BOKHARA, or BUKHARIA, a country and khanat of Asia, in Tsokistan or Independent Tartary, lying between Lat. 34° and 41° N. and Long. 63° and 70° E. It is bounded on the north by Khokan, west by the khanat of Khiva, east by Koondooz, and on the south its boundary first follows the course of the Oxus, and afterwards proceeds along the sands on the left bank of that river. Its area is estimated at

Bukhara, 235,000 square miles; but, like the other states of Central Asia, the limits and extent of Bukhara cannot well be determined—since they expand or contract according to the strength or weakness of its rulers. The cultivated parts of the country, however, are small in proportion to its extent: they lie chiefly along the banks of the rivers, and are separated by sandy plains unfit for culture, and only offering an asylum to the wandering tribes, who, to escape starvation, are continually obliged to shift their encampments. Bukhara may be generally described as a level country, with few elevations except on its eastern and southern frontiers. The mountains in the eastern part of the country are spurs of the Hindu-Koh, and are supposed by Burnes to attain the height of at least 18,000 feet. Those on the southern frontier seem to belong to the Paropamisan range. The principal rivers of Bukhara are the Amu or Oxus, the Zer-afshan, and the Kurshee. The Amu takes its rise, according to Lieut. Wood (an account of whose expedition to its source will be found in the Royal Geographical Society's Journal for 1840), from a crescent-shaped lake in Lat. 37° 30' N. and Long. 73° 50' E. This lake is 14 miles in length, with an average breadth of one mile, and is 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The Amu flows from S.E. to N.W., and varies in width from 300 to upwards of 800 yards. The second river of the khanat is the Zer-afshan, which, though inferior to the Amu in the volume of its waters, is superior to it in the populousness and cultivation of its banks. It rises in the high lands east of Samarcan, and, passing north of that city and of Bukhara, forms a lake in the province of Karakool. This lake is about 25 miles in length, and surrounded on all sides by sand-hills. The Kurshee rises in the same high lands as the Zer-afshan, and passes through Shulur-Sulz and Kurshee, below which it is lost in the desert.

North of the Oxus, and from the base of the mountains of Bukhara, there is a succession of low, rounded ridges of limestone, oolite, and gravel, thinly overgrown with verdure, alternating with vast and hardened plains of argillaceous clay. There are no gold mines in Bukhara, but that metal is found among the sands of the Oxus in greater abundance, perhaps, than in any of the other rivers which flow from the Hindu-Koh. Sal-ammoniac is found among the hills near Juzzak, and salt is very plentiful. In the mountains to the east, near Sarvali, are copious mines of fine coal and copper ore. The climate of Bukhara, at least in the cultivated parts, is salubrious and pleasant. In summer the thermometer seldom rises above 90°, and the nights are always cool. The frosts commence about the end of November, and continue till towards the end of April. The Amu is generally frozen over for some weeks in winter so as to be passable for caravans. In the desert the heat in summer exceeds 100° Fahr. Thunder-storms and earthquakes are not unfrequent, especially in the spring; and there are sometimes violent tornadoes, generally blowing from the N.W.

The population of Bukhara is composed of Tadjiks, Arabs, Uzbeks, Turkomans, Persians, Jews, &c. The population may be estimated at 2,000,000. Meyendorff estimates it at 2,478,000; Khanikoff at from 2,000,000 to 2,500,000; Burnes at less than 1,000,000; and Wolff at 1,200,000. The Tadjiks are the aborigines of the country, and are said to have come from the west, and settled on the banks of the Zer-afshan at a time when the country was uninhabited, and a jungle of reeds covered the place where the town of Bukhara now stands. Except in the town of Bukhara, where they constitute the majority of the population, there are few Tadjiks now in the khanat. They are mostly engaged in commerce, are peaceful or even cowardly in their disposition, and characterized by avarice, faithlessness, and deceit. They are usually tall, with handsome and regular features, fair complexion, and black eyes and hair. The number of Arabs, though inconsiderable, exceeds that of the Tadjiks. They were the first intruders upon the aborigines, having conquered the country about the beginning of the eighth century, and compelled the inhabitants to adopt the Mohammedan faith. They inhabit the northern part of the khanat, and like their ancestors still continue to lead a wandering life, their chief occupation being the tending of their flocks. Their moral qualities seem to be of a higher character than those of the Tadjiks. The Uzbeks, the last people that conquered this country, are the most numerous, and are at present the dominant race in the khanat. They are divided into a number of tribes, of which the principal is that of Manghit. To it the reigning dynasty belongs. Some of the Uzbeks are nomadic in their habits, others are engaged in agriculture, or live in towns. They are more bold and straightforward in their manners than the Tadjiks, but, like them, avaricious and deceitful. There are a considerable number of Persians in Bukhara, most of whom have been brought captive from their native country. They are readily distinguished by the regularity of their features, and their bushy black hair. Although outwardly conforming to the faith and manners of the country, they cordially hate the Bukharians, and are ready to hail with joy any political revolution which might shake the power of the Uzbeks. The Jews, though long established in the country, form but a very inconsiderable part of its inhabitants. They are chiefly to be found in Bukhara, Samarcan, and some of the larger towns, where they have separate quarters assigned to them. Their privileges are very restricted. The Turkoman part of the population is wholly nomadic, and is chiefly to be found in the region south of the Oxus. The orchards in the neighbourhood of the larger towns are numerous, and highly cultivated. They produce grapes, figs, peaches, pomegranates, apricots, prunes, apples, pears, quinces, cherries, and almonds. The cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and lucerne, is extensively carried on, as is also that of the mulberry, beet, cabbage, carrots, radishes, onions, cucumbers, peas, beans, lentils, melons, and pumpkins. The soil being of a saline nature, requires to be cultivated with some care, so that it is found to be much more profitably laid out in gardens than in fields; indeed, the returns from the former exceed by seven-fold the returns from the same quantity of the latter. Wheat, rice, barley, millet, and jowarce (Holcus saccharatus), are the principal kinds of grain grown here. This last is one of the most useful productions of the khanat, and as it is cheap and nutritious, it forms the chief subsistence of the poor.

The horses of Bukhara are numerous, but are more remarkable for strength and bottom than for symmetry or beauty. Asses are also very plentiful, and are large and sturdy. They are not only used for riding by the less wealthy, but also as beasts of burden. The camels, by means of which the entire traffic of Bukhara is carried on, are reared chiefly by the wandering tribes, particularly the Turkomans. They have a sleek coat as fine as that of a horse, and shed their hair in summer, from which a fine waterproof cloth of close and rather heavy texture is manufactured. The goats are about the common size, of a dark colour, and yield a shawl wool inferior only to that of Cashmere. The bulls and cows are miserably small, and in a very wretched condition. The rearing of sheep is much attended to, particularly by the Arabs. There is a peculiar breed, producing a jet-black curly fleece in much repute, and which is said to thrive only in the district of Karapal. The wild animals are few. Tigers of a diminutive species are found in the valley of the Oxus; wild hogs, herds of deer, antelope, and the wild ass, roam on the plains; and foxes, wolves, jackals, owls, and occasionally tigers, are found in some parts. The scorpion is common, but its sting is seldom very virulent. All kinds of game are scarce. The most valuable insect is the silkworm, which is reared in all parts of the khanat where Bukhara there is water; every stream or rivulet being lined with the mulberry.

Bukhara owes its importance to its central position. Lying on the route between Europe and the richest part of Asia, it is the seat of a considerable trade. The government has established custom-houses, built caravanserais, and constructed cisterns along such caravan roads as are insufficiently supplied with water, but otherwise does nothing to encourage traffic; and the roads are, generally speaking, in a wretched condition. There are no privileges in favour of the merchants of one nation to the prejudice of those of another, except that Mussulmans pay only $2\frac{1}{2}$ per cent., while all others pay 5 per cent. on the goods they import. Bukhara carries on an extensive trade with Russia by means of caravans, which travel by the following routes, viz., by the route of Khiva to the shores of and across the Caspian from and to Astrakhan; by the route to and from Orenburg by land in 60 days, through Orghenje in Khiva; and to and from Troitska in Tobolsk; by the route east of the sea of Aral in 49 days; and to and from Petropavlovsk in 90 days. From 5000 to 6000 camels are annually employed in this trade. Bukhara exports to Russia, besides cotton, which is the principal item, dried fruits, rice, raw and dyed silks, indigo, silk sashes, turquoises, shawls, and furs. It imports muslins, calicoes, chintzes, some silk stuffs, broad-cloth, brocades, hides, iron and other metals. The trade with Khiva employs only from 1000 to 1500 camels, and consists chiefly in exporting to Bukhara Russian goods, of which there is always an available surplus in the markets of Khiva. Three, and occasionally four caravans arrive annually from Meshid, in Persia, bringing cotton and silk stuffs, calicoes, chintzes, muslins, carpets, shawls, and turquoises; and receiving in return lamb-skins, cotton, rice, &c. From Herat and Cashmere it imports a considerable quantity of shawls; and Indian produce and English manufactures from Cabul. A brisk traffic is also carried on with Khoiland, Tashkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand. The greater part of the goods brought into Bukhara are not consumed there, but are immediately exported to other countries. The central points of commerce are Bukhara, Samarcan, and Kurshee; and trade is principally conducted at the marts and fairs that are held in various parts of the country. Almost the only manufactures carried on in Bukhara are those of cotton goods, silks, leather, hardware, and jewellery. There is but one manufactory of cast-iron articles.

Bukhara has for ages been reckoned the centre of Muslim erudition; and if we look at the number of its schools and the state of education among its people, we cannot but admit, that in that respect it ranks first among the states of Central Asia. About one-fourth of the population is said to be able to read and write. The primary schools are numerous in the capital, as well as in the other cities, and even villages. In Bukhara there is one in almost every street. They are founded either by private donations, or by the joint contributions of the inhabitants of the street by order of the emir. The course in these schools extends over about seven years. Those wishing to continue their studies then enter the medressehs or seminaries, in which they pursue a higher course of studies under one or two professors who have acquired the right to give lectures. Each establishment has a fixed number of students, according to the extent of the building. Fifteen, or even twenty years, are reckoned insufficient to go through a complete course in these institutions. They are principally exercised in subtle disputations upon theological subjects, which only tend to strengthen fanaticism and religious bigotry. Burnes says, "The students are entirely occupied with theology, which has superseded all other points; they are quite ignorant even of the historical annals of their country. A more perfect set of drones were never assembled together; and they are a body of men regardless of their religion in most respects beyond the performance of its prayers; but they have great pretensions and greater show." Each student purchases the right to inhabit the medresseh from him whose place he takes, and receives a fixed annual allowance during his attendance. The number of medressehs is estimated by Khanikoff at not more than from 180 to 200, the elementary schools at ten times that number, and the number attending these institutions at between 150,000 and 160,000, or about one-sixteenth of the entire population.

The people are very superstitious, believing in witchcraft, omens, spirits, the evil eye, &c.

The government is a hereditary despotism, the khan having the power of life and death over his subjects. The civil administration is in the hands of the clergy, and is founded on the Koran and the commentaries upon it. "When we place the vices of Bukhara in juxtaposition with its laws and justice, we have still much to condemn; but the people are happy, the country is flourishing, trade prospers, and property is protected." "There is no place in the whole of Asia where such universal protection is extended to all classes." So says Burnes; but it is impossible to peruse the accounts of other travellers without arriving at an opposite conclusion. Burnes himself narrates that the present khan paved his way to power by the murder of four of his own brothers. He afterwards murdered his vizier Kooshbeghi, with most of his relatives, though it was chiefly through their means that he had secured the throne. He also put to death the two English travellers Stoddart and Conolly, and evidently intended that Dr Wolff should share the like fate. These and numerous other cruelties show him to be a tyrant and a despot of the worst kind; and Meyendorff says that the principles of government are hypocrisy and extortion. The troops of the khan are estimated at about 40,000 men, but of these not more than one-third are completely armed. The languages in use are the Persian and Turkoman; the latter is spoken by the Uzbeks, and the wandering tribes south of the Oxus.

Bukhara was known to the ancients under the name of Sogdiana; and was too far removed to the east ever to be brought under the wide-spreading dominion of Rome. But it has shared deeply in all the various and bloody revolutions of Asia. It is mentioned by the earliest historical writers of Persia; and, about the year 856, Yacoob-bin-Leis is said to have been invested with the government of that province by the caliph. About twenty years later, it was conquered by Ismael, the first sovereign of the Sassanian dynasty, whose successors held it until the renowned Malek Shah, third of the Seljuk dynasty of Persia, passed the Oxus about the end of the eleventh century, and subdued the whole country watered by that river and the Jaxartes. In the year of the Hijra 594, A.D. 1216, Bukhara was again subdued by the celebrated Mahomed Shah Khanarme, who enjoyed his conquest but a short time ere it was wrested from him by the irresistible power of Ghenghis Khan in A.D. 1220. The country was wasted by the fury of this savage conqueror; but recovered some share of its former prosperity under Octai Khan, his son, whose disposition was humane and benevolent. His posterity retained the dominion of this country until about the year 1400, when Tamerlane with his mighty host bore down everything before him, and spread far and wide the terror of his arms. His descendants ruled in the country until about the year 1500, when it was overrun by the Usheek Tartars, in whose possession it still remains.

or Bokhara, the capital of the khanat of the same name, is situated at the distance of 6 or 7 miles from the left bank of the Zer-asfahan in Lat.39.48. N. Long.64.26.E. It is 8 miles in circumference, of a triangular shape, and surrounded by a wall of earth about 20 feet high, which is pierced by 11 gates. It lies embosomed among gardens and trees, and few great buildings are to be seen from the