the name assumed by a line of bishops, who at various times have occupied the pontifical throne. The first of the name was made Pope of Rome in 482, and died in 517. The second, succeeding Honorius II., in 1130, died in 1143. The third ascended the chair of St Peter in 1198, and died in 1216. The fourth reigned from 1243 to 1254; and the pontificate of the fifth only extended over five months of the year 1276. The sixth was the only one of the name who was not a native Italian; he was a Frenchman, and succeeded Clement VI., in 1352, and died in 1362. The seventh reigned from 1403 to 1406; and the eighth from 1485 to 1491; while the ninth, elected in 1591, only enjoyed his elevation for two months. The tenth succeeded Urban VIII., in 1644, and reigned for eleven years. The eleventh became pope in 1676, and died in 1689. The twelfth reigned from 1691 to 1700; and the thirteenth, the last of the name, from 1721 to 1724.

By far the most remarkable of the popes who have reigned under this name, and, after his model Hildebrand, perhaps the greatest of all the successors of St Peter, was Innocent III. At the time of his elevation he bore the name of Cardinal Lotharius. He was the son of Thrasimund, Count of Segni, of the famous house of Conti, and of Claricia, a scion of the old and noble family of the Scotti. He is believed to have been born at Rome about the year 1161, and to have been educated at the celebrated school of St John of the Lateran. From Rome he removed to Paris, at that time the first theological school in the world, and distinguished himself there by the zeal and intensity with which he pursued his studies. He next set himself to master the science of law, especially the canon law, at the University of Bologna, and soon became as eminent in it as he had been in theology at Paris. In 1181 he returned to Rome, and, after rapidly passing through the lower grades of church office, was made a cardinal-deacon by his uncle, Clement III. He now began to take a leading part in the administration of church affairs; but on the death of his uncle he withdrew himself from the world, and in his retirement composed his celebrated treatise De Contemptu Mundi, sive de Misericordia Humanae conditionis. This work is really what its title imports; but, while it exhibits a deep knowledge of human nature, a thorough contempt for the ordinary motives of human action, it shows also a spirit that would have but little tolerance for the weaknesses of man if these interfered either with the claims of duty or the schemes of ambition.

The death of Celestine III., on the 8th January 1198, recalled him from his retreat. On the very day that that pontiff died, the College of Cardinals, without a dissenting voice, elected him to the vacant throne. It was in vain that he wept and protested his unworthiness and his youth. Whether his tears were sincere, or merely masked a hypo-

critical humility, he was at length persuaded to accept the tiara. He was then only thirty-seven years of age, and, though he was connected with some of the leading families of Rome, he owed his rise solely to the force of his character and his reputation for the most austere virtue. Once firmly seated on his throne, he began to carry out the great design that till his latest day was dearest to his heart, of restoring to the papacy its supremacy over all the powers and principalities, both temporal and spiritual, of the world. His boundless ambition, his wide views, his boldness guided and tempered by craft, and his unity of purpose, all pointed him out as the man of that age who alone could, if indeed any one could, carry out that great design, and recall the splendid age of the seventh Gregory. A less considerable man certainly than Hildebrand, Innocent yet succeeded for a time in doing what it had cost his great prototype his throne, and almost his life, to attempt. The first care of Innocent was to re-establish the papal authority in Rome itself. The prefect of that city had for many years past been a nominee of the Emperor of Germany. Innocent now compelled him to accept office from his hands, and to swear allegiance to himself. He next abolished the consulate, and made the senate immediately dependent upon himself, and thus rid his capital of even the shadow of the imperial authority. It is not likely that, under ordinary circumstances, he would have had it in his power to effect these changes without a struggle; but the actual condition of the empire at this moment was such as to favour his designs. The emperor, Henry VI., had just died; and, though shortly before his death he had caused his infant son to be crowned, two rivals came forward to dispute the claims of the child monarch. These were—Philip of Swabia, his uncle; and Otto, duke of Brunswick. Innocent at first favoured the claims of this latter, who, at his coronation in 1209, swore that he would renounce in favour of the pope all claim to the disputed succession of Matilda, constituting by far the most valuable part of what is now known as the patrimony of St Peter. The new emperor, however,—whose rival, Philip, had been murdered by the Count Palatine of Bavaria,—not only failed to observe his oath, but attached Apulia and Sicily, which he claimed as fiefs of the empire. Innocent immediately excommunicated and deposed him, and crowned in his room the young Frederic of Sicily, son of the late emperor Henry VI. The electors were soon persuaded to approve his choice, and the young prince, after a desperate resistance, was enabled to make good his claim. While thus asserting the rights of the church abroad, Innocent was doing his best to improve its internal organization. His first step in this direction was to put an end to the venality of the Roman court, at that time a living scandal throughout Christendom. For this purpose he often held the consistory, a usage which had long fallen into abeyance. He kept his ear open to all complaints, caused justice to be impartially administered, and himself pronounced sentence on the most important cases. On these occasions he displayed so deep a knowledge of law, and so excellent a judgment, that the ablest lawyers came to hear his decisions; and these decisions were afterwards often quoted by the civil tribunals. Again he showed his ecclesiastical zeal by rekindling throughout Europe the old crusading fire. He caused a crusade to be preached in the principal states. The first act of the expedition was to besiege and storm the Hungarian city of Zara, which was done contrary to the views and without the sanction of the pope. His ire was only appeased when he heard that Constantinople had been taken and pillaged, and the Empire of the East for a time overthrown. Innocent owed an old grudge to the Byzantines. At the outset of his reign he had written to the Patriarch of Byzantium to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, which that dignitary, backed by the civil power, had refused to do, and Innocent had too much work on hand to enforce his claim at that time. He was now avenged, and his wrath against the misguided zeal of the Crusaders was completely appeased. He was no less careful for the interests of morality. Himself a man of austere virtue, he saw with anger and disgust the laxity of morals that then prevailed in most of the European courts. The most conspicuous and powerful sinner who drew down his vengeance on this account was Philip Augustus of France. This prince had repudiated his wife, Ingelburge of Denmark, and had married Agnès de Méranie. Innocent excommunicated him, and put his kingdom under an interdict. The ban was not raised for eight months, at the end of which time the French king felt constrained to propitiate the pontiff's wrath by taking back his first wife, and dismissing her substitute, who soon after died of grief. A similar event occurred in Spain. The King of Leon had married his cousin, a daughter of the King of Portugal. Innocent excommunicated him, but he continued obdurate, and the pope laid both Leon and Portugal under a ban. Still more formidable was Innocent's quarrel with King John of England; which, after much violent recrimination on both sides, resulted in the complete humiliation of that monarch. (The details of this unhappy affair are given in full under the head ENGLAND.) But, of all the sins against which Innocent set his face with the most uncompromising severity, heresy was in his eyes the greatest, and its extirpation was with him a matter at once of duty and of policy. To these motives must be attributed the rigour, not to say cruelty, with which he persecuted the Albigenses, the only people who in that age were found bold enough to think for themselves in matters of religion. (See ALBIGENSES.) Though the measures which Innocent devised against this people were in the end successful, he did not live to see their final triumph in his own day. A violent fever, which terminated in paralysis, carried him off, July 16, 1216. Innocent's works were collected and published at Cologne in 1552 and 1575, and at Venice in 1578. His formal treatises consist of Discourses, Homilies, and a Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms. Far more important than these are his Letters and Decretals, of which the best edition is that of Baluze, Paris, 1682. This edition contains an excellent life of Innocent by an anonymous biographer.

INNSBRÜCK, or INNSBRÜCK, a city of Austria, capital of the Tyrol, on the River Inn, 84 miles N.N.E. of Trient. In beauty of situation it is surpassed by few cities in Europe. It stands in the middle of the valley of the Inn, at the height of 1884 feet above the sea, and is hemmed in on both sides by mountains from 6000 to 8000 feet high. The name, Innsbruck (Inn's Bridge), is derived from a wooden bridge which crosses the river. During the War of Independence in 1809 this bridge was the centre of a bloody action, in which the peasants, under Hofer, completely routed the French. Innsbruck consists of an old and a new town, and of several suburbs. The houses are mostly in the Italian style, with flat roofs, and frequently ornamented with frescoes. Many of them have arcades below, occupied with shops. Among the public buildings the most interesting is the Franciscan church, which, among other fine works of art, contains the tomb of the emperor Maximilian I., one of the most splendid monuments of the kind in Europe. It is ornamented with twenty-four bas-reliefs, representing the principal actions of his life, and surrounded by twenty-eight colossal bronze statues of distinguished men, including the most distinguished members of the House of Austria. It contains also the mausoleum of the Archduke Charles of the Tyrol and his wife, and the grave of Hofer, surmounted by a marble statue of the hero. The palace built for Maria Theresa in 1770 is an extensive building, with gardens along the Inn, forming an agreeable promenade. Projecting in front of the Fürstenburg, the former residence of the counts of Tyrol, is the "Golden Roof," a kind of oriel window, covered with a roof of gilt copper. The university has faculties of law, medicine, and philosophy, and had, in 1853-4, 22 professors, with 278 students. Instruction is entirely gratuitous, and there are exhibitions for students to the amount of L.1200 annually. The Ferdinandeum museum is devoted to the productions of the Tyrol, in art, literature, and natural history. The chief manufactures are silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs, leather, gloves, glass, and cutlery. Innsbruck has also an important transit trade. Pop. 15,000.