he removed in 1702. During his residence at Berlin he entered into a warm controversy with M. Bayle on the doctrine advanced by him in his dictionary concerning Manicheism, which dispute continued until death imposed silence on both parties. It was in this controversy that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the Remonstrants. His reputation as a writer rests principally on the following works, viz. 1. Dissertation sur l'Existence de Dieu, Hague, 1697, in 4to; 2. Dissertation sur la Messe, où l'on prouve aux Juifs que Jesus-Christ est le Messie promis, et prédit dans l'Ancien Testament, Hague, 1699, in 8vo; 3. Traité de la Vérité et de l'Inspiration des Livres du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, 1715, in 8vo; 4. Select Sermons, Geneva, 1721, in two vols. 12mo.

JAR, an earthen pot or pitcher, with a big belly and two handles. The word comes from the Spanish jarra or jarro, which signifies the same thing.

JARCHI, Solomon, otherwise Isaki Solomon, a famous rabbi, born at Troyes, in Champagne, who flourished in the twelfth century. He was a perfect master of the Talmud and Gemara; and he filled the postils of the Bible with so many Talmudical reveries, as totally extinguished both the literal and the moral sense of it. The greater part of his commentaries are printed in Hebrew, and some have been translated into Latin by the Christians. They are generally esteemed by the Jews, who have bestowed on the author the title of prince of commentators.

JARDYN, or Jardin, Karel du, a painter of conversations, landscapes, and such like subjects, was born at Amsterdam in 1640, and became a disciple of Nicholas Berchem. This painter, in colouring and touch, resembled his master Berchem; but he added to that manner a force which distinguishes the great masters of Italy; and it is observed, that most of his pictures seem to express the warmth of the sun, and the light of mid-day. However, some of his subjects are often more extensive, containing a greater number of objects, and a larger design. His works are as much sought after as they are difficult to be met with. He died at the age of thirty-eight.

JARENSK, a town of the Russian province of Wologda, the capital of a circle of its own name, extending over 23,936 square miles, but containing no more than 31,500 inhabitants. It is generally a neglected district, covered with woods, marshes, and lakes. The town is situated on the river Wytscheda, which is usually closed by frost from the beginning of November to the middle of April. It contains 200 houses, and from 1000 to 1100 inhabitants. Long. 47. 33. E. Lat. 61. 20. N.

JARGEAU, a town of the arrondissement of Orleans, in the department of the Loiret, in France. It stands on the left bank of the river Loire, over which is a fine bridge. It contains 428 houses, and 2690 inhabitants. Long. 2. 1. E. Lat. 47. 50. N.

JARMERITZ, a town of the circle of Znaym, in the Austrian province of Moravia, and situated on the river Rokitna. It has near it a magnificent palace and park belonging to the family of Questenburg, with a very extensive library. The town contains 272 houses, with 1650 inhabitants.

JARNAC, a town of the arrondissement of Cognac, in the department of the Charente, in France, on the right bank of the river. It contains 1560 inhabitants, amongst whom are merchants dealing very extensively in brandy for foreign countries. It is celebrated for the great battle fought there in 1569, between the Huguenots and the Catholics, in which the Prince of Condé was taken prisoner.

JAROSLAW, a government of European Russia, formerly in the province of Moscow, to the eastward of Twer, extending over 15,202 square miles. It comprehends twelve cities or towns, 554 parishes, 7705 villages, and 1,022,900 inhabitants. It is an elevated level district. The soil is generally marshy, but mixed with portions of sandy or clayey land. It is miserably cultivated, and though all the population are chiefly occupied in agriculture, it scarcely produces sufficient corn (chiefly rye and barley) for their subsistence. Both hemp and flax succeed tolerably well; and the conversion of these into the various kinds of linen is a means of affording to the inhabitants of the towns occupation and subsistence. The hides of their cattle also form a branch of employment to the people, as does the fishery on the rivers and lakes. The river Wolga enters the province from Twer, and receives the waters of numerous streams that flow through it. There is a lake of eight miles in length and three in breadth, called Rostow, out of which the Kotorosla runs to the Wolga; and thirty-six smaller lakes, all, like the streams, abounding in fish. The Wolga is navigable in its whole progress through the province, as are also the Mologa and the Schekissa, which run into it. The province is divided into ten circles. The capital, Jaroslav, is also that of the circle of the same name. It stands at the junction of the Kotorosla with the Wolga. It has no other fortification than palisades, but is defended by a fortress. It contains forty-four churches, several convents and hospitals, 2754 houses, and 24,200 inhabitants, whose chief subsistence arises from the linen trade, and Russia leather. Long. 30. 4. 55. E. Lat. 57. 57. 30. N.

JAROSLAV, a city in the circle of Przemysl, in the Austrian kingdom of Galicia, and situated on the river San. It contains a minster and six other churches, for Catholics, Greeks, and Protestants, with 1400 houses, and 6975 inhabitants, occupied in linen and woollen manufactures, and in distilleries. It was a part of the ancient kingdom of Poland, and is still the property of Prince Adam Czartoryski, a nobleman of the country. Long. 22. 47. E. Lat. 49. 59. N.

JASHER, THE BOOK OF. This book is mentioned by Joshua, and referred to in the following passage: "And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies: is not this written in the book of Jasher?" It is difficult to determine what this book of Jasher, or "the upright," is. St Jerome and the Jews believed it to be Genesis, or some other book of the Pentateuch, in which God had foretold that he would do wonderful things in favour of his people. Huetius supposes it to have been a book of morality, in which it was said that God would subvert the course of nature in favour of those who put their trust in him. Others pretend that it was public annals, or records, which were styled just, or upright, because they contained a faithful account of the history of the Israelites. Grotius believes that this book was nothing else than a song, composed to celebrate the miracle, and victory therewith connected. This seems the more probable opinion, because the words cited by Joshua as taken from the work, "Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon, and thou moon in the valley of Ajalon," are such poetical expressions as do not accord with historical memoirs; besides that, in the second book of Samuel (i. 18), mention is made of a book under the same title, on account of a song composed on the death of Saul and Jonathan.

JASLO, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia, extending over 1354 square miles. It contains five cities, eleven market-towns, and 366 villages, inhabited by 195,200 individuals, occupying 28,562 houses. It consists of part of the Carpathian Mountains, and the soil is for the most part poor and stony; but it produces corn equal, with the aid of potatoes, to the consumption. The capital is the city of the same name, situated at the junction of the rivers Jastel and Wisłoka, and containing 224 houses, and 1463 inhabitants.

JASON, chief of the Argonautic expedition, was son of Æson, king of Iolcos, and of Alcimede or Polymede. His father was obliged to yield to the superior power of his brother Pelias, and was driven from his kingdom. Jason was secretly carried by his mother to the valleys of Mount Pelion, and there delivered into the hands of Chiron the centaur. By him he was trained to the arts of war, and began his adventurous career by joining in pursuit of the Calydonian boar. Then, in obedience to the orders of an oracle in Magnesia, he presented himself at Iolcos to reclaim the kingdom, covered with the skin of a leopard, and armed with two javelins. Pelias had been warned by an oracle to beware of a man who should appear with one foot shod and the other uncovered. Jason, by some accident, entered Iolcos in this manner, and the suspicions of Pelias were of course immediately excited. He boldly demanded the kingdom, to which he was the rightful heir; but Pelias prevailed on him to proceed to Colchis to get possession of the golden fleece, promising on his return to resign the crown. He was accompanied in this expedition by all the bravest of the Greeks (see Argonauts); and, after many curious adventures, they all arrived in safety in Colchis. Jason proceeded to present himself at the court of Æetes, and explained to him the object of his voyage. The king agreed to restore the golden fleece, provided he submitted to certain conditions the former would impose on him. He must tame brazen-footed bulls, whose nostrils breathed flames, and plough with them a field sacred to Mars. He must then kill a dragon which kept watch day and night over the golden fleece, and sow in the field which he had tilled the teeth of this serpent, from which armed men would spring, ready to attack him. The destruction of Jason seemed inevitable, but he was extricated from his difficulties by Medea, the king's daughter. His lofty bearing, and the intrepid nature of the enterprise, had captivated the heart of Medea, and she determined to deliver her lover from all his dangers, if he promised her eternal fidelity. By her magic herbs, he performed the conditions, to the astonishment of Æetes and his subjects; and, having obtained possession of the golden fleece, returned to his native country, accompanied by Medea, whom he afterwards married. Medea, however, carried along with her Absyrtus, her brother; and when she heard that her father was in pursuit, she tore him to pieces, and scattered his limbs in different places, that she might escape whilst her father was employed in collecting the mangled body of his son. They arrived in safety in Iolcos, where they were received with the greatest joy. Æson was restored to youth again by the magic power of Medea; and Pelias, the usurper of the crown, wishing to be restored to the flower of youth, allowed himself to be cut up by his daughter at the persuasion of Medea, and thrown into a boiling caldron. Thus Pelias perished by a miserable death. But Jason was obliged to fly with Medea, and proceed to Corinth, where they lived in great harmony for four years. At the end of that time, having divorced Medea, he married Glaucus, or Creusa, daughter of Creon, son of Sisyphus, king of Corinth; but his inconstancy was severely avenged. Medea slew his sons in his presence, and burnt Creusa, together with Creon and Jason. Another tradition states that they returned to Colchis, and reinstated on his throne Æetes, whom a faction had expelled.

JASPER, a species of mineral belonging to the siliceous genus of stones, and of which there are many varieties, some of them extremely beautiful, which are much sought after, and employed as trinkets and ornaments. See Mineralogy.

JASPONYX, an obsolete term in mineralogy, importing, as appears from the name, a compound of jasper and onyx.

JASSY, a city, the capital of Moldavia, the residence of the prince, of a Greek archbishop, and of many of the wawodes or nobles. It stands on a lofty situation, but is surrounded with hills still higher. It is watered by brooks forming a stream ending in the Pruth. The town is composed chiefly of wooden houses, and is said to be excessively filthy, and by no means healthy. The palace of the prince is plain, small, and badly situated. The city contains no less than forty-three churches, with twenty-six convents and nunneries of the Greek religion. It has also a Catholic and a Lutheran chapel. The houses are stated to be six thousand in number, and the inhabitants from twenty-five to thirty thousand. It is not a place of any other trade than such as arises from providing for the luxuries of a voluptuous nobility and a petty sovereign. Long. 27. 24. 55. E. Lat. 47. 8. 30. N.

JASTROW, a city of the circle of Deutschkrone, in the province of East Prussia, situated on a brook running to the river Kuddow. It contains 296 houses, and 2380 inhabitants, of whom more than 400 are Jews. There is a manufactory for arms and military clothing.

JAUER, a city, the capital of a district of the same name, in the circle of Herschberg, of the Prussian province of Silesia. It stands on the river Neisse, is surrounded with walls and ditches, and contains one Lutheran and five Catholic churches, 604 houses, and 5230 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in the several branches of the linen manufacture.

JAULNAY, a town of the arrondissement of Poitiers, in the department of the Vienne, in France, on the river Elain, with 245 houses and 1476 inhabitants. Close to this town was fought, in 1356, the battle usually called that of Poitiers, and sometimes Maupertuis, in which Edward the Black Prince defeated the French army, and made King John a prisoner.

JAUNDICE (derived from the French jaunisse, yellowness, of jaune, yellow), a disease consisting in a suffusion of the bile, and a rejection thereof to the surface of the body, whereby the whole exterior habit is discoloured.

JAUTS, a people of Hindustan, who have at different times made some figure in its annals. The first historical mention of them occurs at the beginning of the eleventh century, on the invasion of India by Mahmoud the Gaznevide. That conqueror found them established on the eastern bank of the Indus, prepared to oppose his passage. For this purpose they had mustered a large fleet of boats, to the number, according to some accounts, of eight thousand. They were completely defeated, however, and driven into the mountainous districts in the interior of India.

From this time the Jauts remained in obscurity, till the reign of Aurungzebe. Churamana, a Jaut of some distinction, collected then some troops of banditti, with whom he began to commit depredations on travellers. Popular and enterprising, he gradually rose from a captain of robbers to be a powerful chieftain; and, availing himself of Aurungzebe's absence in the Deccan, became the terror of the country round. He had even the audacity, on one occasion, to plunder the rear of that monarch's army; and, when pursued, took refuge among the mountains of Narwar, where he eluded all attempts to extirpate his force. Under the growing imbecility of Aurungzebe's successors, the Jauts continually extended their power, till at length, during the weak reign of Mahommmed Shah, and under their enterprising head, Sooraje Mull, it rose to its utmost height. That chief wrested continually new concessions from the weak emperor, till he was able almost to dictate the councils of the Mogul court. A reverse, however, took place on the invasion of Northern India by Ahmed Shah, the sovereign of Caubul. Sooraje Mull, having opposed that invader, saw his territory overrun, and was obliged to seek aid from the Mahratta power. When the Mahrattas, however, invaded Delhi, the Jaut chief went over to Ahmed Shah, and offered to atone for former hostility by his services on that critical occasion. The battle of Panniput followed, in which the Mahrattas were totally routed, and their power for the time entirely broken. Ahmed Shah rewarded the services rendered by his new ally in this hour of need, by the important cession of Agra and its district. Sooraje Mull, and his son Jowalier Sing, made repeated attempts to obtain possession of Delhi, but were always baffled by untoward circumstances. Jowalier Sing was assassinated by an impostor, who had undertaken to initiate him in the secret of the philosopher's stone. He left his son an infant; a circumstance which, affording an open field to the dissensions of the chiefs, weakened the Jaut power, and rendered it unable to contend with the other fierce competitors for the spoils of the Mogul. In their contests, particularly with Nujeeph Khan, they were gradually stripped of all their possessions, and at length reduced to the fortress of Bhurtpore, with a small surrounding district. When the British power became predominant in this part of India, Runjeet Sing, rajah of the Jauts, sought security by concluding a treaty with Lord Lake, by which, on engaging to assist Britain against all enemies, he not only retained the internal government of his territories, but was even exempted from paying any tribute. Yet, in 1805, after the defeat of Holkar, he received that chief, with his discomfited army, into Bhurtpore. The place sustained a most desperate siege, and cost the British army an immense number of lives. At length the rajah, despairing of effectual resistance, agreed to compel Holkar to quit the place, and to give it up to the British, on condition of retaining the government of his territories, and the fortress of Deeg. He was obliged, however, to pay twenty lacs of rupees, and to give ample security for a more faithful observance of this treaty than of the former.

JAVA.

This large and fertile island belongs to the group which modern geographers denominate the Sunda Islands. It extends eastward, with a slight deviation on the south, from 105.11. to 114.33. of east longitude from Greenwich, and lies between the latitudes of 5.52. and 8.46. south. It is in length, between Java Head and the south-east point of the island, 666 statute miles; and its breadth varies from 135½ miles, between the south-west point of Pachitan Bay and the north point of Japara, to fifty-six miles, between the mouth of the Serayu River and the Marabaya. Its area is estimated at 50,000 miles. On the south and west it is washed by the Indian Ocean; to the north-west by a strait called the Straits of Sandsa, which separates it from the island of Sumatra at a distance, at the narrowest point, of only fourteen miles; and on the south-east by the Straits of Bali, only two miles wide, which divide it from the island of that name. These islands, and others stretching eastward, form with Java a gentle curve of more than 2000 geographical miles. From the eastern peninsula of India, Java is distant 140 leagues, from Borneo about fifty-six leagues, and from New Holland 200.

The island of Java is of a rectangular form, so that if it were divided into five or six parts, each would form a parallelogram. It is extremely diversified on its surface. An uninterrupted range of lofty mountains, varying in elevation from 5000 to 11,000 and even 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, and exhibiting in their round bases or pointed tops their volcanic origin, extends almost east and west through the whole length of the island. They rise to their greatest elevations towards the centre, which is much broken. The tops of these mountains were formerly the craters of volcanoes, which are now extinguished, though many of them emit smoke after heavy rains. From this great chain other innumerable ranges of hills of inferior height run in various directions, and serve to form and confine plains and valleys of different elevations and extent. These mountainous regions present all the most romantic and highly diversified scenery which is to be found amid waving forests, never-failing streams, and constant verdure, heightened by a pure atmosphere, and the glowing tints of a tropical sun. The aspect of the northern coast is low, in many places swampy, and overgrown with mangrove trees and bushes, particularly towards the west. But in advancing five miles inland a sensible improvement is experienced in the atmosphere and climate. Every step in advance leads to a purer air and a brighter scene. Here, amid the mountains, are found elevated and fertile plains, the seat of industry and skilful cultivation. "Here," says Sir Stamford Raffles, "stupendous mountains are clothed with abundant harvests, impetuous cataracts tamed to the peasant's will. Here is perpetual verdure; here are tints of the brightest hue. In the hottest season the air retains its freshness, in the driest the innumerable rills and rivulets preserve much of their water. This the mountain farmer directs in endless conduits and canals, to irrigate the land, which he has laid out in terraces for its reception; it then descends to the plains, and spreads fertility wherever it flows, till at last, by numerous outlets, it discharges itself into the sea." The principal harbour is that of Sourabaya, in the eastern districts, formed by the approaching extremities of Java and Madura, which is broad and spacious, and secure against the violence of the sea and the wind. The next in importance is that of Batavia, more properly the roads of Batavia, which

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1 See History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, vol. i. p. 24. Java are sheltered by several islands lying in the outer part of the bay. There are other positions along the northern coast which might be improved into convenient harbours, though the whole coast affords excellent anchorage at moderate depths during nearly all seasons of the year. In the smooth sea and moderate weather which usually prevail, the native vessels and small craft always find sufficient shelter at the change of the monsoon, when it is dangerous to anchor on the coast, by running for shelter under some of the islands which are scattered in those seas, or passing up the rivers, which, though presenting a difficult entrance, from the mud banks, that form a bar at their mouth, are mostly navigable for small vessels as far up as the maritime capitals through which they run. The south coast, which rises into high and rugged cliffs, is inaccessible, with the exception of a few bays, on account of its exposure to the open sea, and the violent surf which in consequence dashes against it.

From the mountains of Java numerous streams pour down into the plains. There is no space, indeed, for the formation of large rivers. But there are probably no less than fifty which in the wet season bear down rafts of timber and other rough produce of the country, and not less than five or six at all times navigable to the distance of some miles from the coast; and those which are useful to the agriculturist for the irrigation of the lands cannot be numbered. The principal rivers are the Solo, the largest in the island, which discharges itself on the north side by two principal outlets into the sea near Gresseck, and by which the produce of an extensive country is carried down in flat-bottomed boats to the sea. The river of Sourabaya, which is the second in magnitude, falls into the sea by five outlets near Sourabaya. There are several smaller rivers in these eastern districts, which fall into the ocean on the northern shore, and which are highly useful for the conveyance of teak timber from the interior forests to the coast; or which, being directed into canals, tend to improve the inland navigation of the country. Towards the west, the principal rivers which fall into the sea on the northern coast are the Chikandi, the Chidani, the Chitaran, and the Chimanok. Those which discharge themselves by the south coast are the Chinamandiri, which falls into the sea at Wyn-Coop's Bay, the Chitandui, the Serayu, and others. Along the northern coast almost every district has its principal river, but they have all the disadvantage of being blocked up at their entrance by the accumulation of mud banks, an evil which is increasing with the extension of agriculture, from the quantity of soil necessarily washed down in the process of irrigating the land for the cultivation of rice. Java contains no lakes of any considerable size, though there are several very beautiful lakes of small dimensions among the hills, many of which are the craters of extinguished volcanoes. There are also extensive swamps, which, though they are filled with water during the wet season, are for the rest of the year dried up or choked by vegetation.

Java possesses a soil that is extremely rich, and remarkable for its depth, owing, as Sir Stamford Raffles conjectures, to the exclusively volcanic constitution of the country, and the quantity of new mould that is constantly washed down the sides of its mountains. The best soil resembles the richest garden mould in Europe. The seasons, as in all tropical countries, are distinguished into wet and dry, and depend on the periodical winds, or the monsoons. The west monsoon, which brings on the annual rains, begins in October, and becomes more steady in November and December; it continues till the latter end of February or the beginning of March. It often blows with great violence, and is accompanied with heavy rains, which renders this the most unhealthy season. The month of April ushers in the easterly winds and fair weather, which continue for the remaining half year. But the rains, though they often fall in torrents, are not so constant nor so violent as on the continent of India. During the rainy season there are days free from showers; while, again, in July and August, occasional rains refresh the atmosphere, and preserve the brightest verdure of the landscape throughout the year. Thunder-storms are frequent, and the lightning very vivid. The thermometer on the northern coast, at Batavia, Semarang, and Sourabaya, occasionally rises, about three in the afternoon, to 90°, which it rarely exceeds; but in general it has been found to range between 70° and 74° in the evenings, and 83° at noon, or at Semarang 87°. At thirty or forty miles inland from Batavia, on the mountains, it ranges between 60° and 70°, above which it seldom rises. On the hills of Semarang, where Europeans frequently reside during the dry season, at an elevation of about 4000 feet, it is frequently, in the mornings, as low as 45°, and ranges between 50° and 62°; and on the summit of one of the highest mountains, Sindoro, it has been seen as low as 27°. From its insular situation, Java enjoys the benefit of the land and sea breeze; and its diversified surface affords the choice of climate, and a regular diminution of temperature, in proportion to the elevation. With the exception of the city of Batavia, where the climate is the most baneful in the world, and the low marshy flats on the northern shore, the island of Java is, in point of salubrity, equal to the healthiest parts of British India, or of any tropical country in the world. This fact is attested by the medical registers of the different British regiments stationed in this island. From the 1st November 1813 to the 1st November 1814, the deaths among 7470 British troops, who were exposed to many disadvantages and privations, did not exceed 504, which was only in the proportion of 1 to 14. From November 1814 to November 1815, out of 7487 troops, 252 died, 63 by fever, 123 by dysentery, and 65 by other diseases, which is only in the proportion of 1 in 30 in a year; a low estimate for climates that have borne a better character for salubrity than that of Java.

This island abounds in the number and extraordinary variety of its vegetable productions. Between the tops of the mountains and the sea-shore is comprised almost every degree of temperature, and hence the produce of every region finds here some congenial spot. Rice, of which there are a hundred varieties, is cultivated on all the low grounds and ravines along the sea-coast, and in other situations commanding a supply of water. It is the great staple of agriculture in Java, to which every other species of husbandry is subordinate; and this island is the granary of the eastern archipelago, from which all the other adjacent islands and states of Sumatra, Molucca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, have been long supplied; while every year about six or eight thousand tons were formerly sent by the Dutch to Ceylon, Coromandel, the Cape, and their other settlements. Notwithstanding this abundant produce, it is calculated that about seven eighths of the island are either neglected or badly cultivated; and such is the fertility of the soil, that it is from the remaining one eighth that these great supplies are derived. Maize or Indian corn ranks next in importance to rice, and is principally cultivated in the higher regions, and in those tracts where there are no mountain streams for the irrigation of the soil. Its cultivation has of late been extended in Java, and is becoming more and more a favourite article of food. Wheat has been introduced by the Europeans, and cul-

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1 See Raffles' History of Java, vol. i. p. 30; Batavian Transactions, vol. viii. Introductory Discourse. tivated with success to an extent required by the European inhabitants. It thrives well in the interior of the country. Oats and other grain thrive in those parts of the island, and would be produced in great abundance were due attention given to their culture. Potatoes have been cultivated during the last forty years, in elevated situations, near all the principal European establishments, and are found of a good quality; also most of the common culinary vegetables of Europe, though their quality is apt to degenerate unless fresh supplies of seed be procured from Europe. Other species of grain, and leguminous vegetables, and a variety of pulses, are raised as green crops in intervals between those of rice; and in times of scarcity the natives make use of various kinds of the plantain, also the yam and the sweet potato. But in general Indian corn is the only article used by some as a substitute for rice. Cotton of an inferior quality to the Indian cotton is cultivated in almost every part of the island, and its cheapness occasions a considerable exportation. The coffee plant thrives luxuriantly in Java. It was first introduced about the year 1723 by the Dutch, who established a monopoly of the article, and forced the natives to cultivate it, and deliver it into the government stores at a reduced price. During the French administration of Marshal Daendels this cruel oppression was carried still further, and in certain districts every family was forced to take care of a thousand plants, and deliver the produce into the government stores. Under the more humane rule of the British governor, Sir Stamford Raffles, the free cultivation of coffee was permitted to the inhabitants, and all compulsory labour was abolished. The quality of the Java coffee is reckoned superior to that of the West Indies, and ranks with that of Bourbon in the European markets; its cultivation, for which many parts of the island are eminently adapted, has therefore been greatly extended; and it is exported to the amount of twenty-six millions of pounds, which is about two sevenths of the produce of the West Indies. The soil is very favourable to the growth of tobacco, which was introduced by Europeans, and is now extensively raised for exportation in the central districts of the island, about five millions of pounds being sent to the rest of the archipelago. In some parts it forms, after rice, the most important article of cultivation. Pepper was at one time the principal export from Java; but it was strictly monopolized by the government, and the most oppressive modes were resorted to in order to enhance its price. For some time past it has ceased to be cultivated to any extent. Indigo is raised in most parts of the island; and both the climate and soil of Java offer peculiar advantages for the extensive cultivation of this plant. The natives prepare the indigo very unskilfully, and hence it is of very indifferent quality. But if it were more carefully manufactured, it might form a most valuable and important export for the European market.

Notwithstanding the extent to which cultivation has been carried in many districts of the island, large portions of the surface are covered with primeval forests, affording excellent timber for almost every purpose. Extensive forests of teak are found in almost all the eastern provinces, but especially in the central districts of the island. There are great varieties of other kinds of timber, as the suran (the tana of Bengal), of which the wood is light, strong, and durable, having something of the smell of cedar, and which, as the grain is not fine, is used for making chests, trunks, and carriages. The wengu is often used instead of teak. It is of a somewhat finer grain, and, when in full blossom, is the most beautiful tree existing. The wadang or layur, a light wood, is well adapted for the masts and spars of small vessels. There are several other similar woods, of which are formed the handles of spears and pikes. There is a close and ponderous wood, the nangka, which is used for beams and rafters in the construction of houses, and sometimes for household furniture. There are other woods, heavy, hard, and close in the grain, which are used for the anchors of small vessels, for ships' blocks, for naves of wheels, for handles of tools for carpenters and other artificers, for cart-wheels, for machinery, and such like purposes. There are other light woods, which are useful for canoes, for the handles of axes and other like tools, and which are manufactured into planks. There are various descriptions of woods that are well adapted for household furniture, cabinet ware, &c. of a deep-brown or black colour, and which take a fine polish; others of a lighter colour, and finely grained, that are used for inlaying. There are other kinds of woods of various colours, variegated, white, and black, or of yellowish or brown colours, and very heavy, which are employed for canes, handles, and spears. The bamboo flourishes in great luxuriance and variety. The rattans of Java are, however, inferior to those of Sumatra and Borneo. Many woods afford excellent fuel; and amongst the useful trees may be reckoned the soap tree, of which the fruit is very commonly used in the washing of linen; the kasenak, from the bark of which is made a varnish for umbrellas; the oompong, from the resin of which the natives prepare a shining varnish for the wooden sheaths of krises; the cotton-tree, from which a silky wool is obtained for stuffing pillows and beds; the wax-tree, from the kernel of which an oil is expressed, which some time after becomes hard, and bears a resemblance to wax, and may be burnt in lamps or converted into candles, affording when burning an agreeable odour; the shrub is also produced which yields the elastic gum from which the India rubber is prepared. This substance is converted into torches, which are employed in searching for edible bird-nests in the caves of the rocks. Few of the trees in Java exude the odoriferous resins which abound in Sumatra, Borneo, and the eastern islands. The camphor tree is unknown. None of the finer kinds of spices, such as the nutmeg, the clove, or the cinnamon, are indigenous to Java; but the few trees planted by Europeans in gardens have thriven well, and there is little doubt that the nutmeg and the clove might be extensively cultivated throughout the island. The vine would also thrive well in some of the eastern provinces; but its growth was always discouraged by the narrow policy of the Dutch, who were afraid lest it should interfere with the wine trade of the Cape of Good Hope. The cottage of every peasant is surrounded with plantations of cocoa-nut trees, which constitute an inheritance that is transmitted from father to son, and which it is reckoned a sacred duty to transmit, and to augment by new plantations. The various species of the palm-tree are found in Java; and, besides the cocoa-nut, there are many trees growing spontaneously, of which the seeds and kernels are used as food. The true sago of Amboya and the eastern islands is found in a fair, low, and marshy situation, though the preparation of it from the pith of the tree is not known to the inhabitants of Java; but from the aren or sagurus rumphi, which abounds in all parts, and, from its various and extensive uses, ranks next in importance to the cocoa-nut, a substance is prepared similar in all respects to the true sago of the eastern islands. Other trees exude gums and balsamic oils. The kubah yields a balsamic oil or jelly, which is much esteemed, which has the smell and taste of camphor, and is taken inwardly for violent coughs, or disorders in the stomach. The benzoin-tree produces an odoriferous gum, of an orange colour, which is a valuable article of commerce. The upas or famous poison-tree of Java has long attracted the curiosity of naturalists, and has been the subject of many wonderful, and, as now appears, fabulous tales. It is one of the largest trees in the forests of Java, and rises with a completely naked stem to the perpendicular height of sixty, seventy, and eighty feet, when it sends off a few stout branches. The bark, which in old trees is almost half an inch thick, on being cut yields a milky juice, from which a poison is prepared equal in fatality to the strongest animal poisons hitherto known. The inner bark resembles a coarse piece of linen which is worked into ropes, and which, after much bruising, washing, and immersion in water, is worn by the lower classes when working in the fields. But it is remarkable, that after being exposed to a shower of rain, this dress produces an intolerable itching, the effect of a small portion of the poison still adhering to the bark. The story of the tree poisoning the surrounding atmosphere is altogether a fable. It is extremely difficult to penetrate into the forests of Java, from the quantity of underwood and creeping plants with which they are entangled.

"No region of the earth," says Marsden, "can boast of a greater abundance and variety of indigenous fruits than Java. The mangustin, pre-eminent for delicacy of flavour amongst all the fruits of the East, of a round form and a purple colour, is found in great abundance. The dorian, a large fruit, like the bread fruit in appearance, of a disgusting smell, and of a flavour like a custard, is said, when seasoned with garlic, to become by frequent use extremely fascinating. The rambutan, a cool and agreeable fruit, of a delicate sub-acid flavour, grows on a showy and elegant tree. The lanesh or lanesh, much relished by the lower classes, grows in clusters like grapes, and has a pulpy substance, with a delicate sub-acid flavour. The pumplemoos, the Batavian lembu or vine of Bengal, and the shaddock of the West Indies, is in Java of an exquisite flavour; as also the pine-apple, which is much superior to that of Hindustan. There are besides extensive varieties of the atrocarpus or jack-fruit, which grows wild in abundance; of the mango, of which no less than forty varieties are enumerated; the plantain, the guava, the rose-apple, the custard-apple, the papaw, besides dates, pomegranates, tamarinds, figs, annanas, oranges, lemons, citrons, melons, pumpkins. In some of the mountainous tracts are to be found peaches, Chinese pears, and other fruits imported from Japan, the Cape of Good Hope, and China. Of the oil-giving plants there are many. From the palma christi is obtained most of the oil that is burned in lamps. There are numerous trees, plants, and shrubs, which supply, from the bark or the leaves, fibres that are converted into ropes, threads, lines used for fishing, thread, and finally cloth, or spun into a kind of stuff resembling silk, gauze, &c. Mats are made from a kind of grass, and from the leaves of various palms; and the paper in common use amongst the Javans is manufactured from the morus papayrifica.

The plants and herbs, and the innumerable flowers which bloom in perpetual succession in Java throughout the year, and impregnate the air with their fragrance, present an inexhaustible field for the researches of the botanist. Many of the flowers are used by the natives in adorning their persons, and are remarkable for their fragrance. From the fula majori, of which whole fields are cultivated, a water is distilled superior to rose-water; and from the eglantine tree, originally imported from Persia, a rose-water is distilled which is in great repute. The coral trees, of different species, are all elegant and showy; and amongst the trees and shrubs there are some that are rare and curious, such as the casuarina equisetifolia, whose pendent branches resemble the hair of the cassowary. The bombax bears a long pod, which contains a silky substance that is used for stuffing cushions. Many varieties of flowers and plants are cultivated in gardens on account of their beauty and fragrance, such as the elastic gum-tree, the convolvulus jalappa, the styrax liquida, and the mountain cabbage-tree of the West Indies. The pitcher-plant (Nepenthes distillatoria) is found in the most arid situations, and is provided with a curious contrivance for retaining the rains or the dews which refresh the parched ground. To the stalk which bears the leaves, a small tube, in the form of a pitcher, and covered with a lid, is attached. By means of a hinge or strong fibre passing over the handle, and connected with the leaf, which is contracted when the weather is showery, or when the dews fall, the lid is opened for the reception of the moisture; and when it is filled it closes again, so firmly as to prevent evaporation, and thus water is secured for the sustenance of the plant. Java produces a variety of medicinal plants, many of which are little known in Europe, though several, whose properties have been investigated, are likely to become valuable articles in medicinal practice. It yields also a great variety of culinary vegetables, such as the kurkum, a favourite plant used by the Malays in cooking their fish and flesh, to which it gives the colour and taste of saffron; the pattatas, reckoned a very wholesome root, and eaten either raw or roasted, in which state it has the taste of a chestnut; the foki-foki, which, when boiled in wine with pepper, tastes like an artichoke. All other garden plants, such as endives, cauliflowers, beans, cabbages, pompons, water-melons, yams, potatoes, &c., are produced in great abundance throughout the island.

Neither the camel nor the elephant is found in Java, nor have they either the ass or the mule. But they have a male breed of fine horses, strong, fleet, and well made; and a still finer breed is imported from Buna, or the neighbouring island of Sumbawa, which much resembles the Arabian horse in all qualities excepting size. The bull and the cow are common, and the breed has been improved by a species brought from the continent of India. But the animal of most essential use in agriculture is the buffalo, which is a large and fierce animal, heavier than our largest oxen, and well qualified for a beast of burden. Goats of a small size are numerous; sheep are scarce and small. The hog is principally reared by the Chinese. Wild animals abound in the forests. The royal tiger is here as powerful and as large as in Bengal. There is a smaller species of a black kind which is very ferocious, and in size and shape resembles a leopard; there is also the leopard and the tiger-cat. The rhinoceros is amongst the largest quadrupeds found in Java. It is principally met with in the western parts, lying in the deep jungles of the high grass, remote from observation. Deer and antelopes abound in the woods; also hares and rabbits, as well as all the varieties of the wild hog, which are extremely destructive to the plantations. Other smaller quadrupeds, such as the weasel and squirrel, are common. Amongst the scattered tribes are found the cassowary, called emeuy by the Indians, a very large and powerful bird; the white eagle, and several varieties of the falcon; also the carrion-crow and the owl, the peacock, two species of parrots, one of which is very beautiful, and sells at a high price. Birds of paradise sometimes visit the island. Pigeons of the most beautiful plumage are found; also pheasants, jingle and pea-fowl, quail, snipes; wild ducks and geese are not so common. The Java sparrow is a very handsome bird. Amongst the most interesting subjects for the study of the naturalist is the small swallow, which forms edible nests, of which large quantities are annually exported to the Chinese market, where they are considered as a very great luxury. The aquatic tribe are numerous. At the mouths of the rivers the cayman or alligator, more resembling the crocodile of Egypt than that of the Ganges, is found lurking for its prey. The water-guana, in length about six or seven feet, infests the rivers and ponds, where it is very destructive. There are various kinds of lizards; amongst others a small one, which is not above eighteen or twenty inches in length. Two spe- cies of the turtle are found in the surrounding seas, which abound also in a variety of excellent fish not known in Europe; and in soles and carp, as well as in oysters and shell-fish of every kind. There are thirty-four species of river-fish, many of which are excellent. In the several bays on the shores of the island are numerous sharks, which are often seen swimming around the ships.

The serpent brood are numerous, and of various kinds. It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found in Java. There are several which attain to a very large size, from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. One of these, the *ular dalang*, is much dreaded by the natives, and is said to be poisonous. Scorpions and musquitoes abound in marshes; and there are various sorts of dangerous and disgusting vermin, such as ants, spiders, fire-flies, which swarm in the roads, houses, and even bed-chambers of the inhabitants. In the woods is found a venomous spider, the body of which is nearly two inches in diameter, the fore legs and claws nearly four inches in length, and the webs spun by it so strong as frequently to entangle and catch the smaller birds.

Manufacturing industry can scarcely be said to exist in Java. Weaving is exclusively practised by the women, who make coarse cloths of cotton, and sometimes of silk, for the use of their families. These they dye of various colours; but, with the exception of blue and scarlet, all their dyes are apt to fade. Tanning is carried on in some districts with tolerable success; also saddlery; and there are manufactures in iron, brass, and tin. Salt is manufactured in Java to a great extent, both for the home supply and also for exportation. Under the Dutch government, the manufacture of salt was farmed out to the Chinese as an exclusive privilege; a system liable to much abuse, and which left the price in a great measure at the discretion of the farmer. The farming of salt was abolished under the British regime in 1813. Saltpetre is obtained in many parts of the island, and whilst the French possessed the island, saltpetre works were established under European superintendents; powder-mills, founderies for shells, shot, anvils, &c. and manufactories of swords and small arms. From the resources and industry of this island alone the French were enabled to equip an army of 15,000 men, besides a numerous militia in every district; a proof of the progress of manufacturing industry amongst the natives. The trade of a blacksmith is held in high estimation, and considered almost as a liberal profession; chiefly, it is probable, on account of the value attached to the manufacture of arms. Their small boats and barks are made of various and convenient shapes; but they fail whenever they attempt to construct vessels of any magnitude.

The commerce of Java was very extensive at the period of the Dutch establishment in the Eastern Seas. "But," says Sir Stamford Raffles, "it would be painful to point out how far, or to show in what manner, that commerce was interfered with, checked, changed in its character, and reduced in its importance, by the influence of a withering monopoly, the rapacity of avarice armed with power, and the short-sighted tyranny of a mercantile administration." The Javans were, prior to this time, plentifully supplied both with gold and jewels, and with other valuable articles, in exchange for the produce of their tranquil industry and their fertile soil. Constant requisitions were made by the government for the services of native vessels, at rates far below a just compensation; and native traders were forbidden to trade in any of the articles of the Dutch monopoly. This traffic was almost entirely annihilated, or diverted from its course, by the restrictive policy of the Dutch, and by their monopolies. The commerce of the country revived under the more liberal administration of the British governor Sir Stamford Raffles, one of those great and enlightened men who seemed to value the possession of power only as it enabled him to benefit mankind. This extension of trade appears from the increasing amount of tonnage employed to carry it on. The shipping that cleared out from the port of Batavia in 1812, was 52,375 tons; in 1813, 64,306; in 1814, 72,718. By an official return in March 1816, it appears that the total quantity of tonnage in vessels boarded in their passage through the Straits of Sunda, amounted, in 1812, to 45,000 tons; in 1813, to 56,000 tons; in 1814, to 64,000 tons; and in 1815, to 180,000 tons; and, adding vessels not boarded, the whole tonnage for four years would amount to 390,000. Java has great advantages for its internal trade, from its navigable rivers, by which the produce of the interior is conveyed to the coast, and from its excellent roads. A high post-road, passable for carriages at all seasons of the year, runs nearly the whole length of the island east and west, a distance of 800 English miles; and a high military one, equally well made, crosses the island from north to south; cross roads branching off from these main roads, so that there is easy access to all parts of the island. The internal trade of the island was, however, heavily oppressed by local duties, rendered still more oppressive in the hands of the Chinese, to whom they were farmed out; and by market duties. From this oppression it was only partially relieved by the British. The coasting and foreign trade of Java is carried on in vessels belonging chiefly to Chinese, Arabs, Bugis, natives of Celebes, and in smaller Malayan craft. The island is a great entrepot for the produce of the whole eastern archipelago; and its merchants, a great proportion of them Chinese, are very rich, and remarkable for honourable dealing and persevering industry. Java exports for the use of the other islands, including the Malayan ports on the peninsula, rice, a variety of wetches, salt, oil, tobacco, timber, Java cloths, brass-wire, edible bird-nests to the value of L40,000 or L50,000, a variety of minor articles, the produce of her agriculture and manufactures, besides a considerable quantity of European, Indian, and Chinese goods. The following articles, the exclusive produce of the eastern islands, are collected at its principal ports for re-exportation to India, China, and Europe; tin from Banca; gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benjamin, and other drugs, edible bird-nests, biche de mer, rattans, bees' wax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods, from Borneo and Sumatra; sandal and other fine woods, nutmegs, cloves, and mace, coarse, wild, and damaged spices, kayu-puti, and other pungent oils, from the Moluccas; horses and sapan wood from Sumbawa; Bugis cloths, and many collections for the Chinese market, from Celebes. A very extensive trade is carried on with China in Chinese junks, about eight or ten of which annually arrive from Canton or Amoi with cargoes of teas, raw silk, silk piece goods, varnished umbrellas, iron pots, coarse China ware, sweetmeats, nankeen paper, and numerous other minor articles, for the use of the Chinese settlers, many of whom come annually to Java, where they employ themselves as labourers on their first arrival; but, by frugal habits and persevering industry, they soon acquire property, and become extensive merchants. European vessels carry out from Java to China, tin, pepper, spices, rattans, and betel-nut; and bring back Chinese produce for the European market, a balance of cash, and manufactures for Batavia. Whilst Java was in possession of the English, all kinds of piece goods, opium, and other articles, were imported from Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and bills, gold-dust, bees' wax, tin, Japan camphor, sago, and teak-timber, were taken away in return. Under the English rule the trade was free, and great quantities of teak were imported into the markets of Bengal. But since the island was ceded to the Dutch, the old system has been revived, and the teak of Java has been artificially raised in price two hundred per cent. The latter is of a superior quality to that of Pegu or the Malabar coast; and, notwithstanding that it was monopolized by the Dutch government, it was exported to the Moluccas, to Malacca, and to the Cape of Good Hope, where all the public buildings are constructed of Javan teak. Large quantities of Javan sugar, which is of a superior quality, were exported to Bombay, and also by Arab vessels to the Red Sea, and particularly to Mocha. But Arab traders of capital have since been driven out of the market by the monopolies of the Dutch. Java, since the partial opening of the Indian trade in 1810, has largely imported European manufactures.

It appears from Mr Crawford's statement that there does not exist here the same invertebrate prejudice against European manufactures as in India and China. Since the opening of the free trade, the fine cottons of Britain have, from their cheapness, in a great measure superseded those of Hindustan. Chintzes are the favourite article, in which the pattern is of much consequence. The taste of the Javanese is for bright colours, red and green in preference to all others, and next to these yellow and brown; whilst black is unsaleable. The pattern should be small, filling the ground without crowding it. White calicoes and cotton cambrics are also purchased by the natives, to be painted by themselves. Although Java lies under the tropics, its mountainous and maritime situation produces a demand for light woollens. These should be cheap Yorkshire cloths, such as cost at Leeds 5s. to 6s. 6d. per yard. Iron, to the extent of £3,000 cwt., and to the value of L22,500, is annually imported into Java, which is destitute of that important metal. The Swedish is preferred, though British iron has of late been introduced to a considerable extent. Fire-arms and ammunition are the most saleable articles, but their export has hitherto been prohibited by European governments. There has been recently a great extension of demand for our glass and earthen ware. A constant demand, limited only by the means of the purchaser, is also daily increasing for gold lace, and the other European manufactures used as dress, furniture, saddlery, &c.

Amongst the two races of people who inhabit the oriental islands, distinguished into the brown coloured race, and the Papuas or oriental negroes, the natives of Java belong to the former. They are under the middle size, the standard for men being five feet two inches, and for women four feet eleven inches. Their complexion is a yellowish brown, generally without any tincture of red. Of this colour they admire the fair specimens, and their standard beauty is a virgin gold; but they consider the European white as a sickly tint. They have a round face, little black eyes, a small nose, and a large mouth, with thick lips. On the head, beard, and other parts of the body, there is a remarkable deficiency of hair. Compared with the Europeans and southern Asiatics, they are considered by Mr Crawford as an ill-looking race; but the opinion of Sir Stamford Raffles is, in this respect, more favourable. Their constitution is healthy, and they seem to attain a longevity equal to that of Europeans. Early marriages are as universal as amongst other Asiatics, a man being scarcely ever known single at twenty-five, whilst an unmarried female at eighteen is considered as an old maid. The lot of the female sex differs considerably from what it usually is among Asiatics. They are by no means immersed with the same jealousy; British gentlemen have even been admitted to visit the harems of the sultans and chiefs, where they were received by the ladies with all the dignified propriety of persons accustomed to mix in general society. To women the commercial and pecuniary affairs of the family are almost wholly intrusted. Of these privileges and advantages, however, they are said not always to make the very best use. The right of divorce, with which they are indulged equally with the other sex, is carried by them beyond all excusable limits. It is very common for a woman, before the age of thirty, to have divorced three or four husbands; and Mr Crawford had one pointed out to him who was living with her twelfth. No difficulty occurs in regard to the disposal of the children, who, in Java, are never viewed in the light of a burden. Besides being easily supported, they are usually few in number, a circumstance ascribed to the hard labour which the mothers undergo, and the consequent frequency of abortion. Besides the management of the household, they weave all the cloths worn in the family, and perform various other offices which in Europe devolve on the other sex. Polygamy is permitted by law, but it is known only amongst the great; and, even with them, the first wife alone is of their own rank, and mistress of the family; the others occupy a place decidedly inferior. The natives of Java were drawn by their Dutch masters in very dark colours; but the English residents, after careful observation, have described them much more favourably. They are generous, warm-hearted, and susceptible of strong attachments. Their affections of kindred are peculiarly forcible; so that, even in civil contests, those fraternal enmities, so conspicuous in other Asiatic states, are scarcely ever observable. The English, who placed confidence in them, found them honest in the intercourse of common life; and they share only in a slight degree those habits of piracy for which the Malay tribes are so notorious. In society they are uncommonly good-humoured, courteous, and polite, and are scarcely ever seen in a passion, unless on those occasions when they are hurried to the last extreme of violence. These unhappily too often occur under the impulse of that violent jealousy and revenge which form their ruling passions. The disregard of human life seems to proceed to an excess amongst them scarcely known in any other quarter of the globe. It is stated that, in any part of Java, an assassin may be hired for the moderate sum of fifteen or twenty shillings; but, in general, the injured party conceives it more honourable to decline this cheap mode of redress, and to seek vengeance with his own hand. Some, driven to the extreme of desperation, run furiously into the streets, and kill indiscriminately all whom they meet, till they are themselves overpowered and cut down. This dreadful atrocity, which, by a corruption of the native term, is called "running a muck," is said, however, to prevail, not amongst the native Javanese, but amongst the other Malay tribes resident in the capital.

In the ancient religion of the Javanese, which was undoubtedly derived from Hindustan, Siva, with his family, and Buddha, were the chief objects of adoration. Their temples appear, from the late inquiries of our countrymen, to have rivalled in splendour those erected in the native seats of their religion. In the course of the fifteenth century, the whole island of Java was, by Arab traders and settlers, converted to Mahommedanism. This faith, however, which is generally observed with so much strictness, is professed here in a very loose and imperfect manner. It need only be observed, that wine and spirits are not only used without scruple on ordinary occasions, but are even sometimes produced at religious festivals. An extreme indifference prevails as to all its outward observances. In return, superstitious credulity is common to a degree almost unparalleled. A belief in sorcery is universal. If a person write the name of another on a skull, bone, or leg, and suspend it from a tree on haunted ground, where two roads meet, the laws doom to death, himself, his friends, his children, and his children's children. Availing themselves of this credulity, various persons usually start up, in troubled times, as saints, prophets, or as the descendants of one of the ancient kings of Java, and at- tract a multitude of followers. Christianity has not obtained any footing in Java; and Mr Crawfurd doubts if it ever will, till the conduct of its Indian professors becomes more conformable to its precepts.

The Javanese language is the most copious and improved of any used in the Indian islands. It has Sanscrit for its basis, but with considerable variations. In the beauty of its written characters it is not surpassed by any of the languages of Asia. It is distinguished by its vast copiousness as to particular, and barrenness as to general terms. Thus there are five names for a dog, and seven for a horse, but no general word for an animal. The abstract terms nature, space, and others of that kind, are entirely wanting. All their literature, as is usual among rude nations, is metrical, and may be divided into lyrical compositions or songs; romances founded on Hindu legends; romances founded on modern story; histories of modern transactions; with legal and ethical tracts, chiefly in prose. Of these compositions, the songs, in which feeling and passion are simply expressed, appear to be the most pleasing. The romances consist chiefly of abridged translations of the Mahabarat and Ramayana, from the Hindu original into a new dead Javanese language called the Kawi. These versions, being free from the endless prolixity of the originals, may be read with greater pleasure. Java had no history previous to the Mahommedan invasion; and even now, its annals consist merely of metrical legends, which, being written under the eye of the prince whose deeds they relate, cannot be suspected of very strict impartiality. Besides the rudeness of these compositions, there is an absence of that energy, ardour, and sublimity, which have often characterised the poetry of far ruder nations. This seems justly ascribed to the despotic form of the government, which represses all the nobler sentiments natural to independent man, when individual character is permitted to unfold itself.

The government of Java is more absolute than that of any other part of the archipelago, and differs little in this respect from the great monarchies of Asia. There is no rank but what emanates from the sovereign; and no bounds are set to the marks of respect shown by inferiors to the higher classes. No individual, of whatever rank, can stand in the presence of a superior, not even the heir-apparent in that of the sovereign. Whenever a chief appears in public, all his inferiors must throw themselves into the posture called dodok, which may be rendered by the English term "squatting," in which they remain till he disappears. Sir Stamford Raffles describes himself as much annoyed at seeing, in one of his progresses, the whole population of the country quitting their work, and remaining fixed in this uneasy posture as long as he remained in sight. They have a language, or at least a modification of the language, which must be used by the inferior in addressing those of higher rank. The revenue of the sovereign, as is usual in Asiatic despotisms, arises from the rent of all the cultivated lands in the country, levied in kind, and in the enormous proportion of one half of the entire produce. This, however, by the allowance of one sixth for reaping, is reduced to about two fifths. It is paid, not into the treasury, but by the king assigning to each of his officers and servants a certain number of cultivators, whose rents he is to receive. The Javan farmer is supposed, on the whole, to be more mildly treated than the Hindoo.

The population of Java, including the small contiguous island of Madura, was found, by a census taken in 1815, to amount to 4,600,000. Of these, three millions are in the provinces immediately subject to European authority; the rest is subject to the native princes. The principal European capitals, Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya, contain respectively 60,000, 25,000, and 20,000 inhabitants; the chief native capitals, Surakerta and Yug Yukerta, about 105,000 each. The Chinese, amounting to 94,000, form the most active and industrious part of the population; the manufactures of salt, sugar, and arrack, are solely in their hands. Slavery in Java prevails to a much less extent than in the other islands. The slaves do not exceed 30,000; and none of them are native Javans, but obtained by purchase or capture from Celebes or Borneo. The philanthropic measures adopted by Sir Stamford Raffles, with a view to the abolition of the trade, were seconded by the chiefs, and productive, to a considerable extent, of the desired effect.

JAVELIN, in Antiquity, a sort of spear five feet and a half long, the shaft of which was of wood, with a steel point. Every soldier in the Roman armies had seven of these, which were very light and slender.

JAXT, one of the circles into which the kingdom of Wurtemberg is divided. It is 2112 square miles in extent, and comprehends thirty-one cities, thirty-five market-towns, and 1608 small villages and hamlets, with 336,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly Lutherans, but intermixed with some Catholics and Jews. It is subdivided into fourteen bailiwicks. It is a mountainous district, but none of the elevations exceed 2200 feet. It is the source of several rivers, some of which run to the Rhine, and others to the Danube. It is a fruitful province, and better cultivated than most parts of Germany; and it yields abundant crops of wheat, summer and winter barley, rye, oats, potatoes, hemp, flax, and rape-seed. Vineyards are numerous, and produce excellent wine. Its mineral products are iron, vitriol, marble, and alum, and abundance of salt is prepared from natural saline springs. The breed of cattle is good, and forms a part of its exports to France. There are manufactories, chiefly of linen. On the whole, this is the most prosperous circle of the whole kingdom.

JAY, GUI MICHEL LE, distinguished by the Polyglott which bears his name, was born at Paris in 1588. He studied the ancient languages, in which, however, he was but moderately skilled. In 1615, three men of rare merit, Cardinal Duperron, Jacques de Thou, and Francois de Brèves, had conceived the project of publishing a Polyglott; but, from some circumstances, the design was not carried into effect. Lejay, however, resolved to revive the scheme, and conduct it to a conclusion. He had fortune, he was laborious, and he was not wanting in resources. He associated with himself in the undertaking some of the most learned men of his time. The elder Morin of the Oratory, Philippe d'Aquin, a converted Jew, Godefroy Hermant, a canon of Beauvais, and three Maronites of Lebanon, were charged with revising the different books of the Holy Scriptures, each in the language which he understood; whilst Jacques Sanlecque, a famous artist, cast the characters, and Antoine Vitry or Vitray, printer to the king, undertook the impression. It commenced in 1628, and, after encountering a variety of difficulties and obstacles, was completed in 1645, under the title of Biblia Hebraica, Samaritana, Chaldaica, Graeca, Latina, Arabica, quibus textus originales totius Scripturae sacrae, quorum pars in editione Complutensi, deinde Antwerpensi regis sumptibus extat, nunc integri ex manuscriptis tota fere orbe quaestis, exemplaribus exhibentur, in ten volumes. The execution of this work is magnificent; it is indeed a masterpiece of typography; but it literally swarms with blunders, editorial as well as typographical; whilst, by reason of the enormous size of the volumes, the use of them is attended with much inconvenience. Lejay ruined himself by the impression, first, because he would not suffer it to appear under the name of Cardinal Richelieu, who, after the example of Cardinal Ximenes, was ambitious of immortalising his name by such an undertaking; and next, because he made it too dear for the English market, upon which Dr Walton undertook his Polyglott Bible, which, being more commodious, reduced the price of Lejay's. After the death of his wife, Lejay, having taken orders, was made dean of Vezelay, in the Niervois; and Louis XIV. gave him the post of councillor of state.

JAYES, a town of Hindustan, in the nabob of Oude's territories, fifty-five miles south-east from Lucknow. Long. 81. 30. E. Lat. 26. 15. N.

JAYNAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Bahr, 122 miles south-south-west from Patna. Long. 84. 25. E. Lat. 24. 1. N.

JEALOUSY is that peculiar passion which arises in the mind from fear that some rival may rob us of the affection of one whom we greatly love, or suspicion that he has already done so. The first sort of jealousy is inseparable from love, before it is in possession of its object; the latter is often unjust, generally mischievous, and always troublesome.

JEAN D'ANGELY, an arrondissement in the department of La Vendée, in France, extending over 334 square miles, divided into seven cantons, and these into 128 communes, with a population of 70,261 persons. The capital, which gives its name to the arrondissement, is a city situated on the river Boutonne, containing 5460 inhabitants, who are partly employed in the manufacture of serges, druggets, and other kinds of woollen goods, and carry on a considerable trade in wine and brandy. There is also an establishment for making gunpowder. It is in long. 0. 40. 5. W. and lat. 45. 55. N.

JEAN DE LUZ, St., a town of the arrondissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, in France. It is situated on the sea-shore, on the river Nivelle, and is defended by a fort at the mouth of that stream. It contains about 600 houses, with 2830 inhabitants, and is a place of considerable traffic, being the last town of France on the road to Spain; and it carries on extensive fisheries. Long. 2. 15. 7. W. Lat. 40. 23. 15. N.

JEARS, or GEERS, in nautical language, an assemblage of tackles, by which the lower yards of a ship are hoisted along the mast to their usual station, or lowered from thence, as occasion requires; the former of which operations is called seaying, and the latter striking.

JEBNA, a town of Palestine, on the site of the ancient city of Gath, containing the remains of a fortress built during the crusades by Foulques, king of Jerusalem; ten miles south of Jaffa.

JEBUS.EI, one of the seven ancient peoples of Canaan, descendants of Jebusi, Canaan's son; so warlike and brave as to have stood their ground, especially in Jebus, afterwards called Jerusalem, down to the time of David. (Judges, i. 21; I Sam. v. 6.)

JEDBURGH, a royal burgh, the seat of a presbytery, and the capital of a parish of the same name, as well as the county town of Roxburghshire in Scotland. It is beautifully situated in the romantic valley of the Jed, on the left bank of that stream, environed with sylvan banks, and embosomed in venerable orchards. This town is of very ancient date, and the name appears to have been at a former period indiscriminately written Gedworde, Jedworth, Jedwood, Jeddart (still in use amongst the common people), and Jedburgh. The name of the river being anciently written Ged, and perhaps Gad, has afforded an opportunity for antiquaries conjecturing that this parish was the principal seat of the Gadeni, a tribe who inhabited the district between the river Teviot and Northumberland. In the twelfth century David I. founded a monastery here, which greatly enhanced the importance of the town. From the antique choir which remains, in a dilapidated state, some have been led to suppose that a sacred edifice existed on the same site prior to the time of David I., and that the venerable ruin, which still attracts much attention, was not founded, but only rebuilt, by that munificent monarch. He also gave to the canons the chapel of Scarburgh, lying in a recess of the forest, to the east of the Jed; and at a later period the dependencies of Restennet in Angus, and Cannoby in Dumfriesshire, came into the possession of the monastery. The importance of the town was still further secured by the erection of a castle; but by whom it was founded is not known. It was a royal residence, and for ages continued a place of great strength, the object of eager dispute to the contending kingdoms. It was frequently honoured with the presence of the Scottish monarchs, and was the scene of the royal festivities of Alexander III. on the occasion of his second marriage. After the fifteenth century, the town is frequently mentioned in the history of the wars between the Scotch and English. It was burned by the Earl of Surrey in 1528, at which period it appears to have been a very considerable town; for Surrey, in his despatches to Henry VIII. says, that "there was two times more houses therein than in Berwick, and well builded, with many honest and fair houses in garrison, and six good towers therein." The same writer also extols, in no measured terms, the warlike character and bravery of the men of Jedburgh. Their favourite weapon was the Jedwood axe; and their war-cry or slogan, "Jedworth's here." But an account of the various battles and skirmishes in which they distinguished themselves belongs rather to the history of the county, than to a description of the town. At the present day, Jedburgh has four principal streets, crossing each other at right angles, and terminating in a square or market-place. They are wide and clean, and the houses are well built. In recent times the town has been generally improved, and many elegant, if not spacious buildings have been erected. It contains numerous handsome shops, in which all the necessaries and most of the luxuries of life can be readily obtained. It is celebrated for the production of excellent bread, which is exported in great quantities to the north of England, as well as to the surrounding villages of the county. It is entitled to hold two markets every week, on Tuesday and Saturday. The Tuesday's market is well attended, and grain is then sold by sample to a considerable extent. There are two banks in Jedburgh, branches of the British Linen Company and of the National Bank. Besides the established church, Jedburgh contains several meeting houses for dissenters, who are here a numerous body. The principal manufactures are blankets, flannels, tartans, shawls, shepherds' plaidings, hosiery, lamb's-wool yarn, and carpets; and the town also derives part of its income from fruit, which is produced in considerable quantities in private gardens. There is here an excellent grammar and English school, united in 1804, several subscription libraries, a savings bank for the district, a dispensary, one or two religious societies, and there are letter-press printers in the town. An establishment for making printing presses, on a new principle of construction, has likewise been of considerable benefit to Jedburgh. It is governed by a council, consisting of a provost, four bailies, a dean of guild, and eighteen ordinary councillors. There are eight incorporated trades, who annually elect their own deacons and office-bearers, and four of these deacons are admitted into the council to represent the trades for the year. Jedburgh unites with Haddington, North Berwick, Lander, and Dunbar, in sending a member to parliament. The revenue of the burgh amounts at present to £578 per annum, being chiefly derived from the rent of the mills. Jedburgh is forty-six miles south of Edinburgh, ten west of Kelso, and