The mines of gold and silver form the prime objects which have associated the idea of boundless wealth and indefinite splendour with the name of Mexico. The lustre of the precious metals has, by a natural illusion, always dazzled the eyes of mankind, and given a fictitious importance to the countries where they are found in the greatest abundance. Gold is far more plentiful in Peru; but, since they were first wrought, the mines of Mexico have produced more silver than all the rest of the world united. The ore is far from being rich; but it is found in vast quantities, in the very finest and healthiest parts of the country, and can be obtained with comparatively little difficulty. Prior to the year 1810, the country was supposed to contain five hundred reales or spots, in which mines were worked, with from three to five thousand mines large and small, included in thirty-seven mining districts, into which the viceroyalty was divided by the government of the mother country. But these were confined to a comparatively narrow circle; for the immense mass of silver which the country has yielded since the conquest, and which was calculated by Humboldt in the year 1803, at 1,767,952,000 dollars, has proceeded from a few central spots of the table-land, in which the capital and activity of the first speculators found ample employment. Yet, three centuries of constant productivity have been insufficient to exhaust the principal mines originally worked; whilst by far the largest proportion of the great veins still remains unexplored. The principal mines are situated in the provinces of Mexico, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Durango, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, San Luis Potosi, Sonora, and Sonora. Previously to the revolution, the produce of the mines continued to increase; but during the dreadful civil convulsions which have agitated the country since the year 1810, it has greatly declined, and many of the mines have been allowed to go to ruin. From facts which he was at great pains to collect and investigate, Mr. Ward concludes, first, that the annual average produce of the mines before the revolution, amounted to twenty-four millions of dollars, and the average exports to twenty-two millions; and, secondly, that since the revolution, the produce has been reduced to eleven millions of dollars, whilst the exports in specie have averaged 13,587,052 dollars annually. These results were deduced from data furnished in the year 1825. The discrepancy between the produce and the specie exported, is to be attributed to the removal of Spanish wealth, during the revolutionary war, to places of greater security.

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1 Ward's Mexico in 1827, vol. i. p. 67. Second edition, London, 1829. Extraordinary efforts have, within the last ten years, been made by British capitalists to recommence the working and extend the produce of the mines. During the period of excited speculation in 1825, numerous companies were constituted for this purpose, and their shares sold for some time at advancing premiums. There were also two North American and one German association, but on a smaller scale than the English companies. The hopes held out by the projectors have not as yet been realized; but there is reason to believe that, in a little time, the capitals invested in these undertakings will become productive. Although the mines of Mexico are no longer the same source of wealth which they formerly were, the greatest impediments were removed at the revolution. First, the duty upon silver and gold was reduced from ten to three per cent.; secondly, quicksilver for amalgamation was made duty free; and, thirdly, several local mints were established. It must likewise be kept in view, that any falling off that has taken place in the produce of the mines has not arisen from exhaustion; for even in those which have been worked for centuries, no defalcation is observable. Besides, the states of Durango, Sonora, Chihuahua, and Sonora, contain an infinity of mines hitherto but little known, and holding out, whenever they have been tried, a promise of riches superior to any thing that Mexico has yet produced. The ores appear to increase in riches the farther north the operations are prosecuted. So much so is this the case, that in the real, or district of Jesus Maria, in that great branch of the Sierra Madre which separates the states of Durango and Chihuahua, from those of Sonora and Sinaloa to the north and west, the ores of the mine of Santa Juliana, which does not exceed seventy yards in depth, average seven and eight marcs of silver per cargo of 300lbs, which is the average produce of ten cargos of good ore in Guanajuato; whilst ores of the best quality yield as much as from four to ten marcs per arroba of 25lbs, or forty marcs per cargo. Without entering into similar details respecting each of the other mines in the northern districts, it is sufficient to state, that, with some few exceptions, they all possess in a greater or less degree the same advantages, richness of ores, and veins productive almost at the surface; that few have been worked to any extent; and that, consequently, the risk of making the necessary experiments there is trifling, in comparison of the immense outlay required by the old mines of the southern districts, which have in general attained an enormous depth.

It is a very great advantage to the mines of Mexico, that, unlike those of South America, they are found in regions of moderate elevation and temperature. The greater proportion of the most valuable are at the height of from six to ten thousand feet above the level of the ocean, and, consequently, are exempt from that severity of cold which is found so injurious in Peru. In consequence of the country around the mines being thus in healthy and fruitful elevations, the great number of labourers which they require easily find subsistence; and whenever an extensive mine flourishes, the concourse of people which it collects creates a market for food, which the uncultivated fields around them are soon brought to supply; and towns spring up, and land becomes fruitful, where a few years before only uncultivated deserts were to be seen. It is from the healthiness of the climate in which the mines are situated, and from the fertility of the land around them, that Mexico has been enabled to extract so great a quantity of mineral wealth, rather than to the richness of the ore, or to the accessibility of the veins. The mines are all worked by freemen, compulsory labour being unknown in Mexico. But the miners lead a very wandering and desultory life. There are particular tribes of natives who have been miners from generation to generation, and who lead a roving life, migrating with their wives and children from one district to another, as they are attracted by the fame of superior riches. They are paid by partido, that is, by a share in the ore raised, which is preferred to regular wages however high. It was by employing liberally this powerful stimulus to exertion, that the old Spaniards found means to create a population in the most distant and desolate districts, without having recourse to the mita or tauda, which in Peru and Chili, was in such general use. The natives, far from looking upon mining with repugnance, have a very great love for it, and, in some places, look down with contempt upon those engaged in agriculture. It only remains to be stated regarding the mines of Mexico generally, that their importance consists not merely in the amount of the mineral treasures which they produce, but in the impulse communicated by them to all the other great interests of the country. Agriculture in particular, can only be said to flourish to its full extent in those districts where mining operations are vigorously carried on; for in these places the population is found most dense, and in them, also, exists the greatest demand for the products of the soil.

The following statement of the value of gold and silver raised in Mexico, in the two periods of twenty years, from 1790 to 1809 inclusive, and from 1810 to 1829 inclusive, is derived from the returns of the British consul agent.

| Period | Gold | Silver | Total | |--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | From 1790 to 1799 | £2,093,170 | £47,788,102 | £49,881,272 | | ... 1800 to 1809 | 2,430,208 | 46,641,201 | 49,071,409 | | Being, as compared | an increase | a decrease | a decrease | | with the first period, | of 16½% | of 2½% | of 1½% |

| Period | Gold | Silver | Total | |--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | From 1810 to 1819 | £1,466,830 | £21,577,764 | £23,044,594 | | Being, as compared | a decrease | a decrease | a decrease | | with the first period, | of 30% | of 48½% | of 57½% |

| Period | Gold | Silver | Total | |--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | From 1820 to 1829 | £20,810,965 | £21,257,210 | | | Being, as compared | a decrease | a decrease | a decrease | | with the first period, | of 78½% | of 56½% | of 57½% |

The following is a general table of the total coinage of all the mints of Mexico, including that of the capital, from the year 1733, when it was first placed under the direction of the government, and returns of the coinage regularly kept. By this it will appear that the sum of 1,435,658,611 dollars has been registered as the produce of the mines of Mexico, in ninety-three years, from 1733 to June 1826.

**Coinage of Mexico.**

The mint of the capital was established in 1525. Until the year 1733, when it was placed under the direction of the government, there are no returns.

From 1733 to June 1826, the registered coinage is

| Year | Gold | Silver | Total | |---------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | In gold | 63,365,406 | | | | In silver | 1,318,853,130| | | | Guanajuato—From Dec. | | | | | 1812, to May 15, 1813 | 311,125 | | | | From April 1821, to June 1826 | 2,713,069 | | | | Zacatecas—From Nov. 24, 1810, to June 1826 | 32,108,185 | | | | Guadalajara—From 1812 to June 1826 | 225,632 | | | | In gold | 5,659,159 | | | | In silver | 5,433,527 | | |

Carried forward.

1 Parliamentary Paper, session 1833. Statistics.

Brought forward.

Durango.—From 1811 to June 1826, 7,483,626 4 0

Chihuahua.—From 1811 to 1814, when the mint was suppressed, 3,603,660 0 0

Sombrerete.—From Oct. 1810 to July 16, 1811, when the mint was suppressed, 1,561,249 2 0

Total, 1,435,658,611 2 3

The total quantity of gold and silver coined in the different Mexican mints during the four years ending with 1829, was,

| Dollars | Dollars | |---------|---------| | In 1826... | 8,608,278 | | 1828... | 9,982,905 | | 1827... | 10,619,217 | | 1829... | 11,787,133 |

When the internal tranquillity of Mexico is restored, and those enterprising individuals who have undertaken to excavate the mineral riches of the country are permitted to prosecute their operations without molestation, a large increase of produce may fairly be anticipated.

Besides the precious metals, gold and silver, which we have thus far exclusively considered, Mexico abounds in other ores, which equally contribute to the improvement and comfort of man in the social state. Iron is found in great abundance in the intendancies of Valladolid, Zacatecas, and Guadalaxara, and especially in the more northern provinces. The increased production of these mines is always suspended by a return of peace, however much they may have yielded in the preceding periods of war. The difference of price in war and peace, both in iron and steel, is enormous. The former has sometimes risen from twenty to two hundred and forty dollars the quintal; and the latter, which in peace is commonly sold for £3, has been known in war to bring £50. During the early part of the wars occasioned by the French Revolution, the tribunal of mines advanced money to the iron miners; but the works were suspended by the peace of Amiens. When war recommenced, these mines were resumed, but very imperfectly, and the tribunal having lent its capital to the government, could not afford them any assistance.

Copper is found in a native state in the intendancy of Valladolid; and also to some extent in Guanajuato. Tin, although obtained in mines, is principally extracted from the earth washed down in the deep ravines. A combination of these two metals, both of which were known to the ancient Mexicans, although they had not discovered iron, was used to form their tools and weapons. By an examination of one of their implements, it was ascertained by some French chemists that they had acquired the art of tempering these two metals, so as to render them equal in effective utility to iron, nay even to steel. Lead is found, but the mines are very little worked. Zinc, under the form of a brown and black blend, is obtained in several veins. Antimony is produced in Catorce; and arsenic, combined with sulphur, has been extracted from the minerals found in Zimapán. Neither cobalt nor manganese has yet been discovered in Mexico; indeed these minerals appear to be much less abundant in the equinoctial regions of America than in the temperate climates of the old continent.

Having thus described the various productions of Mexico, vegetable and mineral, we now proceed to give some account of the trade and commerce of the country, the revenue, the army and navy, the state of religion, and other subjects. But as these were materially affected by the political changes which took place in the year 1824, it will be necessary, first of all, to explain the actual form and constitution of the government.

Government.—When the resignation of Iturbide left the representatives of Mexico at liberty to choose a form of government, that of a Federal Republic was fixed upon. The Constitution is dated the 4th of October 1824; and by it, whilst each member of the federation is permitted to manage its own affairs, the whole are cemented into one body politic by certain fundamental and constituent laws. This instrument, after declaring the absolute independence of the country, and adopting the Roman Catholic religion, proceeds to enumerate alphabetically the nineteen states of which the republic is composed. These are Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Texas, Durango, Guanajuato, Mexico, Michoacan (Valladolid), New Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla de los Angeles, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Sonora and Sinaloa, Tabasco, Las Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Xalisco (Guadalajara), Yucatan, and Zacatecas, together with the territories of Old and New California, Colima, New Mexico, and Tlascala. The powers of the supreme government are then divided into three branches; namely, legislative, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, which is divided into two chambers; the house of representatives, and the senate. Representatives are elected by the citizens of the states for a term of two years; one member being returned for each eighty thousand inhabitants, as well as for each fraction that exceeds forty thousand. Thus a state with a population of two hundred and five thousand would return the same number of deputies as one with two hundred and forty thousand. A deputy must be twenty-five years of age, and have resided two years in the state by which he is elected. He must be a Mexican by birth, or if not he must have resided eight years in the republic, and possess landed property to the amount of eight thousand dollars, or have some profession by which he realizes one thousand annually. There are a few exceptions, though too unimportant to require being enumerated.

Certain individuals cannot serve as deputies for the states or territories in which they exercise their functions. These are, persons deprived of the rights of citizenship, or whose civil rights have been suspended; the president, vice-president, and members of the supreme court of justice; the secretaries of state, and those engaged in their several departments; those employed in the treasury whose functions extend over the whole federation; governors of states and territories, commandants-general, archbishops and bishops, governors of archbishoprics and bishoprics, provosts and vicars-general, circuit judges, and commissaries-general of finance and war. The senate is composed of two senators for each state, elected by a plurality of votes in the state legislature or congress. The last of the two named is replaced by a new appointment at the end of two years, the first retaining his seat for four. Both must be thirty years of age, and possess all the qualifications requisite for a deputy. The Congress meets every year on the first of January, and closes its session on the 15th of April, unless it be found necessary to prolong it for a month. An extraordinary congress may be convoked, but sessions can in no case be opened without the presence of more than half the total number of members. The president and other high officers of state are amenable for their conduct to either of the chambers, which can resolve itself into a grand jury; and if two-thirds of the body decide upon an impeachment, the person accused may be suspended from his employment. Both deputies and senators are inviolable, and cannot at any time be called to account for their opinions. A yearly salary of two thousand dollars is assigned to each of them. Both chambers must concur before any legal enactment can be transmitted to the president, who in all cases must yield to a second remonstrance by two-thirds of the members of both houses. Laws of every kind may originate without distinction in either chamber; with the exception of those on taxes and contributions, which must be proposed by the representatives. The

1 Parliamentary Paper, No. 338, session, 1833.

f a majority of the members of both chambers is required before a law can be passed. The powers of Congress are very considerable, extending to matters of war, and peace, trade, national improvements, religion, education, the press, the internal administration of territories, taxes, duties, maintenance of the union, finance, expenditure, and the public business of the country.

The supreme executive power is placed in the hands of a president, assisted by a vice-president, who, in cases of any moral or physical disqualification upon the part of the president, succeeds to all his prerogatives, and exercises all his functions. The president cannot be re-elected till after the lapse of four years. The election is made by the congresses of the states, on the first of September of the year preceding the installation of a new president. His powers may be said generally to consist in sanctioning and carrying into effect the decrees and measures agreed upon by the chambers. Under certain legal restrictions he makes all government appointments whether civil, military, judicial, or religious. He assigns military pensions according to law, disposes of the armed force of the country, receives foreign ministers, superintends the administration of justice, suspends government officers guilty of disobedience or infraction of the laws; and concedes or denies his pass, or exequatur, to all decrees of councils, pontifical bulls, briefs, and rescripts, with the consent of the general Congress, if they contain general regulations, and with that of the senate, the council of state, or the supreme court of justice, in cases of a more private and individual character. There are restrictions upon his powers, by which any arbitrary or tyrannical proceedings, or any neglect of duty upon his part, are provided against.

The council of the government exists and acts only during the intervals between the sessions of the Congress, and is composed of one half of the senate, with the vice-president of the republic at its head. Its principal duties are, to watch over the observance of the federal act, and the general laws of the union; to consult with the president, and suggest alterations to him; to convene Congress in an extraordinary session; to give its consent to various measures and acts of the president; and to act in certain cases for the president and vice-president, in the event of their demise, absence, or incapacity. The government is divided into departments, at the head of each of which is a secretary of state, who becomes responsible for all the acts in his department, to which his signature is affixed, and at the commencement of the annual sessions gives in a report of the state of his department, including the budget for the ensuing year. The secretaries must be Mexican citizens by birth.

The judicial power is lodged in a supreme tribunal of justice; and in inferior courts of departments and districts, the number of which is determined by the Congress. The supreme court is composed of eleven judges and one attorney-general, who must all be Mexicans by birth, and thirty-five years of age. They are elected in the same manner as the president, and take cognizance of all differences between two or more states of the federation, or between individuals of different states respecting grants of land; government contracts; controversies between the inferior tribunals of the federation, or between these and the tribunals of the states; and all impeachments which may be instituted against the president or vice-president, the secretaries of state, the governors of states, or the diplomatic agents and consuls of the republic. They likewise decide all admiralty cases; questions of prize-money, or contraband crimes committed upon the high seas; treason against the nation; and infractions of the constitution, or fundamental laws. They may themselves be called to account, by a tribunal constituted for the purpose by the chamber of representatives.

The tribunals of departments and districts, are composed, the former of a judge and fiscal, and the latter of a judge alone, from whom an appeal lies to the supreme tribunal, in all cases exceeding the value of five hundred dollars. The judges in both instances, are named by the president from a list of three candidates submitted to him by the supreme tribunal. The penalty of infamy can only attach to the person of the culprit. Confiscation of property, judgments by special commission, retrospective laws, and the torture in any shape, or under any pretence, are abolished for ever. No one can be imprisoned without strong grounds of suspicion, nor detained above sixty hours without proof of guilt. No house can be entered, nor papers examined, belonging to any inhabitant of the republic, unless in cases provided for by the law, and then only in the manner prescribed by it. No inhabitant of the republic can be forced to give evidence upon oath, calculated to criminate himself. No one can be deprived of the right to terminate a suit by arbitration, in any stage of the proceedings; nor is it allowable to commence an action without having previously had recourse to the judgment of conciliation.

With respect to the individual states, it was decreed, that the government of each should be divided and organised in a manner similar to that of the federation, and should regulate its own affairs, observe and enforce the laws of the union, protect the liberties of the inhabitants, deliver up criminals reclaimed by other states, contribute towards the liquidation of debts, give an account of receipts and expenditure to the general Congress, and transmit thither a copy of all the decrees and laws which they had passed. It was likewise provided, that no individual state should exact duties, impose new taxes, maintain troops or vessels of war, declare war, or enter into any transaction with foreign powers, not even with other states of the federation, respecting boundaries, or cession of territory, without the consent of the general Congress. In all questions in which the country generally is concerned, such as effecting changes in the constitutional act, the National Congress alone has the power to decide. It may be mentioned, that most of the articles of the federal act are transcripts of corresponding articles in the constitution of the United States. In reference to a point respecting which opinions are at variance, namely, whether a central or a federal republic was best adapted to the habits and tastes of the Mexicans, and the nature of the country, little need be said in this place. It is certain, however, that the same system in its general features, which for nearly half a century has secured tranquillity and prosperity to the United States, has entirely failed to produce the same results in Mexico. But that disturbances would have agitated the country, whatever form of government might have been adopted, seems certain; for they sprang from the ambition of individuals, and the evil spirit of faction, and cannot therefore be traced to the bad working of the federal system. The laws of Mexico are in general mild. There is no imprisonment for debt; but trial by Jury has not yet been established, and bribery is practised to a considerable extent.

Army and Navy.—According to Mr. Ward, the army of Mexico for the year 1827, consisted of 58,955 men, of whom 32,161 were actually under arms; the remainder being ready to be called out if their services should be required. The troops of the line were composed of twelve battalions of infantry, each consisting of eight hundred and twenty-three men, the full war complement being one thousand two hundred and twenty-three; twelve regiments of cavalry, each of five hundred and fifty-nine men, the war complement being eight hundred and fifteen; and three brigades of artillery, of seventeen hundred and sixty-seven men in all. In addition to these, there are twenty-two thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight regular troops under arms, and employed in protecting the northern frontier, or distributed upon different points of the coast. The active militia consisted of nine thousand three hundred and seventy-three men; but this force can be augmented at pleasure to thirty-six thousand one hundred and sixty-seven men, who have all been enrolled and disciplined to a certain extent, although permitted to retire to their homes when not wanted. A similar regulation was adopted, although to a less extent, with the troops of the line, so that the nominal is considerably greater than the real armed force.

The expenses of the war department for the same year amounted to $9,069,633 dollars, or including the navy, which consisted of one ship of the line, two frigates, a corvette, four brigs of war, a schooner, four gun boats, four launches, and two pilot boats, to $10,378,678 dollars, being about four-fifths of the annual expenditure of the republic. This is an enormous drain upon the exchequer of Mexico; and as no country in the world is better protected from foreign invasion, a reduction of the armed force would greatly add to the national prosperity. This was not only contemplated, but even partially carried into effect. Subsequent events, however, rendered it necessary to increase the army, the present state of which is described in a recent work on Texas. In 1835, the actual army and active militia consisted of 200,000 men, of whom 50,000 formed the federal army, and 150,000 belonged to the states, being supported by them. They are independent of the enrolled militia, which is calculated at 800,000 men, making altogether a force of 1,000,000 men, independently of the Texians. The federal army is furnished by rates from each state; the pay is enormous, and a great source of expense. Each soldier of infantry has one dollar twenty-five cents per day, and the cavalry two dollars; the officers have proportionally large salaries. This makes every one anxious to enter the army. But the soldiers have no rations; they must clothe and feed themselves; the states furnish nothing but arms and ammunition. The horsemen must even provide their own horses; but a horse can be had for from fifteen to twenty-five dollars, and a Mexican soldier can live upon four tortillas a-day. However, this pay is almost always in arrear, being difficult to collect; and soldiers seldom receive any thing but new clothes when they are in rags, and these charged to them at an extravagant rate. As to their food, they are often compelled to borrow, beg, or levy it by military contribution. They are cheered, however, by the love of country and liberty; with the actual privileges which they possess over the peasantry, such as not being amenable to any tribunal except courts-martial; with promises of land, plunder, and the like. The army is altogether liberal, but very turbulent. From other sources we learn, that the regular Mexican soldier is excellent of his kind. He possesses extreme docility, great power of enduring fatigue, considerable personal courage, and extraordinary readiness in acquiring the manual duties of his profession. On the other hand, those who are bad, are intolerably so, and perhaps more difficult to manage than any other class of men in existence.

Mexico possesses only five fortresses, San Juan de Ulloa, Campeche, Perote, Acapulco, and San Blas. The estado-mayor-general, which unites the duties of the quarter-master general's office, with the more scientific branches of the department of engineers, has been occupied since its creation in 1823, in making military surveys, and otherwise taking measures for defending the country against foreign invasion, as well as promoting a knowledge of military tactics.

Ecclesiastical Establishments. The religion introduced and established in New Spain was that of the church of Rome. In the church as well as in the government, all the highest offices were filled by Spaniards, the situation of parish priest being the only degree of preferment to which a creole could aspire. This accounts for so many of the leaders of the revolution having been clergymen. The secular clergy shared in all the disadvantages under which their creole countrymen laboured, owing to the jealous policy of the mother country; and notwithstanding that the fatal influence which they exercised over the natives had frequently been pointed out to the court of Spain, the old system was persevered in until the year 1820, all benefices being conferred upon Gachupines. The clergy, however, although they took a prominent part in the revolutionary struggle, reaped no immediate advantage from the change. The separation from Spain having broken the link which had connected Mexico with the see of Rome, it was considered as dangerous, hastily to turn out the old Spanish dignitaries, and to supply their places with creoles; and they were, therefore, allowed to remain in undisturbed possession of their preferments. But since the revolution the influence and reverence of the church have been considerably diminished, whilst the old Spaniards have recently been supplanted by creoles. In 1802 the number of ecclesiastics, secular and regular, in New Spain, was estimated at ten thousand, or, including the lay-brothers of convents and other religious houses, thirteen thousand. Their revenues were estimated at $439,000 dollars, besides which they possessed a very large amount of capital in specie, and a portion of landed property. The wealth of the clergy, however, has, from various causes, been materially reduced.

Mr. Ward gives a view of the state of the church in 1827, which he describes as in a very disorganised condition; nor does it appear that matters have much improved since. The republic is divided into one archbishopric, (that of Mexico,) and nine bishoprics; viz. La Puebla, Guadalaxara, Valladolid, Durango, Monterey, Oajaca, Yucatan, Chiapa and Sonora. All these, excepting Sonora, have cathedral churches and chapters, which, with the collegiate chapter of Guadaloupe, contain one hundred and eighty-five prebends and canons formerly in the gift of the king. The country is divided into eleven hundred and ninety-four parishes. In 1827, the secular clergy amounted to 3,677, and their annual income, computing the value of their lands, and capitals at five per cent., and adding to the amount the interest which these produce, the value of their consolidated fund, was estimated at $9,225,015 dollars. Considering the immense extent and population of Mexico, this sum appears moderate. Besides the secular clergy, there are about two thousand monks and nuns distributed in one hundred and fifty convents and nunneries, chiefly of the Dominican, Franciscan, Carmelite, and Augustinian orders. There are also six colleges, containing above three hundred religious, and sixty-one missions. The alms collected in all the convents of Mexico in the year 1826, amounted to $204,000 dollars. "The clergy and monks," says Mr. Edwards, "possess estates, property, and income, to an immense amount, all untaxed. They have also the management of all the obras pias, or pious legacies for benevolent purposes, said to amount to $25,000,000 of dollars, mostly lent on mortgages; besides nearly $30,000,000 lent to Spain before the revolution, which became a claim at the peace. The whole army is against the church, and claim their useless property to pay their arrears. The leaders alone, who fear without loving the clergy, have heretofore restrained this feeling, particularly since Santa Anna has glutted them with plunder from another source." It appears that all the Spanish monks and priests had been expelled, their places having been filled by creoles; that the number of nuns was diminishing; and that from the relaxation of religious restraints the monks went wherever they pleased, frequenting gambling houses, theatres, and other places of amusement. "All the clergy," adds Edwards, "are like the army, subject to their own tribunals only, and enjoy many other immunities; there is then a kind of tacit union between church and state. The army and church, although secret foes, find it convenient to support each other."

There is little or no religious liberty in Mexico, sects differing from the Catholic faith not being tolerated. There are no

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1 Edwards' History of Texas. Cincinnati, 1836. 2 Ibid.

r privileges, civil or military, to which any Mexican subject, publicly professing any but the Catholic religion, can be legally entitled. The hold of the church over the Indians was never complete, and it is now fast lessening. They are all more or less inclined to idolatry.

**Education.**—Education is at yet at a low ebb, although by the constitution provision was made for the instruction of the people. The Spanish has become the general language of the Mexicans; but many Indians still prefer and retain their own native tongues, and others speak no Spanish; circumstances which must impede the diffusion of knowledge, as only a limited number of books are printed in the Indian languages. According to the regulations of government, all persons should be taught to read and write by the priests, and for this purpose, Lancasterian schools have been established in many parts; but even this elementary education is very much neglected. The sciences in general have not been cultivated to any considerable extent in Mexico, although few governments have expended more in the promotion of physical science, than did that of Spain in America. Three botanical expeditions were sent to Mexico and other parts of its transatlantic dominions, at a cost of upwards of L80,000. Geometry and astronomy have likewise made considerable progress. Humboldt names three individuals, Velasquez, Gama, and Alzate, who would have held a respectable rank as men of learning, even in Europe. A botanical garden and collections of minerals were formed on a great scale in Mexico. From a school of mines where chemistry and mineralogy were taught, the country derived important advantages; but the revolution gave a severe shock to all these establishments. The new government, however, have taken measures to revive them, which, we trust, will ultimately be successful. The fine arts were also zealously promoted by the old government, which, at an expense of L8000, transported to Mexico, across the rocky passes of the Cordilleras, a collection of casts of the finest antique statues. There was also an academy of the fine arts which possessed an annual income of L5000, and by its exertions, many of the public edifices of the capital were adorned.

**Manufactures.**—The manufactures of Mexico are, and will probably continue for a considerable time to come, in a very rude state. The natives entertain strong prejudices against manual labour, which is for the most part confined to criminals, or persons compelled by debt to engage in it. The Indians excel in working in jewellery, sculpture, carving, and indeed all the ornamental arts; and they are likewise good masons, painters, musicians, &c. They make beautiful vases, similar in form to the Etruscan; besides toys of all kinds, wax figures, feather mantles and mosaics, masks, ornaments, saddles, cotton cloth, ornamented cloths of great value, and the like. They are susceptible of being taught any other handicraft in which ingenuity is necessary to proficiency. All these, however, are disdained by the creoles, who apply themselves merely to agriculture, trade, and the more elegant professions. The manufactures of coarse woollens and cottons, were at one time considerable, but they declined during the revolutionary struggle. Prior to this period, the consumption of these home manufactures amounted, it is supposed, to about ten millions of dollars annually. The importation of European goods was strictly forbidden by Spain, although they could have been procured of a superior quality, at an infinitely lower price. Services of plate worth L6000 and L8000 have been manufactured at Mexico; and for elegance and delicacy of workmanship, they rival any thing of the kind produced in Europe. Sugar is made by a complicated process, but at a very cheap rate. The manufacture of glass has also made some progress, and the coaches of Mexico have long been celebrated. Clothing of all kinds is so very dear, that articles of wearing apparel form a good consignment for the Mexican market. French wines have, in a great measure, superseded those of Spain; but,

| Item | Value | |-----------------------|-------------| | Gold and Silver | 17,000,000 | | Cochineal | 2,000,000 | | Sugar | 1,300,000 | | Flour | 300,000 | | Indigo (native) | 280,000 | | Salt meat | 100,000 | | Hides | 80,000 | | Sarsaparilla | 80,000 | | Vanilla | 60,000 | | Jalap | 60,000 | | Soap | 50,000 | | Campeche Wood | 40,000 | | Tabascan Peper | 30,000 |

The total, or 21,780,000 dollars, Humboldt fixes as the average amount of the exports, reckoning by the custom-house registers during several years of peace. The average imports of each year were

| Item | Value | |-----------------------|-------------| | Ropas (linens, cottons, cloths, and silks) | 9,200,000 | | Paper (300,000 reams) | 1,000,000 | | Brandy | 1,000,000 | | Cacao | 1,000,000 | | Quicksilver | 650,000 | | Iron | 600,000 | | Steel | 200,000 | | Wine | 700,000 | | Wax | 300,000 |

Total: 14,550,000

It is to be observed that this statement refers only to the registered articles, or to those upon which the importation and exportation duties were paid. But exclusively of these, the value of the articles clandestinely admitted into the country through the ports on the Gulf, previously to the revolution, was estimated at 4,500,000 dollars a-year; and 2,500,000 dollars were supposed to be annually smuggled out of the country, in plate, bars, and ingots of gold and silver. Notwithstanding all the efforts of government, a regular contraband trade was carried on between Vera Cruz and Jamaica, by which the products of England and Germany were introduced into Mexico.

The trade in registered articles, as estimated by Humboldt, may be stated in round numbers at 37,000,000 dollars annually. But later authorities have reduced it to about 34,000,000, which may be considered as the annual average value in dollars, of the trade of Mexico before the year 1821. The exports always exceeded the imports; and the whole of the exports from Acapulco, and five-sixths of those from Vera Cruz, consisted of the precious metals.

The first effect of the revolution of 1821 was to cause an immediate and extraordinary decrease in the imports and exports, which continued till 1823, when they reached the lowest point of depression, being only 6,259,209 dollars. They gradually rose again; however, and in the year 1824 were as follows:

| Total imports | 12,082,030 | |---------------|------------| | Total exports | 4,692,557 |

But there were, besides, about five thousand tons of shipping employed in 1824 in the trade between Tampico and the United States; and hence if we allow 4,000,000 of dollars for the value of the exports and imports in American bottoms, there will be but little difference between the trade of Mexico in 1824, and its annual value before the declaration of independence. The progress made since that time it is impossible exactly to state; but taking the produce of the custom-houses, along with the number of vessels engaged in the trade, it appears to be very considerable. In 1824 the customs produced 4,351,218 dollars, and the number of vessels which cleared was about 220. In 1826 the customs were nearly doubled, and the number of vessels which entered the ports of Mexico during the same year amounted to 1273. Of the vessels which entered, six hundred and twenty-six were national, and all coasting vessels; ninety-five were English, forty-nine were French, three hundred and ninety-nine belonged to the United States, fifteen to Holland, and about fifty arrived from different ports in South America. The remainder were chiefly from various European ports. Until civil contentions cease, it would be rash to fix the ultimate value of Mexican commerce; yet from the extraordinary resources of the country, it must be regarded as destined to acquire great and lasting importance.

The following is a statement of the trade of Mexico with Great Britain, France, and the United States, (the countries with which she chiefly carries on commercial intercourse,) for the year 1831:

| Great Britain—Official and declared value of exports to | £160,751 | | Ditto of imports from | 1,251,768 | | France—Exports to valued in francs | 8,864,196 | | Imports from | 20,333,235 | | United States—Exports to valued in dollars | 5,166,745 | | Imports from | 6,178,218 |

These returns shew a considerable increase, as compared with former years; but it appears small when we consider that, with the exception of the United States, Mexico is the richest and most populous of all the American countries. This originates principally in the want of good ports and large cities on the coast, and the distance and difficulty of the roads from the coast to the table-land, as well as the unsettled state of the country. These circumstances, coupled with the obstacles which the restrictive policy of the Spaniards threw in the way of the importation of foreign products, led to the establishment of manufactures, which at one time were in a very advanced state, and capable of supplying the population with most of the articles required for their consumption. Since the revolution, however, they have declined, and the wealth of the inhabitants has experienced a still greater decrease. It is to be observed, that in estimating the amount of imports before and after the establishment of independence, large allowance must be made for the cheapness at which goods are now valued, compared with their cost in Mexico when trade was little else than a government monopoly.

Foreign vessels pay in the port of Vera Cruz,

| Dols. | Reals. | |-------|--------| | Tonnage duty and other port charges | 2 | 1 | | Pilotage on entering | 15 | 4 | | on leaving | 19 | 0 |

Twenty per cent. is deducted from the duties on all commodities brought from a foreign port in Mexican ships. The Mexican Congress has either very lately modified the tariff, or is about to do so. Vessels of all nations in amity with the republic are allowed to enter the privileged ports, but no foreign ships are permitted to trade constwise. All articles not specified in the tariff pay a duty of forty per cent. upon the valuation fixed at the port of entry. The articles admitted duty free are, quicksilver, carts of foreign construction, wooden frames for houses, printed books, maps and music, philosophical, mathematical, and optical instruments, slates of all sorts, instruments of agriculture, mining, and artificers, carding wire, plants, and seeds. The articles the importation of which are prohibited, are aniseeds, cummins, and caraways, rum and molasses, sugar, coffee, chocolate, rice, leather, boots, shoes, saddlery, salted and dried meats, lard, wrought wax, tallow, soap, epaulettes, gold and silver lace, galoons, &c., tapes of cotton, shawls of silk or cotton, beds, bedding, copper, lead, biscuit, flour, wheat, vermicella, cotton thread under a certain number, stoneware, trunks, portmanteaus, woollen cloths, parchment, wearing apparel, salt, hats, and tobacco. All articles which are the growth and produce of Mexico may be exported duty-free, excepting gold, in coin or wrought, which pays two per cent. ad valorem; and silver, in coin or wrought, which pays three and a half per cent. ad valorem. Gold and silver ore, ingots, or dust, are prohibited, under penalty of seizure. Passengers to Mexico must have passports signed by the minister of the republic in Mexico, for which a charge of six dollars is made; and masters of vessels, besides their ship papers and vouchers, must be provided with invoices of shippers, bills of lading, and a bill of health. The monies, weights, and measures are the same as in Spain.

nd Finance.—For information regarding the Revenue revenue of Mexico prior to the revolution of 1810, recourse must be had to Humboldt. According to his statements it amounted to 3,000,000 of dollars at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1763 it had risen to 5,705,876 dollars, and it continued to increase until 1802, when it amounted to 20,200,000 dollars. This extraordinary rise was owing in part to the establishment of the monopoly of tobacco, but infinitely more to the reduction of the duty on quicksilver from eighty-four to twenty-four dollars the quintal. The principal sources of the revenue at that time were the mines, the monopoly of tobacco, the alcavala or excise upon homemade goods, the Indian capitulation tax, the duty on pulque, and the importation and exportation duties. The expenditure might amount to about 10,000,000 of dollars, which may be taken as a fair average for the years immediately preceding the revolution of 1810. Up to this period Mexico had no public debt of any kind. The deficit in the revenue occasioned by the war of independence was supplied by forced loans and new duties and taxes; which, however, were a poor compensation for the loss of the mining duties and the monopoly of tobacco, both of which were reduced to a mere shadow of their former importance. All the war taxes were abolished by Iturbide in 1821; but the distress to which the imperial government was reduced, compelled him again to have recourse to the tax upon houses, which was not definitively suppressed until the year 1823. Forced loans were likewise negotiated, and an abortive attempt was made to introduce paper money. The revenues of Mexico now sunk to a low ebb, and continued depressed until the re-organization of the country in 1824. From the report of the minister of finance for 1825, it appears that the income was only 10,690,608 dollars, from which sum was to be deducted the interest of the loans negotiated with British capitalists, amounting in all to £6,400,000. The available remainder of Goldsmith’s loan was 1,317,543 dollars, which being deducted from the revenue of 1825, brought it down to 9,373,065 dollars, whilst the expenditure exceeded eight- een millions of dollars. When this appalling statement appeared, it was at first contemplated that the republic would return to the old Spanish prohibitory system; but Congress refused to adopt such arbitrary policy, and after much discussion it was resolved that the old royal monopoly on tobacco should be kept up, under certain modifications. Every branch of the finance department underwent a thorough investigation. Retrenchments were made, and by a series of new and severe regulations, subordination, and a proper discharge of duty were enforced. By reductions, and other improvements which were carried into effect, the expenditure in 1827 was reduced to about fourteen millions of dollars, including payment of interest on loans, whilst at the same time the income increased. The revenues of Mexico have been during the years ending the 30th of

| Dollars | Dollars | |---------|---------| | January 1827...13,289,682 | January 1830...14,493,189 | | —— | —— | | 1828...10,494,299 | 1831...18,923,299 | | 1829...12,232,385 | 1832...16,413,060 |

Of these sums about one half was produced by the custom duties. The latter amounted in 1832 to 8,802,920 dollars. During the same year the duties on imported cottons were 1,150,000 dollars, and those on the exportation of the precious metals 309,472 dollars. The total receipts of the custom house of Vera Cruz in 1832, were 2,962,299 dollars, and those of Tampico 1,428,992 dollars. The federal revenue arises from the customs, the mint, monopolies of tobacco, salt, pulque, and gunpowder; lotteries, and privileges; the post-office, stamps, tolls, &c. The monopolies are farmed to ensure the collections. That of tobacco and snuff has lately been granted to English capitalists, who give annually two millions for it. Other branches of revenue are farmed to ensure a steady return; and even the custom-house is reported to be too much under the control of the officers. The state taxes are light and chiefly raised by local monopolies, and excises or tolls in the towns. Land, property, persons, and the church, are entirely exempt from taxation.

ountry has more need of one or more banks, but such a project is unpopular. The people are afraid of paper money, to which as yet they have not had recourse. The sale of public lands has begun to attract particular attention. Independently of Texas the republic possesses 1,000,000,000 acres of good land, besides as many of barren soil to dispose of; which, at an assumed rate of forty cents per acre, may realise from three to four hundred millions of dollars. The one half of this land is suitable for raising sugar and cotton, and all useful staples may be cultivated by freemen.

**Population.—** Before the publication of Humboldt's *Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain*, the most erroneous ideas prevailed regarding the population of Mexico. By an actual enumeration made in 1793, in which the returns of two intendancies were made to depend on calculation, it appears that the number of inhabitants were 4,483,529; but for reasons which appear to be satisfactory, Humboldt estimates the total at 5,200,000. The Baron had peculiar advantages in forming an estimate of the population in 1803, when he was in Mexico; and he found the births to be to the deaths in the proportion of 170 to 100; the births to the number of inhabitants as 1 to 17; and the number of deaths to be 1 in 30; whilst in France, which may be considered as the fair average of Europe, the births are to the deaths as 110 to 100; the births as 1 to 28; ⅓ths of all the inhabitants, and the deaths as 1 to 30⅓ths.

The results of his calculations give 6,500,000 as the population in 1803, being an increase of 25 in the 100 in ten years; and the imperfect census of the year 1806, which gives 6,500,000 as the minimum, proves the correctness of his estimate. The civil wars must have materially checked the increase of population, not only by the mortality occasioned on the field of battle, but also by depriving the agricultural population of the means of subsistence. Still, however, their numbers augmented rapidly, and in 1830 they were estimated at 8,666,066. Before the revolution the population was divided into several distinct castes. The classes into which the inhabitants of New Spain are divided is an object of great importance; and upon this subject the diligence of Humboldt has furnished us with ample details.

The first class is that of the Europeans, who took up their European residence in Mexico, and were called Gachupines by the other inhabitants. They have already been sufficiently described, and their numbers in the country are now comparatively trifling.

The next class to the Europeans is that of the unmixed Creoles, whites, natives of the country, the descendants of the first adventurers who subdued it, or of others, who from time to time have emigrated from the European peninsula. The principal seat of the white population of Mexico is the table-land, towards the centre of which the Indian race is likewise concentrated; whilst the northern frontier is inhabited almost entirely by whites and descendants of whites, before whom it is supposed that the Indian population must have retired at the time of the conquest. It is a remarkable fact, the truth of which cannot be doubted, after the pains taken by Humboldt to verify it, that the proportion of females to males is much greater amongst the creoles than in any of the other gradations of the Mexican population. The creoles are possessed of a very considerable proportion of property in Mexico; the richest mines, and the most fertile tracts of land, and the most productive plantations, are in their hands; and some of them derive revenues from their estates far exceeding those of the most opulent European nobility. The mines in particular have ennobled a large number of creole families. Still, however, the extremes of society meet in this class, many being excessively poor whilst others are enormously rich. The pride of the creoles, an aristocratic feeling founded on their complexion, which gives them distinction, prevents them from pursuing those kinds of labour which are deemed degrading to gentlemen. The consequence is, that their poverty is often even greater than that of the Indians, whilst indolence, added to pride, prevents them from following any employment beyond that of the gaming table, or becoming the flatterers of the richer members of their own class.

The Indians form the next class of the Mexican population. Unmixed. They are the unmixed descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants, and consist of various tribes, resembling each other in colour, and in some general characteristics, which seem to announce a common origin, but differing entirely in language, manners, and dress. No less than twenty languages, all different, are known to be spoken in the Mexican territory; and many of these are not dialects, which may be traced to a common root, but differ as entirely as the languages of Slavonic and Teutonic origin in Europe. Some possess letters which do not exist in others; and in most there is a difference of sound which strikes even the most unpractised ear. The Indians of Mexico are of a darker colour than those of South America, although they live in a climate of lower temperature. They have more beard, and more hair on other parts of the body, than those of the southern continent. They are almost all of them free from personal deformity. Humboldt says of the Indians of Mexico, "I know no race of men who appear more destitute of imagination. When an Indian attains a certain degree of civilization, he displays a great faculty of apprehension, a judicious mind, a natural logic, and a partial disposition to subtilize or seize the finest differences in the comparison of objects. He reasons coolly and orderly, but never manifests that versatility of imagination, that glow of sentiment, and that creative and animating art, which characterize the nations of the south of Europe, and several tribes of African negros." The different nations or tribes are scat- Statistics, tered over a great number of provinces; and they are mostly cultivators, only one tenth being miners, mechanics, fishermen, shepherds, and soldiers. They have several large towns in various provinces; and although some of the tribes lead a wandering life beyond the pale of civilized society, they are gradually becoming blended and identified with the mass of the population. Some of their kings and chiefs, indeed, have obtained high preferment in the federal army. The number of unmixed Indians in New Spain may be estimated at two-fifths of the whole population.

The class of mixtures from the primitive races has, in process of time, become a very important portion of the population of New Spain. In a country where rank depends more on the complexion than on those endowments, which, in other countries, confer distinction, it is not surprising, that almost every shade has its limits defined by terms, which, though apparently only expressing the colour, do in reality express the rank of the individual. The son of a white, whether creole or European, by an Indian female, is called Mestizo. His colour is almost a pure white, and his skin is of a peculiar transparency. The small hands and feet, and a certain obliquity of the eyes, are more frequent indications of the mixture of Indian blood than the nature of the hair. If a Mestiza marry a white man, the second generation scarcely differs in anything from the European race. They are generally accounted of a more mild character than the mulattos descended from whites and negresses, who are distinguished by the violence of their passions, and the singular volatility of their tongues. The issue of negros by Indian females bear in Mexico the singular name of Chinos or Chinese, in common language; although by the laws they are denominated Zambos. The term Zambo, however, is generally applied to the descendants of a negro and female mulatto, or a negro and a female Chinese. Another gradation, called Zambo prieto or blackish Zambo, is the offspring of a negro and female Zambo. From the union of a white man and a mulatto woman the class of Quarterons is derived. When a female Quarteron marries a white man, the children are denominated Quinteron. The issue of a white man by a female Quinteron is considered as white, and is elevated to the highest rank. Next to the pure Indians, the mestizos are the most numerous caste. It is, however, impossible to ascertain the exact proportion which they bear to the whole population; many of them being included amongst the pure whites, who were estimated before the revolution at 1,200,000, inclusive of from 70,000 to 80,000 Europeans. Of the mulattos and Zambos, and other mixed breeds nothing is known with certainty.

It was the policy of Spain to foster a spirit of rivalry between the different classes of inhabitants, by creating little imaginary shades of superiority amongst them, which prevented any two from having a common interest. Whiteness of skin was the patent of nobility, and even the creole, whom the Spaniard despised, looked with the contempt of a European upon the rest of his countrymen. The revolution, however, put an end to castes, the differences of which were all swallowed up in the grand distinction of Americans and Europeans. The creoles were compelled to court the allegiance of the mixed classes, without whom they could make no effectual head against the Spaniards. Many of the most distinguished characters of the revolutionary war belonged to the mixed breeds; and under the system now established, all are equally entitled to the rights of citizenship, and equally capable of holding the highest dignities of the state. There is neither a pure African population nor a slave in the republic of Mexico.

Antiquities—Antiquities and Ancient Inhabitants.—Of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico, some very interesting monuments remain. The work of Humboldt on New Spain first excited the curiosity of Europeans, and rescued the antiquities of Mexico from the oblivion to which they had so long been consigned; but it was not until recently, that their value as works of art, and as indications of a considerable advance in civilization, was fully appreciated. Pyramids having even a larger base, and being otherwise scarcely inferior in magnitude to those of Egypt, are found in many parts of Mexico. Amongst the most celebrated is that of Cholula, the base of which is one thousand four hundred and twenty-three feet on each side, and the height one hundred and seventy-seven feet. It consists of eight graduated square towers, each rising above the other, and terminating in a species of sanctuary. Here vestiges of noble sculpture are visible, as well as at Otumba, Oaxaca, Mitlan, Tlascala, and Palenque. The ruins of the latter, in particular, have attracted a considerable degree of attention, and are worthy of description. They extend, says Colonel Galindo, of whose description we shall avail ourselves, for more than twenty miles along the summit of the ridge which separates the country of the wild Maya Indians, from the state of Chiapas, and must anciently have embraced a city and its suburbs. The principal buildings are erected on the most prominent heights; and several of them, if not all, have been provided with stone stairs. The principal edifice, which has been sometimes styled the palace, is built in several squares; but the main halls or galleries, run in a direction from the north-east, to the south-south-west; and this position has been observed in all the edifices hitherto examined, be their situation what it may. The houses have all been substantially built of stone, cemented with mortar; but symmetry has been little studied in their construction, it is supposed less from ignorance than from design. Other ruins of considerable magnitude, and distinguished by numerous sculptures, are found upon the neighbouring hills. In the vicinity there is one building in particular, apparently a religious edifice, which deserves notice. Two galleries constitute its foundation; the front one occupying its whole length, whilst the back one is divided into three compartments. Of these, the eastern has the appearance of a dungeon; the western is a small room with a chapel ornamented with elegant relieves. These consist of representations of the human figure, in various attitudes, and adorned generally with boughs and feathers. There are other very interesting ruins in this part of Mexico, but they have not as yet been sufficiently described.

The mountain of Tezocoa is nearly covered with ruins of ancient buildings. At Mitlan there are the remains of a large palace, the architecture of which possesses a stately grandeur, and melancholy beauty of a peculiar character. The roof of the portico is supported by plain cylindrical columns, and the facade of the palace is covered with a beautiful matwork, or basket scroll, such as is found in Egyptian sepulchral chambers. Many of the statues found at Otumba, Mitlan, Jochihcalo, and the magnificent flower-temple of Oaxaca, are sculptured in a purely classical style whilst vases rivalling those of Egypt and Etruria, have been discovered in sepulchral excavations. Roads are to be met with, not only in the vicinity of great cities, but at a vast distance from them, artificially constructed like the Roman military roads, of large squared blocks of stone. These roads present a continued level, and may be called viaducts, in contradistinction to aqueducts, which were also constructed by the ancient inhabitants of Mexico. Where they traverse acclivities, they are parapeted, and the indications both of regular posting stations at certain intervals, and of the regular division of the distances, upon the principle of the mile-stones of our turnpike roads, may still be observed. Bridges constructed of the same durable materials, and thrown across torrents, are also to be found. In these bridges there is occasionally an approximation to the principle of the arch and keystone; but in general they only display the primitive and obvious form of architraves of stone superimposed Statistics on two or more piers of the same massy character and durable materials. Every feature of these structures is at once singular, ingenious, and colossal.

With regard to the period at which these remarkable edifices were constructed, and the people to whom the labour is to be attributed, the learned are as yet not agreed. One point, however, seems pretty generally admitted, viz., that their erection must be traced to a race who inhabited the country prior to the invasion of the Mexicans, and who had attained to a considerable degree of civilization. An attempt has been made to prove that this people lived at a time prior even to the Toltecan, who preceded the Mexicans by six hundred years; and a close analogy between the antiquities of Mexico and those of Egypt has been shewn to exist. The hypothesis advanced regarding the people is, that they were a branch of the Anakim or Cyclopean family of Syria, the shepherd kings of Egypt, the Oscans of Etruria, and the Pelasgians of Greece, the Titans or giants of classical romance, and who are recorded to have been severally expelled from Egypt and Syria.

In reference to these questions, an able writer observes: "The first and strongest conviction which will flash on the mind of every ripe antiquarian, whilst surveying the long series of Mexican and Toltec monuments, preserved in the various works to which we have alluded, is the similarity which the ancient monuments of New Spain bear to the monumental records of ancient Egypt. Whilst surveying them, the glance falls with familiar recognition on similar graduated pyramids; on similar marks of the same primeval Ophite worship; on vestiges of the same trine and solar deity; on planispheres and temples, which, though characterised by some distinctions entirely American, are not less worthy of the notice of the Egyptian antiquarian; on relics of palaces at once noble in their architecture, and beautiful in their proportions and decorations; on monuments sepulchral, domestic, religious, or warlike, which deserve the designation of Cyclopean as much as any that are now extant in Italy or Greece; on idols and sculptures, some of rude and some of finished workmanship, exhibiting different eras of civilization, and often presenting the most striking analogy in posture and gesture to the monumental style of sculpture, and of statuary preeminently called Egyptian. Lastly, the eye of the antiquarian cannot fail to be both attracted and fixed by evidences of the existence of two great branches of the hieroglyphical language; both having striking affinities with the Egyptian, and yet distinguished from it by characteristics perfectly American. One is the picture-writing peculiar to the Mexicans, and which displays several striking traits of assimilation to the anaglyphs, and the historical tablets of the Egyptian temples. The second is a pure hieroglyphical language, to which little attention has been hitherto paid, which appears to have been peculiar to the Toltecan, or some still more ancient nation, that preceded the Mexicans, which was as complete as the Egyptian in its double constituency of a symbolic and phonetic alphabet; and which, as far as we can judge, appears to have rivalled the Egyptian in its completeness, whilst, in some respects, it excelled it in its regularity and beauty."

"The pyramid of Cholulas," says the same writer, "exhibits a most singular identity with the model of the temple of Belus, described by Herodotus, and which, by many scholars, has been considered to be the Scriptural tower of Babel. But in the internal economy of the pyramids, the analogy between those of Egypt and Mexico is still more remarkable. In both, descending galleries, at a particular astronomical angle of declination, lead to central chambers, either for the purpose of mystery or sepulture. Amongst other marks of architectural identity, may be mentioned, those traced amongst the ruins of Palenque, where the well-known Cyclopean arch, consisting of receding steps of stone in a triangular form, is seen, and where a rectangular square is surrounded by cloisters built in this manner, and lighted by windows bearing the exact form of the Egyptian face. With regard to the personal characteristics and costume, the sculptures bring to light a people of a very remarkable appearance. Their physiognomy is unlike that of any of the various families of mankind, that at present inhabit the globe, or have been rendered familiar to us by ancient sculptures. Their receding forehead, their low facial angle, and the conical form of their heads, is quite unique; and the large long nose, the facial line receding in the same singular manner from the base of the nostrils to the termination of the chin, grotesquely broken off by an unsightly protrusion of the under lip, present a physiognomical outline revolting to the European standard of beauty. The costume shows some striking analogies with that of the Egyptians; but there are at the same time differences from it as remarkable. The Egyptian apron, for instance, was different. It was generally of striped cotton, and folded in a peculiar manner; a portion of it forming a girdle and passing between the legs, resembling a similar article of dress worn by the East Indians at the present day. But the Toltec apron resembles the Roman military apron or the Scotch plaidbeg. It descends from the waist and covers the thigh down to the knee; it is, however, distinguished by one Egyptian appendage, namely, by the mimic tail of an animal, which appears to have adorned the Toltec hero, as it adorned the Egyptian demigod. The apron is supported by a baldric, which descends from the right shoulder to the left side, and joins the girdle at the waist. The dress of the military and superior class of Egypt is not to be found in the Toltec costume, but the following strong resemblances exist: The breast-plate and collar of the Toltecs were sometimes decorated with a symbol of the sun; the armlets, bracelets, and anklets, are strikingly analogous to those of the Egyptian. The legs of the Toltec heroes, however, are invested with sandals, some of them reaching above the ankle, others like greaves, covering the leg to the knee; whilst others in every respect resemble the Highland sandal. All these parts of dress would appear to have been richly ornamented; and the whole dress, it is said, may be safely described as at once gorgeous and elegant, and in these respects nowise inferior to the Egyptian. The head-dresses, however, are in general extravagantly grotesque, without regularity or taste, although, like the Egyptian, constructed out of certain combinations of symbols."

With respect to the religion and religious rites of this ancient race, a striking analogy with those of Egypt has likewise been traced. The gods of the Toltecs appear sculptured, as usual in bas-relief, in the dark inner rooms of temples. He who would appear to be the chief-god, is portrayed on the inner wall of the adytum of one of the sanctuaries belonging to the great temple of Palenque. He seems to be not only the chief but the sole god, and he is worshipped symbolically under other forms and in other localities. He is supposed to be identical with the Osiris of Egypt and the Adonis of Syria, or the well-known classical combination of both divinities, the ancient god Adoni-Siris. The manner in which he is enthroned, the cushion on which he reposes, the cap, the symbols, and various appurtenances, show an analogy with the Egyptian deity. But there is a column affixed to the cap which is not found on any Egyptian head dress; it was, however, an unquestionable symbol of Osiris. Various characteristics of the worship of Osiris and Adonis are complete in the sculptured tablet of Mexico. A priestess kneels before the Toltec god in the attitude of adoration, and offers him a pot of flowers, not the mint offered to Osiris, but the blood-stained hand-plant or manitas, which all the monuments attest, was anciently held sacred throughout Mexico. On the sculptured tablet over the head of the divinity, appear, precisely in Statistics, the Egyptian fashion, the phonetic characters of his name, in an oblong square, which in Egypt was devoted to the names of gods. Of the phonetic or symbolic character, however, nothing as yet is known. The same divinity is represented on one of the walls at Palenque, not in a human, but in an animal form. Instead of the hawk of Egypt, however, the Toltecan chose as their sacred bird the rainbow-coloured pheasant of Central America, which is perched on the Toltec cross, resembling the Christian, and with its lower extremity terminating in a heart-formed spade. The subject of the sculpture shows the simplicity of the worship. Two Toltec heroes, chiefs, or priests, stand beside the sacred bird; one of them supports an infant in his arms, probably for baptism, which was a rite practised by the votaries of Adonis, and at other places there are indications of a similar ceremony.

Of the temples we have already given a cursory notice. Their architecture has a theological character like that of Egypt and of Greece; and although their forms are peculiar to the country, the original type of them is extant in Syria, Palestine, and Judaea. Like those of the Egyptians, they are all distinguished by architectural peculiarities, exclusively appertaining to the people by whom they were erected. A high-place of three successive terraces or steps, generally constitutes the platform of the temple. The terraces are distinguished by that sloping form which the Egyptian architects peculiarly affected, and they are generally constructed of large blocks of stone, covered with stucco equally hard and durable. On the top of the high-place was an oblong rectangular court; and in the centre of this court stood the temple, divided, like the rock temples of Nubia, into three dark rooms built of stone, and having an ark, or barn-shaped roof. The innermost of these rooms constitutes the sanctuary. The apartments are occasionally decorated with painted sculptures. Sometimes the staircase ascends the high-place in front, traversing the curvilinear terraces in a straight line to the door of the temple. Occasional variety was given to the square form of the area, and to the triple form of the terraces, by staircases ascending to the sanctuary from each of the cardinal points. The high-place has sometimes a circular instead of a square ground plan, and in that case, it may remind antiquarians of the well-known Tyres, or high-places of Syria, which is a presumptive proof of the Syrian origin of these structures.

The writer already quoted thus speaks of Palenque: "It may be appropriately termed an ecclesiastical city rather than a temple. It seems to be the locality of the chief cathedral-church of the Toltec religion. Within its vast precincts there appear to be contained, a pyramidal tower; various sanctuaries; sepulchres; a small and large quadrangular court, one surrounded, as we have said, by cloisters; subterranean initiatory galleries beneath; oracles, courts of justice, high-places, and cells or dwellings for the various orders of the priests. The whole combination of the buildings is encircled by a quadrilateral pilastered portico, embracing a quadrangular area, and resting on a terraced platform. This platform externally exhibits the same architectural model which we have described as characterizing the single temples. It is composed of three graduated stucco terraces, sloping inwards, at an angle of about seventy degrees, in the form of a truncated pyramid. Four central staircases, one facing each of the cardinal points, ascend these terraces in the middle of each lateral façade of the quadrangle; and four gates fronting the same cardinal points, conduct from the top of each staircase into the body of the building, or into the great court. The great entrance, through a pilastered gateway, fronts the east; and descends by a second flight of steps into the cloistered court. On the various pilasters of the upper terrace are the metopes, with the singular sculptures we have described. On descending the second staircase into the cloistered court, on one side appears the triple pyramidal towers which may be inferred, from the curious distribution of little cells which surround the central room of each story, to have been employed as a place of royal or private sepulture. On another side of the same cloistered court is the detached temple of the chief god, to whom the whole religious building appear to have been devoted; whom we have described as bearing all the characteristics of the Syrian god Adoni-Siris; and who appears to have been the great and only god of the nations, who worshipped in this temple. Beneath the cloisters, entered by well-staircases from above, are what we believe to be the initiatory galleries. These opened into rooms, one of which has a stone couch in it, and others are distinguished by unintelligible apparatus carved in stone. The only symbol described as found within these sacred haunts is, however, perfectly Asiatic, and perfectly intelligible; we mean two contending serpents. The remnant of an altar, or high-place, occupies the centre of the cloistered quadrangle. The rest of the edifice is taken up with courts, palaces, detached temples, open divans, baths, and streets of priestly cells or houses in a greater or less degree of dilapidation."

It appears that the creed of this ancient people was a form of deism, which permitted some varieties of symbolic representation. From the few records of their religious rites which have come down to us, and which are principally derived from the extraordinary rolls of American papyrus, formed of the prepared fibres of the maguey, on which their beautiful hieroglyphical system is preserved, we learn that they were as simple as their creed. No human nor even animal sacrifices appear to have been offered up to the presiding divinity of their temples; nothing, indeed, but fruits and flowers. Such a religious system was therefore quite different from the hideous idols and sanguinary sacrifices which were in use amongst the Mexican people.

IV. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

The republic of Mexico, as has already been stated, is divided into nineteen states and five territories, each of which we shall now proceed to give a short account of. Mexico, the most populous of the whole, and which also contains the metropolitan city, extends from 16° 34' to 21° 57' of north latitude, and includes an area of about five thousand square leagues. On its western side above two hundred miles of this state are washed by the South Sea, but no part of it approaches within many miles of the Eastern Ocean. Being situated both on the low and on the high land, it partakes of the climate of each; but more than two-thirds of it are mountainous, and consequently cool and healthy, whilst that part which borders on the South Sea is hot and insalubrious. Only the highest peak of one of its mountains attains the region of perpetual snow, and no other summit but that of Toluca is equal in height to Mont Blanc. The state is divided into eight districts, viz., Acapulco, Cuernavaca, Huitzilpa, Mexico, Tasco, Toluca, Tula, and Tulancingo. These embrace a large proportion of valuable mines, as well as a number of districts celebrated for the richness of their agricultural produce. Real del Monte, Chico, Capula, Zimapan, San Jose del Oro, El Cardonal, La Pechuga, the Rancho del Oro, Tasco, Tepantitlan, Zacualpan, and Tetela del Rio, are all in the state of Mexico; as are the valleys of Toluca and Cuautla Amilpas, the rich plains of Pachuca, and the fertile Vega of Tulancingo. The best and most valuable portion of this state is what is called the valley of Mexico, a fertile and splendid region variegated with extensive lakes, and surrounded by high volcanic peaks. Its general figure is an oval of about two hundred miles in circumference, and forms the very centre of the great table-land of Anahuac, elevated from six to eight thousand feet above the level of the ocean. The most interesting object in the valley of Mexico is the vast system of drainage by which the capital is protected against the periodical inundations of the lake of Tezcuco, which, during the two first centuries after the conquest, threatened it repeatedly with destruction. The valley of Mexico serves as a receptacle for the humidity which filters from every part of the lofty ridge of mountains by which it is environed. Only one stream issues from it, whilst it receives the waters of several rivers, which, accumulating in the immense basin, form the great lakes Texcoco, Zumpango, San Cristobal, Chalco, and Xochimilco. The city is situated on a lower level than some of these sheets of water, particularly that called Zumpango; and during the rainy season they burst the dykes which separate them, and forming a junction, rush towards the capital, filling the streets which approach nearest to their own level.

A rapid succession of misfortunes arising from these inundations compelled the Spanish government to adopt measures for averting the danger. Hydraulic works of immense magnitude were begun in 1607, and have been carrying on almost ever since at a vast expense. Canals were cut, and other artificial means were adopted to convey the waters of the lakes in another direction. The desague, or great canal which was constructed to carry off the waters of the lake of Zumpango, is of stupendous dimensions, but from the nature of the soil through which it passes, the imperfect manner in which it is executed, and above all, from the lake itself being twenty feet above the level of the great square of Mexico, it would be found but an imperfect security against an inundation, should a very rainy season occur. During the revolution these works were much neglected, nor have they yet been properly finished or put in a good state of repair. In the lake of Chalco there are a number of Chinampas, or what have sometimes been called floating gardens. Whether or not they ever did float is questionable; but it is certain that at present they are all fixtures. They are artificial islands, about fifty or sixty yards long, and not more than four or five wide. They are separated by ditches of three or four yards in breadth, and are formed by taking the soil from the intervening ditch, and throwing it on the Chinampa, by which means the ground is raised generally about a yard, and thus forms a small fertile garden, where the finest culinary vegetables, fruits, and flowers are raised, and from which the markets of the capital are amply supplied.

In the centre of this fine valley stands the city of Mexico, the capital of the republic. The approach to it does not convey a very favourable idea either of the capital or of the country around it. On the Otumba side the valley is constituted of those beautiful features by which it is characterised on the south and east; the receding waters of the great lake of Tezcuco having left a crust of carbonate of soda, by which vegetation has been impaired or destroyed. Sterility prevails almost the whole way from the village of San Juan de Teotihuacan to the convent of Guadalupe, in which is the famous image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patroness of Mexico. An avenue extends from this place to the gates of the city, upon the line of one of the ancient causeways. The suburbs of Mexico have a ruinous and desolate appearance, and it is not until the central parts of the city are seen, that the praises bestowed upon it by Humboldt are found to be no exaggeration. The same distinguished traveller is of opinion, that although modern Mexico is three miles from the lake of Tezcuco, and six miles from that of Chalco, it nevertheless occupies the identical site of ancient Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, and that a great part of the waters of the valley have been dried up.

Mexico is undoubtedly the finest city built by Europeans in the western hemisphere. There does not indeed exist a city of the same extent to which it can be compared; since it is equally remarkable for the uniform level of the ground on which it stands, for the regularity and breadth of the streets, and for the extent of the squares and public places. The architecture is generally of a very pure style, and there are even edifices of exceedingly beautiful structure. The streets are not only broad and airy, but of vast extent, some of them extending nearly two miles in a straight line. The houses which are all built of stone, are spacious, and highly ornamented; but they appear low to a European eye, a want of height being complained of as a general defect in Mexican architecture. The roofs are flat, and when seen from an elevation, have the appearance of immense terraces, the parapets by which they are separated being lost in the distance. The streets are all well paved, having pathways on each side. The public buildings are magnificent, and have been constructed at an enormous expense. Nearly at one extremity of the town stands the Alameda, which communicates with the Paseo Nuevo, a broad avenue of trees. This building is a summer palace constructed during the viceregalty, upon a rock, the foot of which was once washed by the waters of Tezcuco. Its situation is beautiful, and commands a most magnificent view of the valley of Mexico.

But amongst the monuments of Spanish splendour, the cathedral and the viceroyal palace are perhaps the noblest. They are situated in the Plaza Mayor, or great square, and were erected soon after the conquest. The cathedral, which is built upon the site of the great Mexican temple, is spacious, grand, and profusely ornamented. It covers an immense space of ground, and riches have been lavished in ornamenting the interior, without, however, producing a grand or imposing effect. The most remarkable feature is a balustrade, which occupies the centre of the church. It is composed of a metal brought from China, and said to be a composition of brass and silver. In the outer wall is a stone covered with hieroglyphical figures, employed by the Aztecs to designate the months of the year, and which is supposed to have formed a perpetual calendar. At a little distance from it is a second stone, upon which human sacrifices were offered up by the ancient inhabitants of Mexico. The cathedral forms part of the northern side of the square, and another whole side is occupied by the palace; an immense building, formerly the residence of the viceroy, but now converted into government offices. In the interior, the part most worthy of notice is the botanical garden, which was extensive as well as rich, until the period of the revolution, when a portion of it was converted into barracks. It is said to contain many species of plants hitherto but little known in Europe. Besides the cathedral, there are nearly one hundred other churches, ornamented and decorated in the same style of profusion. The college of mines is a magnificent building, but it has settled down in such a manner as to deflect from the perpendicular the spacious rows of columns, windows, and doors. The collection of minerals which the college contains is rich but ill-arranged. The mint is also a fine building; and several of the convents, as well as some private palaces, are of great extent and magnificence. The Acordada, a prison and house of correction, is a very fine and extensive structure, capable of containing twelve hundred inmates. Besides the hospital of San Juan de Dios, there are other buildings appropriated to the reception of the sick poor.

The police of the city is excellent, and the streets are well lighted and kept in good repair. There is no scarcity of water, abundant supplies of which are brought from the lakes by means of aqueducts. Salt is easily procured from the soil near the city, which is impregnated with muriate of soda. All kinds of provisions are brought to the markets in abundance from the surrounding districts, chiefly by Indians, who likewise bring for sale little toys and baskets executed with considerable neatness. The vendors of charcoal amuse themselves whilst waiting for customers, by carving little figures of birds and other animals in the commodity which they sell. The leperos, the lowest class of inhabitants, display remark- able ingenuity in forming figures of soap, wax, pith of trees, wood, and other materials, which may be purchased for the smallest coin. With regard to the society of Mexico it would be hazardous to offer any opinion. A long civil war, prosecuted with almost unparalleled ferocity, has done much to deteriorate the morals of the people; and it yet remains to be seen what a better system of government can effect for raising in the scale of civilization a race of men composed of the most heterogeneous elements. The population amounts to about one hundred and thirty thousand, of which number from twenty to thirty thousand are lepers, who live in the most wretched and filthy state.

There are a number of other towns in the state of Mexico. Acapulco, on the south-west coast, was once celebrated for its wealth, and is described as a very fine sea-port. It was from this place that the richly-freighted Spanish galleons took their departure to distribute the spoils of the western over the eastern hemisphere. It subsequently sunk into comparative insignificance; but by the recent returns of its customs it appears to have again risen into considerable importance. The population amounts to about five thousand. Zacatula is likewise a good port on the same shore, but it has little trade. Toluca, in the interior, is a considerable town, situated at the foot of two steep barren hills, and distant about twenty-seven miles south-west from the capital. A few miles to the north-west of the city of Mexico is Tezcuco, a town formerly the residence of a tributary Indian prince, but now almost desolate. Amongst other small towns may be mentioned Otumba, once large and flourishing, but now a mere village; Lerma, which is surrounded by an extensive morass, traversed by fine raised causeways; Chalco, a pretty large town, situated in a lake of the same name, about twenty miles to the south-east of the capital; San Augustin, at which a great annual fair is held, frequented by vast multitudes from Mexico; Tacubaya, a village about four miles from the gates of the capital, and formerly the country residence of the bishop of Mexico; Pachuca and Coyoacan. Besides these places there are a number of haciendas, of which Chapingo is considered as one of the finest specimens in Mexico. It is distant about a league from Tezcuco, and the lands around it are exceedingly rich and well irrigated. The buildings erected to receive the grain are on a magnificent scale, and the vicinity of the capital affording a ready market for the crops, the estate is one of great value. About sixty miles from the metropolis is Cuernavaca, a place of no importance in itself, but deriving interest from the richness of the surrounding district. In the neighbouring valley of Cuautla, stands the town of Cuautla Amilpas, where Morelos made so noble a stand against the royal army. The population of the state of Mexico, according to the census of 1803, amounted to 1,511,500; but as it suffered much during the civil war, and by the new political division of the country lost a portion of its territory, the number of inhabitants at present can scarcely exceed one million. The legislative assembly composed of nineteen deputies, elected in the ratio of one for every fifty thousand inhabitants. The districts are placed under the inspection of prefects and sub-prefects.

Queretaro.—To the north-west of Mexico is the small state of Queretaro, the territories of which were formerly comprehended in the neighbouring intendancies of Mexico, La Puebla, and Guanajuato. They are now divided into the six partidos or districts of Amcalo, Cadereita, San Juan del Rio, San Pedro Toliman, Queretaro, and Xalpan, which contain in all a population of above 200,000. The inhabitants, with the exception of those of the capital, are mostly employed in agriculture. The wool of the sheep is highly prized, but agriculture here is not so important a speculation as it is in other parts of the republic. Queretaro, the capital is divided into five parishes, and contains some fine churches and convents; particularly that of Santa Clara, which is an immense building, said to resemble a little town in the interior, being regularly laid out in streets and plazas. This place has quite the air of a manufacturing town. More than half the houses contain shops, and the population is engaged either in small trades, or in the wool manufactories, which were once very extensive, but fell off in the general decline of manufactures. Woollen cloths, however, are still made here. About two leagues from the town is a great ravine called the Canada, which is inhabited by Indians, and abounds in gardens and magnificent trees. Queretaro contains above forty thousand inhabitants.

Guanajuato.—To the westward of Queretaro is Guanajuato, which may be called either a mining or an agricultural state; for the prosperity of the two branches is so closely connected that the one can hardly be said to flourish without the other. Manufactures of wool and cotton formerly abounded in many of the towns, but they have greatly decayed, and the mines, particularly the celebrated one of Valenciana, must now be looked to as the chief source of wealth. The town of Guanajuato, in the vicinity of which the principal mines are situated, contains numerous splendid memorials of the former wealth of its inhabitants. Many of the private dwellings are magnificent, as are the churches, chapels, and other religious edifices. Zelaya is a considerable town containing about ten thousand inhabitants. The town of Irapuato, according to the census of 1825, contains a population of sixteen thousand and fifty-four souls. Some of the public buildings are fine, particularly the convent of nuns, called De la Enseñanza. There are a few cotton-spinners and weavers, but the bulk of the population consists of agriculturists who reside in the town and have estates in its vicinity. Salamanca is likewise a considerable place, situated in a rich part of the country. The state of Guanajuato contains, according to the census of 1825, a registered population of 382,829 souls; but this was supposed to be incorrect and the number of the inhabitants may now be more correctly estimated at 500,000.

Guadalaxara or Jalisco.—To the westward of Guanajuato stretches out the large state of Guadalaxara or Jalisco. Like all other states of Mexico, its shape is very irregular, but it is computed to contain nine thousand six hundred and twelve square leagues, and it extends one hundred twenty-three leagues along the shores of the Pacific. It is divided into eight districts, viz. Guadalaxara, Lagos, La Barca, Sayula, Etzatlán, Tatlan, Tepe, and Colotlan; and these again are subdivided into twenty-six departments, containing in all three hundred and eighteen pueblos, three hundred and eighty-seven haciendas, and two thousand five hundred and thirty-four ranchos, with a registered population in 1825 of 656,830 souls. Before the separation of the district of Colima, Jalisco contained eight hundred thousand inhabitants. The capital which bears the same name is reckoned the second city of the republic. It is built with great regularity, the streets running at right angles, being well paved, and having raised pathways on each side. The houses, with the exception of those in the suburbs, are finely built. There are fourteen squares, twelve fountains, and a number of convents and churches, the principal of which, the cathedral, is still a magnificent building, although it suffered severely in an earthquake which occurred in 1818. The Alameda or public walk is very prettily laid out, with a fountain in the centre, and a stream of water all round. Within the town, the Portales de Comercio, erected on every side of those immense squares of houses, are the principal rendezvous; as, besides a number of handsome shops well provided with European and Chinese manufactures, they contain a number of stalls covered with a great variety of domestic productions. Considerable quantities of shawls of striped calico were formerly made here; but these home manufactures have been superseded by importations from the United States. Guadalaxara derives little benefit from its foreign trade, San Blas, the only sea-port which it possesses, being nearly abandoned. Foreign goods are introduced overland from San Luis or Mexico. There are here a mint and four printing-presses, all established since the revolution. The population of the capital is supposed to amount to seventy thousand souls. In this state is the magnificent lake of Chapala, from thirty-six to forty leagues in length, and varying in breadth from five to eight leagues.

Between the states of Guadalaxara and Mexico lies that of Michoacan or Valladolid. It comprises the territory formerly belonging to the Tarascos, a powerful Indian nation, first allies, and afterwards rivals of the Aztecs, whom they are said to have followed in their emigration from the north. This state contains two cities, three towns, two hundred and fifty-six pueblos, three hundred and thirty-three haciendas, and one thousand three hundred and fifty-six ranchos, and is distributed into eighty-three parishes and twenty-one districts. The former riches of the state consisted almost entirely in its agricultural produce, the most ordinary manufactures being introduced from the neighbouring towns of the Baxio. But the agricultural interest is by no means in so flourishing a condition as it once was, nor are the mines remarkable either for their extent or their value. The whole western declivity of the Sierra Madre comprehended within the province of Michoacan is noted for its insalubrity; and the sea-coast, as might be expected, is likewise very unhealthy. The tierra caliente, at the foot of the Cordillera which is fertilised in part by the Rio Balsas, is rich in all the ordinary productions of the tropics; and even in the more elevated valleys, sugar was grown to a very considerable extent before the revolution. The best sugar lands are now about twelve leagues south of Pasquaro, the ancient capital of the Indians. At the foot of the mountain of Jorullo, there are plantations of cacao and indigo; and in several parts of the state the various productions of the table-land can be raised in abundance. Valladolid has been called the cradle of the revolution, from which it suffered severely. The population is estimated at about half a million.

Valladolid the capital of the state, is delightfully situated at the height of six thousand three hundred feet above the level of the sea. It consists chiefly of one long broad street, well paved, and kept in good order. The plaza is remarkable, as having broad piazzas on three of its sides, and the fine cathedral isolated from all other buildings, bounding it on the east. Here there is a crowded market where the vendors display their goods, as is the general custom throughout the republic, beneath the shade of rude mat umbrellas. All the houses have flat roofs, with long water-sprouts projecting most inconsiderately over the streets. Besides the cathedral, which is crowded with a profusion of ornaments, there are several other churches, two monasteries, and four monasteries, for all which, besides an hospital and other public edifices, the inhabitants are indebted to the munificence of the bishops of the see. The population has been estimated at fifteen thousand.

La Puebla.—The state of La Puebla, which is situated to the east of that of Mexico, and stretches nearly across the continent, is divided into twenty-five districts, containing a population of above 700,000. The principal towns are Atlxco, which, in 1825, contained 31,657 inhabitants; Guanuchango, 26,086; Ametopee, 25,151; La Puebla, 34,756; Tepeaca, 43,713; Tehuacan de las Granadas, 43,248; Hapa, 38,383; and Zacatlan, 47,129. The territory of the state extends beyond the western ridge of the Sierra Madre, and down to the shores of the Pacific; consequently, it produces in abundance the fruits either of the tierra caliente, or those common to the rest of the table-land. There are, however, no mines which uniformly create a home market; and as the foreign trade is comparatively of but little importance, the agricultural interest is in a depressed condition. The native manufactures of wool and cotton have declined, as in other parts of Mexico. Some parts of the state, particularly the plains of Apán, are remarkable for their fertility. This state includes within its limits Tlascalá and Cholula, the two cities which bade defiance to all the power of Montezuma. It contains also Popocatepetl, the loftiest mountain in Mexico, and some remarkable remains of antiquity. The capital and largest city of this state is Puebla de los Angeles, the seat of the richest bishopric in the country, and that of the most extensive manufactures of cotton, earthenware, and wool. Glass and soap are also made, the latter to a considerable extent. The streets, like those of Mexico, are rectangular, spacious, airy, and paved with large stones in a highly ornamental manner. The houses are low, but commodious, and the apartments are mostly paved with porcelain and adorned with paintings in fresco. There are a great number of churches, convents, and above twenty colleges, with a magnificent cathedral, richly ornamented, and held in high veneration, in consequence of a tradition that it owes its origin to divine interference. La Puebla contains about 60,000 inhabitants.

Oaxaca is a very fine state, the southern boundary of which extends along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, from La Puebla to Guatemala. Agriculture is highly favoured by the fertility of the soil and the salubrity of the climate. The mineral riches which it contains, have not been fully explored, but there is no deficiency of mines. Cochineal is raised in abundance at Misteca; the cultivation of the insect being in the hands of Indians, who are said to be a race much superior to the other tribes upon the table-land. The women are called the Circassians of Mexico; and most of the families are affluent, above a million of dollars being annually employed in the purchase of cochineal. In ancient times this state was the seat of two independent kingdoms, viz. those of Misteca and Tzapotoca. Oaxaca the capital, called Antequera at the time of the conquest, is a flourishing place, although it suffered severely during the revolution. It contains above 20,000 inhabitants. This state has only one sea-port, Tehuantepec, and it is a bad one. The population is estimated at above half a million.

Vera Cruz is divided into four departments, viz. Vera Cruz, Jalapa, Orizava, and Acayucan, containing in 1825 a total registered population of 233,705 souls. It is a narrow strip of land stretching along the Gulf of Mexico from the state of San Luis Potosi to that of Tabasco, a distance of about four hundred miles, whilst its breadth on an average does not exceed fifty or sixty miles. The department of Vera Cruz contains four cantons, Vera Cruz, Tampico, Papantla, and Misantla, having in all a population of 63,106 souls, distributed throughout the tierra caliente of the coast in fifty-three pueblos, rancherias, and congregaciones. The produce of these cantons consists in maize, frijoles, rice, cotton, sugar, woods of the most precious kinds, as mahogany, ebony, cedar; sarsaparilla, pepper, wax, indian rubber, and vanilla, which is very abundant in Misantla, where twenty thousand roots of it were planted in the year 1826.

The department of Jalapa is divided into two cantons, Jalapa and Jalacingo, containing forty-one pueblos and 53,061 inhabitants. Orizava comprises three cantons, Orizava, Cordova, and Cosamsaluana, with sixty-three pueblos, and 84,148 inhabitants. The population of Orizava and Cordova is employed chiefly in the cultivation of tobacco and of coffee. The towns contain several distilleries, and a number of bee-hives, which are important in a country where such quantities of wax are consumed. Acayucan is divided into three cantons, Acayucan, Tustla, and Niumanguillo, and comprises twenty-three pueblos, having a population of 33,354 souls. The principal agricultural production is cotton, but the annual amount now raised has much declined. Almost all the trade of Mexico centres in Vera Cruz and its sea-ports. The city of Vera Cruz the capital of the state, is situated on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in lat. 19° 11' 52" north, and long. 96° 8' 45" west. It is well and handsomely built of madrepore; and its red and white cupolas, towers, and battlements, have a splendid effect when viewed from the sea. Many of the houses are large, being built in the Moorish or old Spanish style, and generally enclosing a square court, with covered galleries. They have flat roofs, glass windows, and are well adapted to the climate. There is a tolerably good square, of which the government house forms one side, and the principal church another. There are other churches, as well as monasteries and nunneries. Opposite the town at the distance of about four hundred fathoms, is a small island, containing the strong castle of San Juan de Ulloa, which commands the town. The harbour lies between the town and the castle, and is exceedingly insecure. The anchorage is so bad, that vessels require to be moored to the castle by means of ropes attached to rings fixed in the walls; but even this is not found to be a sufficient safeguard against the fury of the northern winds, which sometimes blow here with tremendous violence. Vera Cruz is extremely unhealthy at all times; and during the warm season Europeans are exceedingly liable to become the victims of the vomito, or prevailing distemper. The city is surrounded by sand hills and ponds of stagnant water; there is neither garden nor mill near it; and the only water fit for use is that which falls from the clouds. For every article, except fish, many beautiful species of which are here caught, the markets are indifferent. The trade of Vera Cruz was at one period considerable, but it sensibly declined after Mexico threw off the yoke of Spain. Alvarado, a port about twelve leagues to the south-east, and which constituted the seat of maritime commerce during the revolution, is built upon the left bank of a river of the same name, at the mouth of which there is a bar, rendering it inaccessible to vessels drawing more than ten or twelve feet of water. Large ships must consequently be loaded and unloaded by means of lighters. The trade of Mexico, however, has either reverted to its old channel, or is shared by Tampico, a port which has risen into importance within these few years. It is situated about sixty leagues north-west of Vera Cruz, in lat. 22° 15' 30" N. long. 97° 52' W., being about a hundred and four leagues from Mexico. In 1825, the population of Vera Cruz amounted to about eight thousand.

Another town in this state is Jalapa, from which a well-known drug takes its name. Formerly it was the great mart of New Spain for European goods, as the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz compelled traders to transfer their merchandise at once to this city, where a great annual fair was held. It has now, however, little commerce of its own, and is only a sort of resting-place between Vera Cruz and Mexico. Jalapa is indebted to the peculiarity of its position for the extreme softness of its climate. The town stands upon a little platform, 4,335 feet above the level of the sea, and is protected from the north-west winds by a ridge of mountains. The height is exactly that at which there is a continual humidity in the atmosphere; but this only imparts a balmy feeling to the air, whilst it gives a delightful freshness to the face of nature. The town is neatly built, although the streets are irregular; and the houses without being remarkable for their size are of a superior order. Jalapa is the seat of government for the state of Vera Cruz, and here a large garrison is kept. The population is about 12,000.

uis Potosi.—To the north-west of Vera Cruz, lies the state of San Luis Potosi, under which name, as a Spanish intendency, were included Coahuila and Texas, New Leon, Tamanlipas and San Luis, now four sovereign states. San Luis, like the other members of the federal republic, is divided into several districts, which, in 1825, contained a population of 250,000 souls. Most of the haciendas are only vast sheep walks, although many of them might be rendered a source of great wealth. In this state, there are a number of rich mines, particularly those of Catorce, where a metalliferous ridge of mountains extends for many miles. The state congress is composed of fourteen deputies elected in the proportion of one for every twenty-thousand souls. In ecclesiastical matters, San Luis is dependent upon the bishoprics of Guadalaxara and Valladolid, between which the spiritual jurisdiction is divided. With the exception of the capital which bears the same name, it possesses no large town. San Luis, including the suburbs, contains between fifty and sixty thousand inhabitants. It is well built, and contains a number of churches, monasteries, and public buildings. The exterior architecture of the sacred edifices is generally heavy, being overloaded with carved ornaments, and ill-executed statues of saints; yet at a short distance, they give a magnificent appearance to the town. The palacio, now the house of the provincial congress, forms one side of the Plaza de los Armas, which has an excellent fountain of water in the centre. The parroquia, or cathedral, occupies a portion of the opposite side, and on its right are the soldiers' quarters. The two other sides are filled with shops and dwelling houses. The former are good and well stocked, those for the sale of liquors being by far the most numerous. To excessive indulgence in the use of palique and other stimulants, must be attributed the frequent brawls and assassinations which take place in San Luis. San Luis derives great advantage from its situation, as the natural depot for the trade of Tampico with the northern and western states. Zacatecas, Durango, and other states, receive through this channel a large proportion of their foreign imports; and since the building of the new town of Tamanlipas, which, from being on a more elevated spot than the old town (pueblo viejo) of Tampico, is less subject to the vomito, there is every appearance of a rapid increase in this branch of commercial intercourse.

Zacatecas.—To the west, and north-west of San Luis Zacatecas Potosi, is situated Zacatecas, a state divided into eleven districts, viz., Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Sombrerete, Tlaltenango, Villanueva, Fresnillo, Jerez, Mazapil, Nieves, Pinos, and Juchilpa, which, in 1825, contained a registered population of 272,901 souls. There are in this state one hundred and twenty haciendas, with six hundred and sixteen ranchos; but most of the latter consist merely of three or four wretched hovels. Zacatecas is both a mining and an agricultural state. Manufactures there are none, excepting in the capital, where there are a few cotton spinners, as also at Aguas Calientes. The revenue of this state exceeds the expenditure, tobacco being the most productive branch of industry. A little maguey brandy is distilled at Pinos; but every thing else requisite for the consumption of the inhabitants is imported from other states. As a mining district, Zacatecas differs materially from Guanajuato; for instead of one great principal vein, it contains three lodes, nearly equal in importance, viz., La Quebradilla, San Bernabe or Malanoche, and Veta Grande, with a number of inferior vetas and vetillas, which may be considered as ramifications of the principal lodes. The principal mines of Zacatecas are in the hands of companies. Aguas Calientes, south of the capital, is a highly cultivated district, producing nearly one-fourth of the maize, and one-third of the frijole and chile grown in the state; but to the north and east of this district the country is divided into vast breeding farms, where the population is thinly scattered over an immense tract of country. The constitution of Zacatecas was completed as early as January 1825. The legislature consists of one chamber.

Zacatecas the capital is situated at the foot of an abrupt and picturesque porphyritic mountain, upon the rugged summit of which is perched a neat church and a small fortress. From the inequalities of the ground on which it stands, the streets are short and crooked. Besides a very noble cathe-

ivisions.

It contains a number of churches and convents. Amongst the public buildings worthy of notice, may be mentioned the mint, the best in Mexico, and "la casa del Ayuntamiento," a magnificent edifice, where all the public offices are established, and where the congress of the state assembles. This town contains about twenty-two thousand inhabitants; and Veto Grande, a village in its immediate vicinity, contains six thousand.

Merida, the southern extremity of Mexico, is a peninsula which projects into the ocean above four hundred miles, and may be said to separate the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea. It is a vast plain of alluvial formation, intersected by a mountain ridge which does not exceed four thousand feet in height, comprising an area of three thousand eight hundred and twenty-three square leagues, and divided into fifteen departments, which, in 1825, contained a registered population of 496,990 souls. Upon some parts of this extensive territory, maize, frijoles, rice, cotton, pepper, tobacco, and the sugar cane are produced, besides dye-wood, hides, and other articles. In the central parts, the want of water is a very serious drawback to agriculture; the rainy season is very uncertain, and in many parts not even a stream is known to exist, so that in unfavourable years, the inhabitants are compelled to have recourse for subsistence, to the roots which the woods supply. There are no mines, and the extensive trade which was once carried on with the Havanna was cut short by the war, nor has it been as yet restored. The capital of Yucatan is Merida, situated on an arid plain forty miles from the coast. It enjoys little trade, and contains only about ten thousand inhabitants. Campeche is the principal commercial town; and here the logwood, which goes by the same name, attains its greatest perfection. There was imported into Great Britain from Mexico in 1831, four thousand eight hundred and eighty-five tons of this wood, the greatest part of which was shipped at the port of Campeche. The town contains about eight thousand inhabitants. The receipts of Yucatan in 1826, amounted to 213,127 dollars, whilst the expenditure for the same year was 207,199, thus leaving a small balance in favour of the state.

Tabasco.—Immediately adjoining Yucatan, is the state of Tabasco, which is divided into three departments and nine districts, containing in all forty-eight pueblos, sixty-three churches, five hundred and forty-three haciendas, and fifty-four thousand eight hundred and sixty-two inhabitants. A large proportion of the territory of this state is laid under water during the rainy season, and intercourse between the villages must be carried on by canoes. This circumstance is favourable to the growth of cacao, supposed to be an indigenous plant, and now cultivated to a considerable extent. Coffee is likewise grown, and the pepper which goes by the name of the state, is found in great abundance on the banks of rivers. Indigo and vanilla grow wild, though little attention is paid to their cultivation. The revenue of this state does not exceed fifty-thousand dollars, and the expenditure was in 1827, nearly the same.

Las Chiapas.—Between Tabasco and part of Guatemala is situated the state of Las Chiapas, formerly a part of central America, but now united to Mexico. The soil is fertile, and capable of yielding in profusion tropical fruits and grain. The cacao, although very fine, is not cultivated to any extent. The Chiapa of the Spaniards, called also Ciudad Real, though ranking as the capital, is now only a small place, containing four thousand inhabitants. A town of the same name, occupied by Indians, is larger, and carries on the chief trade, which, however, is inconsiderable.

Durango.—The state of Durango, or New Biscay, has a great extent of surface, about sixteen thousand square leagues, yet in 1825 the population was estimated at only 175,000. It is divided into ten districts, viz. Durango, Nombre de Dios, San Juan del Rio, Cinco Señores de Nazas, Cuencame, El Oro, Inde, Papasquiaro, Tamascula, and Guarisamey. Its riches depend entirely upon its mines and agricultural produce; which last is so considerable, that the lands already brought under cultivation are supposed to be sufficient for the support of a population about five times as large as that which the state now contains. The farms are upon a large scale, and are chiefly devoted to breeding horned cattle, mules, and sheep. Some haciendas, however, are entirely laid out in corn lands; but although indigo and coffee are found wild in some parts, and sugar might be raised to almost any extent, little attention has hitherto been paid to them. Fruits and vegetables of all kinds abound, particularly peaches and potatoes. Maize, flour, oxen, cows, sheep, mules, and horses, are astonishingly cheap. With the exception of a glass manufactory, a tannery, and the fabrica de tabacos, Durango is destitute of manufactures; but the richness of its mineral deposits compensates for any deficiency in this respect. There are a great number of mines, none of which, with one or two exceptions, have been worked to any extent. The chief mining districts are consequently virgin ground; and there are few in which the old shafts might not again be brought into activity at a trifling expense. Besides the mines of gold and silver, which are situated on either side of the Sierra Madre, there are some of iron and lead, both of which metals might be obtained in abundance. In the vicinity of the capital, materials for building abound, stone and lime being found at a very little distance from the gates; and the flint used in the manufacture of glass is readily obtained. The constitution of Durango is framed in a liberal spirit. The congress consists of two chambers, containing eleven deputies, and seven senators.

Durango, or, as it is now called, Victoria, the capital of the state, is situated sixty-five leagues to the north-west of Zacatecas, in the midst of a vast plain. Both the city of Victoria, and most of the other towns of Durango, as Tamacula, Sianori, Mapimi, San Dimas, Canelas, Cuencame, and others, take their origin from the mines. Before the discovery of those of Guarisamey, Victoria was a mere village, and as late as 1783, it contained only eight thousand inhabitants. In 1825, the population was estimated at twenty-two thousand. The principal streets, the plaza mayor, the theatre, and most of the public edifices, were built by Zambrano, a wealthy proprietor, who is supposed to have drawn from his mines at San Dimas and Guarisamey, upwards of thirty millions of dollars. The towns of Villa del Nombre de Dios, San Juan del Rio, and Cinco Señores de Nazas, are almost the only considerable places in the state unconnected with the mines. The great mineral wealth of this state holds out the most encouraging prospect of ample remuneration to those who engage in mining speculations; and there can be little doubt, that ere long, the advantages which Durango possesses, will be duly appreciated by foreign or native associations of capitalists.

Chihuahua.—The state immediately adjoining Durango Chihuahua to the north is that of Chihuahua. The inhabitants, who, by the last census were estimated at 112,694 souls, are thinly scattered over a vast tract of country, occupied by great breeding estates, abounding in mules and horned cattle. But agriculture is comparatively neglected; the mines, in which this state is very rich, holding out a better prospect of ample reward for industry. A minute description of the mining districts would greatly exceed our limits; it is only necessary to mention those of Jesus Maria, San Jose del Parral, on the eastern ridge of the Sierra Madre, the famous mines of Batopilas, on the western declivity, El Carmen, Dolores, Candelaria, Buen Suceso, San Antonio, Pastrana, and Arbitrios. Some of them are amazingly rich, and capital to employ labourers is alone required to raise this state to wealth and importance. The revenue, in 1825, was 69,369. Sonora and Sinaloa.—To the west of Chihuahua extends the vast state of Sonora and Sinaloa, occupying the whole space between twenty-two and a half and thirty-three and a half degrees of north latitude, and forming the eastern coast of the Gulf of California as far as the Cerro de Santa Clara, where commence the Indian lands south of the rivers Gila and Colorado. It contains an area of above nineteen thousand square leagues. To this vast extent of surface, however, the population bears no proportion. It was estimated by Humboldt at 121,400 souls; but it probably exceeds that number, as various Indian tribes inhabiting this territory were not likely to submit to exact registration. In many parts the soil is exceedingly fertile, and the productions of both the temperate and torrid zones may be raised within this territory. It is likewise rich in mineral treasures; many of the mines being of great value, whilst their depth is inconsiderable. The southern part of Sonora, properly called Sinaloa, is separated from Jalisco by the river Canas or Bayona, twenty-five leagues from which is Rosario, a handsomely built town, containing six thousand inhabitants. It is a place of great commercial importance, being the depot for the port of Mazatlan; and a very considerable trade is likewise carried on with the states of Durango and Jalisco. In its vicinity is a celebrated mine of the same name, one of the oldest and best in the republic, and still wrought to some profit. Twenty-five leagues from Rosario is the port of Mazatlan, which, though by no means a safe one, is rising into importance. The town is miserable, consisting mostly of about a hundred huts composed of mats, hides, and palm leaves, and destitute of any defence, excepting the dangerous shoals and rocky islands which encumber the entrance to the small bay upon which it stands. Guaymas, the best port in the republic, is situated in lat. 27° 40' N., about the middle of the Gulf of California. The harbour is excellent, well sheltered, and capable of containing two hundred vessels. The town contains above three thousand inhabitants, amongst whom are many merchants. The imports consist of Chinese, East Indian, and European manufactures, and the exports of wheat, flour, beef, hides, furs, copper, silver, and gold. The heat in summer is great, yet the town is healthy, neither the vomito nor the cholera being known. In 1825 there was a custom-house established at both of these ports, and the latest returns show an increase of revenue from this source. The chief depot of commerce for the whole of Upper Sonora and the port of Guaymas is Petic, which is situated in a plain near the confluence of the rivers Dolores and Sonora, lat. 29° 17' N., long. 111° 3' W. The town is very irregularly built, but contains many excellent houses, and about eight thousand inhabitants. The neighbourhood is fertile and well cultivated, affording abundance of the necessaries, and many of the luxuries of life. The vine thrives well, and from it a good wine is made, and brandy also distilled. The wheat of Sonora is considered as the best grown in the republic. Vegetables of every description are plentiful and cheap, and fish are abundant. Fourteen leagues to the westward of Petic is the town of San Miguel de Horcasitas, upon the river Dolores. To the north of this town, appear the first ramifications of the Sierra Madre, abounding in mines of silver, gold, and copper. From San Miguel to Uves, on the southern bank of the river Sonora, the distance is twelve leagues. It is a handsomely built place; the streets are wide and regular, and there is a large square, in which are a church and convent. To the north of it, two ridges from the great Cordillera intersect the country, running parallel to the Pacific, and separated by the Dolores, Sonora, Oposura, and Barispe, rivers in all of which gold has been found.

To the north-west of Uves, and situated on a table-land, is the town of Babiacora, which contains three thousand inhabitants, more than three-fourths of whom are Indians. The vale of Sonora extends from this town about twelve leagues in a northerly direction, and is considered as one of the most productive districts in the state. It contains the towns of Conche and Sonora, besides a number of haciendas and farms, and a considerable population. In the neighbourhood of Babiacora are numerous mines, both of gold and silver. Eighteen leagues to the eastward is the town of Oposura, situated upon a river of the same name, and containing above four thousand inhabitants. The vale of Oposura is about twenty-six leagues in length, and varies from one to four leagues in breadth. The population consists partly of whites, who have preserved the blood of their Biscayan ancestors in all its purity; and partly of Indians of the Opata tribe, who in Upper Sonora compose nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants. The whole of this country is rich in every variety of agricultural produce. North of Arispo and the Presidio of Fonteras (lat. 31°), is the country of the Apaches, an independent Indian tribe. These people are brave, and dexterous in the use of weapons, but averse to the forms of civilised life. The road from Arispo to the Villa del Fuerte, the capital of Sinaloa, runs nearly due south for one hundred and twenty leagues. The principal towns on the way are Onabas and Los Alamos, a celebrated mining district. To the north and north-west of the latter place, between the rivers Yaqui and Mayo, there are vast plains, inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians, who have become reconciled to the restraints of civilized life, and possess numerous towns, where they cultivate the arts of peace. El Fuerte, which was originally a military station, is now the residence of the governor of the state; the congress, which consists of eleven members, and the supreme tribunal of justice, also hold their sessions in this place. The tierra caliente of Sinaloa extends from Alamos to the confines of Guadalajara. It is one vast unproductive sandy plain. Culiacan, the most ancient and most populous town in Sinaloa, is situated on a river of the same name, eighty leagues south of El Fuerte, and contains a population of eleven thousand souls. There are numerous other towns and mining districts in this state, which possesses extraordinary natural advantages, and may be considered as one of the most important territories of the republic.

Tamaulipas and New Leon.—Along the shores of the Tamaulipas Gulf of Mexico, and to the north of Vera Cruz, extends the state of Tamaulipas. A considerable part of this state is New Leon traversed by the great river Bravo del Norte, at the mouth of which is the harbour called El Brazo de Santiago. It is situated on the river Panuco, which separates Tamaulipas from Vera Cruz, about three miles to the northward of the old town of Tampico, or as it is called, Pueblo Viejo. There are indeed three towns which bear the name of Tampico in this quarter. Pueblo Nuevo de las Tamaulipas is of recent erection, and built on a neat model. It is rapidly increasing. Altamira is a little town situated on the road to San Luis Potosi. A considerable portion of this state, being low in situation, is warm, and capable of producing tropical fruits and vegetables; whilst on the more elevated parts are found the usual productions of the temperate zone. Tamaulipas possesses various mines, not only of the precious metals, but of copper, lead, and tin; and there are several crystallising salt lakes in the territory.

To the westward of Tamaulipas lies the state of New Leon. The soil is fertile, and the climate, although warm, is very fine, producing abundance of corn and fruits. It abounds in excellent and extensive pastures, on which are bred numbers of cattle. Monterey, the capital, occupies part of a large plain, surrounded by mountains (part of the Sierra Madre), in lat. 26° N. Fruits abound during the whole year, and provisions of all kinds are plentiful and cheap. It contains fifteen thousand inhabitants. Linares is a pretty large town, situated some leagues to the east of Monterey, on an elevated plain between two rivers. It contains some well-built houses, and about six thousand inhabitants.

COAHUILA.—Adjoining to New Leon and Tamaulipas is Coahuila which is generally elevated, and being well sheltered from the north-west winds, possesses a healthy climate. A considerable mountain-chain stretches across the state in a north-westerly direction, and its surface is most luxuriantly irrigated by the numberless springs and streams which, bursting from these ridges, become tributaries to the great river Bravo del Norte. Its pastures are clothed with rich natural grasses, and are admirably calculated for breeding, rearing, and fattening cattle; whilst its forests furnish abundance of wood, which is well calculated for every kind of construction. There are mines of saltpetre, copperas, alum, lead, tin, and copper, besides some silver in Santa Rosa, and gold in Sacramento. These mineral treasures, for want of population and of capital, have been rather ascertained than explored. The inhabitants are almost wholly of the white race, or with such slight mixture of the Indian blood, as to make no distinction in colour worthy of notice. The native tribes within the province have been extinguished; but on the borders towards the north and west are several warlike tribes of Indians. In these parts also there are droves of wild cattle and horses, and herds of buffalos. Monclova is the capital of the state, but Leona Vicario, formerly Saltillo, is the largest town, containing about twelve thousand inhabitants. It is situated upon the side of a hill, branching off from the Sierra Madre, which in this quarter presents nothing but barren rocks, whilst the intervening valleys or plains are all nearly destitute of vegetation. In 1811, Coahuila contained between seventy and eighty thousand inhabitants, and it does not appear that their numbers have materially increased since that time. They are chiefly occupied in agriculture, and produce excellent wheat and barley, and great variety of fruits. The vines cultivated here make wine of very excellent flavour, and considerable strength.

TEXAS.—Texas is a north-eastern province of Mexico, situated between 27 and 35 of north latitude, and 93° 15' and 102° 30' of longitude west from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by Red River, which divides it from Arkansas, Ozark district, and New Mexico; on the south by the gulf of Mexico, and the Rio de las Nueces, which divides it from Coahuila and Tamaulipas; on the east by the eastern branch of the river Sabine, and the state of Louisiana; and on the west by Coahuila and the territory of New Mexico. In medium length from north to south it extends five hundred and forty miles; its average breadth from east to west is four hundred and sixty miles, and it contains an area of one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. This extensive territory, which is described as forming a vast inclined plain, is one of great natural beauty and fertility. It is intersected by a number of large rivers, amongst which may be enumerated the Brazos, which has a great many branches, and a south-easterly course of six hundred miles; the Colorado, also with numerous branches, and a south-easterly course of four hundred miles; the Trinity, the Guadalupe, the Sabine, the San Antonio, the Medina, Nueces, Naches, and Rio del Norte, all having long courses and numerous branches. There are several secondary streams which, although they have short courses, are of very great importance in an agricultural point of view.

The country is very open, being principally composed of extensive prairies, but it is more minutely divided into plain, undulating, and mountainous. The plain country, which may be termed a dead level, with only here and there a gentle slope, is thirty miles broad at the Sabine; gradually extends its breadth to about one hundred miles on the Colorado, the centre of the level land; afterwards it shrinks to narrow limits; and on the Nueces it declines to a point. This vast tract of territory presents considerable variety of soil and natural productions, being in some parts a low, woody, cane brake country, and in others, sunken prairie land, having a sterile and cheerless aspect; but this gradually disappears, and large, rich, and magnificent prairies, intersected with variegated clumps of timber, extend on either side of the Colorado and Brazos. By far the largest portion of Texas consists of undulating country; it has been described as "lying in the form of a triangle with the centre of its base line on the Sabine in lat. 32°, and its vertical point resting on the Colorado, long. 20° 30'." It is remarkably salubrious, abounds in streams and springs, timber of various kinds, as well as fine pasturage, where cattle may be raised to an unlimited extent, beautiful and varied scenery, and is nearly free from noxious insects. The soil both of the prairies and the undulating country is generally a deep dark mould; but the streams are usually bordered by tracts of alluvial land which yield a variety of timber. The mountain range of Texas consists of spurs or branches of the great Sierra Madre, which, in point of elevation, are only of the third or fourth order. They are in many parts thickly covered with forests, interspersed with a great variety of shrubbery. Extensive valleys of alluvial soil are found throughout this range, more particularly on the water courses. The scenery of this country is at once grand and beautiful, and much of the land is susceptible of cultivation. With regard to the extent of arable soil in Texas, Mr. Edward observes: "East of the Trinidad river there will be found one-third of the whole fit for the plough. Between the Trinidad and the Colorado rivers one-half of the lands are tillable. West of the Colorado one-fourth of the surface can be laboured."

The natural productions of Texas comprehend most of those which we have described as belonging to Mexico in general, and do not therefore require to be specified. There is abundance of timber of various kinds, fruit trees and shrubs, amongst which may be mentioned the vine, minerals and metals useful in the arts, wild and domesticated animals, and fish and fowls of every description. The alluvion upon the water courses is admirably adapted for the cultivation of cotton and sugar; whilst corn, wheat, and other grains can be raised almost everywhere, and tobacco and indigo in many parts. There is unlimited pasture for cattle during the whole year. No country is so admirably adapted for sheep, and there is a plentiful supply of mast for hogs. Indeed the resources of this beautiful country, which remained almost unknown to the Spaniards, are very great, and industry and enterprise are only necessary to turn to account the natural advantages which it possesses.

The southern and eastern portions of the country, which are at present of the most importance, are divided into three political jurisdictions, namely Nacogdoches, Brazos, and San Antonio de Bexar. The department of Nacogdoches is bounded on the north by Red River, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, on the east by the river Sabine, and on the west by the department of Brazos. The capital, which bears the name of the district is situated in a romantic dell surrounded by wooded bluffs, sixty miles west of the river Sabine, in lat. 31° 36', north, and long. 94° 36'. It is a flourishing town containing about one thousand resident inhabitants. San Augustin is situated on Ayish Bayou, an eastern branch of the river Naches, fifteen miles west of the Sabine, and forty-five miles east of Nacogdoches. From being placed in the centre of one of the richest landed districts in the state, its improvement has been very rapid, indeed more so than that of any other town in Texas. Anahuac, although at present only the third town in the department in point of size, is, from its peculiar advantages, destined ere long to be the first. It is situated on a beautiful high level prairie bluff, to the south-

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1 Edwards' History of Texas, Cincinnati, 1836. east of Galveston bay, in a comparatively healthy spot opposite the mouths of the Trinidad river, and is thus likely to become the grand depot of maritime commerce.

The population of Texas has been estimated at seventy thousand. But there are, besides, numerous Indian tribes, either located in particular districts, or who lead a wandering life, and make frequent descents upon the settled parts of the country. Of the numbers actually within the limits of the state no estimate can be formed.

New Mexico.—Texas is bounded on the western side by the arid mountains of San Saba, and by elevated plains, which serve only to afford pasture to the buffaloes and other wild animals. To the westward of this desert tract extends the state of New Mexico, a long and comparatively narrow strip of country, through which the Rio Bravo del Norte takes its course to the ocean. Though the latitude of New Mexico is not higher than that of Syria and Persia, the climate is very cold. The chief productions are the grains of Europe; and there is abundance of pasture for animals. The banks of the Rio Bravo are well wooded and highly picturesque. On either side are fine plains, which are rendered fruitful by artificial irrigation. The capital of New Mexico is Santa Fé, situated to the east of the great river, in lat. 36°12' N., and long. 104°32'45' W. It is the centre of a considerable overland trade between the northern part of Mexico and the western parts of the United States; and from this point proceeds the great trading road to St. Luis, in the Missouri territory. Albuquerque, to the west of the Sierra Obscura, has a population of six thousand; and Taos, to the north, has about nine thousand. The Paseo del Norte is a place at which travelers must provide themselves with food to subsist on during their journey of sixty leagues over the desert which separates it from Santa Fé. The fields there are well cultivated with maize and wheat, and the vineyards produce excellent sweet wines. The gardens are well stocked with figs, peaches, apples, pears, and the other fruits of Europe. Artificial irrigation is here conducted on very simple but very good principles, and the effect is visible in all their crops. The population of New Mexico has been estimated at fifty thousand.

California.—Referring to the articles which appear under this head, we may mention, that, since they were written, some additional information respecting this interesting portion of Mexico has been obtained, chiefly through Dr. Coulter. Upper California extends from the coast of the Pacific to the Rio Colorado, and from the boundary with Lower California, a few leagues south of San Diego, to the parallel of 42° degrees north latitude. But the course of the Rio Colorado is entirely within the Rocky Mountains, which are separated from the inhabited, and indeed habitable, portion of California, by a great sand plain, destitute of water. "The plain is about one hundred miles in breadth, at its southern extremity, and about two hundred at the northern; about seven hundred miles in length, gradually ascending toward the north, and similar in every respect to that on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Our view is thus confined then to a narrow tract of country of very remarkable features, the general run of its mountain ridges, continuous with the chain of Lower California, being nearly parallel with the coast, and almost all the minor streams running north-westerly. Of the great rivers falling into the bay of San Francisco, through the Boca de Carquinas, the Sacramento only has a southern course. The Jesu Maria and the San Joaquin run westerly or north-westerly, as do all the others collected in the Tule lakes, before entering the bay." These lakes "are now known not to exceed a hundred miles in total length, being fordable in the dry season in several places; and notwithstanding their many tributaries from the eastward, they discharge during a considerable portion of the year, very little, if any, water into San Francisco. It is only immediately after the rainy season, which is usually ended by February, and during the thaw of the snow on the high range of hills between the lakes and great sand plain, that there is any considerable discharge of water from them in this direction. Such, at least, is the account given by the American hunters. Limited, as we have supposed, to the eastward by the sand plain, the general form of the country is somewhat triangular, the ridge of mountains from Lower California dividing into several others, which slightly diverge as they advance northward. The great snowy peaks of San Bernardino, east of San Gabriel, being the point from which the two principal ranges start, the one the great snowy chain, separates the sand plain from the Tule lakes, and the other separates the Tule lakes from the sea board, not running further north than San Francisco." The only settled portion of Upper California is that along the coast, the missions being nearly all within one day's journey of it. The valley is of considerable size, and many parts are exceedingly fertile, producing the finest wheat and the most luxuriant vines. But the great article of produce of Upper California is black cattle, which have increased with astonishing rapidity. Only seventy years have elapsed since twenty-three head were first introduced; and in 1827 the missions possessed 210,000 branded, and not less than 100,000 unbranded cattle. It is found necessary to slaughter sixty thousand annually, to keep the stock at the present standard, until more of the country be settled to the eastward. Sheep have increased with nearly equal rapidity, but are as yet of little interest to the trade of California, their price having been kept enormously high by the priests. "It is sufficiently strange," says Dr. Coulter, "that where the fattest bullock is worth only eight dollars, and can rarely be sold at all, and where young cows with calf can be bought in droves at about two dollars, and frequently less, a sheep cannot be bought for less than three dollars." The white inhabitants have increased rapidly, and are now estimated at about six thousand, whilst the aboriginal population has considerably diminished in number.

The two Californias are to be considered as forming one great chain of mountains, with several long but usually narrow valleys dividing it into ridges nearly parallel with the coast, and as a whole separated by the gulf of Cortez and the great sand plain, from Sonora and the Rocky Mountains; with the latter, however, the California chain appears ultimately to unite north of the parallel of 42°, about the great summit level, dividing the waters of the Columbia from those falling into the bay of San Francisco. The neighbourhood of this bay is the only part of the country likely ever to become of much interest to Europeans. It is highly fertile, well wooded, watered, and perfectly healthy. Lower California is pretty rich in minerals. Dr. Coulter mentions having seen very rich argentiferous lead ores from the southern extremity of it; and gold is also found in several places.

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1 Coulter's Notes on Upper California. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. v. part i. 1835. Political east of Galveston Bay, in a comparatively healthy and agreeable situation on the banks of the Trinity River, and is likely to become the grand depot of maritime commerce.

The population of Texas has been estimated at seventy thousand. But there are hundreds of savage tribes, either located in particular districts or kindred, wandering life, and make frequent depredations upon the settled parts of the country. Of these there are many within the limits of the state no evidence can be obtained.

New Mexico.—This province extends on the western side by the old mountains of San Sabas, and by elevated plains, which serve only to afford pasture to the buffaloes and other wild animals. To the northward of this district extends the state of New Mexico, a comparatively narrow strip of country, containing the Rio Bravo del Norte, which takes its name from the latitude of New Mexico, is higher than that of Mexico and Peru; the climate every year cools. The climate is similar to that of Europe, and there is abundant vegetation for animals. The banks of the Rio Bravo are well wooded and highly picturesque. On either side are fertile plains, which are rendered fruitful by artificial irrigation. The capital of New Mexico is Santa Fe, situated to the east of the great river, in lat. 36°12' N., and long. 104°45' W. It is the centre of a considerable overland trade between the northern part of Mexico and the western parts of the United States; and from this point proceeds the great trading road to St. Louis, in the Missouri territory. Albuquerque, to the west of the Sierra Pecos, has a population of six thousand; and Taos, to the east, has about nine thousand. The Pass of the North is a pass at which travelers must provide themselves with food sufficient to last during their journey of sixty leagues over the desert, which separates it from Santa Fe. The fields there are well cultivated with maize and wheat, and the vineyards produce excellent wine. The gardens are well stocked with figs, peaches, apples, pears, and the other fruits of Europe. Artificial irrigation is here conducted on very simple but very good principles, and the effect is visible in all their crops. The population of New Mexico has been estimated at fifty thousand.

California.—Referring to the articles which appear under this head, we may mention that since they were written, some additional information respecting this interesting portion of Mexico has been obtained, chiefly through Dr. Conner. Upper California extends from the coast of the Pacific to the Rio Colorado, and from the boundary with Lower California, five leagues south of San Diego, to the parallel of 42° degrees north latitude. But the course of the Rio Colorado is entirely within the Rocky Mountains, which are separated from the inhabited and habitable portion of California, by a great sand plain, destitute of water. The plain is about one hundred miles in breadth, at its southern extremity, and about two hundred at the northern; about seven hundred miles in length, gradually ascending toward the north, and similar in every respect to that on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Our view is thus confirmed, that a narrow tract of country of very remarkable features, the central run of its mountain ridges, continuous with those of Lower California, being nearly parallel with the coast, and almost all the minor streams running northwardly, of the great river falling into the bay of San Francisco, through the Bocas de Carrizales, the Sacramento only has a southern course. The Rio Maria and the San Joaquin run westerly or north-westerly, as do all the others collected in the Tule lakes, before entering the bay. These lakes are now known not to exceed a hundred miles in total length, being fordable in the dry season in several places; and notwithstanding their many tributaries from the eastward, they discharge during a considerable portion of the year very little, if any, water into San Francisco. It is only immediately after the rainy season, which is usually ended by February, and during the thaw of the snow on the high range of hills between the lakes and great sand plains, that there is any considerable discharge of water from them in this direction. Sandhill land, is the account given by the American hunters. Limestone, as we have supposed to the eastward by the sand plains, the general height of the country is somewhat stupendous; the ridge of mountains from Lower California dividing into several others, which slightly diverge as they advance northward. The great snowy peaks of San Bernardino, east of San Gabriel, being the point from which the two principal ranges start, the one the great snowy chain separates the arid plain from the Tule lakes, and the other separates the Tule lakes from the sea, hence, not running further north than San Francisco. The only settled portion of Upper California is that along the coast, the missions being nearly all within one day's journey of us. The valley is of considerable size, and many parts are exceedingly fertile, producing the finest wheat and the most luxuriant vines. But the great expense of production of Upper California is black cattle, which have increased with astonishing rapidity. Only seventy years have elapsed since twenty-three head were first introduced; and in 1827 the number passed 210,000 branded, and not less than 100,000 unbranded cattle. It is found necessary to ship more than thirty thousand annually, to keep the stock at the present standard, until more of the country be settled to the eastward. Sheep have increased with nearly equal rapidity, but are as yet of little interest to the trade of California, their price having been kept exorbitantly high by the priests. "It is sufficiently strange," says Dr. Conner, "that where the finest beefsteak is worth only eight dollars, and can rarely be sold at all, and where young cows with calf can be bought in droves at about two dollars, and frequently less, a sheep cannot be bought for less than three dollars." The white inhabitants have increased rapidly, and are now estimated at about six thousand, whilst the aboriginal population has considerably diminished in number.

The two Californias are to be considered as forming one great chain of mountains, with several long but usually narrow valleys dividing it into ridges nearly parallel with the coast, and as a whole separated by the gulf of Cortez and the great sand plains, from Sonora and the Rocky Mountains; with the latter, however, the California chain appears ultimately to unite north of the parallel of 42°, about the great summit level, dividing the waters of the Columbia from those falling into the bay of San Francisco. The neighborhood of this bay is the only part of the country likely ever to become of much interest to Europeans. It is slightly fertile, well wooded, watered, and perfectly healthy. Lower California is pretty rich in minerals. Dr. Conner mentions having seen very rich antimony and ores from the southern extremity of it; and gold is also found in several places. Explanation of the motion of the machine by means of signs.

| Disposition of the pieces | Moving wheel | Count wheel | Axle of the first wheel | Band | Small wheel | Axle of the Gears | Gears | Stumpers | Great pulley | Band | Small pulley | Handle | Rod | Beam | |--------------------------|--------------|-------------|------------------------|------|-------------|------------------|-------|----------|--------------|------|-------------|--------|-----|------| | A | B | C | D | E | F1 | F2 | F3 | G1 | G2 | G3 | K | I | L | M | N | O |

Nature of the Motion:

| Epochs during a turn of the moving wheel | |-----------------------------------------| | 0 | | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | 6 |