Under this head is ranged a group of organic compounds of great interest, both on account of their great economic value, and from the fact that they occur abundantly both in animals and plants. They consist chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, but more or less of oxygen is generally associated with them, and causes considerable variation in their qualities. They are either solid or liquid, and in the former condition are more frequently termed fats. These fats are more abundant in the animal than in the vegetable kingdom. Oils, whether liquid or solid, usually consist of three other substances, two of which, stearine (or soap-suet), and margarine (adipose, or pearl), are solid; and the other, elaine or oleine, is liquid at ordinary temperatures. They are all from 6° to 9° lighter than water, and their liquid or solid condition depends upon the proportion in which their component parts are mixed. Thus, in the fats the oleine exists in small quantity, and in the liquid oils it is the chief constituent. A certain degree of heat is necessary to the mixture, for at low temperatures there is a tendency to separation: the stearine and margarine are precipitated and solidified, and, if pressed, can be entirely freed from the oleine. Both oils and fats, when boiled with water and alkali, undergo the peculiar process of saponification, or, in other words, solidify, and become converted into soap; during this process a liquid of a sweet taste, called glycerine, is given off. (See GLYCERINE.) Glycerine exists in oil and fats as a base to which stearic, margaric, and oleic acids are united, forming stearine, margarine, and oleine.

The principal uses to which oils and fats are applied are soap-making, illumination by candles or oil, lubricating machinery, and dressing cloth. They are easily separated by moderate pressure from the animal or vegetable tissues which contain them, but are not usually pure until they are rendered so by clarifying.

Of the animal oils, those are chiefly solid which are fixed and yielded by the mammals and birds; whilst those derived volatilise from reptiles and fishes are for the most part liquid at the ordinary temperature. The true oils and fats are unchanged when heated even to a temperature above 400°; but there is another group of compound substances, termed essential oils, yielded by the vegetable kingdom, which are volatile at ordinary temperatures; hence the term fixed oils is often applied to the former, and volatile oils to the latter. The volatility of the essential oils renders distillation a readily means of procuring many of them. They resemble the fixed oils in many respects, but differ materially in others; for instance, they do not undergo saponification when treated with alkalies; like them, however, they often separate at low temperatures into solid and liquid portions,—the former called steaopten, the latter elaopten. They are very slightly soluble in water, and they differ materially in the sensation they produce on the skin. Instead of the smooth soft feel of the true oils, they are harsh and rough to the touch. The essential oils are mostly pure hydro-carbons, but many are capable of absorbing oxygen when exposed to the air, which darkens their colour, and renders them resinous in appearance, a result which may be seen generally around the mouths of bottles in which they are kept. Some are obtained already oxidized, and some are found to contain sulphur; hence they have been classified as pure hydro-carbons, when free from oxygen; oxidized essences, when obtained in combination with oxygen; and sulphuretted essences, when combined with sulphur. The combinations which the essential oils enter into render them peculiarly interesting to the student in organic chemistry. They appear to be the cause of all the more remarkable odours and flavours which characterize plants; and as they can generally be separated easily, they are very valuable in an economic point of view, affording us the means of concentrating and retaining the perfumes of the most evanescent flowers, and in the same way of preserving the most pungent and delicate flavours.

Essential oils are in some instances procured by simple pressure, as those from the rind of the orange tribe; others are distilled with water, and float upon the condensed water in the receiver. Some, however, are so easily destroyed by these processes, that they can only be obtained by the power which the fixed oils have of absorbing them. Thus essence of jasmine is obtained by placing layers of the freshly-gathered flowers between layers of cotton-wool saturated with the fixed oil of almonds or of poppy seed, both of which are themselves odourless. They, however, soon absorb the essential oil naturally emitted from the flowers, and become highly perfumed. Fresh layers of flowers are supplied until the fixed oil is saturated, when it is pressed out from the cotton-wool.

Besides the fixed oils and fats, and the essential oils, there is a mineral product called rock oil; it is not, however, properly speaking, an oil, but is a variety of petroleum, which exists abundantly in some bituminous shales. Works have been established in Dorsetshire and other parts of the kingdom for obtaining this material, but without much success. Large quantities are, however, brought from Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, chiefly to Liverpool, where nearly 700 tons weight were imported in 1857. Works exist at St Helen's, near Liverpool, and other places, where from this material, which is of a dark greenish-brown colour, and nearly the consistency of butter, a light amber-coloured oil-like liquid is obtained, said to be very useful as a lubricant for machinery. A considerable proportion of paraffine is obtained from it, and it yields a very volatile naphtene.

In enumerating the oils, those produced from the animal kingdom will be first mentioned, and in the order of zoological classification; then the fixed vegetable oils; and finally the three classes of essential oils. Of the twelve orders into which naturalists divide the mammalia, only four comprise animals which yield oils of economic value. These orders are Carnivora, Cetacea, Ruminantia, and Pachydermata.

Of the carnivorous animals yielding oleaginous products, we have first the bear. The black bear (Ursus Americanus, Gmelin), a native of North America, yields an abundance of grease or soft fat; which is collected by the hunters who pursue the animal for its skin and hams, and is occasionally imported into this country, not, as some may suppose, to be used by the hairdressers and perfumers for pomades, but for the more useful manufacture of candles, &c. But the principal oil-producing carnivora are the seals, several species of which are killed on purpose. The quantity of seal oil imported is very great. Most of it comes from Newfoundland. The species which chiefly yield it are Callocephalus Groenlandicus, Callocephalus rituinus, Phoca barbata, and Arctocephalus Fulvifrons.

The part which yields the oil in these animals is the blubber, a peculiar layer of oil-cells which lies immediately under the skin of the animal, and in fact constitutes a portion of the skin itself. Seal oil is liquid, and, when pure, of a pale straw-colour. The first drawings from the blubber give the purest oil, which is obtained without pressure; but the succeeding drawings from the blubber-cask are more or less deeply coloured brown by the decomposition of the oil-cells.

The Cetacea are remarkable for the extent of this peculiar skin-development called blubber, which in some species is one or two feet in thickness. This is not, however, the only source of the whale oil; for in the great-headed cachalot or sperm-whale (Cetodon macrocephalus, Cuv.), the gigantic head, which nearly equals the body in bulk, has an enormous receptacle on the upper part of the skull, from which oil is obtained. This receptacle consists of a dense bag divided into numerous large cells or compartments, in which the oil exists in a semi-fluid state, owing to the large quantity of stearine or spermaceti which it contains, and which can easily be separated from it by simple draining or slight pressure. The quantity of oil yielded by some of the larger whales, especially the cachalots, is enormous, but is often erroneously stated, owing to a misunderstanding of the fact that quantity in liquid oils is calculated by the ton measure, and not by the ton weight, as with solid oils or fats. A cachalot commonly yields 20 tons, or 5040 gallons; and single whales have been known to yield 30 tons (7680 gallons). The following oils derived from the whale tribe are known in commerce—Sperm Oil, and its stearine, Spermaceti, from the cachalot; Trinita or Common Whale Oil, from the Right Whale (Balaena mysticetus) and other species; Put-head Oil, from both Globicephalus deductor and Globicephalus Sinuatus; and Porpoise Oil, from Phocaena communis. These oils are usually imported as train or sperm oils; but the brokers are well skilled in distinguishing them.

Of the ruminating animals, we have only two species which yield oleaginous products; but they are unequalled in value by any others. They are the ox (Bos taurus, Linn.), and the sheep (Ovis ammon, Linn.). The fat of both these animals melted down constitutes the tallow of commerce. They are so generally mixed together that there is no possibility of ascertaining the exact amount yielded by each. We receive our largest supply from Russia; but we import considerable quantities from Denmark, Prussia, the Hanse Towns, Holland, Turkey, South America (particularly Buenos Ayres and Monte Video), the Cape of Good Hope, the East Indies, Australia, &c. That imported from the ports of Monte Video and Buenos Ayres is chiefly, if not altogether, ox tallow; whilst that from Australia is principally from the sheep. Besides the enormous quantity imported, we have to take into consideration that which is produced in Great Britain, which has been computed to be equal to the amount imported.

From the bones of the feet of oxen a valuable oil is obtained. It contains comparatively little of the harder portion (stearine), and is in a fit state to be used for machinery. It is procured by boiling the bones, and skimming off the fatty oil as it rises to the surface of the water. It is called neat's-foot oil; and from the fact that it remains liquid at a temperature below 32°, and is not liable to rancidity, it is peculiarly well adapted for turret clocks and other machinery much exposed to cold. The supply from such a source is necessarily limited.

Of the Pachydermata only two yield oily products of any commercial importance. The first of these in point of value is the common hog (Sus scrofa, Linn.), the fat of which, under the name of lard, is very extensively used. Considerable quantities are consumed in articles of food. Most of the ointments of the pharmacist have lard for their base; and when too rancid for these purposes, it is used for greasing machinery, especially the axles of railway carriages. In the United States the production of lard is immense; and its stearine, which is easily separable from the lard, is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. The liquid stearine, under the name of lard oil, is used for the finer parts of machinery, and for that purpose is extensively imported into this country from Europe and America. The fat of the horse does not, when melted, possess the same firm consistency as that of the ox, sheep, and swine. The proportion of stearine in it being comparatively small, it is only within the last eight years that it has attracted any attention; but now it constitutes an important article of trade with Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, whence it is imported under the names of horse or mare's grease. The latter name is, however, more generally applied. From its liquidity, it is extremely penetrating; hence the ordinary packages for grease and tallow were found to be insufficient, as the casks were frequently half empty on their arrival. This checked its introduction for some time; but it is now put into square boxes lined with tin, and arrives without loss. It is found to answer very well as a lubricant for machinery.

From the classes comprising the birds and the reptiles (Aves and Reptilia) neither oils nor fats of any importance are obtained, although the domesticated birds sometimes produce it in abundance. That of the goose, under the name of goose-grease, is occasionally heard of as a useful domestic remedy for various ailments.

The class of fishes (Pisces) is a considerable source of oil, always of a clear liquid quality. It is nearly all yielded by one species, the common cod-fish (Gadus Morhua, Linn.). The Cod Oil, and the Cod-liver Oil of commerce, are both obtained from the liver of the fish; the latter, which is now so extensively used medicinally, being only prepared with a little more care. Its principal value as a remedial agent appears to depend upon its nutritive qualities, and the digestive powers of a portion of pepsin, or biliary matter, which is always present, and which may be detected by the application of a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, when, if the oil be really cod-liver oil, a beautiful purple colour will be immediately produced. The number of cod-fish captured is incalculable. The cod-fishers, in opening the fishes to salt and dry them, carefully preserve the livers, for which an extra boat is usually in at- tendance; these are taken on shore, and piled up in immense masses exposed to the sun. The heat soon makes the oil run from the livers in considerable abundance, and for a short time it is very clear, and of a light straw colour,—this is the first quality, and is kept by itself. As the livers begin to decompose, however, they give a darker colour to the oil, and several qualities are obtained, the last of which is thick, turbid, and extremely offensive to the smell, and is known under the name of cod-pitchings. A small quantity of oil made from the common herring (Clupea harengus, Linn.) is imported from time to time from North America; but its strong and unpleasant odour prevents it from being much used.

The vegetable sources of oils are very numerous, and some are of great importance.

**Fixed Vegetable Oils.**—Of these the most important is Olive Oil, procured from the ripe fruit of the olive (Olea Europaea, Linn.), which is cultivated for this purpose through all the countries of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Its native country is Asia. On Lebanon and the Mount of Olives, and in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, the olive tree still grows wild. Its general diffusion through the countries suitable to its growth is no doubt attributable to the Romans, although the Carthaginians and others had previously procured and cultivated it. Pliny says (book xv., Bohn's edition), "Fenestella tells us that in the year of Rome 173, being the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, it did not exist in Italy, Spain, or Africa; whereas at the present day it has crossed the Alps even, and has been introduced into the provinces of Gaul and the middle of Spain. In the year of Rome 505, Appius Claudius, grandson of Appius Claudius Caecus, and L. Junius, being consuls, 12 pounds of oil sold for an as; and at a later period, in the year 680, M. Seius, son of Lucius the curule edile, regulated the price of oil at Rome, at the rate of 10 pounds for the as, for the whole year. A person will be the less surprised at this, when he learns that twenty-two years after, in the third consulship of Cn. Pompeius, Italy was able to export oil to the provinces." Its value has never decreased; and, next to corn, olive oil is still perhaps the greatest necessity of the nations of Southern Europe. It has been described as the cream and butter of Spain and Italy; and the quantity consumed in those countries as food, entering into their cookery in every imaginable way, is immense. There are several varieties in cultivation, which vary much in quality. That which yields the sweet Italian and French salad oils is the var. s. longiflora, Aiton. Its fruit, when pickled unripe, is also most highly prized. The inferior oils of Spain are made from the large olive, var. s. latiflora, Aiton. In Italy and France the oil is obtained by crushing the fruit in mills,—the grinding stones of which are so set that they will thoroughly crush the pulpy part of the fruit without breaking the stone or kernel in the centre. The fruit, which is gathered for the purpose when very ripe, is not unlike a small damson in shape and colour, and the stone in the centre is very hard. After crushing in the mill, the pulp is put in bags made of rushes and slightly pressed, when the fine or virgin oil flows out abundantly. Afterwards the cake or marc is again broken up, mixed with water, and returned to the press, and an oil of an inferior quality is obtained. The cake or marc is once more broken up and mixed with water, after which it is placed in vats to ferment, and then again pressed. The result is an oil of a very inferior sort, only useful to the soap-makers. The oil of the olive is liquid at the ordinary temperature, but becomes solid a few degrees below 32°. In Spain the process is less carefully conducted. Instead of being gathered by hand, the olives are beaten from the trees, and are consequently much mixed—ripe, unripe, and decayed. They are left in large heaps on the ground to ferment, which partly breaks up the oil cells; they are then ground and pressed, and yield a very inferior oil. The finest virgin oil for table use is imported from Leghorn and from France. The common oil is chiefly used in England for dressing woollen cloths, for which purpose vast quantities are required in Yorkshire, the west of England, and other cloth districts. On the Continent it is also employed in making soap. In 1856 the imports were as follows:—From France, 358 tons; Portugal, 3175 tons; Spain, 2,301 tons; Sardinia, 907 tons; Tuscany, 1,973 tons; Two Sicilies, 6,093 tons; Turkey, 491 tons; Morocco, 2579 tons; Malta, 360 tons; Ionian Islands, 2900 tons; other parts, 278 tons; in all, 21,415 tons, or 5,395,580 gallons, valued at L1,124,755.

**Palm Oil** is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis Guineensis, Linn.), a native of Western Africa, by crushing the thin fleshy covering which surrounds the hard stone or seed, and by pouring boiling water upon the pulp, upon which the oil floats and is skimmed off. In this process, however, much of the colouring matter of the drupe, which is a fine orange-yellow, is retained, which, besides its colour, imparts to the oil a sweet violet-odour. Palm oil, when imported, is of the consistence of butter. Vessels arrive entirely laden with it. It is put in casks of various sizes, but usually very large, and made to suit the stowage of the vessels. Spirits, tobacco, cutlery, cloths, beads, cowries, arms, gunpowder, and other articles, are given in barter to the natives in exchange for the oil. This trade has now obtained an immense importance, owing to the valuable discoveries by which the oil can be deprived of its colour, and a solid part, called palmitic acid, converted into candles of a very superior quality. The addition of sulphuric acid entirely carbonizes the yellow vegetable colouring matter. It is then submitted to the action of steam, at a temperature of 612°, in a still of peculiar construction, which carries over the particles of oil with the steam, leaving behind the charcoal or carbonized vegetable matter. Previous to the distillation, however, lime is added to neutralize the acid, and that also remains behind. The matter which comes over runs from the still as a clear colourless oil, which upon cooling, has the colour and consistence of lard in cold weather. This is cast into square cakes about 14 inch in thickness, and 18 inches square. The cakes are placed between mats made of coir, or cocoa-nut fibre, and submitted to the action of powerful hydraulic presses, which force out the elais, a liquid about the colour and consistence of linseed oil. The mats are then taken from the press, and the cakes, which are now much harder, are represented and made into candles. Nothing can give a better idea of the extent to which this manufacture is carried on than the fact, that Messrs Price and Co., at their works in London, and at Bromboro' Pool, Cheshire, are now making 150 tons of these candles per week, and give employment to upwards of 2000 persons. Great quantities are also consumed in the manufacture of soap. When it is remembered that each drupe will only yield about ¼th part of an ounce in weight, and that each palm only produces three or four pounds at one crop, the number of palms in the forests of Western Africa must be immense, and the industry called into action by this want of civilized man must exert a most beneficial influence over the destinies of the African races. The drupes are borne in immense clusters, each surrounded by sharp bracts, and they greatly resemble gigantic pine-apples both in shape and colour.

**Cocoa-nut Oil** is produced from the white kernel which lines the shell of the large cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera, Linn., Nat. Ord. Palmae). This kernel is ground in mills in Ceylon, where it is largely cultivated for its oil; and when ground, the mass, called copra, is submitted to considerable pressure. The oil runs at first limpid and liquid, but it afterwards becomes white and solid. It is largely used in making soap, and also in making candles; for the latter purpose the steaming only is used. The oleine, both of cocoa oil and palm oil, is used for lubricating machinery. It is nearly all obtained from Ceylon, whence it is exported chiefly to this country in large casks and iron tanks.

**Linseed Oil** is pressed from the seed of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum, Linn., Nat. Ord. Linaceae). It is not imported very largely, being chiefly manufactured in this country from home-grown or imported seed. The seed is first ground in mills, and afterwards submitted to enormous hydraulic pressure. The oil yielded is of a dark brown colour, and is one of the best drying oils. It is therefore of great value to painters, who use this oil almost exclusively in mixing their paints. Linseed is imported in very large quantities from the East Indies, Russia, Germany, Holland, America, and other places. The total quantity received in 1856 was 1,180,180 quarters, valued at L3,195,634. This does not represent the value of the oil, for the cake or marc, which remains after the oil is expressed, is of considerable value for feeding cattle.

**Seed Oil** is a name applied to the expressed oil of the physic-nut (Jatropha curcas, Linn., Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae). Within the last six years this oil has been brought into notice as a substitute for the dearer olive oil in dressing woollen fabrics. It has highly preservative properties; and the seeds imported, under the name of croton nuts, produced serious results. when first landed on the Liverpool quays; the tempting name induced many to eat their blandly flavoured white kernels, and the consequences were nearly fatal to some. The oil, too, at first produced disagreeable effects amongst the workmen, who have a habit of tasting with their fingers the various oils they use. This evil, however, soon cured itself, and the oil is now largely used. It is chiefly imported into Liverpool from Lisbon, but the Portuguese manufacturers obtain the seeds from the Cape de Verde Islands. There is no doubt that vast quantities might be obtained from the West Indies, where the plant is indigenous. It is cultivated in the East Indies, and its oil is called Bhogo. Bhiradri til. The imports have reached nearly 400 tons per annum; but owing to the indefinite name given to it, this oil is confounded with others, and the exact quantity cannot be ascertained. The importers also have some interest in suppressing information respecting its source and true character. It is a good drying oil, and would probably, if boiled, be equal to linseed oil for painters' purposes.

Sesamum or Gingelly Oil is made from the seed of Sesamum orientale, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Pedaliaceae). This seed is grown extensively all through India, where its oil is known under various names, as Tilce Oil, Manchu moover, Til ke tel, nullkari, tamool, &c. The seed is small, not much unlike the flax seed in shape; the colour usually a light drab—but there are dark-coloured varieties. The oil is bland and sweet, and useful for all purposes to which the common kinds of olive oil can be applied. In 1856, 5269 quarters of this seed were imported for expressing the oil; and of the oil itself in 1857, 42,136 gallons, or nearly 166 tons. The more or oil-cake is much relished by cattle, and is very nutritious.

Niger-seed Oil is expressed from the seeds of Verbascum sativa, H. K., or Guizotia oleifera, Cassini (Nat. Ord. Compositae), another East Indian seed, also extensively used in that country under the names of Ram til, Valatoleo Oil, Valtaloo moover, &c. The seed only is imported here. It is black and shining, resembling in shape the common sunflower seed, but is scarcely larger than a caraway seed. The oil is as sweet and liquid as that of the olive, and answers the same purposes. About 700 quarters were imported in 1857.

Sunflower-seed Oil is expressed from the seeds of the sunflower plant (Calthaum tinctorium, Nat. Ord. Compositae), also a native of India, where it is very extensively cultivated, both for its flowers and seed. The latter are of the same shape and size as those of the sunflower, but are white instead of black. They yield a large quantity of a fine clear oil, of a peculiar golden-yellow colour. It has good drying properties, and burns well, but has a peculiar and not very agreeable odour. There is good reason for believing that this oil, known in India under the name of Kossam Oil, is the celebrated Macassar oil of the Malays, and, in all probability, of our own perfumers. It has certainly a specific effect upon the growth of the hair. The oil is not often imported, but a large quantity of the seed now finds its way annually to this country; but as the official designation of "seed unenumerated" is applied to this and many others in the returns, the exact quantity cannot be ascertained. Between 300 and 400 quarters were imported in 1857 into the port of Liverpool, and probably a much larger quantity into London.

Rape Oil is expressed from the seeds of Brassica rapa, and its variety B. oleifera, De Cand. (Nat. Ord. Cruciferae), a common European weed, which is, however, largely cultivated for its seed. It yields a yellowish-brown oil in considerable abundance, valuable for burning and other purposes. Several other cruciferous plants, yielding a similar oil, are also largely imported under the same name, and are consequently confounded with it. Thus we have immense quantities of the seed of Sinapis toria, S. glauca, S. nigra, sent from India under the name of rape-seed, and the colza or colza seed (Brassica campestris, var. s oleifera, De Cand.) is imported from Holland and Germany, and finds its way into our markets under the same designation. The quantity of seed imported as rape in 1856 was as follows:—From Russia, 2556 qrs.; Denmark, 4408 qrs.; Germany, 2267 qrs.; Holland, 1850 qrs.; British East Indies, 251,890 qrs.; other parts, 1955 qrs.; or 264,920 quarters in all, in which probably not more than 8000 quarters are genuine rape-seed. Besides the seed, a considerable quantity of the oil was imported from the continent of Europe.

Groundnut Oil is yielded by the seeds of Arachis hypo-

gaea, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Leguminosae). The seeds are about the size of a small horse-bean, generally two in a pod. They are much used, when roasted, as food both in South America (its native country), and also in Africa, India, and China, in which countries it is now naturalized and grown to a great extent. The oil is thin and limpid, burns well, and is a good substitute for olive oil, both for the table and other purposes, as it is remarkably free from rancidity. It is almost pure claim, and has accordingly been recommended for watch and clock-work, and other delicate machinery. The quantity of the seeds imported in 1857 was about 2500 tons. Some small lots of the oil have also been imported, but the exact quantity cannot be ascertained. It is known in India under the name of Katchung Oil.

Castor Oil is expressed either with or without heat from the seeds of the palm-christ plant (Ricinus communis, Linn., Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae), a native of the East Indies, where it is known under many names. In Tanjore the native name of that which is obtained by putting the crushed seeds into hot water is Adives amoodum. It is used for burning in lamps. That which is expressed without heat, and is consequently known here as cold-drawn, is there called Aroandes ka tel. Only the cold-drawn is sent to this country, and it is nearly all used for medicinal purposes, in consequence of its valuable aperient qualities. It is now disseminated pretty generally through all tropical and subtropical countries. About 1200 quarters of the seed were imported in 1857, besides large quantities of the oil. Another seed is imported for the purgative oil which it yields, but the quantity is very small. It is the fruit of Croton Tiglium, Lam. (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae), also a native of India; the oil is never used except for medicinal purposes. The seeds of Jatropha curcas, before-mentioned, are often imported as croton seeds, but not more than a few bushels of the real croton seeds are annually brought to this country.

Poppy-seed Oil, obtained from the seed of the white poppy (Papaver somniferum, Linn., Nat. Ord. Papaveraceae), is most likely of Asiatic origin. It is cultivated chiefly for its narcotic juice (opium), but the value of its seed for oil purposes is rapidly increasing; and the fact that it is easily cultivated in France and other temperate parts of Europe, adds much to its interest. Thousands of acres of land in France alone are now annually covered with crops of the white poppy, grown only for its seed, which yields a sweet limpid oil, esteemed by many as preferable for most purposes to that of the olive, especially as a salad oil. The impression which long prevailed, that the seed of a plant producing so poisonous a juice as that of the poppy could not be otherwise than injurious, actually led to legislative enactments against its introduction into France in former times. But, like those in our own country against logwood, they have long since passed away, and poppy oil and logwood are now amongst the most useful of our commercial materials. In 1856, 24,121 qrs. of this seed were imported, of which no less than 24,073 qrs. were from British India. The oil has not been imported, unless in very small quantities, from France.

Almond Oil is expressed from the kernel of the common almond (Amygdalus communis, Linn.). The value of the sweet varieties for other purposes causes the small bitter almond to be generally used for expressing this oil, especially as the essential oil can afterwards be distilled from the marc. The fixed oil of almonds is chiefly manufactured in France; it is much used by perfumers, as it is very nearly odorless, and will consequently receive the most delicate perfumes. It is an expensive oil, as it requires 1 cwt. of almonds to obtain 50 lbs. of oil. It is of a light yellow colour, and contains very little stearine, only about 24 per cent. It is often adulterated with the oil of Guizotia oleifera. Besides its chief use by the perfumers, it is also, to a small extent, used in the operations of pharmacy. The imports are small, and published returns contain both the fixed and volatile oils, consequently the exact quantity of each cannot be ascertained. Most of that used in Great Britain is home manufactured.

Amongst the less known oils and vegetable fats are the Medja Oil, yielded by the seed of Medja sativa, Molina (Nat. Ord. Compositae), a native of Chili, and cultivated in Italy for the sake of its oil, which is limpid and sweet. Gold of Pleasure Oil, from the seed of Camelina sativa, Cranby (Nat. Ord. Cruciferae), a native of the continent of Europe. It does not succeed well in England, but the oil is used for many purposes. Oil on the Continent, being even employed in culinary preparations. Oil of Mexican poppy-seed (Argemone Mexicana, Linn., Nat. Ord. Papaveraceae) is a drying oil, and is used in Mexico, its native country, for polishing wood. It is also employed for various useful purposes in the East and West Indies, where it is now cultivated. Indian Almond Oil, a sweet limpid oil, is obtained from the kernels of Terminalia catappa, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Combretaceae). This tree is a native of India, and is now cultivated in the West Indies. The kernel is not very large, but closely resembles the almond in flavour. The oil has not yet been imported. Walnut Oil, expressed from the kernel of the common walnut (Juglans regia, Linn., Nat. Ord. Juglandaceae), is extensively manufactured in Circassia, where the tree is very abundant. It is used by the natives for almost every purpose to which oil is applied, but it is not exported.

The following liquid oils were exhibited in the Indian collection at the Exhibition of 1851, but no information given as to their uses or commercial value. Cheereong Oil, from the seeds of Buchanania latifolia, Roxb. (Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceae). Valisee nue, from the seeds of Guizotia abyssinica (Nat. Ord. Compositae). Poomeed Oil, expressed from the nuts of an unknown species of Calophyllum (Nat. Ord. Clusiaceae). Oomede Oil, from the nuts of Calophyllum inophyllum. Cajou-apple Oil, from the cashew-nut, Anacardium occidentale, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceae). Neem Oil, obtained from the pulp of the margosa berries, or fruit of Melia azadirachta, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Meliaceae). Kurrajong Oil, expressed from the nut of Pongamia glabra, Ventenat (Nat. Ord. Leguminosae). Its chief value is in veterinary medicine. Country Walnut Oil, from the kernels of Aterrites triloba, Forst. (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae). Country Walnut Oil, from the seeds of Bergeya Konigii, Roxb. (Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceae). Hingum or Hingota Oil, from the seeds of Balanites Egyptian, Delile (Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceae). Oil of Ben, from the seeds of Morongo pterygosperma, D. C. (Nat. Ord. Morinaceae). Momcota Grain Oil, from the grain of Dolichos biflorus, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Leguminosae).

Solid Oils, or Vegetable Tallow.—Kokum or Kokum Oil, made from the fruit of Garcinia purpurascens (Nat. Ord. Clusiaceae), is now frequently imported from India, usually in large candle-shaped rolls about eighteen inches in length, and from one to three inches in diameter. This oil has a sweet balsamic smell, and is said to be wholly used by the candle-makers for their best kind of candles.

Mushea Oil, or Bassia Butter, is made from the large seeds of Bassia latifolia and Bassia longifolia (Nat. Ord. Sapotaceae). This material, which is rather softer than butter, and of a yellow colour, is used in India for food, burning in lamps, and making soap. It was first imported into England during 1857. The quantity, however, was very small.

Chinese Vegetable Tallow, obtained from the seeds of Stillingia sibthorpi (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae), by placing them in boiling water, is white, and harder than common tallow. In China it is used for making candles, and in this country it has been employed to give firmness to softer fats, but the quantity sent is very small and uncertain.

Essential Oils or Essences.—These are all of vegetable origin, usually of a pale yellow colour; lighter than water, and nearly all liquid at the ordinary temperature. They appear to constitute the odorous and rapid principles of plants. They are slightly soluble in water, perfectly so in alcohol or ether; and they evaporate so readily that their adulteration by any of the fixed oils may be readily detected by a drop of the oil being applied to white paper. The greasy spot will entirely disappear if held before the fire, provided the essential oil be unmixed; but if a fixed oil has been added, the greasy stain will remain. They are obtained chiefly by distillation from various parts of plants, as the wood, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. Some, however, are obtained by expression and other means. The essential oils or essences, as they are frequently called, are arranged by chemists under the three following divisions:

1st. Pure Hydrocarbons, the principal of which are:—Oil of Turpentine, yielded by several trees of the Nat. Ord. Coniferae, the principal of which are Pinus teredo, Linn., Pinus palustris, H. K., and Abies excelsa, Poir. It is obtained by making holes in the base of the stem, from which a very large quantity of the fluid substance called turpentine flows and is collected in casks. This is of a light yellow colour, and of the consistency of thin honey; but soon gets hard, by the evaporation of its essential oil. Turpentine, when distilled, yields about 25 per cent. of a thin, colourless essential oil, known as spirit or oil of turpentine, which is chiefly manufactured in this country from turpentine imported from the United States; but a considerable quantity is also sent from America. Oil of Orange Peel, from the yellow part (flavolo) of the rind, is imported from Sicily, and is used in perfumery. Oil of Orange Flowers, or Oil of Neroli, from the petals of the flowers, is used in perfumery, and is imported from Italy. Oil of Orange Leaves, or Oil of Petit-grain, from the leaves and the immature fruit which falls off soon after the flowers, is used in perfumery. It is imported from Italy and France. Oil of Lemon, from the yellow portion (flavolo) of the peel of the fruit, is used largely in perfumery; and imported, principally from Sicily. Oil of Bergamotte, from the rind (flavolo) of the Bergamotto orange, is used in perfumery, and is imported from Sicily. Oil of Cloves, from the spice called cloves, is used in confectionary and perfumery; and is chiefly distilled in England. Oil of Pimento, from the spice called Jamaica pepper, allspice, or pimento, is used in perfumery and confectionary; it is chiefly made in England. Oil of Caraway, from caraway seeds (the fruit of Carum carvi, L., Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae), is distilled chiefly in this country for perfumery and confectionary. Oil of Camomile, from the dried flowers of the camomile (Anthemis nobilis, L., Nat. Ord. Compositae), is prepared in England; it is used only in medicine. Oil of Juniper, from the berries of Juniperus communis, L., (Nat. Ord. Coniferae), usually imported from Holland, is used principally in veterinary medicine. Oil of Thyme, from the whole plant of Origanum vulgare, L. (Nat. Ord. Labiatae), is used in veterinary medicine; and is both made in England and imported from the continental ports. Oil of Peppermint, from the whole plant of Mentha piperita, L. (Nat. Ord. Labiatae), is used chiefly in confectionary. It is imported in considerable quantities from the United States and from the European ports; but the best is that manufactured in England, at Mitcham, in Surrey, where the cultivation of plants yielding essential oils is extensively carried on; and the distillation of the oils carried to so high a degree of perfection, that the prices realized are often nearly double that of the foreign ones. Attar, or Otto of Roses, is procured from the leaves of the rose (Rosa centifolia, L., Nat. Ord. Rosaceae). This most delicate perfume is only made in India and Persia. The chief manufacture is at Ghazipore, on the Ganges, where thousands of acres of roses are cultivated. The petals of the flower are distilled with water, which comes over highly perfumed. This water is then set aside in basins, carefully covered over to prevent impurities being blown in; and each morning the film of oil which has risen to the surface during the cool hours of night is carefully skimmed off with a feather, and placed in small glass bottles. When pure, it is extremely valuable; the present price in this country being about 80s. per ounce. It is too generally adulterated either with the odourless fixed oil of almonds or gingelly, or the sweet-scented oil of Andropogon calamus-aromaticus, a grass which yields an abundance of rose-scented essential oil. Sometimes it consists almost entirely of this sophistication; but it is coarse and disagreeable to the practised perfumer, and can easily be detected; besides which, it remains liquid at the ordinary temperature, whereas pure otto of roses is solid at 32° F. The Persian is chiefly received from Turkey, and is generally considered the best. Oil of Birch is distilled in Russia from the bark of the common birch (Betula alba, L., Nat. Ord. Betulaceae). It has a sweet cedar-like odour, and is used in dressing Russia leather, to which it communicates its peculiar smell. Lately small quantities have been imported for preparing leather in a similar manner.

2nd. Oxidized Essential Oils.—Oil of Mint, distilled from the whole plant of common mint (Mentha sativa, L., Nat. Ord. Labiatae), is chiefly made in England; and used only in pharmacy. Oil of Penny Royal, distilled from the whole plant of Mentha Pulegium, L. (Nat. Ord. Labiatae), is made in England for medicinal purposes. Oil of Cassia, distilled from the bark of Cinnamomum Cassia, Blume (Nat. Ord. Lauraceae), is manufactured in China, and imported in considerable quantities, usually in chests like those used for tea, each containing four tin canisters filled with the oil. It is used in perfumery. Oil of Cinnamon, distilled from cinnamon or the bark of *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*, Nees (Nat. Ord. Lauraceae), possesses, when pure, all the delicious flavour and pungency of the spice, and is used for similar purposes. Small quantities only are imported from Ceylon. It is frequently adulterated with oil of cassia. The essential Oil of Almonds is usually distilled from bitter almonds, although it can also be obtained from the sweet varieties quite as easily; but for economy the cake of the former, from which the fixed oil has been expressed, is chosen. When first distilled, this oil contains hydrocyanic or prussic acid, and is consequently a dangerous poison; but when purified by mixing with lime, and the proto-chloride of iron, and re-distilling, it becomes quite innocuous. Oil of Lavender, distilled from the flowers of *Lavandula vera*, De Cand. (Nat. Ord. Labiatae), is only used in perfumery. The best is made at Mitcham; but considerable quantities are imported from France and Italy. An inferior kind is made from the flowers of *L. spica*, and is known in commerce as oil of spike. Oil of Rosemary, distilled from the leaves and flowers of *Rosmarinus officinalis*, L. (Nat. Ord. Labiatae). It resembles oil of lavender, and is chiefly made in England and France. Oil of Aniseed, is distilled both from the seeds of *Pimpinella Anisum*, L. (Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae); and from those of *Illicium anisatum*, L. (Nat. Ord. Magnoliaceae). It is imported in the same manner as oil of cassia, in considerable quantities from China; and is used in medicine, perfumery, and the manufacture of liqueurs. The oils distilled from different species of the genus *Andropogon* (Nat. Ord. Graminaceae) are imported from Ceylon, and used in perfumery. Oil of Citronelle, from *A. citratum*, De Cand., has a lemon odour. Oil of Verbena, from *A. Schizanthus*, Linn., resembles the perfumed verbena (*Molopha citriodora*). Oil of Rose-scented Geranium (from *A. Calamus-aromaticus*, Royl.) is also produced abundantly in India, where the native medical practitioners use it as a rubefacient for rheumatism. It is also used in perfumery, and particularly to adulterate the otto of roses.

3d. Essential Oils containing Sulphur.—This division embraces only a few chemical oils, such as oils of mustard, garlic, horse-radish, and some others of no general importance.

**Imports and Exports of Oils in 1857, with the Current Prices and estimated Value (compiled from the Brokers' Circulars).**

| Name of Oil | Imports | Duty | Exports | Average Price | Estimated value of Imports | |-------------|---------|------|---------|---------------|---------------------------| | Seal | 2,016,000 galls. | Free. | 27,216 galls. | L. 3 6 per gall. | L.352,800 | | Whale or train, of various qualities | 1,348,200 " | Free. | 227,000 " | 0 3 9 " | 252,737 | | Sperm whale | 1,360,800 " | Free. | 1,600 " | 0 8 0 " | 644,320 | | Tallow of Oxen and Sheep— | | | | | | | British colonies | 96,488 cwt. | 1s. per cwt. | 116,300 cwt. | 2 0 0 to L.2 15 0 per cwt. | 2,926,275 | | Foreign countries | 919,311 " | 1s. 6d. " | 5,316 cwt. | 2 10 0 to L.3 3 0 per cwt. | | | Lard | 140,650 " | Free. | 654 galls. | 4 0 0 per gall. | 22,997 | | Lard oil | 114,984 galls. | Free. | 654 galls. | 4 0 0 per gall. | 22,997 | | Horse fat, called usually "mare's oil" | 12,360 cwt. | Free. | 1,140 per cwt. | 20,902 | | Cod, or cod-liver, of all sorts | 1,021,834 galls. | Free. | 270,600 galls. | 0 4 0 per gall. | 204,973 | | Vegetable Oils and Fats— | | | | | | | Olive | 5,715,600 " | Free. | 555,158 " | 0 4 0 " | 1,143,120 | | Palm | 873,600 cwt. | Free. | 190,186 cwt. | 2 3 0 per cwt. | 1,882,950 | | Cocoanut | 146,300 " | Free. | 1,274 " | 2 2 0 " | 307,936 | | Sesamum, or gingelly | 42,135 galls. | Free. | 1,036 " | 0 3 6 per gall. | 7,374 | | Rape | 1,131,480 " | Free. | 16,816 galls. | 0 3 9 " | 212,152 | | Castor | 37,379 " | Free. | 885 " | 0 12 0 " | 221,027 | | Kokum oil | 2,230 cwt. | Free. | Nil. | 4,760 | | Oil or spirit of turpentine | 71,584 " | Free. | 22,784 cwt. | 1 13 0 " | 120,797 | | Essential oils of all sorts | 253,700 " | 1s. per lb. | 97,000 lbs. | 1 0 0 to L.50 0 0 per lb. | 152,034 |