GEOGRAPHY

Genus. genera is, according to Mr Locke, as follows.-- Observing several things, that differ from the mind's idea of man, for instance, and therefore cannot be comprehended under that name, to agree with man in some certain qualities; by retaining only those qualities, and uniting them into one idea, it gets another more general idea, to which giving a name, it makes a new genus, or a term of a more comprehensive extension. Thus, by leaving out the shape, and other properties signified by the word man, and retaining only a body with life, sense, and spontaneous motion, we form the idea signified by the name animal. By the same way the mind proceeds to body, substance, and at last to being, thing, and such universal terms as stand for any ideas whatever. This shews the reason why, in defining things, we make use of the genus, namely, to save the labour of enumerating the several simple ideas which the next term stands for: from whence it appears, that genus is no more than an abstract idea, comprehending a greater or less number of species, or more particular classes. See SPECIES. GENUS is also used for a character or manner applicable to every thing of a certain nature or condition: in which sense it serves to make capital divisions in divers sciences, as rhetoric, anatomy, and natural history. GENUS, in rhetoric. Authors distinguish the art of rhetoric, as also orations or discourses produced thereby, into three genera or kinds, demonstrative, deliberative, and judiciary. To the demonstrative kind belong panegyrics, genethliacons, epithalamiums, funeral harangues, &c. To the deliberative kind belong persuasions, dissuasions, commendations, &c. To the judiciary kind belong defences and accusations. GENUS, in natural history, a subdivision of any class or order of natural beings, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in certain common characters. See BOTANY and ZOOLOGY. GENUS, in music, by the ancients called genus melodie, is a certain manner of dividing and subdividing the principles of melody; that is, the consonant and dissonant intervals, into their concinnous parts. The moderns considering the octave as the most perfect of intervals, and that whereon all the concords depend, in the present theory of music, the division of that interval is considered as containing the true division of the whole scale. But the ancients went to work somewhat differently: the diatessaron, or fourth, was the least interval which they admitted as concord; and therefore they sought first how that might be most conveniently divided; from whence they constituted the diapente and diapason. The diatessaron being thus, as it were, the root and foundation of the scale, what they called the genera, or kinds, arose from its various divisions; and hence Geocentric they defined the genus moduli to be the manner of dividing the tetrachord and disposing its four sounds Geography. as to succession. The genera of music were three, the enharmonic, chromatic, and diatonic. The two first were variously subdivided: and even the last, tho' that is commonly reckoned to be without any species; yet different authors have proposed different divisions under that name, without giving any particular names to the species, as was done to the other two. For the characters, &c. of these several genera, see ENHARMONIC, CHROMATIC, and DIATONIC. GEOCENTRIC, in astronomy, is applied to a planet, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth, or as having the earth for its centre, or the same centre with the earth. GEOFFREY of MONMOUTH, bishop of St Asaph, called by our ancient biographers Gallofridus Monmetsis. Leland conjectures that he was educated in a Benedictine convent at Monmouth, where he was born; and that he became a monk of that order. Bale, and after him Pitts, call him archdeacon of Monmouth; and it is generally asserted that he was made bishop of St Asaph in the year 1151 or 1152, in the reign of king Stephen. His history was probably finished after the year 1138. It contains a fabulous account of British kings, from the Trojan Brutus, to the reign of Cadwallader in the year 690. But Geoffrey, whatsoever censure he may deserve for his credulity, was not the inventor of the stories he relates. It is a translation from a manuscript written in the British language, and brought to England from Armorica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Oxford. But the achievements of king Arthur, Merlin's prophecies, many speeches and letters, were chiefly his own addition. In excuse for this historian, Mr Wharton judiciously observes, that fabulous histories were then the fashion, and popular traditions a recommendation to his book. GEOFFROY (STEPHEN FRANCIS), a celebrated physician, botanist, and chemist, born at Paris in 1672. After having finished his studies, he travelled into England, Holland, and Italy. In 1704, he received the degree of doctor of physic at Paris; and at length became professor of chemistry, and physician of the Royal College. He was a member of the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote, 1. Several very curious Theses in Latin, which were afterwards translated into French. 2. An excellent treatise, intitled Traſlatus de Materia Medica, ſive de Medicamentorum ſimplicium, hiſtoria, virtute, delectu, & uſu. He died at Paris, in 1731. GEOGRAPHICAL MILE, the same with the sea-mile; being one minute, or the 60th part of a degree of a great circle on the earth's surface. G E O G R A P H Y. GEOGRAPHY (γεωγραφία, from γῆ terra, and γράφω scribo); the doctrine or knowledge of the earth, both as in itself, and as to its affections; or a description of the terrestrial globe, and particularly of the known and inhabitable parts thereof, with all its different divisions. SECT. I. History of the Science. At what time the science of geography began first to be studied among mankind is entirely uncertain. It is generally agreed, that the knowledge of it was derived to the Greeks, who first of the European nations cultivated this science, from the Egyptians or Babylonians; but it is impossible to determine which of these two nations had the honour of the invention. Herodotus tells us, that the Greeks first learned the pole, the gnomon, and the twelve divisions of the day, from the Babylonians. By Pliny, and Diogenes Laertius, however, we are told, that Thales of Miletus first found out the passage of the sun from tropic to tropic; which he could not have done without the assistance of a gnomon. He is said to have been the author of two books, the one on the tropic, and the other on the equinox; both of which he probably determined by the gnomon; and by this he was led to the discovery of the four seasons of the year, which are determined by the solstices and equinoxes. Thales divided the year into 365 days; which was undoubtedly a method discovered by the Egyptians, and communicated by them to him. It is said to have been invented by the second Mercury, surnamed Trismegistus, who, according to Eusebius, lived about 50 years after the Exodus. Pliny tells us expressly, that this discovery was made by observing when the shadow returned to its marks; a clear proof that it was done by the gnomon. Thales also knew the method of determining the height of bodies by the length of their shadows, as appears by his proposing this method for measuring the height of the Egyptian pyramids. Hence many learned men have been of opinion, that as the use of the gnomon was known in Egypt long before the dawn of learning in Greece, the pyramids and obelisks, which to common travellers appeared only to be buildings of magnificence, were in reality as many sun-dials on a very large scale, and built with a design to ascertain the season of the year, by the variation of the length of their shadows; and, in confirmation of this opinion, it was found by M. Chazelles in 1694, that the two sides, both of the larger and smaller pyramids, stood exactly north and south; so that, even at this day, they form true meridian lines. From the days of Thales, who flourished in the sixth century before Christ, very little seems to have been done towards the establishment of geography for 200 years. During this period, there is only one astronomical observation recorded; namely, that of Meton and Euctemon, who observed the summer solstice at Athens, during the archonship of Aspœdes, on the 21st of the Egyptian month Phamenoth, in the morning, being the 27th of June, 432. B. C. This observation was made by watching narrowly the shadow of the gnomon, and was done with a design to fix the beginning of their cycle of 19 years. Timocharis and Aristillus, who began to observe about 295 B. C. seem to have been the first who attempted to fix the longitudes and latitudes of the fixed stars, by considering their distances from the equator. One of their observations gave rise to the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes, which was first observed by Hipparchus about 150 years after; and he made use of Timocharis and Aristillus's method, in order to delineate the parallels of latitude, and the meridians on the surface of the earth; thus laying the foundation of the science of geography as we have it at present. But though the latitudes and longitudes were thus introduced by Hipparchus, they were not attended to by any of the intermediate astronomers, till the days of Ptolemy. Strabo, Vitruvius, and Pliny, have all of them entered into a minute geographical description of the situation of places, according to the length of the shadows of the gnomon, without taking the least notice of the degrees and minutes of longitude and latitude. The discovery of the longitudes and latitudes immediately laid a foundation for making maps, or delineations of the surface of the earth in plano, on a very different plan from what had been attempted before. Formerly the maps were little more than rude outlines and topographical sketches of different countries. The earliest were those of Sesostris, mentioned by Eustathius; who says, that "this Egyptian king, having traversed great part of the earth, recorded his march in maps, and gave copies of his maps not only to the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great astonishment.—Some have imagined, that the Jews made a map of the Holy Land, when they gave the different portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh: for Joshua tells us, that they were sent to walk through the land, and that they described it in seven parts in a book; and Josephus tells us, that when Joshua sent out people from the different tribes to measure the land, he gave them, as companions, persons well skilled in geometry, who could not be mistaken in the truth. The first Grecian map on record is that of Anaximander, mentioned by Strabo, lib. i. p. 7. It has been conjectured by some, that this was a general map of the then known world, and is imagined to be the one referred to by Hipparchus under the designation of the ancient map. Herodotus minutely describes a map made by Aristagoras tyrant of Miletus, which will serve to give us some idea of the maps of those ages. He tells us, that Aristagoras showed it to Cleomenes king of Sparta, with a view of inducing him to attack the king of Persia, even in his palace at Susa, in order to restore the Ionians to their ancient liberty. It was traced upon brass or copper, and contained the intermediate countries which were to be traversed in that march. Herodotus tells us, that it contained "the whole circumference of the earth, the whole sea, or ocean, and all the rivers:" but these words must not be understood literally. From the state of geography at that time, it may be fairly concluded that by the sea was meant no more than the Mediterranean; and therefore, the earth or land signified the coasts of that sea, and more particularly the Lesser Asia, extending towards the middle of Persia. The rivers were the Halys, the Euphrates, and Tigris, which Herodotus mentions as necessary to be crossed in that expedition. It contained one straight line, called the Royal Highway, which took in all the stations or places of encampment from Sardis to Susa. Of these there were 111 in the whole journey, containing HISTORY. taining 13,500 stadia, or 1687 \frac{1}{2} Roman miles of 5000 feet each. These itinerary maps of the places of encampment were indispensably necessary in all armies. Athenæus quotes Bæton as author of a work intitled, The encampments of Alexander's march; and likewise Amyn-tas to the same purpose. Pliny tells us, that Diogenes and Bæton were the surveyors of Alexander's marches, and then quotes the exact number of miles according to their mensuration; which he afterwards confirms by the letters of Alexander himself. It likewise appears, that Alexander was very careful in examining the measures of his surveyors, and took care to employ the most skilful in every country for this purpose. The same author also acquaints us, that a copy of this great monarch's surveys, was given by Xenocles his treasurer, to Patrocles the geographer, who, as Pliny informs us, was admiral of the fleets of Seleucus and Antiochus. His book on geography is often quoted both by Strabo and Pliny; and it appears, that this author furnished Eratosthenes with the principal materials for constructing his map of the oriental part of the world. Eratosthenes was the first who attempted to reduce geography to a regular system, and introduced a regular parallel of latitude. This was traced over certain places where the longest day was of the same length. He began it from the straits of Gibraltar; and it thence passed through the Sicilian sea, and near the southern extremities of Peloponnesus. From thence it was continued through the Island of Rhodes and the Bay of Issus; and there entering Cilicia, and crossing the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, it was extended to the mountains of India. By means of this line, he endeavoured to rectify the errors of the ancient map, supposed to be that of Anaximander. In drawing this parallel, he was regulated by observing where the longest day was fourteen hours and an half, which Hipparchus afterwards determined to be the latitude of 36 degrees. The first parallel through Rhodes was ever afterwards considered with a degree of preference, like the foundation-stone of all ancient maps; and the longitude of the then known world was often attempted to be measured in stadia and miles, according to the extent of that line, by many succeeding geographers. Eratosthenes soon after attempted, not only to draw other parallels of latitude, but also to trace a meridian, at right angles to these, passing through Rhodes and Alexandria, down to Syene and Meroë; and as the progress he thus made tended naturally to enlarge his ideas, he at last undertook a still more arduous task, namely, to determine the circumference of the globe, by an actual measurement of a segment of one of its great circles. Here he made his computation by uniting certain accurate observations made in the heavens, with a corresponding distance carefully surveyed and taken upon a meridian of the earth. The segment of the meridian which he pitched upon for this purpose, was that between Alexandria and Syene, the distance betwixt which places was found to be 5000 stadia. The angle of the shadow on the sun-dial of Alexandria was equal to the 50th part of the circle; but at Syene there was no shadow on the day of the summer solstice; and that this might be the more accurately observed, they dug a deep well, which being perpendicular, was completely illuminated at the bottom when the sun was vertical. Even this, however, was not sufficient to give the exact line of the tropic; because the sun was found to be vertical, or to cast no shadow at all, for a circular space of 300 stadia. The reason of this is, that the apparent diameter of the sun is 32 minutes, and he must therefore appear perpendicular to an extent of ground equivalent to that space. The investigation of this problem of the circumference of the earth was essentially necessary for determining the radical principles of all maps; and therefore the most eminent of the ancient geographers made repeated attempts to discover this exactly. Eratosthenes made the circumference 250,000 or 252,000 stadia; thus allowing 700 stadia, or 87 \frac{1}{2} Roman miles, to each degree. Hipparchus added 25,000 stadia to this measurement of Eratosthenes, which increased the degree to 96 Roman miles. Ptolemy, however, having obtained a more accurate measurement than that of Eratosthenes, reduced the circumference of the earth to 180,000 stadia, and the degree to 62 \frac{1}{2} Roman miles. The map of Eratosthenes, though the best of which antiquity can boast, was nevertheless exceedingly imperfect and inaccurate. It contained little more than the states of Greece, and the dominions of the successors of Alexander, digested according to the surveys above-mentioned. He had seen, indeed, and has quoted, the voyages of Pytheas into the great Atlantic ocean, which gave him some faint idea of the western parts of Europe; but so imperfect, that they could not be realised into the outlines of a chart. Strabo tells us, that he was extremely ignorant of Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Britain. He was equally ignorant of Italy, the coasts of the Adriatic, Pontus, and all the countries towards the north. We are also told by the same author, that Eratosthenes made the distance between Epidamnus or Dyrrhachium on the Adriatic, and the bay of Thermæ on the Ægean sea, to be only 900 stadia, when in reality it was above 2000; and in another instance, he had enlarged the distance from Carthage to Alexandria to 15,000 stadia, when in reality it was no more than 9000. Such was the state of geography and the nature of the maps prior to the time of Hipparchus; who, as already observed, made a closer connection between geography and astronomy, by determining the longitudes and latitudes from celestial observations. It must be owned, however, that the previous steps to this new projection of the sphere had been in a great measure made easy by Archimedes, upwards of 50 years before the time of Hipparchus, when he invented his noble theorems for measuring the surface of a sphere and its different segments. It appears that war has been generally the occasion of making the most accurate maps of different countries; and therefore geography made great advances from the progress of the Roman arms. In all the provinces occupied by that people, we find that camps were every where constructed at proper intervals, and roads were raised with substantial materials, for making an easier communication between them; and thus civilisation and surveying were carried on according to system throughout the extent of that large empire. HISTORY. Every new war produced a new survey and itinerary of the countries where the scenes of action passed; so that the materials of geography were accumulated by every additional conquest. Polybius tells us, that at the beginning of the second Punic war, when Hannibal was preparing his expedition against Rome, the countries through which he was to pass, were carefully measured by the Romans. Julius Cæsar caused a general survey of the Roman empire to be made, by a decree of the senate. Three surveyors, Zenodorus, Theodotus, and Polycritus, had this task assigned them, and are said to have completed it in 25 years. The Roman itineraries that are still extant, also shew what care and pains they had been at in making surveys in all the different provinces of their empire; and Pliny has filled the third, fourth, and fifth books of his Natural History with the geographical distances that were thus measured. We have likewise another set of maps still preserved to us, known by the name of the Peutingirian Tables, published by Welfer and Bertius, which give a sufficient specimen of what Vegetius calls the Itinera Pilla, for the clearer direction of their armies in their march. The Roman empire had been enlarged to its greatest extent, and all its provinces well known and surveyed, when Ptolemy, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 150 years after Christ, composed his system of geography. The principal materials he made use of for composing this work, were the proportions of the gnomon to its shadow, taken by different astronomers at the times of the equinoxes and solstices; calculations founded upon the length of the longest days; the measures or computed distances of the principal roads contained in their surveys and itineraries; and the various reports of travellers and navigators, who often determined the distances of places by hearsay and conjecture. All these were compared together, and digested into one uniform body or system; and afterwards were translated by him into a new mathematical language, expressing the different degrees of longitude and latitude, according to the invention of Hipparchus, but which Ptolemy had the merit of carrying into full practice and execution, after it had been neglected for upwards of 250 years. With such imperfect and inaccurate materials, it is no wonder to find many errors in Ptolemy's system. Neither were these errors such as had been introduced in the more distant extremities of his maps, but even in the very centre of that part of the world which was the best known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and where all the famed ancient astronomers had made their observations. Yet this system, with all its imperfections, continued in vogue till the beginning of the present century. The improvements in geography which at that time, and since have taken place, were owing to the great progress made in astronomy by several eminent men who lived during that period. More correct methods and instruments for observing the latitude were found out, and the discovery of Jupiter's satellites afforded a much easier method of finding the longitudes than was formerly known. The voyages made by different nations also, which were now become much more frequent than formerly, brought to the knowledge of the Europeans a vast number of countries utterly unknown to them before. The late voyages of Captain HISTORY. Cooke, made by order of his Britannic Majesty, have contributed more to the improvement of geography than any thing that has been done during the present century; so that now the geography of the utmost extremities of the earth is in a fair way of being much better known to the moderns, than that of the most adjacent countries was to the ancients. This, however, must be understood only of the sea-coasts of these countries; for, as to their internal geography, it is less known now than before, except in a very few places. On the whole, it may be observed, that geography is a science even yet far from perfection. The maps of America and the eastern parts of Asia are, perhaps, more unfinished than any of the rest. Even the maps of Great Britain and Ireland are very imperfect and unsatisfactory; and the numbers we have of them, varied, and republished, without any real improvement, justly confirm an observation made by Lord Bacon, namely, that an opinion of plenty is one of the causes of want. The late Dr Bradley was of opinion, that there were but two places in England whose longitude might be depended upon as accurately taken; and that these were the observatory at Greenwich, and Serburn-castle the seat of the Earl of Macclesfield in Oxfordshire; and that their distance was one degree in space, or four minutes in time. Even this was found to be inaccurate, the distance in time being observed by the late transit of Venus to be only three minutes and forty-seven seconds. It were well, however, if there were no greater errors with regard to other places: but if we examine the longitude of the Lizard, we shall find scarce any two geographers that agree concerning it; some making it 4^{\circ} 40' from London; others 5^{\circ}, and 5^{\circ} 14'; while some enlarge it to 6^{\circ}. Our best maps are therefore still to be considered as unfinished works, where there will always be many things to be added and corrected, as different people have an opportunity. SECT. II. Principles and Practice of Geography. The practical part of geography consists in measuring the distances between different places on the surface of the earth, and laying them down upon paper according to their different longitudes and latitudes. For this purpose, an exact observation of the longitudes and latitudes of the different places is sufficient; for when once these are known, the distance between the places themselves is easily found, that is to say, provided the extent of the circumference of the earth is known; for without this, it is impossible to ascertain the distance between any two places except by actual mensuration. For the solution of this problem, it is only necessary to measure one degree of the earth's surface; which may be done in the following manner. Having found exactly the latitude of the place from whence your mensuration is to commence, by the directions given under Astronomy, no 209. proceed exactly northward or southward, carefully measuring the distance as you go along, till you find by another celestial observation that you are got to one degree of latitude either farther north or farther south than the place from whence you set out. The distance between the two places is the length of a degree on the earth's surface; and consequently, if multiplied by 360, will give the measure of the whole circumference of the earth. This. This method, however, though in theory it seems to be so easy and simple, is nevertheless attended with very great, nay, almost insurmountable, difficulties in practice. It is impossible to find a perfect plane on the surface of the earth, which extends for so great a length. In the mensuration of a degree, therefore, the inequalities with which the earth every where abounds are found to be exceeding great obstacles. For this reason, we are obliged to have recourse to trigonometrical calculations of the distances between different places, till we arrive at one distant from that whence we set out by a degree of latitude. But it is impossible to make any calculation in the trigonometrical way without some small error; nay, often not without a very great one; for the different states of the atmosphere are found greatly to affect trigonometrical mensurations. Hence there hath arisen a prodigious disagreement among those who have attempted to measure the circumference of the terreaqueous globe; for as a degree of the earth's surface cannot be measured but by many calculations, the error in one being repeated in all the rest must necessarily become very considerable at last. Those who first attempted this mensuration, computed the circumference of the earth to be 50,000 Italian miles; by Ptolemy it was reckoned only 21,600 of the same miles; and the more modern geometricians have computed the circumference of the earth at about 25,000 miles. A method more easily practicable would seem to be by attempting to measure the degrees of longitude. We know, that at the equator a degree of longitude is equal to a degree of latitude; but as we advance towards either of the poles, the degrees of longitude continually decrease by reason of the approximation of the meridians to each other, till at the pole itself they totally vanish. If we know the length of a degree of longitude at the equator, therefore, we can easily, by a geometrical calculation liable to no unavoidable error, find the length of a degree of longitude at any distance either north or south from the equator. Again, if we know the measure of a degree of longitude at any distance from the equator, we may easily, by a like calculation, find the length of a degree of longitude at the equator itself. If, therefore, attempts are made to measure the degrees of longitude at the equator itself, and in many different places north and south from it, making at the same time proper geometrical calculations, it is plain that all these different operations will tend to confirm or correct one another, and by their mutual agreement or disagreement among themselves we will know which of them comes nearest the truth. As a difference in longitude makes also a difference in the hour of the day, we have from thence a much easier method of measuring a degree of longitude than of measuring one of latitude. We know, that if two places are distant from each other by 15 degrees of longitude, it will be one o'clock in the afternoon in the one, when it is only twelve o'clock in the other. If they are distant from each other by a single degree of longitude, it will be four minutes after twelve at the one, when it is exactly twelve at the other. If they are distant half a degree, the difference will be two minutes; or if a quarter of a degree, the difference in time will be one minute. Instruments for computing time, are now brought to such a degree of perfection, that if two of them are exactly set with each other, they may be safely trusted for a much longer time than what is necessary for the operation we now speak of. Having therefore chosen our first station, and drawn there a meridian line as directed at Astronomia, no 174, 175. we must observe exactly when the sun is in the meridian, and then set our time-piece to twelve o'clock. We must then proceed directly eastward or westward a considerable way, till we arrive at some other convenient station; and having there also drawn a meridian line, we are to observe exactly by it when the sun comes to the meridian, and looking upon our time-piece at the same time, we will know how much the one place differs from the other in longitude by the distance of time shewn by the time-piece either before or after twelve, when the sun is exactly in the meridian of the second station. The advantages which this method hath over the other, arise from the exactness with which the instrument is supposed to measure time, and from there being a less space on the surface of the earth to be measured than in the other. A minute, or even half a minute of time, may be observed by a proper instrument very exactly; and one of Mr Harrison's time-pieces may undoubtedly be trusted as perfectly exact for two or three days. If we attempt the mensuration of a degree of longitude at the equator, we must choose our second station at a considerable distance before we can expect a variation in time great enough to be observed with any tolerable accuracy: thus before a difference of one minute at the equator could be perceived, we must travel more than 17 English miles eastward or westward; but in the latitude of 60 degrees we would only have half that space to travel, and therefore could measure it with more exactness; at the latitude of 70 degrees, little more than a third of that space would require to be measured; and at 80 degrees, scarce an eighth part. The extreme cold in these high latitudes, however, renders it almost impossible to penetrate so far; though the voyage of the Hon. Constantine Phipps afforded a very favourable opportunity for a mensuration of this kind, and several as favourable opportunities as could be wished occurred in the voyages of captain Cook, had such a thing been thought of. Yet it is not to be expected that the extent of the earth's circumference will ever be known with great accuracy, though we are certainly not yet arrived at the nearest approximation to truth which is attainable on this subject. Hitherto we have supposed the circumference of the earth to be exactly circular, or the globe itself to be a perfect sphere; but, from some observations, this appears not to be the case. Some time ago, the French made an observation, shewing that a pendulum vibrates slower in proportion as it is brought nearer to the equator: that is, the gravity or celerity of descent of the pendulum, and of all other bodies, is less in countries approaching to the equator than in places near either pole. This excited the curiosity of the celebrated philosophers Huygens and Newton, who thence conjectured that the earth must have some other figure than what was commonly supposed. Sir Isaac Newton afterwards demonstrated that this diminution of weight naturally arises from the earth's rotation round its axis; which, according to the laws of circular motion, repels all heavy bodies from the axis of motion: so that this motion, being swifter at the equator than in parts more remote, the weight of bodies must also be much less there than nearer the poles *. To determine this matter, several mathematicians were by the French king employed to measure a degree on the earth's surface in different parts of the world; and, according to their mensurations, the diameter of the earth from north to south is shorter than that from east to west, by 36 miles. With regard to the method of finding the longitudes and latitudes of particular places, rules have been already laid down under Astronomy, No. 209. and 282, 283. The same thing, however, may be done by other methods. Thus, the latitude may be found by observing exactly the meridian altitude of the sun, and knowing his declination for that day, the declination subtracted from the meridian altitude gives the complement of the latitude, and this last subtracted from 90° leaves the latitude required. As to the longitude, Mr Harrison, by his invention of time-pieces which go much more exactly than either clocks or watches could be made to do formerly, hath in a great measure facilitated that. For, supposing any person, possessed of one of these time-pieces, to set out on a journey, e. g. from London. If he adjusts his time-piece properly before he goes away, he will know the hour at London exactly, let him go where he pleases; and when he hath proceeded so far either eastward or westward, that a difference is perceived betwixt the hours shown by his time-piece, and those on the clocks or watches at the place to which he goes, the distance of that place from London in degrees and minutes of longitude will be known; and if the length of a degree of longitude is known, the real distance between the two places may also be easily found. It is not to be expected, however, that any instrument, with whatever care it may be constructed, can always be depended upon as an exact measurer of time; and therefore frequent corrections of longitudes taken in this manner will be necessary. The method of finding the longitude from the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites appears to be the best of any. Eclipses of the sun, and occultations of the stars by the moon, are also very proper, though they happen but seldom. Eclipses of the moon have also been made use of for this purpose; but it is found impossible to observe either the beginning or end of a lunar eclipse with the accuracy necessary for determining the longitude of any place. All these different methods agree in this, that they determine the longitude by the difference of time between the observation of the phenomenon in two different places; and of this time, four minutes are to be allowed for every degree of longitude either east or west. After the geographer is thus become acquainted with the longitudes and latitudes of a great number of different places, he may delineate them upon paper, or make a map, either of the whole world, or of any particular country, with which he is best acquainted. General maps of the world, or of very large tracts, answer the purpose of shewing in what manner the different countries of the world lie with respect to each other. They cannot be made of such a size as to admit the delineation of many particular towns or cities, neither indeed is it at all required. Where the whole world is delineated at once, the mind can hardly take in more than the idea of the situations of different kingdoms from one another; the situations of the different cities of each particular kingdom being almost wholly overlooked, and not attended to: and this happens likewise where a very large portion of the globe, as one of the four quarters, is represented on a single map. Besides these, therefore, it is necessary to have particular maps of all the different countries done upon a larger scale, that thus the mind may not be fatigued by endeavouring to comprehend too much at once. The qualifications which maps ought to have, in order to render them complete, are, 1. That they represent the countries exactly of the same shape, and in the same proportions to the eye, that they really have on the earth itself. 2. That the divisions of one country from another be distinctly marked, and readily perceptible, without a disagreeable and tedious search. 3. That the longitudes and latitudes of different places be found exactly on the map, and with little or no trouble. The foundation of all maps is what is called the projection of the sphere, i. e. the delineation of those circles apparently traced out by the sun in the heavens, upon some substance, either plane or spherical, designed to represent the surface of the earth; upon which also are delineated the parallels of latitude, and the meridians, in as great numbers as the size of the map will admit of without confusion. These delineations upon a spherical surface are very easy: and under the article GLOBE, full directions are given for the construction of the spherical substances upon which maps of the earth and the heavens are usually delineated; and which, when furnished with the rest of their apparatus, are called terrestrial and celestial globes. The method of drawing the maps for these globes, is never followed in any other case; for which reason it is also referred to the article GLOBE. The ordinary kinds of maps are constructed by delineating the circles of the sphere upon a plane surface, according to the rules of perspective. This is properly the projection of the sphere; and is designed to give a view of the terraqueous globe, as it would appear, at some distance, to an eye that could take in the whole extent of it at once. §. 1. Of Projections of the Sphere, and Maps. Of projections there are two kinds, the orthographic and stereographic; both of which represent the surface of the earth projected upon the plane of one of its great circles. 1. The orthographic supposes the eye to be placed at an infinite distance in the axis of the circle of projection, while the second supposes it to be only in the pole of that circle. The circles on which the projections are usually made, are, the equator, some of the meridians, or the rational horizon of some particular place. For maps of the world, a meridian is generally chosen, and most commonly that one which passes through Ferro, one of the Canary Islands, because thus the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, are conveniently delineated in one circle, and America in the other. A faint, circular map of the world, likely a projection of a globe. It shows the outlines of the continents and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. The map is oriented with the North Pole at the top. A faint, circular map of the world, similar to the one on the left. It shows the outlines of the continents and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. The word "PLACES" is visible near the top of the map, possibly indicating a specific region or a title. A faint, circular map of the world, showing the outlines of the continents and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. It is positioned in the center-left of the page. A faint, circular map of the world, showing the outlines of the continents and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. It is positioned in the bottom-right corner of the page. A faint, circular map of the world, showing the outlines of the continents and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. It is positioned in the bottom-left corner of the page. GEOGRAPHY. Fig. 2. 2d Plate CXV. Fig. 1. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. Fig. 3. Fig. 6. A. Bell's Sculp. 1. To project the sphere orthographically on the plane of any meridian, we have only to consider, that as the eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance, all the rays which come from the disk of the earth are parallel; and consequently all lines drawn from the eye to the disk must be perpendicular to the latter. Let, therefore, ABCD, (fig. 1.) represent the plane of one of the meridians. The equator, which cuts all the meridians in the middle, must be represented by an infinite number of points let fall upon the plane of projection, and dividing it exactly in the middle; that is, by the right line BD. The parallels of latitude, being also perpendicular to the plane of the meridian, will be marked out by an infinite number of right lines let fall from their peripheries upon that plane, thus forming the right lines ab, cd, &c. The meridians will likewise be represented on the disk by an infinite number of right lines let fall perpendicularly from their peripheries upon the plane of projection, and thus will form the elliptic curves A_1OC, A_2OC, &c. From an inspection of the figure, therefore, it appears, that in this projection both longitudes and latitudes are measured by a line of lines, and both of them decrease prodigiously as we approach the edges of the disk; and hence the countries which lie at a distance from the equator are exceedingly distorted, and it is even impossible to draw them with any degree of accuracy. The orthographic projection on the plane of a meridian, therefore, is never used for a map of the world. 2. On the plane of the equator, the orthographic projection represents the meridians as straight lines diverging from a centre, and the parallels of latitude as concentric circles. The latter, however, are by no means to be placed at equal distances from each other; for the meridians are to be divided by the line of lines, as in the last; and thus the equatorial parts of the globe are as much distorted and confused as the polar ones were in the foregoing. This projection, therefore, is seldom used for a map of the whole world, though it answers very well for a representation of the polar regions. 3. On the horizon of any particular place, except either of the poles, or any point lying directly under the equator, the orthographic projection represents both parallels and meridians by segments of ellipses. The figure shows a map done on the horizon of Ur of the Chaldees: it is obvious, however, that a considerable degree of distortion takes place here also; though less than in the former cases. Projections of this kind, therefore, are used only for the construction of solar eclipses. See ASTRONOMY, no 269. II. The stereographic projection of the sphere supposes the eye to be in the pole of the circle of projection. The laws of this projection are, 1. A right circle is projected into a line of half tangents. 2. The representation of a right circle, perpendicularly opposed to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the projection. 3. The representation of a circle placed oblique to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the projection. 4. If a great circle is to be projected upon the plane of another great circle, its centre will lie in the line of measures, distant from the centre of the primitive by the tangent of its elevation above the plane of the primitive. 5. If a lesser circle, whose poles lie in the plane of the projection, were to be projected; the centre of its representation would be in the line of measures, distant from the centre of the primitive, by the secant of the lesser circles distance from its pole, and its semi-diameter or radius be equal to the tangent of that distance. 6. If a lesser circle were to be projected, whose poles lie not in the plane of the projection, its diameter in the projection, if it falls on each side of the pole of the primitive, will be equal to the sum of the half tangents of its greatest and nearest distance from the pole of the primitive, set each way from the centre of the primitive in the line of measures. 7. If the lesser circle to be projected fall entirely on one side of the pole of the projection, and do not encompass it; then will its diameter be equal to the difference of the half tangents of its greatest and nearest distance from the pole of the primitive, set off from the centre of the primitive one; and the same way in the line of measures. 8. In the stereographic projection, the angles made by the circles of the surface of the sphere, are equal to the angles made by their representatives in the plane of their projection. For a demonstration of these laws, see the articles PERSPECTIVE and PROJECTION. The method of delineating general maps of the world will, however, be easily understood by the following directions. 1. To delineate a map of the earth upon the plane of a meridian. Draw a circle of any convenient magnitude, as ABCD, to represent one half of the earth's disc; draw two diameters AB, CD, intersecting each other at right angles; AB will then represent the equator, and CD that meridian which is directly perpendicular to the plane of projection, C will be the north pole, and D the south pole. Divide the circle into 360 equal parts, representing the degrees of latitude; or into smaller parts, if it can admit of such a division, to represent minutes. Then, by means of a sector, divide the equator AB into two lines of semitangents EA and EB, which will represent the degrees of longitude. Then with the secant of 80^\circ, as a radius describe the arch of the circle CcD, which represents a meridian cutting the plane of projection at an angle of 80^\circ; with the secant of 70^\circ, describe the arch Cc'D, which represents a meridian cutting the plane of projection at 70^\circ; and thus proceed with the rest of the meridians, which are usually drawn at every ten degrees longitude, as the parallels are at every ten degrees latitude. These last are to be drawn with the tangents for radii as the meridians are with the secants; GH, representing the parallel of ten degrees, with the tangent of 80^\circ, that of 20 with the tangent of 70^\circ, &c. The ecliptic AQB is drawn with the tangent of 66.31 for a radius, its greatest distance from the equator being 23.29. This is the most common projection for maps of the world, and is that on which the map Plate CXVI. is delineated. It hath this disadvantage, however, that neither the degrees of longitude nor latitude continue of the same length, even under the same parallel; and consequently the shape of the countries tries is somewhat distorted: it is also exceedingly difficult to find the precise degree of longitude or latitude belonging to any place, upon maps of this kind, as must be evident from an inspection of the figures. 2. On the plane of the horizon. Suppose, for instance, it is desired to have London the centre of the map: its latitude we will suppose to be 51 degrees 32 minutes. Take then the point E (fig. 5.) for London; and from this, as a centre, describe the circle ABCD to represent the horizon; which you are then to divide into four quadrants, and each of these into 90 degrees. Let the diameter BD be the meridian, B the northern quarter, D the southern; the line of equinoctial east and west shews the first vertical, A the west, C the east, or a place of 90 degrees from the zenith in the first vertical. All the verticals are represented by right lines drawn from the centre E to the several degrees of the horizon. Divide BD into 180 degrees, as in the former method; the point in EB, representing 51 deg. 32 min. of the arch BC, will be the projection of the north pole, which note with the letter P. The point in ED representing 51 deg. 32 min. of the arch DC, (reckoning from C towards D), will be the projection of the intersection of the equator and meridian of London; and from this, towards P, write the numbers of the degrees, 1, 2, 3, &c. As also towards D, and from B towards P, viz. 51, 52, 53, &c. Then taking the corresponding points of equal degrees, 88, 89, &c. about those, as diameters, describe circles, which will represent parallels, or circles of latitude, with the equator, tropics, and polar circles. For the meridians, first describe a circle through the three points A, P, C. This will represent the meridian 90 degrees from London. Let its centre be M in BD, (continued to the point N, which represents the south pole), PN being the diameter, through M draw a parallel to AC, viz. FH, continued each way to K and L. Divide the circle PHNF into 360 degrees; and from the point P draw right lines to the several degrees, cutting K F H L; through the several points of intersection, and the two poles P, N, as through three given points, describe circles representing all the meridians. The centres for describing the arches will be in the same K L, as being the same that are found by the former intersection; but are to be taken with this caution, that for the meridian next BDN towards A, the most remote centre towards L be taken for the second, the second from this, &c.—The circles of longitude and latitude thus drawn, insert the places from a table. Maps of this kind may be useful for particular purposes: but the irregular length of the degrees, both of longitude and latitude, render them very unfit for representing the countries in their proper shape: and the difficulties in finding the particular degrees of longitude and latitude are even greater in this than any other projection, as is evident from the inspection of fig. 4. III. Besides these, there may be a variety of other projections, though few of them are applicable to any particular purpose. The three following are those most generally useful, as having each some peculiar property which cannot be found in any other but themselves. 1. If, instead of its globular figure, we suppose the earth to have a conical one, it is plain, that the meridians would be represented by straight lines diverging from the apex of the cone, while the parallels are shewn by concentric circles, placed at equal distances. This kind of projection is shewn in the map of the world, Plate CXVII. It hath this great advantage, that the longitudes and latitudes may be found with the greatest ease, by means of a moveable index placed on the centre. The whole earth may also be thus represented on a single circle: but thus the countries towards the south pole are prodigiously augmented in breadth in proportion to their length; for the degrees of longitude constantly increase the farther we are removed from the pole, while those of latitude still remain the same. This apparent error, however, doth not in the least affect the real proportion of the map, or render it more difficult to find the longitudes or latitudes upon it. 2. Mercator's projection supposes the earth, instead of a globular, to have a cylindrical figure; in consequence of which, the degrees of longitude become of an equal length throughout the whole surface, and are marked out on the map by parallel lines. The circles of latitude also are represented by lines crossing the former at right angles, but at unequal distances. The farther we remove from the equator, the longer the degrees of latitude become in proportion to those of longitude, and that in no less a degree than as the secant of an arch to the radius of the circle: that is, if we make one degree of longitude at the equator the radius of a circle; at one degree distant from the equator, a degree of latitude will be expressed by the secant of one degree; at ten degrees distance, by the secant of ten degrees; and so on. A map of the world, therefore, cannot be delineated upon this projection, without distorting the shape of the countries in an extraordinary manner. The projection itself is, however, very useful in navigation, as it shews the different bearings with perfect accuracy, which cannot be done upon any other map. See the map of the New Discoveries, Plate CXVII. 3. The globular projection, is an invention of M. de la Hire, and is more useful than any of the former for exhibiting the true shape of the countries. It may be made in the following manner: Having drawn a circle, representing one half of the earth's disc, draw two diameters as before, which represent the equator and vertical meridian. Divide each of these into 180 equal parts, for the measures of the degrees of longitude and latitude. Then, through the two poles, and every tenth division on the equator, draw arches of circles for the meridians; and in like manner, through every tenth degree on each semicircle, draw an arch, which shall likewise pass through every tenth division on the meridian, for the parallels of latitude. IV. The construction of maps of particular parts of the earth requires a different operation. Large portions of its surface may indeed be drawn on the regular plane of the meridian, as before directed; but when a small part, as the island of Britain for instance, is to be represented on a large scale, it would be found diffi- PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE difficult to draw the arches of such large circles as are necessary, and therefore the following method may be adopted. In this case, the degrees of longitude and latitude may be both represented by straight lines. It is to be remembered, however, that though the degrees of latitude always continue of an equal length, it is not so with those of longitude. They must necessarily decrease as we approach the pole. The proportion in which they decrease, may be found by the line of longitudes on the plain scale; or by the following PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE mark out seven or eight of those degrees upon a right line, for the length of your intended map. On the extremities of this line raise two perpendiculars, upon which mark out ten degrees of latitude for the height of it. Then, having completed the parallelogram, consult the table for the length of a degree of longitude in Lat. 60°, which is found to be very nearly one half a degree of latitude. It will always be proper, however, to draw a vertical meridian exactly in the middle of the parallelogram, to which the meridian on each side may converge; and from this you are to set off the degrees of longitude on each side. Then, having divided the lines bounding your map into as many parts as can conveniently be done, to serve for a scale, you may by their means set off the longitudes and latitudes with much less trouble than where curve lines are used. This method may always be followed where a particular kingdom is to be delineated, and will represent the true figure and situation of the places with tolerable exactness. The particular points of the compass, on which the towns lie with respect to one another, or their bearings, cannot be exactly known, except by a globe, or Mercator's projection. Their distances, however, may by this means be accurately expressed, and this is the only kind of maps to which a scale of miles can be truly adapted. TABLE, shewing the Number of Miles contained in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the Equator. Degrees of Latitude. Miles. 100th parts of a mile. Degrees of Latitude. Miles. 100th parts of a mile. Degrees of Latitude. Miles. 100th parts of a mile. 15996315143612904 25994325088622817 35992335032632724 45986344974642630 55977354915652536 65967364854662441 75956374792672345 85940384728682248 95920394662692151 105908404600702052 115889414528711954 125868424495721855 135846434388731754 145822444316741653 155800454243751552 165760464168761451 175730474100771350 185704484015781248 195673493936791145 205638503857801042 215600513773810938 225563523700820835 235523533618830732 245481543526840628 255438553441850523 265400563355860418 275344573267870314 285300583170880209 295248593090890105 305196603000900000 §. 2. Description and Use of the Globes and Armillary Sphere. WHEN we have thus discovered, by means of maps, or any other way, the true situation of the different places of the earth with regard to one another, we may easily know every other particular relative to them; as, how far distant they are from us, what hour of the day it is, what season of the year, &c. at any particular place. As each of these problems, however, would require a particular and sometimes troublesome calculation, machines have been invented, by which all the calculations may be saved, and every problem in geography may be solved mechanically, and in the most easy and expeditious manner. These machines are the celestial and terrestrial globes, and the armillary sphere; of which, and the method of using them, we proceed to give a description. If a map of the world be accurately delineated on a spherical ball, the surface thereof will represent the surface of the earth: for the highest hills are so inconsiderable with respect to the bulk of the earth, that they take off no more from its roundness than grains of sand do from the roundness of a common globe; for the diameter of the earth is 8000 miles in round numbers, and no known hill upon it is much above three miles in perpendicular height. For the proof of the earth's being spherical, see ASTRONOMY, n° 123. With regard to what we call up and down, see the article GRAVITY. To an observer placed any where in the indefinite space, where there is nothing to limit his view, all remote objects appear equally distant from him; and seem to be placed in a vast concave sphere, of which his eye is the centre. The moon is much nearer to us than the sun; some of the planets are sometimes nearer, and sometimes farther from us, than the sun; others of them never come so near to us as the sun always is. the remotest planet in our system is beyond comparison nearer to us than any of the fixed stars are; and yet all these celestial objects appear equally distant from us. Therefore, if we imagine a large hollow sphere of glass to have as many bright studs fixed to its inside, as there are stars visible in the heaven, and these studs to be of different magnitudes, and placed at the same angular distances from each other as the stars are; the sphere will be a true representation of the starry heaven, to an eye supposed to be in its centre, and viewing it all around. And if a small globe, with a map of the earth upon it, be placed on an axis in the centre of this starry sphere, and the sphere be made to turn round on this axis, it will represent the apparent motion of the heavens round the earth. If a great circle be so drawn upon this sphere, as to divide it into two equal parts or hemispheres, and the plane of the circle be perpendicular to the axis of the sphere, this circle will represent the equinoctial, which divides the heaven into two equal parts, called the northern and the southern hemispheres; and every point of that circle will be equally distant from the poles, or ends of the axis in the sphere. That pole which is in the middle of the northern hemisphere, will be called the north pole of the sphere; and that which is in the middle of the southern hemisphere, the south pole. If another grand circle be drawn upon the sphere, in such a manner as to cut the equinoctial at an angle of 23\frac{1}{2} degrees in two opposite points, it will represent the ecliptic, or circle of the sun's apparent annual motion; one half of which is on the north side of the equinoctial, and the other half on the south. If a large stud be made to move eastward in this ecliptic, in such a manner as to go quite round it in the time that the sphere is turned round westward 366 times upon its axis; this stud will represent the sun, changing his place every day a 365th part of the ecliptic; and going round westward, the same way as the stars do; but with a motion so much slower than the motion of the stars, that they will make 366 revolutions about the axis of the sphere, in the time that the sun makes only 365. During one half of these revolutions, the sun will be on the north side of the equinoctial; during the other half, on the south; and at the end of each half, in the equinoctial. If we suppose the terrestrial globe in this machine to be about one inch in diameter, and the diameter of the starry sphere to be about five or six feet, a small insect on the globe would see only a very little portion of its surface; but it would see one half of the starry sphere, the convexity of the globe hiding the other half from its view. If the sphere be turned westward round the globe, and the insect could judge of the appearances which arise from that motion, it would see some stars rising to its view in the eastern side of the sphere, whilst others were setting on the western: but as all the stars are fixed to the sphere, the same stars would always rise in the same points of view on the east side, and set in the same points of view on the west side. With the sun it would be otherwise; because the sun is not fixed to any point of the sphere, but moves slowly along an oblique circle in it. And if the insect should look towards the south, and call that point of the globe, where the equinoctial in the sphere seems to cut it on the left side, the east point; and where it cuts the globe on the right side, the west point; the little animal would see the sun rise north of the east, and set north of the west, for 182\frac{1}{2} revolutions; after which, for as many more, the sun would rise south of the east, and set south of the west. And in the whole 365 revolutions, the sun would rise only twice in the east point, and set twice in the west. All these appearances would be the same, if the starry sphere stood still (the sun only moving in the ecliptic) and the earthly globe were turned round the axis of the sphere eastward. For, as the insect would be carried round with the globe, he would be quite insensible of its motion, and the sun and stars would appear to move westward. We may imagine as many circles described upon the earth as we please; and we may imagine the plane of any circle described upon the earth to be continued, until it marks a circle in the concave sphere of the heavens. The horizon is either sensible or rational. The sensible horizon is that circle which a man standing upon a large plane observes to terminate his view all around, where the heaven and earth seem to meet. The plane of our sensible horizon continued to the heaven, divides it into two hemispheres; one visible to us, the other hid by the convexity of the earth. The plane of the rational horizon, is supposed parallel to the plane of the sensible; to pass through the centre of the earth, and to be continued to the heavens. And although the plane of the sensible horizon touches the earth in the place of the observer, yet this plane, and that of the rational horizon, will seem to coincide in the heaven, because the whole earth is but a point compared to the sphere of the heaven. The earth being a spherical body, the horizons, or limit of our view, must change as we change our place. The poles of the earth, are those two points on its surface in which its axis terminates. The one is called the north pole, and the other the south pole. The poles of the heavens, are those two points in which the earth's axis produced terminates in the heaven; so that the north pole of the heaven is directly over the north pole of the earth, and the south pole of the heaven is directly over the south pole of the earth. The equator is a great circle upon the earth, every part of which is equally distant from either of the poles. It divides the earth into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres. If we suppose the plane of this circle to be extended to the heaven, it will mark the equinoctial therein; and will divide the heaven into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres of the heaven. The meridian of any place is a great circle passing through that place and the poles of the earth. We may imagine as many such meridians as we please; because any place that is ever so little to the east or west of any other place, has a different meridian from that place; for no one circle can pass through any two such places and the poles of the earth. The meridian of any place is divided by the poles into two semicircles: that which passes thro' the place is called the geographical, or upper, meridian; and that which passes through the opposite place, is called the lower meridian. When the rotation of the earth brings the plane of the ARMILLARY SPHERE North WORLD As delineated before the lateDiscoveries North South South Albott Sculp. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance and shows signs of wear, including faint, large circular outlines that suggest a previous design or a watermark. There are also some minor stains and discolorations, particularly along the left edge and in the center, which are characteristic of old paper. The overall tone is a warm, off-white or light beige. In Analemma, Shewing the time of Sun rising & Sun setting, the length of the Days & Nights, and the point the Compass on which the Sun rises & sets, for every Degree of Latitude, and for every Degree of the Sun's North & South declination. The diagram is a circular analemma with a central point labeled "One Point of the Compass". It features concentric circles representing different latitudes and a grid of lines for sun's declination. A vertical line bisects the circle, with a scale at the top labeled "In this Scale the North Latitude of the Planet is to be found" and a scale at the bottom labeled "In this Scale the South Latitude of the Planet is to be found". Key labels include: Compass Points: Seven points of the compass are marked around the top arc: Seven, Six, Five, Four, Three, Two, One. Time Scales: Left side: "Hours of Sunrising after Six in North Latitude" with Roman numerals IV, III, II, I. Right side: "Hours of Sunrising before Six in North Latitude" with Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V. Seasonal Dates: Left side: Sept. 22, Mar. 22; Sept. 21, Mar. 23; Oct. 21, Mar. 21; Oct. 20, Feb. 22; Oct. 20, Feb. 21; Nov. 21, Feb. 20; Nov. 20, Jan. 21; Nov. 19, Jan. 22; Dec. 21. Right side: June 20, Nov. 20, July 23; May 20, Aug. 23; May 19, Aug. 22; Apr. 20, Aug. 21; Apr. 19, Aug. 20; Apr. 18, Aug. 19; Apr. 17, Sept. 18; Apr. 16, Sept. 17; Mar. 20, Sept. 16; Mar. 19, Sept. 15. Latitude Labels: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 degrees are marked around the perimeter. Illustrations of geographical features are placed around the perimeter: Top left: Peninsula Top right: Promontory Right: Gulf Bottom right: River Bottom right: Lake Bottom left: Strait Left: Island Method of enlarging the Degrees in Mercator's Chart A horizontal scale bar with markings from 0 to 40 in increments of 5. The numbers are: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45. A Bell Aculpt This is a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper shows signs of wear, including faint smudges and a small dark spot near the center. Faint, circular patterns are visible across the page, possibly from a watermark or a previous illustration. In the top right and bottom left corners, there are small, faint circular stamps or seals. The overall texture of the paper appears slightly grainy and uneven. PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE the geographical meridian to the sun, it is noon or mid-day to that place; and when the lower meridian comes to the sun, it is mid-night. All places lying under the same geographical meridian, have their noon at the same time, and consequently all the other hours. All those places are said to have the same longitude, because no one of them lies either eastward or westward from any of the rest. If we imagine 24 semicircles, one of which is the geographical meridian of a given place, to meet at the poles, and to divide the equator into 24 equal parts; each of those meridians will come round to the sun in 24 hours, by the earth's equable motion round its axis in that time. And, as the equator contains 360 degrees, there will be 15 degrees contained between any two of these meridians which are nearest to one another: for 24 times 15 is 360. And as the earth's motion is eastward, the sun's apparent motion will be westward, at the rate of 15 degrees each hour. Therefore, They whose geographical meridian is 15 degrees westward from us, have noon, and every other hour, an hour sooner than we have. They whose meridian is fifteen degrees westward from us, have noon, and every other hour, an hour later than we have: and so on in proportion, reckoning one hour for every fifteen degrees. For the ecliptic circle, signs, and degrees, see ASTRONOMY, no 122, —137. The tropics are lesser circles in the heaven, parallel to the equinoctial; one on each side of it, touching the ecliptic in the points of its greatest declination; so that each tropic is 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from the equinoctial, one on the north side of it, and the other on the south. The northern tropic touches the ecliptic at the beginning of Cancer, the southern at the beginning of Capricorn; for which reason the former is called the tropic of Cancer, and the latter the tropic of Capricorn. The polar circles in the heaven, are each 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from the poles, all around. That which goes round the north pole, is called the arctic circle. The south polar circle, is called the antarctic circle, from its being opposite to the arctic. The ecliptic, tropics, and polar circles, are drawn upon the terrestrial globe, as well as upon the celestial. But the ecliptic, being a great fixed circle in the heavens, cannot properly be said to belong to the terrestrial globe; and is laid down upon it only for the convenience of solving some problems. So that, if this circle on the terrestrial globe was properly divided into the months and days of the year, it would not only suit the globe better, but would also make the problems thereon much easier. 1. Description of the Terrestrial Globe. The equator, ecliptic, and tropics, polar circles, and meridians, are laid down upon the globe in the manner already described. The ecliptic is divided into 12 signs, and each sign into 30 degrees. Each tropic is 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from the equator, and each polar circle 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from its respective pole. Circles are drawn parallel to the equator, at every ten degrees distance from it on each side to the poles: these circles are called parallels of latitude. On large globes there VOL. V. are circles drawn perpendicularly through every tenth degree of the equator, intersecting each other at the poles: but on globes of or under a foot diameter, they are only drawn through every fifteenth degree of the equator; these circles are generally called meridians, sometimes circles of longitude, and at other times hour-circles. The globe is hung in a brass-ring called the brazen meridian; and turns upon a wire in each pole sunk half its thickness into one side of the meridian ring; by which means that side of the ring divides the globe into two equal parts, called the eastern and western hemispheres; as the equator divides it into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres. The ring is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees, on the side wherein the axis of the globe turns. One half of these degrees are numbered, and reckoned, from the equator to the poles, where they end at 90: their use is to shew the latitudes of places. The degrees on the other half of the meridian are numbered from the poles to the equator, where they end at 90: their use is to shew how to elevate either the north or south pole above the horizon, according to the latitude of any given place, as it is north or south of the equator. The brazen meridian is let into two notches made in a broad flat ring called the wooden horizon; the upper surface of which divides the globe into two equal parts, called the upper and lower hemispheres. One notch is in the north point of the horizon, and the other in the south. On this horizon are several concentric circles, which contain the months and days of the year, the signs and degrees answering to the sun's place for each month and day, and the 32 points of the compass.—The graduated side of the brass meridian lies towards the east side of the horizon, and should be generally kept towards the person who works problems by the globes. There is a small horary circle, so fixed to the north part of the brazen meridian, that the wire in the north pole of the globe is in the centre of that circle; and on the wire is an index, which goes over all the 24 hours of the circle, as the globe is turned round its axis. Sometimes there are two horary circles, one between each pole of the globe and the brazen meridian. There is a thin slip of brass, called the quadrant of altitude, which is divided into 90 equal parts or degrees, answering exactly to so many degrees of the equator. It is occasionally fixed to the uppermost point of the brazen meridian by a nut and screw. The divisions end at the nut, and the quadrant is turned round upon it. 2. Description and Use of the Armillary Sphere. The exterior parts of this machine are, a compages of brass rings, which represent the principal circles of the heaven, viz. 1. The equinoctial AA, which is divided into 360 degrees (beginning at its intersection with the ecliptic in Aries) for shewing the sun's right ascension in degrees; and also into 24 hours, for shewing his right ascension in time. 2. The ecliptic BB, which is divided into 12 signs, and each sign into 30 degrees, and also into the months and days of the year; in such a manner, that the degree or point of the ecliptic in which the sun is, on any given day, stands over that day in the circle of months. 3. The tropic tropic of Cancer CC, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Cancer in e, and the tropic of Capricorn DD, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f; each 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from the equinoctial circle. 4. The arctic circle E, and the antarctic circle F, each 23\frac{1}{2} degrees from its respective pole at N and S. 5. The equinoctial colure GG, passing through the north and south poles of the heaven at N and S, and through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic. 6. The solstitial colure HH, passing through the poles of the heaven, and through the solstitial points Cancer and Capricorn in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the former of these colures is divided into 90 degrees, from the equinoctial to the poles of the world, for shewing the declination of the sun, moon, and stars; and each quarter of the latter, from the ecliptic at e and f, to its poles b and d, for shewing the latitude of the stars. In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other end a small sun T, which is carried round the ecliptic BB, by turning the nut: and in the south pole of the ecliptic is a pin d, on which is another quadrantal wire, with a small moon Z upon it, which may be moved round by the hand: but there is a particular contrivance for causing the moon to move in an orbit which crosses the ecliptic at an angle of 5\frac{1}{2} degrees, in two opposite points called the moon's nodes; and also for shifting these points backward in the ecliptic, as the moon's nodes shift in the heaven. Within these circular rings is a small terrestrial globe I, fixt on an axis KK, which extends from the north and south poles of the globe at n and s, to those of the celestial sphere at N and S. On this axis is fixed the flat celestial meridian LL, which may be set directly over the meridian of any place on the globe, and then turned round with the globe, so as to keep over the same meridian upon it. This flat meridian is graduated the same way as the brass meridian of a common globe, and its use is much the same. To this globe is fitted the moveable horizon MM, so as to turn upon two strong wires proceeding from its east and west points to the globe, and entering the globe at the opposite points of its equator, which is a moveable brass ring let into the globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe may be turned by hand within this ring, so as to place any given meridian upon it, directly under the celestial meridian LL. The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its outermost edge, within which are the points of the compass for shewing the amplitude of the sun and moon both in degrees and points. The celestial meridian LL, passes thro' two notches in the north and south points of the horizon, as in a common globe: but here, if the globe be turned round, the horizon and meridian turn with it. At the south pole of the sphere is a circle of 24 hours, fixed to the rings; and on the axis is an index which goes round that circle, if the globe be turned round its axis. The whole fabric is supported on a pedestal N, and may be elevated or depressed upon the joint O, to any number of degrees from 0 to 90, by means of the arc P, which is fixed in the strong brass arm Q, and slides in the upright piece R, in which is a screw at r, to fix it at any proper elevation. In the box T are two wheels (as in Dr Long's sphere), and two pinions, whose axes come out at V and U; either of which may be turned by the small winch W. When the winch is put upon the axis V, and turned backward, the terrestrial globe, with its horizon and celestial meridian, keep at rest; and the whole sphere of circles turns round from east, by south, to west, carrying the sun T, and moon Z, round the same way, and causing them to rise above and set below the horizon. But when the winch is put upon the axis U, and turned forward, the sphere with the sun and moon keep at rest; and the earth, with its horizon and meridian, turn round from west, by south, to east; and bring the same points of the horizon to the sun and moon, to which these bodies came when the earth kept at rest and they were carried round it; shewing that they rise and set in the same points of the horizon, and at the same times in the hour-circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes round its hour-circle; but if the sphere be turned, the hour-circle goes round below the index. And so, by this construction, the machine is equally fitted to shew either the real motion of the earth, or the apparent motion of the heaven. To rectify the sphere for use, first slacken the screw r in the upright stem R, and taking hold of the arm Q, move it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any place be at the side of the stem R; and then the axis of the sphere will be properly elevated so as to stand parallel to the axis of the world, if the machine be set north and south by a small compass: this done, count the latitude from the north pole, upon the celestial meridian LL, down towards the north notch of the horizon, and set the horizon to that latitude; then, turn the nut b until the sun T comes to the given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the sun will be at its proper place for that day: find the place of the moon's ascending node, and also the place of the moon, by an Ephemeris, and set them right accordingly: lastly, turn the winch W, until either the sun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian comes to the sun (according as you want the sphere or earth to move) and set the hour-index to the XII, marked noon, and the whole machine will be rectified. Then turn the winch, and observe when the sun or moon rise and set in the horizon, and the hour-index will shew the times thereof for the given day. As those who understand the use of the globes will be at no loss to work many other problems by this sphere, it is needless to enlarge any farther upon it. 3. Directions for using Globes. In using globes, keep the east side of the horizon towards you (unless the problem requires the turning of it), which side you may know by the word East upon the horizon; for then you have the graduated side of the meridian towards you, the quadrant of altitude before you, and the globe divided exactly into two equal parts, by the graduated side of the meridian. In working some problems, it will be necessary to turn the whole globe and horizon about, that you may look on the west side thereof; which turning will be apt to jog the ball so, as to shift away that degree of the the globe which was before set to the horizon or meridian: to avoid which inconvenience, you may thrust in the feather-end of a quill between the ball of the globe and the brazen meridian; which, without hurting the ball, will keep it from turning in the meridian, whilst you turn the west side of the horizon towards you. PROB. I. To find the latitude and longitude of any given place upon the globe.—Turn the globe on its axis, until the given place comes exactly under that graduated side of the brazen meridian on which the degrees are numbered from the equator; and observe what degree of the meridian the place then lies under; which is its latitude, north or south, as the place is north or south of the equator. The globe remaining in this position, the degree of the equator, which is under the brazen meridian, is the longitude of the place, which is east or west, as the place lies on the east or west side of the first meridian of the globe.—All the Atlantic ocean, and America, is on the west side of the meridian of London; and the greatest part of Europe, and of Africa, together with all Asia, is on the east side of the meridian of London, which is reckoned the first meridian of the globe by the British geographers and astronomers. PROB. II. The longitude and latitude of a place being given, to find that place on the globe.—Look for the given longitude in the equator (counting it eastward or westward from the first meridian, as it is mentioned to be east or west;) and bringing the point of longitude in the equator to the brazen meridian, on that side which is above the south point of the horizon: then count from the equator, on the brazen meridian, to the degree of the given latitude, towards the north or south pole, according as the latitude is north or south; and under that degree of latitude on the meridian, you will have the place required. PROB. III. To find the difference of longitude, or difference of latitude, between any two given places.—Bring each of these places to the brazen meridian, and see what its latitude is: the lesser latitude subtracted from the greater, if both places are on the same side of the equator, or both latitudes added together if they are on different sides of it, is the difference of latitude required. And the number of degrees contained between these places, reckoned on the equator, when they are brought separately under the brazen meridian, is their difference of longitude, if it be less than 180; but if more, let it be subtracted from 360, and the remainder is the difference of longitude required. Or, Having brought one of the places to the brazen meridian, and set the hour-index to XII, turn the globe until the other place comes to the brazen meridian; and the number of hours and parts of an hour, passed over by the index, will give the longitude in time; which may be easily reduced to degrees, by allowing 15 degrees for every hour, and one degree for every four minutes. N. B. When we speak of bringing any place to the brazen meridian, it is the graduated side of the meridian that is meant. PROB. IV. Any place being given, to find all those places that have the same longitude or latitude with it.—Bring the given place to the brazen meridian; then all those places which lie under that side of the meridian, from pole to pole, have the same longitude with the given place. Turn the globe round its axis; and all those places which pass under the same degree of the meridian that the given place does, have the same latitude with that place. Since all latitudes are reckoned from the equator, and all longitudes are reckoned from the first meridian, it is evident, that the point of the equator which is cut by the first meridian, has neither latitude nor longitude.—The greatest latitude is 90 degrees, because no place is more than 90 degrees from the equator: And the greatest longitude is 180 degrees, because no place is more than 180 degrees from the first meridian. PROB. V. To find the antæci, pericæci, and antipodes, of any given place.—Bring the given place to the brazen meridian; and having found its latitude, keep the globe in that situation, and count the same number of degrees of latitude from the equator towards the contrary pole; and where the reckoning ends, you have the antæci of the given place upon the globe. Those who live at the equator have no antæci. The globe remaining in the same position, set the hour-index to the upper XII on the horary circle, and turn the globe until the index comes to the lower XII; then, the place which lies under the meridian, in the same latitude with the given place, is the pericæci required. Those who live at the poles have no pericæci. As the globe now stands (with the index at the lower XII), the antipodes of the given place will be under the same point of the brazen meridian where its antæci stood before. Every place upon the globe has its antipodes. PROB. VI. To find the distance between any two places on the globe.—Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over both the places, and count the number of degrees intercepted between them on the quadrant; then multiply these degrees by 60, and the product will give the distance in geographical miles: but to find the distance in miles, multiply the degrees by 69\frac{1}{2}, and the product will be the number of miles required. Or, take the distance betwixt any two places with a pair of compasses, and apply that extent to the equator; the number of degrees, intercepted between the points of the compasses, is the distance in degrees of a great circle; which may be reduced either to geographical miles, or to English miles, as above. PROB. VII. A place on the globe being given, and its distance from any other place; to find all the other places upon the globe which are at the same distance from the given place.—Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and screw the quadrant of altitude to the meridian directly over that place; then keeping the globe in that position, turn the quadrant quite round upon it, and the degree of the quadrant that touches the second place will pass over all the other places which are equally distant with it from the given place. This is the same as if one foot of a pair of compasses was set in the given place, and the other foot extended to the second place, whose distance is known; for if the compasses be then turned round the first place as a centre, the moving foot will go over all those places which are at the same distance with the second from it. PROB. VIII. The hour of the day at any place being given, to find all those places where it is noon at that time.—Bring the given place the brazen meridian, and set the index to the given hour; this done, turn the globe until the index points to the upper XII, and then all the places that lie under the brazen meridian have noon at that time. N. B. The upper XII always stands for noon; and when the bringing of any place to the brazen meridian is mentioned, the side of that meridian on which the degrees are reckoned from the equator is meant, unless the contrary side be mentioned. PROB. IX. The hour of the day at any place being given, to find what o'clock it then is at any other place.—Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and set the index to the given hour; then turn the globe, until the place where the hour is required comes to the meridian, and the index will point out the hour at that place. PROB. X. To find the sun's place in the ecliptic, and his declination, for any given day of the year.—Look on the horizon for the given day, and right against it you have the degree of the sign in which the sun is (or his place) on that day at noon. Find the same degree of that sign in the ecliptic line upon the globe, and having brought it to the brazen meridian, observe what degree of the meridian stands over it; for that is the sun's declination, reckoned from the equator. PROB. XI. The day of the month being given, to find all those places of the earth over which the sun will pass vertically on that day.—Find the sun's place in the ecliptic for the given day, and having brought it to the brazen meridian, observe what point of the meridian is over it; then, turning the globe round its axis, all those places which pass under that point of the meridian are the places required; for as their latitude is equal, in degrees and parts of a degree, to the sun's declination, the sun must be directly over-head to each of them at its respective noon. PROB. XII. A place being given in the torrid zone, to find those two days of the year on which the sun shall be vertical to that place.—Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and mark the degree of latitude that is exactly over it on the meridian; then turn the globe round its axis, and observe the two degrees of the ecliptic which pass exactly under that degree of latitude: lastly, find on the wooden horizon, the two days of the year in which the sun is in those degrees of the ecliptic, and they are the days required: for on them, and none else, the sun's declination is equal to the latitude of the given place; and consequently, he will then be vertical to it at noon. PROB. XIII. To find all those places of the north frigid zone, where the sun begins to shine constantly without setting, on any given day, from the 21st of March to the 23d of September.—On these two days, the sun is in the equinoctial, and enlightens the globe exactly from pole to pole: therefore, as the earth turns round its axis, which terminates in the poles, every place upon it will go equally through the light and the dark, and so make the day and night equal to all places of the earth. But as the sun declines from the equator, towards either pole, he will shine just as many degrees round that pole, as are equal to his declination from the equator: so that no place within that distance of the pole will then go through any part of the dark, and consequently the sun will not set to it. Now, as the sun's declination is northward, from the 21st of March to the 23d of September, he must constantly shine round the north pole all that time; and on the day that he is in the northern tropic, he shines upon the whole north frigid zone; so that no place within the north polar circle goes through any part of the dark on that day. Therefore, Having brought the sun's place for the given day to the brazen meridian, and found his declination (by Prob. IX.) count as many degrees on the meridian, from the north pole, as are equal to the sun's declination from the equator, and mark that degree from the pole where the reckoning ends: then turning the globe round its axis, observe what places in the north frigid zone pass directly under that mark; for they are the places required. The like may be done for the south frigid zone, from the 23d of September to the 21st of March, during which time the sun shines constantly on the south pole. PROB. XIV. To find the place over which the sun is vertical at any hour of a given day.—Having found the sun's declination for the given day (by Prob. X.) mark it with a chalk on the brazen meridian: then bring the place where you are (suppose Edinburgh) to the brazen meridian, and set the index to the given hour; which done, turn the globe on its axis, until the index points to XII at noon; and the place on the globe, which is then directly under the point of the sun's declination marked upon the meridian, has the sun that moment in the zenith, or directly over head. PROB. XV. The day and hour of a lunar eclipse being given; to find all those places of the earth to which it will be visible.—The moon is never eclipsed but when she is full, and so directly opposite to the sun, that the earth's shadow falls upon her. Therefore, whatever place of the earth the sun is vertical to at that time, the moon must be vertical to the antipodes of that place: so that the sun will be then visible to one half of the earth, and the moon to the other. Find the place to which the sun is vertical at the given hour (by Prob. XIV.) elevate the pole to the latitude of that place, and bring the place to the upper part of the brazen meridian, as in the former problem: then, as the sun will be visible to all those parts of the globe which are above the horizon, the moon will be visible to all those parts which are below it, at the time of her greatest obscuration. PROB. XVI. To rectify the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the sun's place.—Find the latitude of the place, (by Prob. I.) and if the place be in the northern hemisphere, raise the north pole above the north point of the horizon, as many degrees (counted from the pole upon the brazen meridian) as are equal to the latitude of the place. If the place be in the southern hemisphere, raise the south pole above the south point of the horizon as many degrees as are equal to the latitude. Then, turn the globe till the place comes under its latitude on the brazen meridian, and fasten the quadrant of altitude so, that the chamfered edge of its nut (which is even with the graduated ated edge) may be joined to the zenith, or point of latitude. This done, bring the sun's place in the ecliptic for the given day (found by Prob. X.) to the graduated side of the brazen meridian, and let the hour-index to XII at noon, which is the uppermost XII on the hour-circle; and the globe will be rectified. PROB. XVII. The latitude of any place, not exceeding 66\frac{1}{2} degrees, and the day of the month, being given; to find the time of sun rising and setting, and consequently the length of the day and night.—Having rectified the globe for the latitude, and for the sun's place on the given day (as directed in the preceding problem), bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the eastern side of the horizon, and the hour-index will shew the time of sun-rising; then turn the globe on its axis, until the sun's place comes to the western side of the horizon, and the index will shew the time of sun-setting. The hour of sun-setting doubled, gives the length of the day; and the hour of sun-rising doubled, gives the length of the night. PROB. XVIII. The latitude of any place, and the day of the month, being given; to find when the morning twilight begins, and the evening twilight ends, at that place.—This problem is often limited: for, when the sun does not go 18 degrees below the horizon, the twilight continues the whole night; and for several nights together in summer, between 49 and 66\frac{1}{2} degrees of latitude; and the nearer to 66\frac{1}{2}, the greater is the number of these nights. But when it does begin and end, the following method will shew the time for any given day. Rectify the globe, and bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the eastern side of the horizon; then mark with a chalk that point of the ecliptic which is in the western side of the horizon, it being the point opposite to the sun's place: this done, lay the quadrant of altitude over the said point, and turn the globe eastward, keeping the quadrant at the chalk mark, until it is just 18 degrees high on the quadrant; and the index will point out the time when the morning twilight begins: for the sun's place will then be 18 degrees below the eastern side of the horizon. To find the time when the evening twilight ends, bring the sun's place to the western side of the horizon; and the point opposite to it, which was marked with the chalk, will be rising in the east: then, bring the quadrant over that point, and keeping it thereon, turn the globe westward, until the said point be 18 degrees above the horizon on the quadrant, and the index will shew the time when the evening twilight ends; the sun's place being then 18 degrees below the western side of the horizon. PROB. XIX. To find on what day of the year the sun begins to shine constantly without setting, on any given place in the north frigid zone; and how long he continues to do so.—Rectify the globe to the latitude of the place, and turn it about until some point of the ecliptic, between Aries and Cancer, coincides with the north point of the horizon where the brazen meridian cuts it; then find, on the wooden horizon, what day of the year the sun is in that point of the ecliptic; for that is the day on which the sun begins to shine constantly on the given place, without setting. This done, turn the globe, until some point of the ecliptic, between Cancer and Libra, coincides with the north point of the horizon, where the brazen meridian cuts it; and find, on the wooden horizon, on what day the sun is in that point of the ecliptic; which is the day that the sun leaves off constantly shining on the said place, and rises and sets to it as to other places on the globe. The number of natural days, or complete revolutions of the sun about the earth, between the two days above found, is the time that the sun keeps constantly above the horizon without setting: for all that portion of the ecliptic, which lies between the two points which intersect the horizon in the very north, never sets below it; and there is just as much of the opposite part of the ecliptic that never rises: therefore, the sun will keep as long constantly below the horizon in winter, as above it in summer. PROB. XX. To find in what latitude the sun shines constantly without setting, for any length of time less than 182\frac{1}{2} of our days and nights.—Find a point in the ecliptic half as many degrees from the beginning of Cancer (either toward Aries or Libra) as there are natural days in the time given; and bring that point to the north side of the brazen meridian, on which the degrees are numbered from the pole towards the equator: then, keep the globe from turning on its axis, and slide the meridian up or down until the foresaid point of the ecliptic comes to the north point of the horizon, and then the elevation of the pole will be equal to the latitude required. PROB. XXI. The latitude of a place, not exceeding 66\frac{1}{2} degrees, and the day of the month, being given; to find the sun's amplitude or point of the compass on which he rises or sets.—Rectify the globe, and bring the sun's place to the eastern side of the horizon; then observe what point of the compass on the horizon stands right against the sun's place, for that is his amplitude at rising. This done, turn the globe westward, until the sun's place comes to the western side of the horizon, and it will cut the point of his amplitude at setting. Or, you may count the rising amplitude in degrees, from the east point of the horizon, to that point where the sun's place cuts it; and the setting amplitude, from the west point of the horizon, to the sun's place at setting. PROB. XXII. The latitude, the sun's place, and his altitude, being given; to find the hour of the day, and the sun's azimuth, or number of degrees that he is distant from the meridian.—Rectify the globe, and bring the sun's place to the given height upon the quadrant of altitude; on the eastern side of the horizon, if the time be in the forenoon; or the western side, if it be in the afternoon: then the index will shew the hour; and the number of degrees in the horizon, intercepted between the quadrant of altitude and the south point, will be the sun's true azimuth at that time. PROB. XXIII. The latitude, hour of the day, and the sun's place, being given; to find the sun's altitude and azimuth.—Rectify the globe, and turn it until the index points to the given hour; then lay the quadrant of altitude over the sun's place in the ecliptic, and the degree of the quadrant cut by the sun's place is his altitude at that time above the horizon; and the degree of the horizon cut by the quadrant is the sun's azimuth, reckoned from the south. PROB. XXIV. The latitude, the sun's altitude, and his his azimuth being given; to find his place in the ecliptic, the day of the month, and hour of the day, though they had all been lost.—Rectify the globe for the latitude and zenith, and set the quadrant of altitude to the given azimuth in the horizon; keeping it there, turn the globe on its axis until the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the given altitude: that point of the ecliptic which cuts the quadrant there, will be the sun's place; and the day of the month answering thereto, will be found over the like place of the sun on the wooden horizon. Keep the quadrant of altitude in that position; and, having brought the sun's place to the brazen meridian, and the hour-index to XII at noon, turn back the globe, until the sun's place cuts the quadrant of altitude again, and the index will shew the hour. Any two points of the ecliptic, which are equidistant from the beginning of Cancer or of Capricorn, will have the same altitude and azimuth at the same hour, though the months be different; and therefore it requires some care in this problem, not to mistake both the month and the day of the month: to avoid which, observe, that from the 20th of March to the 21st of June, that part of the ecliptic which is between the beginning of Aries and beginning of Cancer is to be used; from the 21st of June to the 23d of September, between the beginning of Cancer and beginning of Libra; from the 23d of September to the 21st of December, between the beginning of Libra and the beginning of Capricorn; and from the 21st of December to the 20th of March, between the beginning of Capricorn and beginning of Aries. And as one can never be at a loss to know in what quarter of the year he takes the sun's altitude and azimuth, the above caution with regard to the quarters of the ecliptic will keep him right as to the month and day thereof. PROB. XXV. To find the length of the longest day at any given place.—If the place be on the north side of the equator (find its latitude by Prob. I.) and elevate the north pole to that latitude; then, bring the beginning of Cancer to the brazen meridian, and set the hour-index to XII at noon. But if the given place be on the south side of the equator, elevate the south pole to its latitude, and bring the beginning of Capricorn to the brazen meridian, and the hour-index to XII. This done, turn the globe westward, until the beginning of Cancer or Capricorn (as the latitude is north or south) comes to the horizon; and the index will then point out the time of sun-setting, for it will have gone over all the afternoon hours, between mid-day and sun-set; which length of time being doubled, will give the whole length of the day from sun-rising to sun-setting. For, in all latitudes, the sun rises as long before mid-day, as he sets after it. PROB. XXVI. To find in what latitude the longest day is, of any given length, less than 24 hours.—If the latitude be north, bring the beginning of Cancer to the brazen meridian, and elevate the north pole to about 66\frac{1}{2} degrees; but if the latitude be south, bring the beginning of Capricorn to the meridian, and elevate the south pole to about 66\frac{1}{2} degrees; because the longest day in north latitude is, when the sun is in the first point of Cancer; and in south latitude, when he is in the first point of Capricorn. Then set the hour-index to XII at noon, and turn the globe westward, until the index points at half the number of hours given; which done, keep the globe from turning on its axis, and slide the meridian down in the notches, until the aforesaid point of the ecliptic (viz. Cancer or Capricorn) comes to the horizon; then, the elevation of the pole will be equal to the latitude required. PROB. XXVII. The latitude of any place, not exceeding 66\frac{1}{2} degrees, being given; to find in what climate the place is.—Find the length of the longest day at the given place, by Prob. XXV. and whatever be the number of hours whereby it exceedeth twelve, double that number, and the sum will give the climate in which the place is. PROB. XXVIII. The latitude, and the day of the month, being given; to find the hour of the day when the sun shines.—Set the wooden horizon truly level, and the brazen meridian due north and south by a mariner's compass; then, having rectified the globe, stick a small sewing-needle into the sun's place in the ecliptic, perpendicular to that part of the surface of the globe: this done, turn the globe on its axis, until the needle comes to the brazen meridian, and set the hour-index to XII at noon; then, turn the globe on its axis, until the needle points exactly towards the sun (which it will do when it casts no shadow on the globe), and the index will shew the hour of the day. 4. The Use of the Celestial Globe. HAVING done for the present with the terrestrial globe, we shall proceed to the use of the celestial globe, first premising, that as the equator, ecliptic, tropics, polar-circles, horizon, and brazen meridian, are exactly alike on both globes, all the former problems concerning the sun are solved the same way by both globes. The method also of rectifying the celestial globe is the same as rectifying the terrestrial. N. B. The sun's place for any day of the year stands directly over that day on the horizon of the celestial globe, as it does on that day of the terrestrial. The latitude and longitude of the stars, or of all other celestial phenomena, are reckoned in a very different manner from the latitude and longitude of places on the earth: for all terrestrial latitudes are reckoned from the equator; and longitudes from the meridian of some remarkable place, as of London by the British, and of Paris by the French. But the astronomers of all nations agree in reckoning the latitudes of the moon, stars, planets, and comets, from the ecliptic; and their longitudes from the equinoctial colure, in that semi-circle of it which cuts the ecliptic at the beginning of Aries; and thence eastward, quite round, to the same semi-circle again. Consequently those stars which lie between the equinoctial and the northern half of the ecliptic, have north declination and south latitude; those which lie between the equinoctial and the southern half of the ecliptic, have south declination and north latitude; and all those which lie between the tropics and poles, have their declinations and latitudes of the same denomination. There are six great circles on the celestial globe, which cut the ecliptic perpendicularly, and meet in two opposite points in the polar circles; which points are each ninety degrees from the ecliptic, and are called led its poles. These polar points divide those circles into 12 femicircles; which cut the ecliptic at the beginnings of the twelve signs. They resemble so many meridians on the terrestrial globe: and as all places which lie under any particular meridian-femicircle on that globe, have the same longitude; so all those points of the heaven, through which any of the above femicircles are drawn, have the same longitude.—And as the greatest latitudes on the earth are at the north and south poles of the earth, so the greatest latitudes in the heaven are at the north and south poles of the ecliptic. For the division of the stars into constellations, &c. see ASTRONOMY, no 203. 206. PROB. I. To find the right ascension and declination of the sun, or any fixed star.—Bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the brazen meridian: then that degree in the equinoctial which is cut by the meridian, is the sun's right ascension; and that degree of the meridian which is over the sun's place, is his declination. Bring any fixed star to the meridian, and its right ascension will be cut by the meridian in the equinoctial; and the degree of the meridian that stands over it, is its declination. So that right ascension and declination, on the celestial globe, are found in the same manner as longitude and latitude on the terrestrial. PROB. II. To find the latitude and longitude of any star.—If the given star be on the north side of the ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant of altitude on the north pole of the ecliptic, where the twelve femicircles meet, which divide the ecliptic into the 12 signs; but if the star be on the south side of the ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant on the south pole of the ecliptic: keeping the 90th degree of the quadrant on the proper pole, turn the quadrant about, until its graduated edge cuts the star: then, the number of degrees in the quadrant, between the ecliptic and the star, is its latitude; and the degree of the ecliptic, cut by the quadrant, is the star's longitude, reckoned according to the sign in which the quadrant then is. PROB. III. To represent the face of the starry firmament, as seen from any given place of the earth, at any hour of the night.—Rectify the celestial globe for the given latitude, the zenith, and sun's place, in every respect, as taught by the XVIth problem for the terrestrial; and turn it about, until the index points to the given hour: then, the upper hemisphere of the globe will represent the visible half of the heaven for that time: all the stars upon the globe being then in such situations, as exactly correspond to those in the heaven. And if the globe be placed duly north and south, by means of a small sea-compas, every star in the globe will point toward the like star in the heaven: by which means, the constellations and remarkable stars may be easily known. All those stars which are in the eastern side of the horizon, are then rising in the eastern side of the heaven; all in the western, are setting in the western side; and all those under the upper part of the brazen meridian, between the south point of the horizon and the north pole, are at their greatest altitude, if the latitude of the place be north; but if the latitude be south, those stars which lie under the upper part of the meridian, between the north point of the horizon and the south pole, are at their greatest altitude. PROB. IV. The latitude of the place, and day of the month, being given; to find the time when any known star will rise, or be upon the meridian, or set.—Having rectified the globe, turn it about until the given star comes to the eastern side of the horizon, and the index will shew the time of the star's rising; then turn the globe westward, and when the star comes to the brazen meridian, the index will shew the time of the star's coming to the meridian of your place; lastly, turn on, until the star comes to the western side of the horizon, and the index will shew the time of the star's setting. N. B. In northern latitudes, those stars which are less distant from the north pole than the quantity of its elevation above the north point of the horizon, never set; and those which are less distant from the south pole than the number of degrees by which it is depressed below the horizon, never rise: and vice versa in southern latitudes. PROB. V. To find at what time of the year a given star will be upon the meridian, at a given hour of the night.—Bring the given star to the upper femicircle of the brazen meridian, and set the index to the given hour; then turn the globe, until the index points to XII at noon, and the upper femicircle of the meridian will then cut the sun's place, answering to the day of the year sought; which day may be easily found against the like place of the sun among the signs on the wooden horizon. PROB. VI. The latitude, day of the month, and azimuth of any known star, being given; to find the hour of the night.—Having rectified the globe for the latitude, zenith, and sun's place, lay the quadrant of altitude to the given degree of azimuth in the horizon: then turn the globe on its axis, until the star comes to the graduated edge of the quadrant; and when it does, the index will point out the hour of the night. PROB. VII. The latitude of the place, the day of the month, and altitude of any known star, being given; to find the hour of the night.—Rectify the globe as in the former problem, guess at the hour of the night, and turn the globe until the index points at the supposed hour: then lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over the known star; and if the degree of the star's height in the quadrant upon the globe answers exactly to the degree of the star's observed altitude in the heaven, you have guessed exactly: but if the star on the globe is higher or lower than it was observed to be in the heaven, turn the globe backwards or forwards, keeping the edge of the quadrant upon the star, until its centre comes to the observed altitude in the quadrant; and then the index will shew the true time of the night. PROB. VIII. An easy method for finding the hour of the night by any two known stars, without knowing either their altitude or azimuth; and then, of finding both their altitude and azimuth, and thereby the true meridian.—Tie one end of a thread to a common musket-bullet; and, having rectified the globe as above, hold the other end of the thread in your hand, and carry it slowly round betwixt your eye and the starry heaven, until you find it cuts any two known stars at once. Then guessing at the hour of the night, turn the globe until the index points to that time in the hour-circle; which which done, lay the graduated edge of the quadrant over any one of these two stars on the globe, which the thread cut in the heaven. If the said edge of the quadrant cuts the other star also, you have guessed the time exactly; but if it does not, turn the globe slowly backwards or forwards, until the quadrant (kept upon either star) cuts them both through their centres: and then, the index will point out the exact time of the night; the degree of the horizon, cut by the quadrant, will be the true azimuth of both these stars from the south; and the stars themselves will cut their true altitudes in the quadrant. At which moment, if a common azimuth-compass be so set upon a floor or level pavement, that these stars in the heaven may have the same bearing upon it (allowing for the variation of the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has in the wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended over the north and south points of that compass will be directly in the plane of the meridian: and if a line be drawn upon the floor or pavement, along the course of the thread, and an upright wire be placed in the south-most end of the line, the shadow of the wire will fall upon that line, when the sun is on the meridian, and shines upon the pavement. PROB. IX. To find the place of the moon, or of any planet; and thereby to shew the time of its rising, setting, and standing. See in Dodson's or Weaver's ephemeris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in the ecliptic, for the given day of the month; and, according to its longitude and latitude, as shewn by the ephemeris, mark the same with a chalk upon the globe. Then, having rectified the globe, turn it round its axis westward; and as the said mark comes to the eastern side of the horizon, to the brazen meridian, and to the western side of the horizon, the index will shew at what time the planet rises, comes to the meridian, and sets, in the same manner as it would do for a fixed star. For an explanation of the harvest-moons by a globe, see ASTRONOMY, no 168. For the description and use of a planetary globe, see ASTRONOMY, no 320. For the equation of time, see ASTRONOMY, no 181. 63 Solution of by means of accurate maps; but this requires a great deal of calculation, which is often very troublesome. The Analemma, or Orthographic Projection, delineated on 24 Plate CXVI. will solve many of the most curious; and with the assistance of the maps will be almost equivalent to a terrestrial globe. The parallel lines drawn on this figure represent the degrees of the sun's declination from the equator, whether north or south, amounting to 23\frac{1}{2} nearly. On these lines are marked the months and days which correspond to such and such declinations. The size of the figure does not admit of having every day of the year inserted; but by making allowance for the intermediate days, in proportion to the rest, the declination may be guessed at with tolerable exactness. The elliptical lines are designed to shew the hours of sun-rising or sun-setting before or after six o'clock. As 60 minutes make an hour of time, a fourth part of the space between each of the hour-lines will represent 15 minutes; which the eye can readily guess at, and which is as great exactness as can be expected from any mechanical invention, or as is necessary to answer any common purpose. The circles drawn round the centre at the distance of 11\frac{1}{2} each, shew the point of the compass on which the sun rises and sets, and on what point the twilight begins and ends. In order to make use of this analemma, it is only necessary to consider, that, when the latitude of the place and the sun's declination are both north or both south, the sun rises before six o'clock, between the east and the elevated pole; that is, towards the north, if the latitude and declination are north; or towards the south, if the latitude and declination are south. Let us now suppose it is required to find the time of the sun's rising and setting, the length of the days and nights, the time when the twilight begins and ends, and what point of the horizon the sun rises and sets on, for the Lizard point in England, Frankfort in Germany, or Abbeville in France, on the 30th of April. The latitude of these places by the maps will be found nearly 50^{\circ} north. Place the moveable index so that its point may touch 50^{\circ} on the quadrant of north latitude in the figure; then observe where its edge cuts the parallel line on which April 30th is wrote. From this reckon the hour-lines towards the centre, and you will find that the parallel-line is cut by the index nearly at the distance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the sun rises at one hour fifteen minutes before six, or 45 minutes after four in the morning, and sets 15 minutes after seven in the evening. The length of the day is 14 hours 30 minutes. Observe how far the intersection of the edge of the index with the parallel of April 30th is distant from any of the concentric circles; which you will find to be a little beyond that marked two points of the compass; and this shews, that on the 30th of April the sun rises two points and somewhat more from the east towards the north, or a little to the northward of E. N. E. and sets a little to the northward of W. N. W. To find the beginning and ending of twilight, take from the graduated arch of the circle 17\frac{1}{2} degrees with a pair of compasses; move one foot of the compasses extended to this distance along the parallel for the 30th of April, till the other just touches the edge of the index, which must still point at 50. The place where the other foot rests on the parallel of April 30th, then denotes the number of hours before six at which the twilight begins. This is somewhat more than three hours and an half; which shews, that the twilight then begins soon after two in the morning, and likewise that it begins to appear near five points from the east towards the north. The uses of this analemma may be varied in a great number of ways; but the example just now given will be sufficient for the ingenious reader.—The small circles on the same plate, marked Island, Promontory, &c. are added in order to render the maps more intelligible, by shewing how the different subjects are commonly delineated on them. HAVING thus explained the use of the globes, and general principles of geography, we must refer to the maps for the situation of each particular country, with regard to longitude, latitude, &c. and to the names of the countries as they occur in the order of the alphabet, for the most remarkable particulars concerning them. EARTH POLE to the TROPIC of CANCER. Extract of the Honble Capt Phipps now Lord Mulgrave in 1773. GEOGRAPHY A MAP of the WORLD in three Sections. Describing the Polar Regions to the Tropics In which are traced the Tracks of Lord Malmesbury and Captain Cook Towards the North & South Poles and the Terrestrial Zone or Tropical Regions with the New Discoveries in the Scythia TERRITORIAL ZONE or TROPICAL REGIONS of the WORLD in which are laid down the New Discoveries in the Pacific Ocean & South Sea This is a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper shows signs of wear, including faint circular patterns that appear to be impressions from a previous page or a watermark. A vertical fold line is visible near the center, dividing the page into two halves. There are several small, brownish spots scattered across the surface, characteristic of foxing or age-related staining. The overall texture of the paper is slightly grainy. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges, particularly along the left edge and bottom. There is no text or other markings on the page. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint, circular markings that suggest it might have been part of a decorative design or a stamp. There are no legible characters or distinct figures on the page. DENMARK,NORWAY,SWEDEN,AndFINLAND. R U S S I A P O L A N D Meridian of London AmsterdamKare SoundKerolandLestoundBull BayHorn SoundCherry Island North CapeStony I.ScaniaSweden British Miles This is a detailed historical map of the Scandinavian Peninsula and surrounding regions. The map is oriented with North at the top. Major geographical features include the Baltic Sea to the north, the North Sea to the west, and the Kattegat and Skagerrak to the south. The map shows the borders of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland, as well as parts of Russia, Poland, and Germany. Key cities and towns are labeled, including Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Gothenburg. The map also depicts numerous islands, including Gotland, Öland, and the Åland Islands. A scale bar in British miles is located in the bottom right corner, and a small inset map in the bottom left corner provides a broader geographical context, showing the location of the main map area relative to the British Isles. 1846 1846 The map is a detailed historical representation of Russia and its surrounding regions. It features a grid of latitude and longitude lines. The title 'RUSSIA or MOSCOWY in EUROPE' is prominently displayed in a circular frame in the upper right. The map shows the following features: Water Bodies: White Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, and various rivers like the Volga, Dnieper, and Ural. Regions and Countries: SWEDEN, PRUSSIA, POLAND, TURKEY, LITHUANIA, FINLAND, and various parts of Russia (e.g., RUSSIA, MOSCOWY, RUSSIA, MOSCOWY). Cities and Towns: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Berlin, London, and many others. Geographical Features: Mountains, lakes, and the Arctic Circle. Scale and Orientation: A scale in British miles (0 to 100) and a compass rose are located in the bottom right corner. Marginalia: Distances from London are noted along the left and right edges: 'To Bad. Lon. from London.' on the left and '111 Hours Bad. from London.' on the right. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges. A faint, rectangular border is visible near the top edge, possibly from a previous page or a watermark. There is no text or other markings on the page. NORTHERN ATLANTIC OCEAN British statute Miles 0 10 20 30 40 Scotland. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges. A subtle, rectangular embossed border is visible near the edges of the page, framing the central area. There is no text or other markings on the page. The map is a detailed historical representation of Great Britain and Ireland, showing the following features: Regions: SCOTLAND, IRELAND, ENGLAND, WALE. Major Cities: London, Edinburgh, Dublin, York, Bristol, London (repeated), etc. Geographical Features: The British Isles are surrounded by the OCEAN. The map shows the coastline and major rivers. Scale: A scale bar for British Statute Miles is provided, ranging from 0 to 85. Compass: A compass rose is located in the upper left corner, indicating North. Grid: The map is framed by a grid of latitude and longitude lines, with labels for degrees and minutes of time and longitude. Neighboring Countries: The UNITED KINGDOM is shown to the north, and FRANCE is shown to the east. A faint, sepia-toned map of a coastal region, possibly the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean, enclosed in a double-line border. The map shows intricate coastline details, numerous small islands, and a network of rivers or inlets. A vertical title or scale is located on the right side of the map frame. PLATE I PLATE II This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a visible texture and some minor discoloration or foxing. A faint, double-lined rectangular border is visible near the edges of the page. There is no text or other markings on the page. The map is a detailed geographical representation of Europe, showing the following features: Regions: ENGLAND, IRELAND, CHANNEL, FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, ITALY, SPAIN, GERMANY, NETHERLANDS, and various smaller states like LORRAIN, CHAMPAGNE, and SAVOY. Cities and Towns: London, Paris, Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Amsterdam, Antwerp, and many others are labeled throughout the map. Water Bodies: The Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Rhine River are prominent. Geographical Features: The Pyrenees, Alps, and various mountain ranges are indicated. Scale: A scale in miles is provided at the bottom right, showing distances up to 100 miles. Annotations: A note at the bottom left states "6 Degrees W from London". This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges, particularly towards the bottom center. A faint, rectangular border is visible near the edges, suggesting it might be part of a bound volume. There is no text or other markings on the page. This is a detailed historical map of Central Europe, specifically showing the German Empire and its constituent states. The map is oriented with North at the top. It features a grid of latitude and longitude lines, with longitude marked from 18 to 56 and latitude from 46 to 54. A scale bar in miles is located in the bottom left corner. The map is divided into several major regions and states, each labeled in large capital letters: GERMANIA: The central region, subdivided into various states such as Bavaria (BAVARIA), Austria (AUSTRIA), Carinthia (CARINTHIA), Tyrol (TYROL), and others. PRUSSIA: The northern region, including Prussia (PRUSSIA), Poland (POLAND), and Lithuania (LITHANIA). NETHERLANDS: The southwestern region. SWITZERLAND: The southern region. ITALY: The southeastern region, including Savoy (SAVOY) and Tuscany (TUSCANY). FRANCE: The western region. Major cities and towns are labeled throughout the map, including Berlin, Vienna, Krakow, Warsaw, and many others. Rivers and geographical features are also depicted. The map is framed by a border with longitude and latitude markings, and a decorative title "GERMANIA" is located in the upper right corner. 1731 BRITISH MADE IN ENGLAND MADE IN ENGLAND Degrees W from London. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 ATLANTIC OCEAN BALEARIC SEA SPAN and PORTUGAL MEDITERRANEAN SEA BALEARIC ISLANDS CANARY ISLANDS Major cities and regions: MADRID, LISBON, BILBAO, BISCAY, GALICIA, ASTURIA, CANTABRIA, VALLADOLID, SEVILLA, MADRID, BADAJOZ, CORDOBA, GRANADA, MURCIA, ALICANTE, MAYORCA, MINORCA, BARCELONA, MONTPELLIER, TARRAGONA, NAPLES, GENOA, FLORENCE, PISA, SARDEGNA, SICILY, MALTA, RODEA, CARTHAGE, TUNIS, ALGER, TIRAS, BAGDAD, CONSTANTINOPLE, SOFIA, BULGARIA, SERBIA, HUNGARY, ROMANIA, GREECE, ITALY, FRANCE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL, ANDORRA, MONACO, SWITZERLAND, AUSTRIA, BOHEMIA, POLAND, RUSSIA, TURKEY, EGYPT, AFRICA, ARABIA, ASIA, INDIA, CHINA, JAPAN, AUSTRALIA, ANTARCTICA. Rivers: R. Ebro, R. Guadalquivir, R. Tago, R. Guadiana, R. Segura, R. Júcar, R. Ebre, R. Rhodanus, R. Garonne, R. Girona. Scale: British Standard Miles (0 to 3). Coordinates: 36 to 44 degrees North, 36 to 44 degrees West. PLATE I Fig. 1 Fig. 2 A faint, sepia-toned map or diagram is centered on the page. It is enclosed within a double-line rectangular border. The interior of the map shows a complex network of lines, possibly representing a river system, a road network, or a topographical map. There are several small, illegible labels or symbols scattered throughout the map area. The overall appearance is that of an old, faded document. The map is a detailed historical representation of Europe, centered on the Mediterranean Sea. It features a grid of latitude and longitude lines. Major regions are labeled in large, bold letters: TURKY IN EUROPE, GULF OF GENOA, CHURCH OF ROME, and SARDINIA. The map shows the coastline of Europe, including the British Isles, the continent of Europe, and the Mediterranean islands. Numerous cities and geographical features are marked throughout the map, including the Rhone River, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. A scale bar in British Statute Miles is located in the bottom right corner, and a note about the hour of time from London is also present. British Statute Miles. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges. A small, distinct brown spot is visible near the center of the page. Faint, decorative borders are visible around the edges of the page, suggesting it was part of a bound volume. There is no text or other markings on the page. This is a sepia-toned map of a geographical region, likely in Central or South America, showing topographical features, rivers, and a grid. The map is framed by a decorative border. Faint text is visible in the top left corner, and a vertical label is on the right side. REPUBLICA DE PANAMAGOBIERNO GENERALMINISTERIO DE HACIENDA 1891 1891 This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges, particularly along the right edge. There is no text or other markings on the page. Degrees E. from London 75 PERSIA MOGUL GUZU RAT DE CAN CAR CAR MALDIVIA ISLANDS I N D This is a historical map of the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. The map is oriented with North at the top. The landmass is divided into several regions: PERSIA to the northwest, MOGUL in the north, GUZU RAT in the west, DE CAN in the center, CAR CAR in the east, and MALDIVIA ISLANDS in the southeast. Numerous cities and geographical features are labeled, including Cachin, Allich, Moratti, Bucher, Tajanal, Cochin, Alor, Amadabra, Goragunay, Patam, Goze, Dinlbad, Sabat, Bombay, Mumbai, Dabul, Bajaspore, Algarde, Cancer, Basileer, Mangalore, Quannon, Pellicher, Calicut, Panice, Cochin, Angna, Pasapalar, Comorin, Caridow, Caridwal, and Mala. The map also shows the Indus and Ganges rivers. A scale bar is located at the bottom of the map, with markings for 10, 20, 30, and 40 degrees. The map is framed by a grid of latitude and longitude lines. This is a detailed historical map of the East Indies, titled "EAST INDIES" in a central oval. The map shows the Indian subcontinent, the Malay Archipelago, and surrounding regions. Key features include the Persian Gulf, the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean. Major regions labeled are the Mogul Empire, British India, and the Philippines. Numerous smaller islands and coastal towns are depicted. The map is framed by a grid of latitude and longitude lines. At the bottom, it reads "N. House Engrd. From London" and "A. Dallendiepe". This is a sepia-toned map of a coastal region, likely the Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean, showing landmasses, water bodies, and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. The map is framed by a decorative border. The text on the map is extremely faint and largely illegible, but it appears to be in a colonial script. The map shows a large landmass on the left and a smaller one on the right, with a body of water in between. The grid lines are clearly visible, indicating a coordinate system. The overall appearance is that of an old, faded historical document. A historical map of the Gulf of Mexico and surrounding regions. The map is framed by a coordinate grid with latitude and longitude lines. Latitude lines are marked on the left side at 30, 25, 20, 15, and 10 degrees. Longitude lines are marked at the top at 100 and 110 degrees. The map shows the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, with labels for New Leon, New Galicia, and Mexico. Major cities and locations include St. Louis, Lake St. Joseph, New Leon, New Galicia, Mexico, Mexico City, Villa Rica, San Francisco, Chihuahua, La Vera Cruz, and Acapulco. The Gulf of Mexico is labeled 'GU' and 'MEXICO'. The word 'GRAN' is partially visible, and 'SOUTH' is at the bottom. The map is a historical print, likely from the 18th or 19th century, showing the geographical features and settlements of the region. A scale bar at the bottom of the page, showing distances in miles and kilometers. The scale bar is marked with numbers from 0 to 100, likely representing miles or kilometers. It is a standard scale bar used for measuring distances on the map. This historical map, titled 'WEST INDIES' in a circular emblem, depicts the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. It shows the eastern coast of North America (Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, New York, New Jersey, New England), the Gulf of Mexico, and the western coast of North America (Mexico, New Spain, Central America). The map includes the Bahamas, the Great Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, etc.), the Lesser Antilles, and the Windward Islands. The Tropic of Cancer is marked. Numerous coastal towns and islands are labeled, such as New Orleans, Havana, Port-au-Prince, and San Francisco. The map is framed by a grid of latitude and longitude lines, with a scale bar and a compass rose in the upper right corner. The map is signed 'A. Bell Sculp.' in the lower right corner. A faint, sepia-toned map of a geographical region, possibly a mountainous area, showing topographical features and a grid system. The map is framed by a border and includes some text in the upper left corner. The text in the upper left corner is very faint and appears to read "MOUNTAIN" and "INDEX". The map itself shows a complex network of lines, likely representing topographical contours or roads, and a grid of latitude and longitude lines. The overall appearance is that of an old, faded document. A faint, mirrored map is visible on the page, appearing as a watermark or bleed-through from the reverse side. The map depicts a geographical region with various features: a network of winding lines representing rivers or waterways, a series of straighter lines suggesting roads or administrative boundaries, and several clusters of text representing place names or geographical features. The map is enclosed within a rectangular border. The overall appearance is that of an old, weathered document with significant fading and discoloration. This is a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges. A faint, rectangular border is visible, suggesting it was part of a larger layout. In the upper left corner, there is a small, faint circular mark, possibly a stamp or a decorative element. The overall tone is warm and yellowish, characteristic of old paper. The map is a detailed geographical representation of South America, showing the continent's extent from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Atlantic Ocean in the east, and from the Equator in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south. The map is titled 'S. America' in a decorative cartouche at the bottom right. The title 'S. America' is written in a stylized, gothic-style font. The map is divided into several major regions, each labeled in large, bold letters: 'TERRA FIRMA' (the land of the firmament), 'AMAZONES' (the land of the Amazons), 'PARAGUAY', 'BRASIL' (Brazil), and 'CHILI' (Chile). The 'OCEAN PACIFIC' is labeled on the left side, and the 'OCEAN ATLANTIC' is labeled on the right side. The 'OCEAN SOUTHERN' is labeled at the bottom. The 'Equinoctial Line' is marked across the center of the map. A grid of latitude and longitude lines covers the map, with labels for various degrees. A compass rose is located in the lower right quadrant, showing the cardinal directions. The map is densely populated with labels for geographical features, including rivers, mountains, cities, and islands. For example, the 'Andes' are labeled 'The Andes', and the 'Rio de la Plata' is labeled 'Rio de la Plata'. The map also includes a scale bar at the bottom right, indicating distances in leagues and miles. This image shows a blank, aged, cream-colored page, likely an endpaper or flyleaf from an old book. The paper has a slightly textured appearance with some minor discoloration and faint smudges, characteristic of old paper. A vertical strip of lighter, textured material is visible along the right edge, possibly a binding element or a piece of tape. There is no text or other markings on the page. This is a detailed historical map of the Americas, titled "N. America" in a large, ornate script at the top left. The map shows the North American continent, Greenland, and parts of South America. Key regions labeled include "V. E. R. E. D. QUINA", "NEW BRITAIN", "CANADA OF NEW FRANCE", "NEW ENGLAND", "LOUISIANA", "MEXICO", "CALIFORNIA", "GULF OF MEXICO", "NEW SPAIN", and "TERRAFIRMA OF SOUTH AMERICA". The map is framed by a grid of latitude and longitude lines, with labels for the "Tropic of Cancer", "Tropic of Capricorn", and "Equinoctial". A compass rose is located in the upper right quadrant. The map is signed "C. Bell & Son" in the bottom right corner. A faint, sepia-toned map or diagram enclosed in a rectangular border. The map shows a network of lines, possibly roads or paths, and some text labels that are difficult to read due to fading. The overall appearance is that of an old, weathered document. 1840