Syria is a country of high historic and sacred interest. Take it in its full extent, including Palestine, and no country in the world can be compared with it. Even that northern section to which this article is confined has claims on our attention possessed by few lands. Syria was the cradle of commerce. What England is now, Phoenicia, a province of Syria, was thirty centuries ago—"the mistress of the seas." Tyre was the London of antiquity. The merchants of every nation met and traded in her rich marts. Syria was also the cradle of manufacture. Tyrian purple was the garb and symbol of royalty in every land; and Homer tells us that before his day a Sidonian robe was considered a gift of sufficient splendour to propitiate the angry patron-goddess of Troy (II. vi. 288). Damascus, the capital of Syria, is confessedly the oldest city in the world; and while its ancient rivals have been laid in the dust, it still possesses all the freshness and beauty of youth. Antioch, another capital of Syria, was the third city of the Roman empire, and was famous even in the Augustan age for its splendour, its wealth, and the luxurious refinement of its inhabitants; and there, eighteen centuries ago, the name we bear and in which we glory—the name Christian, was invented. The mountains of Syria possess an interest far surpassing those of Greece or Italy. The names of Hermon and Lebanon are household words; and they are bound by sacred ties to all our hearts hold dear.

Notwithstanding all this, the geography of Syria has yet to be written. No regular survey of it has ever been made; the sites of some of its greatest cities remain unexplored and almost unknown; the picturesque beauty of its wildest glens and mountains has never been fully described; and the abundant resources of its soil and its mines have never been fairly estimated. In the writings of Maundrell, Shaw, Burckhardt, Chesney, Robinson, and Porter, we have all hitherto published, as the result of personal research, regarding the modern geography of Syria.

The original name of the country, now usually called Syria by western geographers, was Aram. This, in fact, is the only name given to it in the Old Testament, but the Hebrew Aram (אַרְם) is generally rendered in the English version Syria, probably after the Septuagint Συρία (2 Sam. x. 6; 1 Kings x. 29; xv. 18, &c.) Aram was a son of Shem; and his descendants having peopled a large district, embracing Mesopotamia and north-eastern Syria, gave to this country the name of their progenitor (Gen. x. 22; xxv. 20); just as the family of Asshur, the elder brother of Aram, called their country Assyria. The Semitic name Aram is not confined to the sacred writings. It is used by Homer (II. ii. 783); and Strabo states, that those who are commonly named Syrians call themselves Arameans (Αραμαῖοι; Geogr. i. xiii. 4; xvi. 4; see Reland, Pal. p. 46).

It is a singular fact, that the name Syria, though known to, has never been adopted by, native writers. The only name generally known among the inhabitants, and used by their authors, is Esh-Sham.

Some think the name Syria is derived from Tyre, in its Semitic form Sur. There can be no doubt that the city of Tyre was from the very earliest period well known to the Greeks; and being the place with which they were best acquainted, and had most intercourse, they naturally gave its name to the country; just as they called the southern part of the country Palestine, from the small maritime province of Philistia (Bochart. Geogr. Sac. iv. 34). Others suppose that the word Syria is an abbreviation of Assyria. Herodotus says, Assyria is the Barbarian and Syria the Greek name (vii. 63). So also Justin represents the Assyrians and Syrians as the same (i. 1); and Strabo several times alludes to this, showing that such was the general opinion of learned men in his day (Bochart, Geogr. Sac. ii. 3). In fact, by most of the classic writers, the two names were used promiscuously. Upon examining the subject closely, however, it would seem that this confounding of two countries arose from the similarity of the names, and from want of clear and systematic knowledge not only of etymology, but of geography. Assyria unquestionably derived its appellation from the patriarch Asshur, and embraced the country round Nineveh (as Pliny states, lib. ii.), which was afterwards called Adiabane (Bochart. Geogr. Sac. ii. 3). Syria, on the other hand, was the Greek form of Sur, and appears to have been applied somewhat vaguely to the whole of Aram, Phoenicia, and Palestine. Some may have prefixed the article, and thus made it Al-Syria or As-Syria.

The old country of Aram, the Syria of the Bible, embraced Mesopotamia, and that section of Syria only which lies north of Mount Hermon, and east of the great mountain-range which runs along the coast of the Mediterranean. Mesopotamia was called Aram-Naharaim, "Aram of the two rivers" (Gen. xxiv. 10); while the division of Aram west of the Euphrates appears to have been first called by the general name Aram-Dammesek, "Aram of Damascus," but was afterwards subdivided, as we shall see (2 Sam. viii. 6). Herodotus, the first writer who uses the name Syria, makes the country extend as far eastward as the ancient Aram, while he stretches it northward over a large section of Asia-Minor, westward to the Mediterranean, and southward to the borders of Egypt (i. 72; ii. 104, 116; Reland, Pal. pp. 43, 44). Pliny leaves somewhat indefinitely. He says, the part of Syria bordering on Arabia was called Palestine, Judea, Coele, and Phoenice; that in the interior, Damascus; that south of the latter, Babylonia; the part lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, Mesopotamia; beyond (north of) the Taurus range, Sophene; on this side of it, Commagene; and the part adjoining Cilicia, Antiochene. He thus extends it even farther than Herodotus; but in another place he says, its length from Cilicia to Arabia is 470 miles, and its breadth from Seleucia to Zeugma on the Euphrates, 175; while he affirms that some geographers distinguish Syria both from Phoenicia and Judca (Hist. Nat. v. 13). According to Xenophon (Anab. i. 4), Syria was separated from Cilicia by a pass called the "Syrian Gates;" but he includes in it Mesopotamia. Strabo's description is more definite (xvi. 2). Syria, he writes, was bounded on the north by Cilicia and Mount Amanus; on the east by the Euphrates and the Arabian Scenite, who live on its western bank; on the south by Arabia-Felix and Egypt; and on the west by the Mediterranean. Some of the old geographers speak of Phoenicia as a distinct province (Herodot. iii. 5; Ptolemy, &c.); while others, as Strabo and Pliny, include it in Syria. Jewish writers generally distinguish between Syria and Palestine (Reland, Pal. p. 10). Ptolemy confines Syria to what may be regarded as its proper limits (Hist. Nat. v.) He says it was bounded on the south by Judæa, on the west by the Mediterranean, on the north by Cilicia and Cappadocia, and on the east by the Euphrates as far as Thapsacus, and by the Arabian desert. This is the region which forms the subject of the present article.

The boundaries of Syria may be more definitely stated, as follows:—On the north, a line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Issus eastward to the Euphrates; on the east, the River Euphrates as far as the ruins of Thapsacus, now Syria. El-Hummâm, and then a line drawn past Palmyra, and across the plain to the Haurân Mountains; on the south, a line extending from the Haurân Mountains, by the waters of Merom, to the ruins of Tyre; on the west, the "Great Sea." The province thus extends from 33° 15' to 36° 50' north latitude; and from 35° 10' to about 37° 40' east longitude.

The surface formation or physical structure of Syria is peculiar. The country is divided into a series of longitudinal belts, extending from north to south. There is first a narrow belt of plain along the sea-coast; next to this is a belt of mountains; next follows a long valley; then another but less regular mountain-range; and lastly, a great belt of table-land. These we shall take in order.

1. The maritime plain.—This plain commences on the south, at the Promontorium Album, a bold promontory of white limestone which projects into the Mediterranean. From hence to the banks of the river Auwaly (the ancient Bostrenus), a distance of 28 miles, the average breadth of the plain is about a mile. Opposite the sites of Tyre and Sidon the mountains retreat slightly, and the coast also juts out into the sea; the breadth is there increased to some two miles; while in other places the rocky hills almost dip into the Mediterranean. The surface of the plain is undulating, and the soil fertile, composed chiefly of disintegrated limestone, washed down from the heights of Lebanon. The greater part of it is now waste and desolate, but the few spots still cultivated show what it might be. The gardens and orchards of Sidon are almost unrivalled, producing melons, bananas, mulberries, figs, grapes, apricots, and oranges, in addition to the more common fruits and vegetables. Here and there we still meet with a few scattered palm-trees. This little plain constituted the nucleus of Phoenicia. Its coast-line is singularly bare and uniform. Opposite the promontory of Tyre there was formerly an island; it is now a peninsula, having been united to the mainland by Alexander's Mole; on it stood the new city of Tyre. (See Tyre.)

Between the River Auwaly and Beyrouth the plain is intersected by several rocky spurs from Lebanon. The promontory of Beyrouth is low and sandy. From the base of the mountains to the apex it measures about 3 miles. Vast groves of olives, gardens of mulberries, and orchards of fruit-trees grow upon it; but the drifting sand threatens them all with destruction. The bay of St George, on its northern side, affords, perhaps, the safest anchorage along the whole coast. It derives its name from its being the scene of the fabled contest between England's patron saint and the Dragon.

North of this bay the plain is again broken for a distance of nearly 20 miles by the rugged roots of Lebanon. On approaching Tripolis, it opens out into broad and beautiful fields and orchards. The gardens of Tripolis are more extensive and scarcely less productive than those of Sidon. Northward the plain still expands to a breadth of some 6 miles, sweeping round the gentle curve of a spacious bay, which extends to the rocky islet on which the ruins of Aradus lie, 25 miles from Tripolis. The soil is here exceedingly fertile, though the greater part of it is waste. From Aradus to the base of Mount Casius the plain continues unbroken, varying from 2 to 5 miles in width. Mount Casius interrupts it, rising abruptly from the sea. On its northern side lies the rich alluvial plain of Seleucia, at the mouth of the Orontes, now in part covered with orchards of mulberries and cultivated fields. Then, again, the bold headland called Ras-el-Khanzir juts into the Mediterranean, separating the plain of Seleucia from that of Issus. The latter is very narrow, low, and marshy. At its northern end is a low promontory over which the road is carried; on the top of the pass are the remains of an ancient arch, and not far distant may be seen traces of a massive wall. This is doubtless the site of the "Syrian Gates" referred to by Xenophon in his description of the march of Cyrus, and is, consequently, the northern limit of our province.

2. The Mountain Range.—This range shuts in the maritime plain on the east, and is divided naturally, as well as historically and nominally, into three sections. The southern section is called

Lebanon. The great chain of Lebanon commences on the north bank of the River Litâny, from whose gloomy defile it rises boldly and abruptly. It runs in a northeastern direction for about 90 miles, and terminates at the pass called in Scripture the "Entrance of Hamath." The breadth of the ridge varies from 15 to 20 miles, and its average elevation is about 7000 feet. Two peaks, Jebel-Sunnin and Jebel-Mukhmel, rise considerably higher; and on their summits the snow remains in streaks during the whole summer. The latter is the loftiest mountain in Syria, rising about 10,000 feet above the sea. The main body of the ridge is limestone, but along the lower western slopes are thick strata of chalk, and fossils of various kinds everywhere abound. The summits are rounded, bare, and of a greyish-white colour. On the eastern side the descent is rugged and abrupt into the valley of Bukha, the ancient Coele-Syria; while on the western it is more gentle, and we here see what industry can do even amid the wildest forms of nature, when it has a Syrian soil to work upon and a Syrian climate to aid it. No idea could be formed of the resources or cultivation of Lebanon by looking up from the maritime plains. As the whole range from base almost to summit is cultivated in terraces, nothing meets the eye when turned upwards but rude walls of rough stones, and lofty cliffs of gray rock. But when, on gaining some commanding peak, the eye is turned downward, one can scarcely repress the thought that the wand of an enchanter has been waved over the scene. Stair-like terraces of bright green corn and luxuriant vines, intermixed with long ranges of mulberries, olives, and fig-trees, have taken the place of naked rocks. Those more rugged parts along the lower declivities where cultivation is impossible, are scantily clothed with the oak and the pine. And high up on the side of the loftiest peak, far apart from other trees, still stand in stately, solitary grandeur the little grove of cedars—the last remnant of a sacred forest.

Nusairiyeh Mountains. The pass at the northern end of Lebanon, through which the road leads from the coast to the plain of Hamath, is about 5 miles wide. Beyond it rise the Nusairiyeh Mountains, which run in an unbroken chain northward to the Orontes, constituting the second section of the general chain. They are much lower than Lebanon, not averaging more than 4000 feet. Limestone is the prevailing rock; and thin oak-forests cover nearly the whole ridge. Where the chain meets the Orontes at Antioch, it sweeps round to the west, and terminates abruptly in a singular conical peak, which rises up bare and steep to a height of 5700 feet; this is the Casius of which Pliny tells such wonderful stories. The Nusairiyeh range is the Bargylus Mons of old geographers.

Jawar Daghi. On the north bank of the Orontes the mountains again rise abruptly in huge masses of naked rock. A spur shoots out from them westward, shutting in the plain of Seleucia and terminating in the bold promontory of Ras-el-Khanzir. This part was formerly called Moas Pieria, from whence the city of Seleucia took its name Pieria. The chain which continues northward is the Amanus of Roman geographers, and is now called in Turkish Jawar Daghi. It has an elevation of about 6000 feet, and its scenery is both wild and picturesque, the lower slopes being furrowed with deep glens and clothed with forests of evergreen oak.

3. The Great Central Valley.—This valley runs along the eastern base of the mountain-chain, and forms the most striking feature in the physical geography of the country. It is the continuation of a wonderful crevasse, which, further south along the course of the Jordan, has for a hundred miles and more a depression varying from 1 foot to 1312 feet below the level of the sea. Between the parallel ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon this valley extends from S.W. to N.E. about 70 miles in length, and is from 3 to 7 miles in breadth. It is almost perfectly flat; and the soil is in general rich, loamy, and abundantly watered. It is the Coele-Syria of the ancients; and its modern name is El-Bahda, "the Plain." It has an elevation of some 3000 feet above the sea. At its northern end it joins the plain of Hamath, which extends far eastward; but there is still enough of depression along the course of the river Orontes to indicate the proper line of the valley. At Hamath it has again a ridge of hills on its eastern side; and here its course is due north, and it gradually contracts until, sweeping round westward at Antioch, it cuts through the mountain-chain in a sublime gorge, opening a way for the Orontes to the Mediterranean.

4. The Anti-Lebanon Range.—Along the east side of the valley of Coele-Syria lies another mountain-range, the Anti-Lebanus of old geographers, now called Jebel Esh-Shurky. It rises up on the plain of Jaulan, a few miles east of the waters of Merom, and runs due north for 20 miles, gradually increasing in elevation, and covered with oak-forests. It then joins Mount Hermon, which is the culminating point of the whole range. It is a massive, white, naked, truncated cone, attaining an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet; and is, like the peaks of Lebanon, tipped with perpetual snow. From Hermon, as a centre, several ridges radiate, spreading out like an opening fan from N.E. to E. The ridge on the extreme left is the loftiest, varying from 4000 to 7000 feet in height; it sinks down into the plain of Hamath after a course of about 80 miles. That on the extreme right is much lower; it bounds the plain of Damascus, and extends away beyond Palmyra. All the ridges are bare, and hopelessly barren; though here and there one meets with scanty forests of oak and juniper. The main ridge is limestone, like Lebanon, abounding with fossils; but the lower ridges toward the plain of Damascus are chalky, and in places white as snow. They form a fit home for wild beasts—bears, leopards, wolves, swine, and especially jackals. Between the expanding ridges are several terrace-like plateaus, bleak and arid, though not all barren; and they are intersected by two wild and rich glens—Abana, which creates by its abundant waters the noble plain of Damascus, and Helbon, famed as of yore for its vintage (Ezek. xxvii. 18). The fullest account of this remote region will be found in Porter's Damascus.

Plain of Hamath.—At the northern end of the main, or western, ridge of Anti-Lebanon lies the fertile plain of Hamath, extending from the banks of the Orontes to the desert of Palmyra. About 50 miles north of Anti-Lebanon another chain rises up in the same line, not far from the ruins of Apamea. It is made up of several clumps of hills, almost detached; and it runs northwards as far as the parallel of Aleppo. These hills are limestone, in places well wooded, and are intersected by little fertile plains and valleys. They are interesting to the traveller and antiquarian as containing some of the most remarkable ruins in Syria. The southern section is called Jebel-Riha, the central Jebel-el-Ala, and the northern Jebel-Simán, from its having been the residence of St Simon Stylié.

5. The Eastern Plateau.—This plateau continues almost unbroken from the southern limits of the country to the banks of the Euphrates. Its southern section constituted the ancient kingdom of Bashan, and is one of the most fertile tracts in Western Asia. Its surface is flat, with a deep, rich, black soil, and is dotted here and there with little conical and cup-shaped mounds of basalt, evidently extinct craters. It has an average elevation of nearly 2500 feet above the sea. In the very centre of this plain is one of the most remarkable regions in the world, in a physical point of view. It is now named the Lejah, or "Retreat," but the Hebrews called it Argob, and the Greeks Trachonitis, both words being descriptive of its wild, stony character. It is oval in shape, about 25 miles long by 13 wide. Its borders are as clearly defined as a rocky coast-line. The general surface is elevated from 20 to 30 feet above the surrounding plain. It is wholly composed of basalt rock, which appears to have issued from innumerable pores in the earth, and to have flowed out on every side until the plain was almost covered. Before cooling it seems to have been tossed like a tempestuous sea. The crater-like cavities from which the liquid mass exuded are still visible. Deep fissures and yawning chasms intersect the whole like a network; while here and there are huge mounds of shattered rock. The rock is black, filled with air-bubbles, and hard as flint. The aspect of the whole is savage and desolate in the extreme. The very trees that grow among the rocks have a blasted look; yet, strange to say, this forbidding region is thickly studded with deserted towns and villages.

Mountains of Bashan.—Away on the eastern border of the plain is an isolated range of volcanic hills, the highest peak of which, called Kulceib, has an elevation of about 5000 feet. Their sides are partially covered with remains of ancient oak-forests, and dotted with the ruins of primeval cities. These are the "Mountains of Bashan" mentioned in the Bible, called Asadamus Mons by Ptolemy, and Jebel-Haurán by the Arabs. Another isolated and much lower range separates the territory of Bashan from Damascus.

The Plain of Damascus, now called El-Ghútah, is celebrated throughout the world for its richness and beauty. It is perfectly flat; and its fertility and surpassing loveliness are wholly owing to the waters of the Abana and Pharpar, which are diffused by innumerable canals and ducts over its surface. On the north of the Ghútah the low bare ridge which runs eastward from Hermon intersects the great plateau; but beyond this range it again extends arid, bleak, and desolate—fit abode for timid gazelle and wild Bedawy—far away to the banks of the Euphrates. On its western side, in the midst of low, white, chalk-hills, stands Aleppo. Between Aleppo and the Euphrates is a large salt marsh.

The Orontes, now called El'Asy, is the largest river in Rivers. Syria. Its highest source is in the valley of Coele-Syria, beside the ruins of Lybo, at the base of Anti-Lebanon; but its principal source is 10 miles farther down, at the eastern base of Lebanon. It flows northward towards Hums, the ancient Emesa, where a strong embankment, built many centuries ago, dams up the river, and forms a large lake, called Kades. From hence it flows on in the same general direction through the centre of the valley to the parallel of Antioch, where it turns abruptly westward, and passes through a sublime gorge to the Mediterranean. Before passing Antioch it is doubled in size by a tributary from a lake called Bahr-el-Ahid, lying a few miles northward.

The Leontes, now called El-Litany, is the second river in magnitude. It rises in the plain of Coele-Syria, near Baalbek, and receives numerous small tributaries from Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. At the southern end of the plain it enters a narrow deep ravine, in many places only a few feet wide, and at one spot spanned by a natural bridge. After intersecting the mountain-ridge, it falls into the Mediterranean near Tyre.

The Abana, the Chrysorrhoas of the Greeks and Barada of the Arabs, is a wild mountain-torrent, rising in the very centre of Anti-Lebanon, cutting in succession through three of its parallel ridges, and at length bursting forth from its rocky barrier, bearing gold in its bosom and scattering emeralds far and wide over the matchless plain of Damascus. About 15 miles east of the city, the river, greatly reduced in size, divides into two branches, each of which feeds a little lake.

The other rivers of Syria are the Pharpar, now called Nahr-el-Awaj, which rises high up on the side of Hermon, flows across the plain of Damascus, and falls into a lake, or rather marsh. The Lycus flumen, or Nahr-el-Kelb (the Latin "wolf" having degenerated into the Arab "dog"). Its source is on Jebel-Sunin, and it falls into the Mediterranean some eight miles north of Beyrouth. At its mouth is the remarkable pass where Egyptian, Assyrian, and Roman conquerors have in succession inscribed records of their deeds. The Adonis springs from a cave beneath a stupendous cliff beside the ruins of Apheca, and through a yawning chasm,

"Runs purple to the sea, supposed with blood Of Thamnus yearly wounded."

The Eleutherus, now Nahr-el-Kebir, sweeps round the northern end of Lebanon, through the "Entrance of Hamath," and falls into the Mediterranean some 15 miles north of Tripolis.

No country in the world of the same extent has passed through so many political changes and vicissitudes as Syria. Its first colonists were the descendants of Aram, who gave the name of their progenitor to the whole eastern section of the country. This section was soon subdivided into no less than six districts. (1.) Its northern part, between the city of Hamath and the Euphrates, was called Aram-Zobah (1 Sam. xiv. 47; 2 Sam. x. 6, comp. viii. 3). Palmyra appears to have been in this province (2 Chr. viii. 3, 4). South of the former lay Aram-Dammesek, so named from Damascus its capital (2 Sam. viii. 5). (3.) A small territory round the base of Hermon was attached to the city of Beth-Maacah, and hence called Aram-Maacach (1 Kings xv. 20; Deut. iii. 14; 1 Chr. xix. 6). (4.) Apparently adjoining the latter was another small territory, called Aram-Beth-Rehob (comp. Judges xviii. 28; 2 Sam. x. 6). (5.) Josephus states that Uz, the son of Aram, founded the principality of Trachonitis (Antiq. i. 7), which the Hebrews called Argob. It contained many great and strong cities founded by a race of giants (Deut. iii. 13, 14), the remains of which still exist (Porter's Damascus, vol. ii.). (6.) Between Trachonitis and Damascus lay a small but very ancient province, colonized by Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gen. xxxv. 15), and by the Greeks named Iturea.

Mount Lebanon appears from the earliest ages to have been inhabited by several small independent tribes, who were more or less closely connected with their neighbours on the coast, the Phoenicians. The Arkites (Gen. x. 17) dwelt in Lebanon, and the ruins of their old capital Arca may still be seen a few miles from Tripolis. The Gibbites were also "mountaineers" of Lebanon, and they gave their name to a city and province which to this day we can recognize in the Arabic form, Jebel.

Phoenicia was a province so distinct and so remarkable that it will be treated separately in the sequel.

Under the Seleucidæ the various principalities of Syria were for a time united in one kingdom; but during the harassing civil wars of this dynasty a new division took place, and the old city of Damascus was made the capital of a southern kingdom, including Palestine.

The political divisions of Syria in classic ages, as given by Greek and Roman geographers, are far from being definite. Strabo mentions five provinces—1. Commagene, a fertile and comparatively level region, lying along the right bank of the Euphrates; bounded on the N. by Mount Taurus, and on the W. by the range of Amanus. Samosata was its metropolis, and was situated on the Euphrates, which was here spanned by a bridge (Strabo, Geog. xvi.) 2. Seleucis lay on the S. and S.W. of the former, and embraced the territories annexed to the cities of Seleucia-Pieria, Antioch, Apamea, and Laodicea-ad-Mare. 3. Coele-Syria. This province was originally confined, as the name implies, to the great valley between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon; but in Strabo's time it was already extended almost indefinitely southward and eastward. It included the territory of Chalcis, a city at the western base of Anti-Lebanon, 20 miles south of Heliopolis; the province of Abila, or Abilene, a mountainous region between Hermon and the valley of the Abana (Luke iii. 1); Damascus, with its noble plain; Iurea; Gaulanitis, lying along the east bank of the upper Jordan; Auranitis, the beautiful plateau east of the latter; Trachonitis, already described; and Batanea, which embraced the mountains called Jebel-Hauran. 4. Phoenicia (see below). 5. Judæa (see article PALESTINE).

Pliny's divisions are still more numerous than Strabo's; and Ptolemy makes no less than fifteen provinces. In fact, it appears from a careful perusal of ancient authors, that every city as it rose to importance gave its name to a little state round it; but whenever it was eclipsed by a neighbouring rival, its principality was swallowed up. This gave rise to great confusion in the political geography of the country; but the fact sufficiently accounts for that indefiniteness so marked in the works of Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy. Ptolemy mentions three small districts not named by Strabo:—1. The Coast, from the Syrian Gates to the border of Phoenicia. This included the narrow plain of Issus, and the plain at the mouth of the Orontes, which Strabo calls Pieria. 2. Palmyrene, embracing the desert plains, and naked mountains round Palmyra, and extending eastward to the Euphrates. 3. Laodicea Scabiosa embraced the southern section of the plain of Hums, and a part of the adjoining ridge of Anti-Lebanon. The site of the old city from which it took its name was identified a few years ago by the writer of this article. The ruins lie upon the bank of the Orontes, 15 miles above Emesa (Hums), and are now called Tell Mindau.

Under the Romans Syria became a province of the empire, and was generally governed by a proconsul. Some portions of it, however, were for a time suffered to remain under the rule of petty princes, who were dependent on the imperial government, and whose dominions were gradually incorporated. There were also a number of cities to which freedom was given; these had their own laws, and administered their own revenues. Both principalities and free cities were financially subject to the Roman government—they were, in fact, employed as instruments for the collection of the imperial revenues. Antioch was the usual residence of the governor, and was the acknowledged capital of the province. The province increased so rapidly in extent and wealth that, in the reign of Hadrian, it was found necessary to divide it into three parts, namely—1. Syria Major, with Antioch as first, and afterwards Laodicea as its capital; 2. Syria Phœnicæ, or Syrophœnicæ (Mark vii. 26), embracing the territories of Tyre, Damascus, and Palmyra; 3. Syria Palestina. Towards the close of the fourth century another subdivision of Syria took place, which formed the basis of the ecclesiastical government. The sections were as follows:—1. Syria prima, with Antioch for its capital, and the greater part of Northern Syria within its borders. 2. Syria Secunda; capital city, Apamea. It embraced the rich plain of Hamath, with several large and prosperous towns. 3. Phœnicia Prima, including the greater part of the ancient province of Phœnicis, and extending as far inland as Cesarea Philippi. Its metropolis was Tyre. 4. Phœnicia Secunda, also called Phœnicia-ad-Libanum. Damascus was its capital; and Abila, Heliopolis, Laodicea-ad-Libanum, and Palmyra, were subject to its governor. The other sections were Palestina Prima, Secunda, and Tertia. In the beginning of the seventh century the wild followers of Mohammed captured Syria, and then Damascus became for a time not only the capital of all Syria, but also of an empire that extended from the Indian Ocean to the shores of the Atlantic. The changes and vicissitudes through which Syria passed from that period to the present day belong more to history than geography.

The whole country of Syria and Palestine is at present divided into three pashalics—Damascus, Aleppo, and Sidon. The Pashalic of Damascus includes the districts lying east of the Jordan, the Bukka, and the Orontes as far north as Hamath. Damascus is the residence of the commander-in-chief of all the Sultan's forces in Syria. The Pashalic of Sidon includes all Palestine west of the Jordan, all Lebanon, and the coast as far north as Tripolis. Beyrouth is the capital, and is at present the most flourishing town in Syria. A governor, with the title of pasha, resides at Jerusalem; but he is subject to the Pasha of Sidon. The Pashalic of Aleppo embraces all northern Syria, with a section of Asia-Minor, extending to Aintab and Marash. The following table gives a comprehensive view of the statistics of these pashalics so far as they are known. It must be remembered that the Turks are far behind in statistics:

| | Damascus | Aleppo | Sidon | Total | |----------------|----------|--------|-------|---------| | Muslims | 412,000 | 460,000| 424,000| 1,296,000| | Christians | 79,100 | 81,000 | 281,000| 441,100 | | Jews | 5,300 | 10,000 | 9,000 | 24,300 | | Druses | 18,000 | Not known | 60,000 | 78,000 | | Methwileh | 18,000 | Not known | 7,000 | 25,000 | | Nasiriyeh | 14,500 | 41,000 | Not known | 55,500 | | **Total** | **547,800** | **592,000** | **781,000** | **1,920,800** |

**PHOENICIA.**

The best geographers have included Phoenicia in Syria, and, therefore, its physical geography, statistics, and more recent history, have been connected in this article with those of the latter country; but the political state and history of Phoenicia, during the period of its independence, are so distinct and so interesting that the writer has thought it best to give a condensed view of them in this place in a separate form.

The Semitic and ancient name of Phoenicia was Canaan, or Canaan (כַּנְעָן, Greek, Χανά). This is the only name used by the Phoenicians themselves, and also by the Hebrews (Gen. x. 17–19; Reland, Pal. p. 7). It signifies "low region," probably as opposed to the plateau of Aram; and is, therefore, descriptive of the country. (The root is יָרֵךְ, "to be low.") The word Phoenicia is supposed by some to be derived from the name of a man, said to be a brother of Cadmus; by others from the word פֶּרֶץ, "a palm;" by others from the purple dye, פֶּרֶץ; and by others from the Red Sea, whence, according to Herodotus (vii. 89), the Phoenicians came.

Ancient geographers give widely different accounts of the extent of Phoenicia. Some say it included the whole maritime plain from the Gulf of Issus to Egypt; while others confine it between the rivers Eleutherus and Crocodilus. Some make it run as far eastward as Damascus; while others shut it in by the ridge of Lebanon. This is not much to be wondered at. The Phoenicians would not confine themselves within definite bounds. They went wherever they found an opening for trade, and they contrived to make that spot their home. It is probable that the nucleus of the nation was very small, including only the narrow strip of plain along the western base of Lebanon, between the Promontorium Album and the River Bostrenus. Soon, however, they extended northwards and southwards, building cities wherever they found a little bay or cape to shelter their ships. Sidon and Tyre were the parent cities—the cradles of the world's commerce. The island of Aradus was early occupied; then followed Acco and Dor on the south, Tripolis and Gabala on the north. All these, and many more, were colonized before the time of Herodotus (iii. 5; iv. 38, &c.). About the period of the Roman conquest of Syria (A.D. 64), the limits of Phoenicia were pretty accurately defined. Pliny says it reached from Aradus to the Crocodile river, which falls into the sea a few miles south of Dor, a distance of 140 miles; its breadth did not average more than 2 or 3 miles. Its situation was admirably adapted for the development of its commerce. On the east, the ridge of Lebanon secured it from attack. The great strongholds, Tyre and Sidon, were so placed naturally as to bid defiance to any ordinary foe. The only approaches to them lay along the coast, and these were defended by the difficult passes at the River Lycus and the Promontorium Album. The coast beyond these points was more open. On the west, the Phoenicians had an uninterrupted seaboard, with a number of little rock-girt ports, insignificant indeed as respects modern navigation, but sufficient for the wants of those primitive ages. The plain, though narrow, is rich, and abundantly watered by streams from Lebanon. The mountain-sides above yielded oil, and wine, and "summer fruits," for which they are still famous; besides an unlimited supply of pine, cedar, and oak, for ship-building. The gardens and fields below produced those palm-groves which probably gave the country its name. The palm has almost disappeared, only a few solitary trees appearing here and there; but orchards of oranges and lemons have taken their place round Sidon, Beyrouth, and Tripolis. The glory of Phoenicia has passed. A mournful and solitary silence now reigns along the greater part of a coast which once resounded with the din of an enterprising commercial people.

The early part of Phoenicia's history is, in a great measure, legendary. In the Bible Sidon is said to be a son of Phoenicia. Canaan; and the Arvadites and Arkites, two other Phoenician tribes, were of the same family (Gen. x. 17, 18). In the Scriptures, as well as on their own coins and inscriptions, the Phoenicians are always called Canaanites (Judges i. 31; Reland, Pal. p. 7). It would seem, however, from the nature of the language, which closely resembles the Hebrew (Gesen, Monum. Phoen.), that they were either amalgamated with some Semitic tribe, or had such intimate relations with their neighbours of Aram, as led them to adopt their language. Herodotus says they immigrated from the Red Sea, and Strabo that they came from two islands in the Persian Gulf. There can be no doubt that the whole descendants of Ham migrated from the plains of Assyria; and the route followed by the Canaanites may have been along the shores of the Persian Gulf, up the Red Sea, and, as Justin states (xviii. 3), to the Assyrian Lake, or Dead Sea, and thence finally to the coast at Sidon. But however this may be, it is certain that they were settled on the little plain at the base of Lebanon, at least as early as the time of Abraham (comp. Gen. x. 19; xv. 21), or nearly 2000 years B.C. Herodotus, who made a journey to Tyre for the express purpose of verifying a date, states that the great temple of Hercules in that city had already existed twenty-three centuries. This would throw back the founding of the temple, and of course the city, to about B.C. 2800, or some 450 years before the Flood, according to the common chronology. No scholar, however, who examines in an impartial spirit the confused annals and long-drawn chronological records of Phoenicia or Egypt, will venture to adopt them in preference to that of the Bible.

Sidon was the first capital of Phoenicia. It was emphatically the "Great Zidon" when the Israelites invaded Canaan (B.C. 1450; Josh. xi. 8). It is several times men- Phoenicia: tioned by Homer, and before his day its manufactures had obtained a world-wide celebrity. In the earliest periods of Grecian history Sidonian ships were well known on the coasts, and Sidonian merchants in the marts of that country, and also of Asia-Minor. Isaiah wrote, more than twenty-five centuries ago, "Tyre is of ancient days . . . . the crowning city, whose merchants are princes" (xxiii. 7-12); and yet he calls her a "daughter of Zidon." The glory of the daughter then excelled that of the mother, and hence we can account for the fact that some later classic authors call Tyre μαρέβα Φοινίκης. In fact, from the earliest period of which we have any trustworthy and full history, Tyre was the chief city of the Phoenicians. Here Hiram reigned who aided Solomon in building the Temple and in navigating his fleets. From his days to the time of Pygmalion we have a dry, uninteresting list of the rulers of Tyre. (See Kennrick's Phoenicia; Mover's Die Phönizier; Bochart's Geog. Sac.) During the reign of Pygmalion the great colony of Carthage was founded by his sister Dido, so well known to the readers of Virgil. Some time after this the friendly relations which had subsisted for several centuries between the Phoenicians and Israelites were broken; and the cruelties perpetrated by the former were the causes of the prophetic curses pronounced upon them by Joel and Ezekiel (Joel iii.; Ezek. xxvi.), and subsequently so fearfully executed. The whole of Phoenicia was overrun by the Assyrian monarch Shalmanezer (Joseph. Antiq., ix. 14), and afterwards by Nebuchadnezzar, when Sidon was captured, and Tyre stood a siege of thirteen years (Antiq. x. 11). In the days of Darius both Phoenicia and Palestine were considered provinces of the Assyrian empire, though still enjoying a kind of independence. The Phoenicians had now attained to great eminence, not only as a commercial, but also as a warlike people. Their fleets were constantly employed in the wars between the Persians and Greeks under Darius and Xerxes (Herodot. vii. and viii.). About B.C. 352, the Phoenicians attempted to regain their independence, and resist the power of Persia; but though they made a noble effort to defend Sidon against the hated foe, they were basely betrayed, and then visited by a terrible punishment. Forty thousand of the inhabitants of Sidon are said to have burned their houses over their heads rather than submit to the cruel conquerors.

After the victory of Issus, Alexander the Great marched upon Phoenicia; and, after an obstinate siege, captured the island-city of Tyre. Phoenicia now lost its nationality, and with this much of its enterprising spirit. Situated on the confines of the dominions of the Seleucidæ and the Ptolemies, it was often the theatre of devastating wars. When the Roman empire extended to Western Asia, Phoenicia was annexed to the province of Syria. Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus still continued to prosper; and Beritus rose to fame, not merely as a commercial city, but as a seat of learning. From this period, however, the history of Phoenicia merges into that of Syria.

It was not for their navigation merely, and their commercial enterprise, that the Phoenicians were celebrated. They were generally regarded, in ancient times, as the inventors of those phonetic characters which, to some extent, form the basis of all literature. The earliest specimens of Greek inscriptions bear considerable resemblance in the forms of their letters to the Phoenician; and they are found in some places colonized by the Phoenicians. Their skill in working gold and silver was also widely known. The bowl presented by Menelaus to Telemachus, and the silver vase proposed by Achilles as the reward in the funeral games of Patroclus, were of Phoenician workmanship (Homer, Od. iv. 618; Iliad, xxiii. 743). The bronze castings and purple robes of Tyre were everywhere prized. Even in the Roman age that city enjoyed the exclusive privilege of manufacturing the royal purple. The dye was obtained from small shell-fish, of the genera busscinum and murex, found along the rocky coast. Each mollusk yields but a single drop of the fluid dye, which is extracted by a sharp-pointed instrument (Pliny, Hist. Nat., ix.). Glass was also manufactured in Phoenicia at a very early period. It is said to have been accidentally discovered by some merchants, who arrived on the coast near Carmel with a cargo of natron; and having used some pieces of it to keep up their cooking vessel on the fire, it was melted by the heat, and, mingling with the sand, produced glass (Plin. xxxvi.).

Colonies were planted by the Phoenicians in almost every maritime country of the known world; in this respect, also, they were the Anglo-Saxons of antiquity. Cyprus was probably their earliest colony beyond the Syrian coast, and traces of their monuments remain on the island to this day. Thence they extended along the shores of Asia-Minor to Rhodes and the isles of Greece. Several towns were founded on the coast of Crete; and they crossed the mouth of the Adriatic, and established themselves in Malta, Sicily, and at Carthage. Cadiz and Tarshish, on the shores of Spain, were early occupied; and it is probable that they reached England, and carried on mining operations in Cornwall. (See Kennrick's Phoenicia; Bochart, Geog. Sac.)

Of the religion of the Phoenicians we have no definite or clear account. The fullest is given in Eusebius's Prepar. Evangel. Baal and Asheroth—representatives of the sun and moon—were their chief deities. To these they dedicated high places and temples in every part of their dominions. The name Baal also was often adopted by kings and great men; it was prefixed to that of other deities, as Baal-Zebub, "God of flies;" Baal-Berith, "God of the covenant;" Baal-Markos, "God of sports;" and it was prefixed to that of places where temples or altars were set up; as Baal-Gad, Baal-Heron. The worship of these favourite deities was not only carried by the Phoenicians to their various colonies, but was also introduced among neighbouring nations. Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, promoted it in Israel (1 Kings xvi. 31).

There is, perhaps, no country in the world, of the same extent, which possesses a greater variety of temperature and climate than Syria. Perpetual snow crowns the summit of Hermon, while tropical heat scorches the deep valley of the upper Jordan at its base. The high altitudes along the brow of Lebanon are as cool and invigorating during the summer months as the south of England; while the marshy tracts round the waters of Merom, along the banks of the Orontes, near Apamea, and at the western base of Mount Amanus, are almost as hot and debilitating as the plains of Southern India. The whole seaboard, owing to its exposure to the rays of an unclouded sun, and its being sheltered by the mountain-ranges behind, is very sultry, and in some places unhealthy. But there are a few spots, even on the coast, such as Beyrouth and Suleidiyah, where the soil is dry and the air pure; and these form excellent winter residences for invalids. The temperature and climate in the various parts of the interior depend on the elevation and the character of the soil. Jerusalem is high and breezy; but the rays of the sun, reflected from the bare white rocks and white soil around, render the heat most oppressive during the day. In Palestine rain very rarely falls from the end of April till the beginning of October; and a little cloud in the sky, as large as a man's hand, would be a wonder. The whole country is thus parched; vegetation, except where streams of water flow, is extinguished; and the air, during the long summer day, becomes so hot, dry, and scorching, as to render travelling unpleasant, if not actually dangerous.

In Lebanon, on the other hand, though the sun may be powerful, the air is fresh and balmy; while the dense foliage of its sublime glens gives a pleasant shade, and its foaming torrents diffuse an agreeable coolness, even during the midday heat. The stalwart frames of the inhabitants of Lebanon are the best certificates of its bracing climate. The way in which the people digest and thrive on rancid oil, raw vegetables, and other abominations, speaks volumes for the peptic character of the mountain-air. The air, except where artificial irrigation is carried to an undue extent, is extremely dry, and malaria is almost unknown.

In Palestine the autumnal rains commence about the latter end of October, or beginning of November; in Lebanon they are a month earlier. They are usually accompanied by thunder and lightning; they continue for two or three days, not constantly, but falling chiefly during the night. For the two succeeding months they fall heavily at intervals. January and February are the coldest months; but along the coast of Syria, and in Palestine, frost is very rarely seen, and the cold is not severe. Snow falls on the higher altitudes along the whole mountain-ridge, on the plains of Coele-Syria and Hamath, and the writer once saw it eight inches deep on the terraced roofs of Damascus. Yet, in the western declivities of Lebanon, the snow seldom whitens the ground at a lower elevation than 2000 feet. Rain falls at intervals during the month of March; in Palestine it is rare in April; and even in Lebanon and Northern Syria the few showers that occur are generally light.

In the valley of the Jordan the barley harvest begins as early as the middle of April, and the wheat a fortnight later. In the hill-country of Judea reaping commences about the beginning of June, while in Lebanon the grain is seldom ripe before the middle of that month. A pretty accurate index is thus given to the relative temperature of the different districts. It is not easy to ascertain the exact ranges of the thermometer, as much depends on the position of the instrument; and there are neither observatories nor meteorological societies in the country. In Aleppo, according to Russell, the range of the thermometer is very great; sometimes descending below zero, and rising above 100° Fahr. During a residence of nearly ten years in Damascus, the writer never saw the thermometer below 23°, or above 95°.

The inhabitants of Syria and Palestine form a most interesting study. Their dress, their manners and customs, and their language, are all primitive. No European nation, with the exception perhaps of the Spaniards, bears the least resemblance to them. Like Spain, too, the best specimens of humanity are here found among the lower classes. The farther we go from the contaminated atmosphere of government offices, the more successful shall we be in our search after honesty, industry, and genuine patriarchal hospitality—the great, almost the only, unadulterated virtue of the Arab. The people are illiterate, and extremely ignorant of all western inventions; but there is a native dignity in their address and deportment which will both please and astonish those who have seen the awkward vulgarity of the lower classes in some more favoured lands. Whether we enter the tent of the Bedawey or the cottage of the peasant, we are received and welcomed with an ease and courtesy that would not disgrace a palace. The modes of salutation are very formal, some would call them verbose and even tedious. Still there is something pleasing in them after all. The gestures used are graceful, if a little complicated. The touching of the heart, the lips, and the forehead with the right hand, seems to say that each one thus saluted is cherished in the heart, praised with the lips, and esteemed by the intellect. An Arab when eating, whether in the house or by the wayside, however poor and scanty his fare, never fails to invite the visitor or passing wayfarer to join him. And this is not always an empty compliment. In making purchases from an Arab, one finds his politeness almost overpowering. When the price is asked, he replies, "Whatever you please, my lord."

When pressed for a more definite answer, he says, "Take it without money." One cannot but remember under such circumstances Abraham's treaty with the sons of Heth for the cave of Machpelah. Our feelings of romance, however, are somewhat damped when we discover that the price ultimately demanded is four or five times the value of the article; and that every form of lying and misrepresentation will be tried to gain a few additional piastres. The only exception to the general politeness of the Arabs in their intercourse with strangers of another faith, is to be found in some bigoted Muslems of the old school, who have for long centuries been accustomed to use the words "infidel," "dog," "Christian," as synonyms.

The modern inhabitants of Syria and Palestine are a mixed race, made up of the descendants of the ancient Syrians who occupied the country in the early days of Christianity; and of the Arabs who came in with the armies of the khalifa and settled in the cities and villages. The number of the latter being comparatively small, the mixture of blood did not visibly change the type of the ancient people. This may be seen by comparing the Christians with the Muslems. The former are undoubtedly of pure Syrian descent, while the latter are more or less mixed, and yet there is no visible distinction between the two save what dress makes. Every observer, however, may at a glance distinguish the Jew, the Turk, or the Armenian, each of whom is of a different race. The whole inhabitants may be best considered under the heads of religious sects. Religion has made most of the real distinctions existing among them; though difference of climate, employment, and mode of life have also had their effects on dress and minor matters. The mountaineer, for example, has his bag-trousers of immense capacity, his stiff embroidered jacket, and his trim turban; while his wife struts about in all the state of her towering silver horn and flowing white veil. The Bedawey of the desert is sans culottes, and his raiment consists of a loose calico shirt, over which is occasionally thrown a coarse cloak, and on his head is a gaudy kerchief, bound with a twisted rope of camel's hair. The city gentleman is arrayed in flowing robes, yellow slippers, red over-shoes, and turban of spotless white or embroidered Indian muslin. The peasant of the plain of Damascus looks more active in his gay-coloured spencer and short Turkish trousers. The inhabitants of some of the villages of Palestine and plains of Hamath seem to carry most of their wardrobe on their heads; for the enormous turban is out of all proportion to the scanty shreds that cling round the body.

We may now glance at the several religious sects.

1. The Muslems. These are, and have been for many centuries, the lords of the soil, and they constitute the great majority of the community. They are proud, fanatical, and illiterate. They are taught by the faith they hold to look with contempt on all other classes, and to treat them not merely as inferior, but as slaves. They are in general noble in bearing, polite in address, and profuse in hospitality; but they are regardless of truth, dishonest in dealing, and immoral in conduct. In all large towns the greater proportion, especially among the upper classes, are both physically and mentally feeble, owing to the effects of polygamy, early marriages, and degrading vices; but the peasantry are robust and vigorous, and much might be hoped for from them if they were brought under the influence of liberal institutions, and if they had examples around them of the industry and enterprise of Western Europe. In religion the Muslems of Syria are Sonnites; that is, in addition to the written word of the Koran, they recognise the authority of the Sonna, a collection of traditional sayings and anecdotes of the prophet, which is a kind of supplement to the Koran, directing the right observance of many things omitted in that book. They are in general very exact in the observance of the outward rites. of their religion; and in Islam there is little else. Their great feast of Ramadan is kept by a vast majority with scrupulous care; but it must be admitted that long abstinence has not the effect of sweetening their temper or improving their morals.

Besides the Sunnites or orthodox Muslims, there are three other sects which we must class under the common name, Muslem.

The Metshieleh or followers of Aly, son-in-law of Mohammed. His predecessors on the throne, Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman, they do not acknowledge as true Khalifas. Aly they maintain to be the lawful Imam, and they hold that the supreme authority, both in things spiritual and temporal, belongs of right to his descendants alone. They reject the Sona, and are allied in faith with the Shiites of Persia. They are almost as scrupulous about the "clean" and the "unclean" in their ceremonial observances, and in the ordinary affairs of life, as the Hindoos. They will neither eat nor drink with those of another faith, nor will they use the ordinary drinking or cooking vessels of others. The districts where they chiefly reside are Baalbek; Belad Basharah, on the southern part of Lebanon; and round the village of Hurmul, near the fountain of the Orontes.

The Nasairiyeh or Ansairiyeh. It is not easy to tell whether this sect is to be classed among Muslems or not. Their religion still remains a secret, notwithstanding all attempts recently made to dive into its mysteries. They are represented by Assenam as holding a faith half Christian and half Mohammedan. They believe in the transmigration of souls, and observe in a singular, if not idolatrous, manner a few of the ceremonies common in the Eastern Church. They are a wild and somewhat savage race, given to plunder, and even bloodshed when their passions are roused or suspicions excited. They inhabit that range of mountains which bears their name, and which extends from the banks of the Orontes at Antioch to the entrance of Hamath.

The Ismaeliyeh, who inhabit a few villages on the eastern slopes of the Ansairiyeh Mountains, resemble the former in this, that their religion is a mystery. They were originally a subdivision of the Shiites, and are the feeble remnant of a people too well known in the time of the Crusades, under the name of Assassins. They have still their chief seat in the old castle of Masyad, on the mountains west of Hamath.

2. The Druzes. The Druzes form one of the strongest, most united, and most remarkable sects in Syria. Their peculiar doctrines were first propagated in Egypt by the notorious Hakim, the third of the Fatimite dynasty. This khalifa, who gave himself out for a prophet, though he acted more like a madman, taught a system of half materialism, asserting that the Deity resided in Aly. In the year A.D. 1017, a Persian of the sect of Batanis, called Mohammed Ben-Ismail-ed-Derazy, settled in Egypt, and became a devoted follower of Hakim. He not only asserted the absurd pretensions of the new Egyptian prophet, but he added to his doctrines that of the transmigration of souls, which he had brought with him from his native country; and he carried his fanaticism to such an extent that the people at last rose in a body and drove him out of Egypt. He took refuge in Wady-et-Teim, a narrow valley at the western base of Hermon; and being secretly supplied with money by the Egyptian monarch, propagated his dogmas, and became the founder of the Druzes. His system was enlarged, and in some degree modified by other disciples of Hakim, especially a Persian called Hamza, whom the Druzes still venerate as the founder of their sect and the author of their law. Hamza tried to gain over the Christians by representing Hakim as the Messiah whose advent they expected. Such was the origin of the Druze religion. Their tenets, and especially their mode of worship, are still kept strictly secret. A few of their books have found their way to the public libraries of Europe; and it was the good fortune of the writer recently to obtain in Syria copies of their seven standard works, which had been taken by a Christian from one of their khulweh's during the war of 1845. Some of these works are written in a mystic style, unintelligible to ordinary readers. Their Confession of Faith seems to consist of the following propositions:

(1.) The Unity of God, and his manifestations of himself to man in the persons of seven individuals, the last of whom was Hakim.

(2.) Five superior spiritual ministers always existing. These have also appeared in the persons of men at various periods. The chief of them were Hamza and Christ.

(3.) The transmigration of souls. The souls of men never pass into animals.

(4.) The belief in a period when their religion shall be triumphant.—Hakim shall reign, and all others shall be subject to him for ever.

(5.) The seven points of Islam are set aside, and the following substituted:—1. Veracity (to each other only). 2. Mutual protection and aid. 3. Renunciation of all other religions (implying persecution of all others when practicable). 4. Profession of the unity of Hakim (as God). 5. Contentment with his works. 6. Submission to his will. 7. Separation from those in error and from demons.

The Druzes are divided into two classes, the "initiated" and the "uninitiated." With the former all the rites and ceremonies remain strictly secret. The holy books are kept under their care. They have some ceremonies, or are supposed to have some, which are less pure and spiritual than those set forth in their creed. They assemble in their chapels (khulweh) every Thursday evening, refusing admission to all others. What they do then and there is unknown. A figure of a calf made of brass or other metal has been found in their places of worship, and is supposed by some to be an idol, but this they deny, and there can be no doubt that their books do not seem to teach or favour idolatry. Their places of worship are always in remote but conspicuous spots, as if to secure privacy and effectually guard against intrusion. On the whole, they seem to be more a political than a religious body. Their secret meetings are for collecting and communicating information, rather than for worship. The initiated are their chief advisers both in peace and war. The whole country in which they reside is divided into districts; each district has its council of initiated assembling weekly; a delegate from each council appears at the meetings of the councils of bordering districts to hear and to detail everything effecting the Druze interests. The rapidity and accuracy with which news is thus propagated is astonishing, and is of vast importance in time of war.

The Druzes are industrious and hospitable when at peace, but in war they are noted for their daring ferocity. They occupy the southern section of the ridge of Lebanon. They also abound in villages on the eastern and western declivities of Hermon and in Jebel-Hauran. There are a few in Damascus, and in one or two villages near it. Their numbers may be estimated at about 80,000.

3. The Christians are divided into several sects, as follows—

The Greeks. They are called Greeks simply because they profess the Greek faith, and belong to the Greek or Oriental Church. They are Syrians both by birth and descent; and there is not a trace either in their spoken language, or in the language of their ritual, of any national affinity with the people of Greece. Their number has been estimated at about 115,000. The Greek Church in Syria is divided into the two patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem. They are nominally independent, but virtually under the control of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Antioch, who usually resides at Damascus, extends from Asia-Minor to Tyre, and includes (in Syria) the eight bishoprics of Beyrouth, Tripolis, Akkar, Laodicea, Hamala, Hums, Saidnaya, and Tyre. The patriarchate of Jerusalem includes the whole of Palestine, and the country east of the Jordan. Its sees are Nazareth, Acre, Lydda, Gaza, Sebaste, Nablus, Philadelphia, and Petra. The Greek Church enjoys the privilege of having its religious services conducted in the language of the people. It is unfortunate, however, that nearly all the higher clergy are foreigners. They all look to Russia as their natural protector; and Russian gold is profusely expended in the decoration of their churches and support of schools. The parish clergy must all be married men; and most of them are selected from among the lowest of the people, with no other fitness for the sacred office than that which the ceremony of ordination confers.

The Syrians or Jacobites, originally separated from the Eastern Church on account of the Monophysite heresy. Their head is the patriarch, who resides in Mesopotamia. Their number is very small. The village of Sudud, southeast of Hums, on the borders of the desert, is their headquarters. They are regarded by all the other sects as heretics; and because they are few and poor they are generally despised.

The Maronites. This sect originated during the Monothelite controversy of the seventh century. A monk called John Maron was the apostle of this heresy among them, and they consequently received his name. In the year 1180 they renounced Monothelitism, and submitted to the authority of the Pope, since which time they have been characterised by an almost unparalleled devotedness to the see of Rome. In order to increase Romish influence among them, a college was founded in that city by Gregory XIII., for the education of a select number of their youth. The two celebrated Oriental scholars and writers, J. S. and J. A. Assemanns, were Maronites, trained in this college. It is remarkable, however, that a church so devoted to the papacy should deviate so far from the Latin ritual. Their ecclesiastical language is Syriac; they have their own distinct church establishment; and every candidate for the priesthood is permitted to marry before ordination.

The Maronites are found in small communities in all the large towns from Aleppo to Nazareth; but they are at home in Lebanon. This mountain-range they inhabit more or less throughout its whole extent; but their great stronghold is the district of Kesawan, east of Beyrouth. Their patriarch, who is their spiritual chief, is selected by the bishops, though he receives the robe of investiture from Rome. The Maronites have a strange taste for the cloister. The number of their convents is greater in proportion than that of any other sect in Christendom. Their whole community does not exceed 220,000 souls; and yet they have in Lebanon alone 82 convents, containing above 2000 monks and nuns. The Maronites are brave and industrious; and their native mountains, though steep and rugged, are the garden of Syria.

The Papal Schismatic Churches have sprung from the missionary efforts of Romish priests and Jesuits during the last two centuries. As the object was to gain partisans, more pains were taken to obtain nominal submission to the authority of the Pope than any real change of doctrine or ritual. They still retain their Arabic service, their oriental calendar, their communion in both kinds, and their married clergy. Their spiritual chief takes the pompous title of "Patriarch of Antioch and all the East." The community numbers about 40,000.

4. The Jews. A sketch of the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine would not be complete without a notice of the Jews. In one sense they are the most interesting people in the land. For eighteen centuries have they been driven forth from the country of their fathers, and yet they cling to its holy places still. They moisten the stones of Jerusalem with their tears; her very dust is dear to them, and their most earnest wish on earth is that their bodies should mingle with it. The tombs that whiten the side of Olivet tell a tale of mournful bereavement and undying affection unparalleled in the world's history. The Jews of Palestine are all foreigners. They live almost exclusively in the four holy cities, Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias, and Safet; and their whole number does not exceed 9000.

Altogether different from these are the Jews of Damascus and Aleppo. They are Arabs in habits and language, in so far at least as religion will permit. Some of them are men of great wealth and corresponding influence. For generations they have been the bankers of the local chiefs, and have often and fearfully realized all the strange fluctuations of Eastern life—now ruling a province, now gracing a pillory; at one time all-powerful favourites, at another disgraced and mutilated outcasts. Their number is about 15,000.

5. The Turks. The Turks are few in number, strangers in race and language, hated by every class, wanting in physical power, destitute of moral principle; and yet they are the despots of Syria. Those occupying the higher government situations are all Turks. They obtain their power by bribery, and they exercise it for extortion and oppression. Their character has been ably sketched by Hamilton:—"They are all ignorant and presumptuous, vain and bigoted, proud without any feeling of honour, and cringing without humility; they cannot resist the temptation of money, or the prospective benefit of a lie. In their government and administrative duties they are tyrannical and overbearing, in their religious doctrines dogmatical and intolerant, and in their fiscal measures mercenary and arbitrary. They are as ignorant of their own history as that of other nations; and this is the case even with the better educated, who are in most respects far inferior in character, probity, and honour to the peasants and the lower classes. As long as the Turk is poor, and removed from temptation, he is honest; but no sooner is he appointed to office, or obtains the management of public money, than his uneducated mind is unable to withstand the charm, and he becomes a speculator and a thief. He appropriates to himself whatever he can lay hands on, and oppresses those below him; while, for the sake of securing his ill-gotten plunder, he propitiates his superiors by bribery and adulation. This has undoubtedly led to the demoralizing practice of the Turkish government of selling all places to the highest bidder, allowing him in return to make the most he can out of the unprotected subjects by extortion and taxation." The Turkish rulers of Syria are here drawn to the life. The country has been ruled for centuries by foreign tyrants, who have no interest in either the soil or the people, save that of grasping their whole available wealth. The Turks have only been able to rule by the cruel policy of pitting against each other the various rival sects and parties. The results are patent—poverty, hatred, bigotry, and bloodshed. A few places along the coast have latterly begun to show signs of new life, owing mainly to the enterprise of European merchants, and the protection afforded to property by the influence of European consuls. Beyrouth shows what Syria might become under a liberal and paternal government. The eastern border affords a marked contrast to the western. Hundreds of towns and villages are there deserted, though not ruined, and every year adds to their number, while tens of thousands of acres of the richest soil are abandoned to the periodical raids of the Bedawin.

Syria, like Palestine, is emphatically a land of ruins. In Ruins some of her fairest provinces desolation reigns triumphant. Many of her noblest cities are now heaps of rubbish; others, though not ruined, are deserted. The silent streets and empty houses, and lonely, desolate palaces and temples of the latter, are even more painfully, more terribly impressive than the utter ruin of the former. The writer has seen in the province of Haurin alone nearly one hundred towns and large villages, most of which contain from fifty to five hundred houses each, perfect in every part as if only built yesterday, and yet there is not now, and history tells us there has not been for centuries, a single man to dwell in them. These houses are all of remote antiquity. Their walls, roofs, doors, and window-shutters are of stone, and so massive as almost to bid defiance to time. The names of a few of them are known in history—such as Pharno, Batanea, Kenath, Salech, Philippopolis, Beth-Gamul (Porter's Damascus, vol. ii.). In northern Syria there are also many deserted cities, some of which are in a wonderful state of preservation. In Jebel Siman, west of Aleppo; in Jebel-el-Ala, on the east bank of the Orontes; and again, around El-Bara, farther southward, these ancient deserted towns are found. (See Porter's Handbook, pp. 609, 617, sq.)

Some of the ruins of Syria, in their massive proportions and architectural splendour, rank among the finest in the world. Baalbek may be said to stand unrivalled, its cyclopean foundations containing stones from 60 to 70 feet long, surmounted by temples finished in the highest style of Grecian art. Palmyra, though less colossal and less pure in style, is still more striking in the vast extent of its ruins. The long colonnades of Apamea, the great tunnels and docks of Seleucia, and the massive fortifications of Tyre and Aradus, cannot fail to excite wonder and admiration. There are, besides, in the ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, upwards of fifty temples more or less dilapidated; and there are some huge castles, such as those of Banias, Esh-Sunkif, Hunin, El-Huss, Aleppo, Damascus, Bozrah, and Salcah, which prove that the old Syrians were masters in the science of military architecture. Of the ancient great cities of Syria no less than nine are now completely desolate—namely, Apamea, Laodicea-ad-Libanum, Seleucia Pieria, Orthosia, Arca, Chalcis, Phaeno, Bozrah, and Salcah; eight have dwindled down to poor and miserable villages—namely, Heliopolis, Palmyra, Tyre, Aradus, Riblah, Gebal, Edrei, and Kenath; Antioch, the capital in the age of Roman splendour; Sydon, the ancient capital of Phoenicia; and Hamath, one of the primeval strongholds of the Canaanites, are now small decaying towns; while Damascus alone, the oldest city of Syria, of the world, still retains its ancient prosperity.

The earliest notices of Syrian history are found in the Bible, which is at once the most ancient and the most authentic of all histories. In the 10th chapter of Genesis there is a brief record of the colonization of the nations of the world by the descendants of Noah. From this it appears that Syria, by the nature of its first settlement, was divided into two sections, which remained distinct for nearly 2000 years. The first section, embracing the whole eastern division of the country, was peopled by the family of Aram, Damascus being the metropolis, and probably the nucleus of the colony. The second, or western division, was colonized by the sons of Canaan—Sidon, Arka, and Arvad—who settled on the coast and in the ridge of Lebanon; and Hamath, who penetrated farther eastward than his brethren. The next event in the history of Syria was the advent of Abraham. A very early tradition represents him as settling for a time at Damascus; and it is corroborated by two facts,—his steward was a native of that city, and not far from Damascus there is still a sacred spot called by the name of the Patriarch. For a period of nearly nine centuries we have no records of Syrian history. In the time of King David (B.C. 1040), Syria is represented as consisting of a number of independent kingdoms, as Zobah, Damascus, Maacahah, and Geshur. Against these the Jewish monarch waged war, and, being successful, placed garrisons in their principal cities. After the death of David, Syria regained its independence. Now, however, the kingdom of Damascus attained to such power as to be the recognized head of Syria. Under the warlike dynasty of the Hadads it became the most influential kingdom in Western Asia; and by frequent incursions into the territories of Israel and Judah, and by the pillage of many of its cities and villages, it terribly revenged the victories of David. The watchful care and prophetic power of Elisha saved Israel for a time from the fury of its foe, and brought upon the armies of Benhadad unexpected calamities. About B.C. 892 Damascus was honoured by a visit from the prophet. Benhadad was then sick, and his sufferings not only made him overlook his old enmity to Elisha, but constrained him to consult him as to his recovery. The man who was sent on this errand was Hazael, whose guilty designs the prophet detected and exposed. His reply and subsequent conduct were thoroughly characteristic of the wily and cruel easterner, "Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing?" he exclaimed; and then turning away, he hastened to Damascus and murdered his master! Thus terminated the dynasty of Hadad, after a rule of more than 160 years. Hazael succeeded to the throne, and proved both a wise monarch and able general. Under him the armies of Syria were victorious to the borders of Egypt. His successors did not inherit his genius, and the power of Syria began to decline. About B.C. 750 Rezin, the last independent ruler of Syria, entered into an alliance with the king of Israel, and waged war against Judah. The latter, in its difficulties, sought aid from the powerful monarch of Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser, who was not slow to give it. He marched at once across the desert, overran Syria, took Damascus, and carried the inhabitants captive to the banks of the Kir. (2 Kings xvi.; Joseph. Antiq. ix. 12; Amos i. 4.)

Syria now became a mere dependency of a more powerful empire, and was ruled by foreign satraps. It remained a province of Assyria until, during the struggles of the eastern monarchs, it was seized by Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt. A few years afterwards it was captured by Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 604), and for a period of three centuries continued subject to the Babylonian and Persian administrations.

Immediately after the great battle of Issus (B.C. 333), Syria passed into the hands of a different dynasty and a different race. Alexander the Great became its ruler. He assigned it to the general Laomedon, and Damascus became the seat of his short sway. After the death of Alexander, and the brief but fierce struggle of his lieutenants over the fragments of his gigantic empire, the fortunes of war threw Syria into the power of Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the dynasty of the Seleucidæ. This prince built Antioch, and made it the seat of his government. He and his successors on the throne may justly be termed a race of architects. They not only adorned their capital with structures which rivalled in splendour the noblest monuments of Greece; but they founded many other great cities in various parts of the country. Though almost constantly at war, their kingdom was for nearly 200 years one of the most prosperous in the world. From the commencement of the reign of the Seleucidæ, till the year B.C. 114, Antioch remained undisputed capital. At this time the kingdom was rent by the intrigues of Ptolemy Physcon; and Antiochus Cyziacus, brother of the reigning monarch, established a new sovereignty at Damascus. Just half a century later the Roman army under Pompey overran Syria, abolished the dynasty of the Seleucidæ, and established their head-quarters at Damascus. Syria was immediately annexed to the Roman empire, and placed under the command of Scaurus, Pompey's lieutenant. For many years after the conquest, the country was the scene of devastating wars, arising partly from the feuds of petty princes, and partly from the rivalries of Roman governors. After the triumph of Augustus, Messalla Corvinus was appointed prefect, and henceforth the seat of government was fixed at Antioch.

In the year A.D. 105, Cornelius Palma, the governor of Syria under the emperor Trajan, conquered the region east of the Jordan, and the neighbouring kingdom of Arctas. From this time the various provinces of Syria began to recruit under the secure and paternal government of Rome. Temples, theatres, palaces, and public monuments of great extent and splendour, were erected not only in the chief cities, but in every little provincial town; and their remains even yet, after long centuries of desolation, bear ample testimony to the genius, the wealth, and the taste of the old Syrians. Roads also were constructed, bridges were built, and costly harbours formed. The country remained under Roman and Byzantine rule till A.D. 634. The only circumstances that occurred previous to that period, and which are deserving of notice in a brief sketch like the present, are the establishment of Christianity under the first Constantine, and the conquests of the Persians early in the seventh century. Christianity had spread widely over the land before its establishment as the religion of the empire; and the numbers, the wealth, and the taste of the Christians subsequent to that period may still, to some extent, be estimated by the splendid ruins of sacred edifices in the cities, towns, and villages of Syria.

The Arabs, under the generals Khaled and Abu Obeidah, first invaded Syria in A.D. 633; and only five years afterwards the whole country was conquered, and every city in it garrisoned by their troops. In sixteen years more Damascus became the capital of the vast Mohammedan empire. Syria was then densely populated. Her cities scarcely yielded to any in the world in extent, wealth, and architectural magnificence; but under the withering influence of Islamism their grandeur faded, and their wealth was consumed.

In A.D. 750 the dynasty of the Abbasides was founded, and the khalifate was removed from Damascus, first to Cufa and then to Baghdad. Henceforth Syria was a province of the Mohammedan empire. From this period till the middle of the tenth century it was subject to the Khalifs of Baghdad, but it then fell into the hands of the Fatimite dynasty of Egypt. Towards the close of the following century the country was invaded by the Seljukian Turks, and formed into a division of their empire. The cruelties perpetrated by these fanatics on the poor Christian pilgrims that thronged yearly to Jerusalem roused the spirit of western Europe, and excited Christian nations to the first Crusade. In a short time the knights of France and England, headed by Godfrey, were winding through the valleys and marching over the plains of Syria. The fierce, undisciplined followers of the false prophet could not withstand their steady valour. The country was subdued, Jerusalem was taken by storm, and the cruelties perpetrated on Christian pilgrims were fearfully avenged.

Godfrey was elected first Christian king of Jerusalem. Bohemund reigned at Antioch; Baldwin, Godfrey's brother, at Edessa; and the Count of Toulouse at Tripolis. Thus was the country divided into Christian principalities, and ruled by the bravest knights of western Europe. Damascus, however, withstood every assault of the Crusaders; and it is still the boast of the proud Muslem, that its sacred precincts have never been polluted by the feet of an infidel since the day the soldiers of Mohammed first entered it.

About the middle of the twelfth century Nur-ed-Din, a Tartar chief, seized Damascus and some neighbouring cities. He ruled his acquired territory with justice and vigour. At the request of the Fatimita Khalif, he attacked and defeated the Crusaders on the borders of Egypt. His successor, Saladin, was by far the most formidable opponent the Crusaders ever encountered. After gaining a decisive victory over their united forces at Hattin, near Tiberias, he captured Jerusalem (A.D. 1187), and drove the Franks out of almost every town and fortress of Palestine. Soon afterwards Syria was invaded by the shepherd-soldiers of Tartary, under Holagou, the grandson of Gengis Khan. But, after the death of this chief, Bibars, better known in Arabian history as Melek-edh-Dhaber, brought Syria under the rule of Egypt, and pursued the Tartars beyond the Euphrates. His victories were fatal to the declining power of the Crusaders. Their remaining history is one continued tale of misfortunes. At length, in A.D. 1291, Acre was taken, and the Christian knights driven from the shores of Syria.

For more than two centuries after this period the country was the theatre of fierce contests between the hordes of Tartary and the Mamluke rulers of Egypt. Timur, or Tamerlane, invaded Syria in A.D. 1401, and committed the most fearful ravages. Antioch, Emesa, Baalbek, and Damascus were reduced to ashes, and their unfortunate inhabitants either murdered or sold into slavery.

In the year 1517 Syria was conquered by the Sultan Selim I., and from that time till the present day it has formed part of the Ottoman empire. During this period, though the country has been visited by few striking vicissitudes, it has steadily declined in power, wealth, and population. The greater part of the inhabitants, oppressed by foreign rulers who take no interest in commerce or agriculture, have sunk into helplessness and almost hopeless slavery. What little energy and spirit remain are exhausted in private quarrels and party feuds, which are sedulously fostered by their unprincipled rulers. In 1832 Ibrahim Pasha conquered Syria for his father, Mohammed Aly. The iron rule of that wonderful man did much to break down the fanaticism which for ages has been a curse to the people. He promoted industry, he suppressed the robber bands which infested the leading roads, and he drove the Arab tribes from the eastern borders to the interior of their native deserts, and even there he taught them to fear and obey him. Though the whole population groaned under his yoke, yet it may be truly said that he was the only real ruler Syria had for centuries. In the year 1841, through the armed intervention of England, the country was restored to the Porte.

The long history of Syria may thus be divided into six periods; and it is remarkable that, during each period, a distinct section of the human family has had rule over it. During the first period, of about 1450 years, it was independent under its native princes. During the second period, of 417 years, the Babylonian and Persian monarchs held it. During the third period of 268 years, it was subject to the Greek dynasty of the Seleucidae. During the fourth period, of 699 years, the Romans possessed it. During the fifth period, of 441 years, it was desolated rather than governed by the Saracens or Arabs. It then fell into the hands of the Tartar or Turkish tribes, who still retain it. But their power is rapidly declining. The throne founded by Othman is tottering to its fall; and the sixth period of Syrian history is fast drawing to a close.

(J.L.P.)