UNIVERSITAS, of which University is the English exponent, is often used by the best Latin writers to denote the whole of anything in contradistinction to its component parts, and is applied equally to persons and things. Thus Cicero employs the expression universitas generis humani, to denote the human race or mankind as a whole; while he denominates the units forming this aggregate singuli, individuals. In like manner he uses universitas rerum for the whole of things—for all things viewed as making one whole (totus mundus). In the technical language of the civil law, it was likewise applied both to persons and things: in the former signification (convertible with collegium) it denoted a plurality of persons associated for a continued purpose, and may be inadequately rendered by society, company, corporation; in the latter, it denoted a certain totality of individual things, constituted either by their mutual relation to a certain common end, or by a mere legal fiction. The universities, or corporate bodies at Rome were very numerous. Thus we find incorporations of priests, of farmers of the public revenue, bakers, carpenters, musicians, &c. In the language of the middle ages, universitas was applied either loosely to any understood class of persons, or strictly to the members of a municipal incorporation, or to the members of a general study.¹ In this application, it was used to denote either the whole body of teachers and learners, or the whole body of learners, or the whole body of teachers and learners divided either by faculty, or by country, or by both together; its specific meaning being determined by the words with which it was connected. In the fourteenth century, the terms magistrorum et scholarium and the like, which had hitherto been joined with universitas, were discontinued, and the word came to be used simply by itself, or in combination with studium or studium generale; as universitas studii Oznensis, Parisiensis, &c. The term in ecclesiastical language was frequently applied to a number of churches united under the superintendence of one archdeacon, and to the college of canons in a cathedral. It is thus used to denote the body of canons of the church of Pisa, in a papal Rescript of the year 688; and from such a body the transition was easy to the masters and scholars of a seminary of education.²

University, in its academical signification, has been defined "a universal school, in which are taught all branches of learning, or the four faculties of Theology, Law, Medicine, and the Arts, and in which degrees are conferred in these faculties." This we believe to be the meaning most commonly attached to the word university; and as it arises from inattention to the original application of the term, it will be necessary for us to endeavour to point out its true signification. Like many other terms of extensive application, it has undergone various modifications of meaning, till its origin and primary use seem to have been utterly forgotten. By the nations of modern Europe, it has been applied to the highest seminaries of learning in their respective countries, whether these embraced "the whole circle of the sciences," or were limited to one or two faculties; and we accordingly find that the idea attached to the word varies in extent and comprehensiveness with the institution

to which it is applied. Those who have formed their notion of the word merely from the English universities, commonly suppose that a university "necessarily means a collection and union of colleges; that it is a great corporation, embodying in one the smaller and subordinate collegiate bodies." The author of A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edinburgh Review,³ asserts that "the university of Oxford is not a national foundation. It is a congeries of foundations, originating, some in royal munificence, but more in private piety and bounty. They are moulded, indeed, into one corporation; but each one of our twenty colleges is a corporation by itself." The inaccuracy of this opinion will appear from our account of that distinguished seminary. It is indeed sufficiently refuted by the fact, that many universities exist in which there are no colleges. This is the case with most of the German universities; and in the Scottish universities there are now no foundations which bear any resemblance to the English colleges. Edinburgh, though called a college, is a university, and has nothing in common with the English meaning of the term college; and the colleges at St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, are corporations chiefly endowed for the principals and professors, and, but to a small extent, for the students. Trinity College, Dublin, is a college with the privileges of a university, possessing however a munificent endowment for the provost, fellows, and scholars. It is important, besides, to bear in mind, that the universities of Oxford and Cambridge existed before a single college was endowed; and that the universities would continue to exist, with all their rights and privileges unimpaired, even if the property of all the colleges were confiscated, and their buildings levelled with the ground. Another error—that universities were so called because they professed to teach universal learning—though maintained by men of such erudition as Mosheim, Tiraboschi, and Dr Waddington, and assented to by Hallam, is a mere quibble upon the word. The University of Paris, as well as Oxford and Cambridge, existed at first only in the faculty of arts; Salerno and Montpellier originally contained the single faculty of medicine; and even Bologna was celebrated for 200 years, as a school of law, before it contained any provision for lectures in theology. The teaching of the civil law was prohibited in Paris from 1220 till 1679; and other instances might easily be adduced in which the study of particular faculties was forbidden in particular universities. It is true that most of the modern universities embrace the "whole circle of learning," as contained in the four faculties of arts, theology, law, and medicine; but this was not the case in the thirteenth century, when the term universities was first applied to academical institutions. University may therefore be defined "the whole members of an incorporated body of persons, teaching and learning one or more departments of knowledge, and empowered by the constituted authorities to confer degrees in one or more faculties."

It is impossible to fix the period when universities, in the modern acceptance of the term, were first established. Previously to the age of Charlemagne, Europe had sunk into the grossest barbarism, in consequence of the migrations of the northern and eastern tribes, and the devastating

¹ The oldest word for an unexclusive institution of higher education was studium and studium generale; terms employed in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and retained in those which followed. The term studium generale, like universitas, did not mean originally that all was taught, but that what was taught was taught to all; "generalitas ad universitatem non pertinent scientiarum, sed ad publicam causam docendi." (Petri Gregorii Tholosani De Republica, lib. xviii., c. 1., sect. 87.)

² The substance of this account of the word university is taken chiefly from Sir William Hamilton's Discussions on Education, No. vi. To this Discussion, and to two others by Sir William, we have been largely indebted in compiling the following article.

³ Dr Copleston, late bishop of Llandaff. Oxford, 1810, 8vo.

wars which followed in their train. This monarch is entitled to the praise of having zealously endeavoured to promote the cultivation of literature and science throughout his vast empire. At his accession, we are assured that no means of education existed in his dominions; and in order to restore in some degree the spirit of letters, he was compelled to invite strangers from other countries where learning was not so thoroughly extinguished. Among those who repaired to his court, were Alcuin of England, Clement of Ireland, and Theodulf of Germany, men whose zeal was not inferior to that of their munificent patron. With the help of these, he established schools in different cities of his empire; and all the power and influence of the court were employed in forwarding his endeavours to diffuse some portion of education among his subjects.

By an imperial enactment, it was ordained that the bishops should erect schools contiguous to their churches, while the monks were enjoined to establish them in their monasteries; and the imperial court, as it moved from place to place, watched and rewarded the progress of learning in all the seminaries of the empire. The impulse thus given to literature, though checked by the sloth and ignorance of the monks and canons of the tenth century, was never altogether destroyed: the cathedral and monastic schools afforded the means of education, such as it was, to the young men who were destined for the church; and during the two succeeding centuries, "what learning there was, and what scientific men there were, were contained in and proceeded from their walls." By degrees the light of science, which had been so long obscured, began to shine more brightly: teachers, whose genius and erudition enabled them to overstep the narrow circle to which they had themselves been restricted, arose in various places; and wherever an Anselm or an Abelard opened his school, his lectures were attended by crowds of admiring listeners. The success of one teacher invited others to the same field of labour, and the large number of scholars who frequented the auditory of an admired expounder of some new or favourite question of scholastic logic or divinity, afforded ample room for the exertion of his talents and ingenuity. It was in this manner that particular schools obtained a permanent celebrity, and that those associations of teachers were formed which were afterwards recognised by the civil and ecclesiastical power, and ultimately dignified with the name of "Universities."

"The oldest universities of Europe," says Mr. Malden, "sprung up in the twelfth century, and were formed by the zeal and enterprise of learned men, who undertook to deliver public instruction to all who were desirous of hearing them. The first teachers soon found assistants and rivals: students resorted in great numbers to the sources of knowledge thus opened to them; and from this voluntary concourse of teachers and learners the schools arose, which were afterwards recognised as public bodies, and entitled 'Universities,' and which served as models for those which, in later times, were founded and established by public authority. Some of the oldest universities had traditions of their foundation at a more remote period by royal or imperial authority, and these traditions might be nominally true; but as far as their real life, and power, and distinctive character are concerned, their origin was in fact spontaneous, and is to be ascribed to the general excitement of the intellect which pervaded Europe in the twelfth century."

The oldest of the European universities were those of Paris and Bologna; the former for several centuries so celebrated as a school of theology as to be designated the "first school of the church," and the latter equally famous for the study of Roman jurisprudence. Of these two seminaries, as forming the models on which the other universities which subsequently sprung up in various parts of Europe were established, it will be necessary for us to give a somewhat detailed account. Omitting altogether the question of priority, we shall begin with the University of Paris, because we believe its claim to precedence, on the ground of antiquity, to be equally well-founded with that of its rival, and because its form and constitution were in a great measure adopted by the founders of the two great English universities.

The commendation of this famous university is not recorded. Tradition has assigned its origin to Charlemagne, and it is consequently referred to the beginning of the ninth century; but this opinion rests on no distinct evidence, and has been rejected by all recent writers who have examined the subject. Among the schools which the great emperor of the west established, it is doubtful whether we can reckon that of Paris; and though there are some traces of public instruction being given in that city about the end of the ninth century, it is not certain that we can assume it to be more ancient. For two hundred years more, it can only be said that some persons appear to have come to Paris for the purposes of study; but the history of the school is very obscure, and, according to Hallam, "it would be hard to prove an unbroken continuity, or at least a dependence and connection of its professors." From the beginning of the twelfth century, Paris became the resort of learned men, who attached themselves in some degree to the existing schools, and infused new life into them by delivering public lectures on scholastic theology. One of these was William of Champeaux, who opened a school of logic in 1109, which is remarkable as the era from which alone the university can deduce the regular succession of its teachers. This celebrated dialectician, whose fame attracted crowds of pupils, was eclipsed by his disciple, afterwards his rival and adversary, Peter Abelard, to whose brilliant and hardy genius the university appears to be indebted for its rapid advancement as a seminary of school-divinity. One of Abelard's pupils was Peter Lombard, afterwards archbishop of Paris, whose Liber Sententiarum, a digest of propositions extracted from the fathers, obtained the highest authority among the scholastic disputants. These and some other less distinguished preceptors first gave permanency to the future university.

The learning communicated in this ancient school, as in others of the same age, was comprised in two courses, called the Trivium and Quadrivium, terms employed from a very early age¹ to denote the seven liberal arts or sciences; of which the objects are enumerated in the following line:

"Lingua, tropus, ratio, numerus, tonus, angulus, astra."

The first course comprehended grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the second, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. It may easily be imagined, that in the tenth and eleventh centuries the extent of learning comprehended under these seven heads was not very great; but small as

¹ This division of the sciences is ascribed to St. Augustin, and was certainly established early in the sixth century. (Hallam's Middle Ages, iii. 521.) The enumeration answered to the seven cardinal virtues, seven deadly sins, seven sacraments, &c., and was comprehended in these memorial lines,—

GRAMM. loquitur; DIA. vera docet; RHET. verba colorat;
MUS. canit; AR. numerat; GEO. ponderat; AST. colit astra.

But most of these sciences were scarcely taught at all. The arithmetic, for instance, of Cassiodorus or Capella is nothing but a few definitions mingled with superstitious absurdities about the virtues of certain numbers and figures.

Paris. it was, not many scholars proceeded beyond the Trivium, and the student who mastered both courses was looked upon as a person of profound erudition,

"Qui tria, qui septem, qui totum scibile scivit."¹

The university, as a corporate body, had as yet no existence; and the teachers, on whom its reputation rested, delivered their lectures in Paris and its neighbourhood, or wherever the prospect of success invited them. It consisted of a congeries of schools, partly in connection with the churches and monasteries, and partly formed by the celebrity of literary adventurers. The number of these schools in the middle of the twelfth century was great; encouragement produced masters, and able masters increased the number of scholars. The continually increasing number of teachers and students rendered it expedient to establish in the university some form of government to maintain the regularity and discipline necessary to its permanent success; and it accordingly appears to have been incorporated into a society towards the end of the twelfth century. Matthew Paris informs us that John de la Celle, elected abbot of St Albans in 1195, had studied at Paris, and had been elected into the company or body of established teachers.

The antiquity of the different component parts of the university is involved in great uncertainty. The faculty of arts appears to have existed at a very early period, and had assumed a regular form of self-government before the year 1169. In this year Henry II. of England offered to refer the adjustment of his dispute with Becket to the peers of France, the Gallican Church, or the provinces (nations) of the school of Paris. The head or rector of the university is named in an ordinance of Philip Augustus in 1200; the procurators of the nations (procuratores nationum) in 1218; the faculty of theology existed as a separate body in 1267; the faculties of the canon law and medicine in 1281; the rights of the chancellor of Notre Dame were exercised in 1169. The oldest public documents extant which have reference to the Parisian school are two decretals of Pope Alexander III., the first in 1180, directed against the practice, which had been introduced by the chancellor, of exacting fees for licenses to teach; and the second, of nearly the same date, relieving Peter Comestor, who was then chancellor, from this prohibition. The practice of receiving fees seems to have been revived; for when Innocent III., in 1215, by his legate Robert de Courçon, regulated the institutions of the university, he found it necessary to renew the ordinance that nothing should be given to the chancellor for granting licenses. This ordinance, according to Savigny,² is remarkable as being the first in which the term university (universitas) is applied to the school of Paris; thereby implying the recognition and sanction of the university by the papal see, a sanction which was especially valuable, and even indispensable to its continued existence, when theology had become its leading study and its distinguishing characteristic. Pope Nicholas IV., towards the end of the thirteenth century, conferred upon the university the additional privilege that the doctors who were there approved should everywhere have the power of teaching, lecturing, and directing schools (docendi, legendi, regendi),

and should enjoy the privileges and rank of doctors throughout Christendom. Philip Augustus, by his ordinance of 1200,³ granted to the university exemption from the ordinary tribunals, even from those of the church; prohibited the citizens, under the severest penalties, from molesting the students; and in the few cases in which the magistrates of the city were allowed to interfere, they were obliged to deliver over the culprit to his academical superiors. The person of the rector of the schools was declared to be sacred; and the provost of the city, immediately after his instalment, was required to wait on the masters and scholars in full assembly, and in their presence solemnly to swear that he would carefully observe and fulfil the designs of the ordinance. This ceremony continued to be observed till 1592. The example of Philip was followed by the kings of France during the two succeeding centuries, and by them the privileges and immunities of the university were still further increased. By various regal enactments, the masters and scholars were exempted from all taxes imposed to defray the expenses of war, the king's court, family, representatives, or officers; from all customs, taxes, or personal burdens; were declared not liable to arrest, or to seizure or sequestration of goods; and were specially exempted from being summoned out of Paris in any legal process. The popes were not less active in its support. By a letter of Innocent IV., it was provided that no one should promulgate a sentence of excommunication, suspension, or interdict, against the university, or any of its members, without the special license of the apostolic see; and that, if promulgated, it should be null and void.

The University of Paris, thus recognised by the pope, Students, and encouraged by the fostering care of the kings of France, soon became the most distinguished seminary of learning in Europe, and students resorted to it with an eagerness for instruction which may well excite surprise when we reflect how little of what is now deemed useful could be there obtained. A more systematic course of study was introduced; theology and the arts ceased to be the only subjects taught; medicine began to assume the form of a science; and the canon law, under the special patronage of the church, took its place as a new branch of jurisprudence. The study of the civil law was introduced in the twelfth century, soon after its revival at Bologna, but was prohibited by Pope Honorius III. in 1220—a prohibition which Innocent IV. endeavoured to extend to the whole of France, England, Scotland, and Hungary. Some attempts were made to revive it under the authority of the Parliament of Paris in 1568; but the prohibition was renewed, and the university was not finally relieved from it till the year 1679.⁴ The number of students in the twelfth century nearly equalled that of the citizens, and included individuals from every part of Christendom. At the death of Charles VII., in 1453, it amounted to 25,000; and, when Joseph Scaliger was a student, it had reached 30,000.

Having thus traced the University of Paris from its Constitution origin to its full establishment, we shall now give a short analysis of its constitution in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The most ancient part of the university was the faculty of arts or philosophy, which is believed to have

¹ This barbarous verse was written in commendation of the learning of Alanus de Insulis, who was one of the most famous scholars of his time, and who, according to Du Boulay, taught theology in Paris in the latter part of the twelfth century. (Conringius, Suppl. xvi.) The reading here adopted, though different from that in the work referred to, is believed to be the correct one.

² Geschichte, iii. 318. It is addressed Scholasticus Parisiensibus. The same name is given to it by Rigord, in his history of that period, and is assumed by that learned body in a public deed, A.D. 1221. (Rigord, Hist., p. 208.) "Nos universitas magistrorum et scholarium," &c. (Bulai, Hist. Un. Par. iii., pp. 25, 52, 60, 105.)

³ This ordinance was published in consequence of a quarrel between the students and the citizens headed by their provost, in which some foreign students of eminence were killed. The masters presented their complaint to the king, demanded justice against the provost and his accomplices, and even threatened, with their scholars, to leave the city. The provost was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and provision was made for the future protection and safety of the students. (Bulai, Hist. Un. Par. iii., pp. 2 and 3.)

⁴ McCrie's Life of Melville, i., pp. 419, 420. To the cause of this prohibition it is unnecessary to advert. The popes were too quick-sighted, and too much alive to their own interests, not to perceive that the authority delegated to the civil magistrate by the civil law militated against their own absolute ecclesiastical claims.

⁵ The term Faculty, in all the older universities, denoted the body of teachers or graduates who, besides the privilege of lecturing on

Paris. had a special connection with the church of St Geneviève, and probably originated in the school attached to that church. In all the ancient continental universities the members were divided into nations; these varying in number according to the will of the respective founders. In Paris the faculty of arts, which, for this purpose, included all members who were not doctors, was divided into four Nations:—1. The French nation, including the French, Italian, Spaniards, Greeks, &c.; 2. The nation of Picardy, which included the students from the north-east of France, and also the Netherlands; 3. The nation of Normandy, comprehending those from the west; 4. The English nation (after 1430, called the German nation), which, besides the students from the provinces subject to the English, as Poictou, Guienne, &c., included the English, Scottish, Irish, Poles, Germans, &c. In these nations were enrolled the professors and students from the respective districts, without any distinction arising from the departments of learning to which they were devoted. This division, as we have already seen, existed in 1169; and there is a concordat of the four nations respecting the election of a rector in the year 1206, which proves that, at that time, their privileges were recognised and acted upon. Each nation formed an independent body, had its own patron, church, place of meeting, academical buildings, great and small seal, &c., and managed exclusively its own affairs. At the head of each was a procurator, elected from their own number, whose duty it was to defend the rights and privileges of the nation, to convene and preside in its meetings, swear in new office-bearers and new members, and to see that all the acts and statutes were duly observed. The four procurators, with the rector, originally constituted the ordinary council of the university, in which its general government and legislation were vested. Their power extended even to the infliction of corporal punishment, some examples of which are mentioned as early as 1200, and in the fifteenth century they were not infrequent. They had a common seal, and as a corporate body were represented by the rector.¹ Each nation was divided into provinces, and each province into dioceses. The names of the members of each province were enrolled in a register; and at their head was a dean, chosen by themselves. The deans formed the ordinary council of the procurator, and their assent was necessary in every undertaking of importance.

Procurators.

Chancellor. In all the old universities, the chancellor was the fountain of honour, the officer by whose authority degrees were conferred; and this dignity brought along with it considerable power. The office appears to have arisen out of that of the chancellors appointed by the bishops in their respective dioceses, to preside in their courts, and maintain discipline within the limits of the episcopal jurisdiction. After the full establishment of monasteries, the abbots claimed the same power, and created chancellors with similar authority. It belonged to the bishop and his chancellor to grant licenses to teach within his own diocese; and the same power was claimed and exercised by the abbot and his chancellor within the territory of the abbey.² When the university was placed in an episcopal city, the bishop of the diocese was very often the chancellor; and if not the bishop, some other ecclesiastical dignitary appointed

by him. The University of Paris being situate partly within the diocese of Paris, and partly within the abbey lands of St Geneviève, the power of granting license to students and masters was claimed and exercised by both. These chancellors were appointed, the one by his bishop, and the other by his abbot: the right of the latter extended to granting degrees in the arts only; that of the former to degrees in theology, law, and medicine. The chancellor of the church of St Geneviève was always the chancellor of the faculty of arts, though the bishop of Paris was the chancellor of the other three faculties, and was considered as the chancellor of the university at large. They chose their own deputies or vice-chancellors, appointed annual examiners of candidates for degrees, but had no power to interfere in the internal government of the university.

The rector, who has been already mentioned as the Rector head of the university, and who continued to be so in everything except the conferring of degrees, appears to have been originally chosen by the four nations voting collectively; but the number of students belonging to the French nation gave it so decided a superiority, that the other three became dissatisfied, and at last seceding, elected a rector for themselves. To put an end to this difference, which threatened the prosperity of the university, and to restore unity and peace, delegates were appointed, by whose mediation it was agreed, and confirmed by the seals of the four nations, A.D. 1249, that the election should in future be vested in the four procurators, with certain provisions if they were not unanimous. After the year 1280, the rector was chosen by electors specially appointed for the purpose. He was eligible from the faculty of arts only, and continued in office for three months, when he might be re-elected, or another chosen in his room. He presided in the general meetings of the university, took charge of the registers and public money, and administered generally the government of the university. Within the city he took precedence, not only of all the officers and members of the university, but also of bishops, papal nuncios, and legates.

Such was the constitution of the University of Paris till the middle of the thirteenth century. About this time the Dominican and Franciscan friars, supported by the pope and the bishop of Paris, succeeded in establishing the faculty of theology, which, after a strenuous opposition on the part of the heads of the university, was recognized in the year 1259. Faculties of medicine and the canon law very soon modelled themselves upon that of theology. The three faculties are separately mentioned in a deliberation which took place in the year 1277, and, four years after, were confirmed in all the rights and privileges of the university. At the head of each faculty was a dean, chosen in the same manner as Deans. The procurators of the nations, who presided in its meetings, and represented the body. From this period, therefore, the school of Paris, which had hitherto consisted of four bodies, was composed of seven, namely, of four nations and three faculties, represented respectively in the general council by four procurators and three deans. To the three new faculties belonged doctors only. The bachelors and scholars of theology, law, and medicine, were still included in the four nations of the faculty of arts. The general government of the university was vested in the council of seven, with the rector as president. The general assembly or convocation, comprehending all the masters, scholars, and officers (omnes magistri, tam regentes, quam non-regentes), was convened on great and

a certain department of knowledge, of examining and admitting candidates for degrees into their body, had also the right of making statutes, choosing officers, employing a seal, and performing all the offices of a privileged corporation. In the French universities, the faculty consisted of the teachers alone, but in the Italian universities it was composed of the teachers and students together. (Hamilton, Discussions, &c., 481-2.)

¹ They issued the decree which shut up the schools till redress was obtained from the king for the insults and injuries sustained by their body from the provost and citizens of Paris. According to Du Boulay, they formed the only governing body till 1260. (Hist. Un. Par. III. 563.)

² The power thus vested in the heads of ecclesiastical establishments to which schools were attached was sometimes used, through personal motives, for the exclusion of fit and able teachers, as well as for the purpose of extorting a high price for license to teach. In the pontificate of Alexander III., A.D. 1179, a Lateran council enacted, "that every competent person ought to be admitted to teach;" and in the following year the pope himself issued a decree, containing the following clause:—"Ut quicunque viri idonei et literati veluerint regere studia literarum, sine molestis et exactione quilibet scholas regere permittantur." (Conringius, Dissert. iv., sect. 24.)

Paris. interesting occasions only; and general meetings of all the regents were sometimes held for literary business, for framing statutes respecting discipline, privileges, and order. The meetings of faculties took cognizance each of its own members, in matters chiefly of a literary nature.

Subordinate officers. The subordinate officers were, the syndic; the general procurator or agent of the university, who appears to have been an occasional rather than a permanent officer; and the greffier or recorder, who was the clerk and assessor. Each nation and faculty had its own clerk and assessor. There were also two classes of messengers, who were employed in transacting business of various kinds for the students.

The university, as a corporation, was always very poor, and never possessed any public building; but was obliged to hold its meetings in the houses of the religious orders who were willing to grant the requisite accommodation. The teachers originally delivered their lectures in such rooms as they could for hire or otherwise obtain the use of. Afterwards, however, halls or schools for the use of their teachers were provided by the several faculties. Those of the faculty of arts and philosophy, which appear to have been very numerous, were in the Fes de la Fosse (vicus Stramineus), and were apportioned among the nations of the faculty.

Lodgings. The great concourse of students to the early universities, rendered it difficult for them to obtain lodgings, and gave rise to exorbitant demands on the part of the townsmen in whose houses they were forced to reside. To remedy this inconvenience, various expedients were adopted, but with inadequate effect. Frederick II. when he founded the University of Naples, in 1224, fixed a maximum price for lodgings, and enacted that they should be let according to a joint valuation of two citizens and two scholars. A similar regulation was adopted at Bologna, and established about 1237, by Gregory IX. in the University of Paris. The taxers were two masters of the university, and two burgesses elected with the consent of the masters. It was also provided that, when lodgings had once been hired, the student should not be disturbed in the possession of them, so long as he paid his rent, and conducted himself properly. Notwithstanding these regulations, the hardships to which the poorer students were exposed induced charitable individuals to provide houses, in which a certain number of indigent scholars might be accommodated with free lodgings during the progress of their studies. The example was first set by the religious orders, who established in several of the university towns hospitia (hospitals) for those of their members who resorted thither, either as teachers or learners. Free board was soon added to free lodging, and in many cases small exhibitions or stipends to defray the necessary expenses of the scholars. For the sake of discipline, these foundations were placed under the superintendence of one or more graduates, who assisted and instructed their pupils, but only in subservience to the public lectures and exercises of the university. Such establishments were called ins, hospites, hails, or colleges; the last term being generally restricted to foundations which provided for the support of several graduates. These institutions, at first established on a small scale, led to the foundation of the colleges, which afterwards formed one of the most important and essential branches of the university.

Colleges. Paris was the university in which collegiate establishments were first founded. Du Boulay avers that colleges may be dated as far back as the university itself; and Grevier enumerates fifteen which were founded during the thirteenth century, besides one or two of a still earlier date. Savigny considers the famous college of the Sorbonne, which was founded by Robert de Sorbonne, confessor of St. Louis, in 1250, as the most ancient in Paris. Grevier probably included in his enumeration the hospitia established by the religious orders, which cannot properly be considered as colleges. During the fourteenth century many new colleges were founded, the most celebrated of which were those of Navarre and Du Plessis. The former, which is said sometimes to have contained 700 pupils, was founded by Joanna, queen of Philip the Fair, in 1394; and the latter by Geoffroi du Plessis, apostolic secretary to Philip V., in 1322. The Collégium Trilingue, or Royal Trilingual College, was founded by Francis I. in 1529.¹

The following account of the Parisian colleges is given by Mr. Malden:—"The great colleges of Paris stood on a footing very different from the colleges of the English universities. They soon became appropriated to particular faculties, or to particular departments of a faculty. Sometimes, but rarely, they included more than one faculty. Thus the theological faculty was collected at an early period in the college of the Sorbonne; and all its lectures and public disputations took place there, with the exception of two courses delivered in the college of Navarre. Regent masters were nominated by the faculties as lecturers in the colleges. These lecturers remained subject to their several faculties, and were liable to be controlled or removed by them. Consequently, attendance on their courses was considered as equivalent to attendance on the public courses delivered in the schools of the university. The colleges speedily began to admit within their walls scholars who were not supported by their foundations; and the college lectures were ultimately thrown open to the members of other colleges, and to those scholars of the university who belonged to no college at all. This took place in the course of the fifteenth century. The lectures in the public schools were thus almost entirely superseded, at least in the faculties of theology and arts; and the colleges became the instruments of the public instruction of the university. During the latter half of the fifteenth century, the great colleges of the faculty of arts, or, as they were called, the colleges 'de plein exercice,' amounted to eighteen; although by the middle of the seventeenth century they had fallen to ten. There were about eighty smaller colleges, of which more than half still survived in the eighteenth century, which provided their scholars with lodging and board, and sometimes with small stipends, but taught them only the elements of philology, sending them for all higher learning to the lecturers of the great colleges. The college of Navarre alone appears to have confined its instruction to its own scholars. In this age of the university it became usual for all the scholars to belong to some college. Those students of the university who were not attached to any college, were known by the name of Martinetts. As they were less amenable to discipline than the students of the colleges, the legislation of the university was directed against them; and at length it was made imperative on all scholars of the faculty of arts to be members of some college. The rule was not enforced on students of the higher faculties."

The origin of academic degrees, like many other points connected with the early history of universities, is involved in obscurity. According to Du Boulay, degrees were conferred, after a regular examination, from the very foundation of the university; while others assert that they were first introduced by Inerius into the University of Bologna about the year 1150, and thence transferred to the Parisian school. That such distinctions existed at a very early period is unquestionable, but there is not sufficient evidence to justify us in believing that they were coeval with the earliest universities. The oldest degrees were those in arts. The term bachelor,² used as the designation of the lowest degree in each faculty, which term is said to have been peculiar to the feudal or military law of France, seems to warrant the inference that the whole system of academic honours has been borrowed from the university of Paris. The terms master and doctor, were originally synonymous, and were designations given in their common meaning to persons engaged in teaching, and not titles conferred by authority after a prescribed course of study or a formal examination. In process of time the name master was restricted to teachers of the liberal arts, and the title of doctor was assumed by the teachers of theology, law, and medicine. The term professor, though less frequent in early times, had originally the same signification, and denoted a person who professed to teach a particular subject. In the English universities the Latin designation of a doctor of divinity still is "sanctorum theologicum professor." Professor is now, in academic language, applied to a salaried graduate, either actually employed in teaching, or at least whose duty it is to teach. When the masters of particular schools adopted regulations, which were afterwards confirmed by public authority, to prevent unqualified persons from assuming their office, the terms master, doctor, professor, became titles indicating a certain rank, and conveying certain powers in the scholastic body. They were still, however,

¹ Previously to the erection of this college, there was no provision in the university for instructing young men in the learned languages. It was originally intended, as its name imports, for teaching Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; although it was some time before a teacher of Latin was appointed, owing to the opposition made by the members of the university, which led Erasmus, in one of his letters, to call them lingual pedants. (M'Crie's Life of Meville, i., pp. 19, 20.)

² The inferior degree of bachelor is said to have been first instituted by Gregory IX., whose pontificate continued from 1227 to 1241. They probably derived their name from bacilla (little staves), either because they were admitted by receiving a little wand, or because they adopted the titles of the novices of the soldiery, who exercised with sticks in order to learn to fight with arms. The word bachelor is commonly derived from bas chevalier, the humblest species of knight, in opposition to the knight banneret, but for this expression no authority has been produced. Bachelor is a very old word, and is used in early French poetry for a young man, as bachelotte is for a girl.

Paris. confined to persons admitted by competent authority to the office of teachers. When the titles of doctor and master were distinguished, and more especially when an initiatory stage was marked by the name of bachelor, these successive designations were called steps or degrees (gradus). Every graduate had an equal right of teaching publicly in the university the subjects competent to his faculty, and to the rank of his degree; and he even incurred an obligation to teach as the condition on which the degree was granted. The bachelor or imperfect graduate was bound to read, under a master or doctor of his faculty, a course of lectures; and the master, doctor, or perfect graduate was, in like manner, after his promotion, obliged to commence (incipere), and to continue for a certain period publicly to teach (regere),¹ some at least of the subjects pertaining to his faculty. The students were allowed to choose their regent, but were expected to attach themselves to some one in particular. A period of necessary regency, different in different universities, was generally fixed, during which the graduates were bound to teach, and after which they might, if they chose, become non-regents. The regents were allowed to exact from their pupils a certain regulated fee (pactus, collectum). The large number of graduates who were willing to devote themselves to teaching as a profession, led to the shortening of the period of necessary regency, and enabled those to whom teaching was irksome to obtain a dispensation from its duties. The regents alone, except on rare and extraordinary occasions, were allowed to take part in the legislation and government of the university. The regents were ultimately superposed by the institution of salaried lecturers (professores), who delivered their instructions gratuitously. From the period of this innovation, which took place in 1719, the vigour of the university was gradually impaired. So long as the emoluments of the lecturers depended chiefly on the fees of their pupils, an honourable and beneficial competition was kept up; but the graduates, finding their pupils attracted by the gratuitous lectures of the endowed professors, ceased to teach, and the most powerful motive to exertion was thus withdrawn.

Professors.

Course of study. The process of graduation was the following. After two years' study of grammar and philosophy, the scholar became a determiner; that is, he proposed himself, if twelve years of age at least, to be taken on trials, in order, after further preparation, to his obtaining the degree of bachelor. The object of this proposal being made so early was to subject the candidate to certain examinations, and to excite attention to his general conduct. In the middle of the fifteenth century, the course of study necessary for obtaining the degree of bachelor of arts was three years and a half. After passing the ordeal of the academical examiners, the student was conducted by the rector to the chancellor, who crowned and blessed him. In consequence of passing as a bachelor, he wore a round cap, attended the holy mass, and became a candidate for the degree of master of arts. He was now required to devote an equal portion of time, three years and a half, to the study of philosophy, and, if found qualified, after frequent and severe examinations, was presented to the chancellor as worthy to receive license to teach the seven liberal arts. He was then invested with the bonnet, was publicly and solemnly declared a master of arts, and was at liberty to commence his career of teaching. But his magisterial character was not yet complete. He next offered himself a candidate for becoming a socius, or fellow of the masters in the university, an honour which was in the gift of the masters themselves, and by which he was admitted to the full enjoyment of their society, and of all their privileges.

Degrees in divinity and law. To obtain the degree of doctor in divinity, it was necessary for the student to be twenty-five years of age when proposed, and to have studied philosophy for seven, or, if he belonged to a religious body, for six years. A further probation of nine years was requisite before he could attain that sacred degree. Two of these years were spent in the study of the Bible, and two in the study of the system of theology contained in the Book of Sentences. Sixteen years were thus spent at the university in order to become a doctor in divinity. The degree of doctor was conferred jointly by the chancellor and by the faculty, who admitted the candidate, with the solemnity of an oath, as a member of their body, and thus entitled to their privileges. The time necessary for acquiring the degree of doctor in law and medicine was shorter, and the rules were not so strictly observed. On conferring each of these degrees certain fees were exigible.

Dress. The students were required to wear a cap and gown of a partic-

ular form, varying with their standing or degree in the university. The determiners wore a short black gown with a hood and sleeves; the bachelors a round cap and long gown of the best black cloth or silk, and the masters a gown which reached down to their heels.

The revenue of the university seems to have arisen at first entirely from the fees of the scholars, and from contributions which were occasionally levied from them. Some of the colleges, however, were richly endowed from the beginning, for the maintenance both of the scholars and the masters. Their weekly provision appears to have been very small. In the college of Navarre, the students of grammar received each four sous a week, the students of philosophy six sous, and the theologians eight sous. The teachers respectively received a double allowance.

Of the other early French universities, the most celebrated was that of Montpellier, which was founded in 1180, and constituted by a bull of Pope Nicholas IV. In 1289, and placed under the superintendence of the bishop of the diocese. Montpellier was at first only a school of medicine, but subsequently embraced also the other faculties. The university was divided into three nations, and was governed by a rector, elected annually, with the assistance of twelve counsellors, of whom four were selected from each nation. The University of Toulouse was founded by Pope Gregory IX. in 1228, on the model of that of Paris, and was not much inferior to the pattern institution in success and celebrity. It early acquired fame as a school of law. The University of Orleans was established in 1305, and was occupied chiefly in the study of law. The students were at first divided into ten nations. The following are the other French universities founded before 1500:—Lyon, before A.D. 1290; Vienne, uncertain; Perpignan, 1340; Angers, 1364; Aix, 1409; Dole, 1426; Caen (founded by the English government under Henry VI.), 1433; Bordeaux, 1441; Valence, 1462; Nantes, 1463; Bourges, 1465.

UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA.

The antiquity of this famous school is at least equal to that of Paris; and were it necessary to construe the word university in the strict sense of a legal incorporation, it might lay claim to still higher antiquity, inasmuch as its teachers obtained some important privileges before any such concession was made to those at Paris. It is alleged, and apparently on documentary evidence, that the Emperor Theodosius established a school at Bologna in 433,² which, after it had fallen into decay, was restored by Charlemagne. It is probable that the school continued in existence from the period last mentioned; but there is no evidence that it was entitled to the name university, as that word was understood in the thirteenth century. According to Hallam, there are few vestiges of studies pursued in that city in the eleventh century; and there was also, in the same century, a school of the liberal arts at Ravenna, and a college of judges and advocates, who, besides administering and practising law, taught its principles in a public school. Masters and scholars are mentioned in documents of that age; and a certain individual, who was probably the head, is called legis doctor. A lawyer, named Pepo, who is designated by this appellation, delivered lectures on law about 1075, but without attracting much notice.

We may safely assume that, like the other early universities, the progress of Bologna was gradual, and that its origin cannot be traced to any definite period of arbitrary establishment. The fame of successful teachers attracted pupils to their schools; and these, settling in the city, gradually claimed for themselves rights and privileges, which the citizens found it to be their interest to recognise, and which, in process of time, obtained the sanction of the emperor.

The university started suddenly into celebrity in the Roman early part of the twelfth century, when Irnerius began to teach the Roman law. (See CIVIL LAW.) This great

¹ The technical term signifying to teach in the public schools, was regere; and the master of arts, or doctor of any faculty, upon his creation, necessarily became a regent, that is, a teacher in the schools. In Paris, the masters who were desirous of exercising this privilege, petitioned their faculty pro regeantia et scholis; and schools, as they fell vacant, were granted to them by their nations according to seniority.

² Midlandorp (lib. iv., p. 3) confesses himself unable to fix the year, but says that it took place during the reign of Theodosius, which began A.D. 425 and continued twenty-seven years. The date here given is that of Savigny, who appears however to doubt the genuineness of the documents. (Savigny, iii. 147.)

Bologna. civilian is to be regarded, not only as the founder of the University of Bologna, but as the author of a grand revolution in the jurisprudence of Europe. While engaged in teaching the liberal arts at Ravenna, he accepted an invitation from the civic authorities of Bologna, and opened a school in that city. He was employed as a lecturer in arts when copies of some of the books of the code of Justinian, which were beginning to excite attention and to be circulated through Italy, reached Bologna. Irnerius applied himself diligently to the study of them, and, after making himself master of their contents, undertook to expound them in the public schools. According to Conringius, he engaged in this course of lectures with the sanction of the republic of Bologna, and was rewarded for his labours at the public expense. His zeal and energy collected large crowds of pupils, and gave an effectual impulse to the study of Roman law throughout Italy, while they raised the reputation of the lecturer to a pre-eminent height. The precise time at which Irnerius commenced his lectures has not been ascertained, nor are the events of the latter part of his life known. His name is mentioned in the records of public business and judicial proceedings between the years 1118 and 1118, when he appears to have relinquished his scholastic labours, and to have entered the service of the imperial court. By some he is supposed to have returned to his academic labours after the death of his patron Henry V. Sigonius, in his History of Bologna, fixes the time of his death in the year 1150.

The study of law being thus revived, made surprising progress, and its fame spread rapidly from Italy over other parts of Europe. Students flocked from all parts to Bologna, and some eminent masters of that school repeated its lessons in distant countries. Throughout this and several succeeding centuries, the schools of Bologna continued to be pre-eminent for legal learning. About the year 1220 they contained 10,000 students, and in the middle of the fourteenth century the number had increased to 13,000.

Canon law. "Not very long after the revival of the civil law, another subject of study, of much less intrinsic worth, was brought into public notice at Bologna. In the early ages of the church, the public letters of bishops were known by the name of decretals (epistolæ decretales), the influence of which, at first feeble, kept pace with the increase of the papal power, till the decretals of the apostolic see came to be regarded as of equal authority with the canons of councils. In 1151, Gratian, a monk of St Felix in Bologna, published a collection of these epistles, which was known simply by the title of Decretum; a compilation which was immediately received with great favour, and was made the subject of public lectures in Bologna in the pontificate of Eugenius III., who died in the year 1153; and many scholars were attracted to the study of it. (See CANON LAW.) Such was the origin of pontifical or canon law, a branch of jurisprudence which was long regarded by the church with peculiar favour. Of the school of arts and philosophy, in which the university originated, nothing is known during the twelfth century. Though obscured by the splendour of the rising school of law, it appears nevertheless to have maintained a certain degree of celebrity. The emperor, Frederick II., deemed it worthy of his patronage, and about the year 1220 transmitted to it certain works of Aristotle and other philosophers, which he had caused to be translated into Latin, partly from the original Greek, and partly from Arabic versions—a gift which gave a new impulse to the study of philosophy. The origin of the medical school is probably to be ascribed to the same emperor. Though the precise date of its establishment cannot be fixed, yet the intimate connection which, under Frederick, existed between Lombardy and the kingdom of Naples, renders it not improbable that he instituted at Bologna a school similar to that which had proved so

eminently successful at Salerno. Conringius states (Diss. iii.), that in the thirteenth century, Bologna possessed several celebrated professors of medicine, who were in possession of some few books of Hippocrates and Galen, and of a good many translations of the Arabic physicians; and that their prelections attracted a large concourse of auditors.

The earliest historical document connected with the Privileges university is the charter of privileges granted by the Emperor Frederick I. at Roncaglia, in November 1158. In this authentic or rescript, which is entitled Habita, it is provided, first, that foreign scholars travelling to any seminary of learning should be allowed to pass without molestation; and that no obstruction should be offered to them, nor claim made upon them, under pretence of any public offence, or debt of the province or city to which they belonged; and, secondly, that all scholars, if any lawsuit were brought against them, should have the option of having it determined either by the lord or master under whom they studied, or by the bishop of the diocese.

By these singular privileges, which were afterwards the immunity of other academic institutions, the students were exempted from the ordinary tribunals, while the professors were invested with important powers. It is true that Bologna is not expressly mentioned in the authentic; but that it was intended for the benefit of Bolognese scholars is apparent, because Bologna was by much the most celebrated school in the emperor's dominions, and probably the only one which was at that time frequented by foreign students. Teachers of law are specially mentioned, and Bologna was then the only school of law; and the permission granted to the student to bring his cause before his "lord and master," seems to assume that his judge was a legal character. An additional reason for applying the edict peculiarly to Bologna, is found in the fact stated by Conringius, that the principal professors in the university were at the time in attendance upon the emperor, having been invited by him to assist in deciding certain matters at issue between him and the cities of Lombardy. It can scarcely be doubted, therefore, that the edict was drawn up by them for the special benefit of their own university, though the language was purposely made general. The professors at first interpreted its provisions as conferring upon them criminal as well as civil jurisdiction; but, finding themselves unable to repress the violence of the students, they allowed the former to remain in the hands of the magistrates of the city, and assumed to themselves only the power of determining civil suits. This edict of Frederick I. is the earliest example of exemption or privilege granted to a university, and may be regarded as the source of the exclusive privileges which were afterwards conferred upon collegiate institutions. The increasing power of the university excited the jealousy of the inhabitants of the city, and led to frequent collisions, which, on more than one occasion, threatened the existence of the school; but which generally ended in extending and strengthening its privileges. In the year 1226, the Emperor Frederick II. threatened to remove the school of law, but in the following year recalled his decree.

Bologna was at an early period chiefly a school of law, and in this therefore the university mainly consisted. The scholars were divided into two bodies, or universities, as they were called—the citramontanes or natives of Italy, and the ultramontanes or foreigners; the former including the Italians, and the latter all foreigners. These were subdivided into nations; the citramontanes into seventeen, and the ultramontanes into eighteen. Each nation had its presiding officer, called its counsellor, except the nation of the Germans, which had two, under the name of procurators. At an early period the professors and scholars of arts and medicine endeavoured to form themselves into a separate university; but being opposed by the

Bologna. Jurists and prohibited by the city, they were compelled to rank themselves with the scholars of law. A few years after, they renewed their efforts, and their right as a distinct university was formally recognised by the city in 1316. After the middle of the fourteenth century, a theological school was established by Innocent VI. It was placed under the bishop of Bologna, as chancellor, and, like the theological faculty at Paris, consisted of doctors only, the scholars being considered as belonging to the artista. Bologna had thus existed for more than two hundred years, as one of the most celebrated schools of learning, before theology formed a regular branch of study. Lectures in this faculty had been occasionally delivered, but the teachers were not authorised or sanctioned by the university. From the year 1362, when the university of theology was founded, Bologna contained four universities—two of law; one of medicine and the arts, in which were included also the scholars of theology; and one of the doctors of theology. The two schools of law, however, formed together one whole, and are therefore frequently designated as one university.

Colleges. "There were also formed," says Mr Malden, "in course of time, five colleges of doctors, which (with the exception of the theological college) were established upon quite a different principle. The theological college may have differed only in the number of its members from the university of theology; but there were two colleges of law, one of doctors of the civil law, the other of doctors of the canon law; and two separate colleges of doctors of philosophy and medicine. These colleges seem to have been corporations, in which a limited number of doctors of the several faculties were united, and monopolised the power of promotion and admission to degrees, to the exclusion of other doctors, who, according to the earlier constitution of the university, had an equal right to exercise it. They were confirmed, however, by the statutes of the year 1397. The first origin of the legal colleges runs back to the twelfth century: probably they were then open to all doctors. The legal colleges were each under a prior; how the others were governed, Savigny does not state. By these colleges or faculties the candidates for degrees were examined. They had a building for their common use, in which they met, near the cathedral; because the public examinations were held in the cathedral, and degrees solemnly conferred there. Savigny warns his readers that these colleges of civil and canon law are not to be confounded with the College of Doctors, Advocates, and Judges, which was an institution of the city of Bologna for civic purposes. It may not be superfluous to warn the English reader not to confound these colleges, which were merely corporate faculties, with the English notion of the word college. There were some colleges in our sense of the word, which were restricted to the relief of really indigent scholars; but these foundations never had any weight or influence in any Italian university."

Constitution. The constitution of the university was based on certain statutes which were promulgated at various times, and confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1253; but of these, and of the privileges conferred by them, our limited space will not permit us to give any account. The statutes were revised and corrected every twenty years, by eight scholars appointed for the purpose, and called statutarii. They were again confirmed in 1544 by the pope, who had then become sovereign of the city, and were made binding on the whole community.

Savigny mentions as the leading distinction between the universities of Paris and Bologna, from the earliest period, that in the former the masters or teachers constituted the corporation considered as a privileged body, to the exclusion of the scholars; while, in the latter, the students formed the university, and had the power of selecting from their

own body the academic officers, whom the professors were bound to obey. At the head of the universities of law was the rector, who took precedence of all the other officers. The rector is first mentioned towards the end of the twelfth century, when only one was elected. For a long period two were chosen, one for each university; and finally one, which appears to have been the case in 1514, and which was established as the rule before 1552. He was chosen annually by the preceding rector, the counsellors of the nations, and a certain number of electors appointed by the university at large, and was taken from the different nations, according to a regular order of succession. The necessary qualifications for a rector were, that he should be twenty-five years of age, a clericus, not a member of any religious order, and should have studied law for at least five years, at his own cost. The powers of the rector were extensive. He possessed supreme authority over all members of the university, except those of the German nation, who were subject to their own procurators alone. His civil jurisdiction was not doubted when both parties belonged to the university, or when a citizen consented to bring before him a suit against a scholar; but when a suit against a scholar was brought before the magistrates of the city, the claim of the rector to hear it generally gave rise to a violent contest between the city and the university. Soon after the institution of the rectorate, an attempt was made by the city to abolish the office, or to render it subservient to the civic power; but the university succeeded in maintaining its privileges, which were ultimately confirmed by the authority of the pope. The criminal jurisdiction of the rector was limited generally to matters of academic discipline. He had the power of punishing both professors and scholars by fine and expulsion; and, in deciding more serious matters, he sometimes acted in conjunction with the magistrates of the city. In 1544, the pope confirmed by a bull his criminal jurisdiction when both parties belonged to the university, and when the offence was not capital. The rector was assisted by a council, consisting of the counsellors of the nations.

In Bologna, as in Paris, there were two chancellors. Honorius III., whose pontificate extended from 1216 to 1227, when he regulated the promotions or collation of degrees in the school of law, placed them under the superintendence of the archdeacon of Bologna, whose consent, to prevent abuse, was rendered necessary. Savigny appears to consider this as a personal authority vested in the archdeacon for the time; but it was retained by his successors, who assumed the title of chancellor, and exercised authority over all the faculties except the faculty of theology. The bishop of Bologna was constituted chancellor of the university of theologians, when this faculty was established by Innocent VI. in 1362. All honours emanated from the chancellors.

Besides the rector and chancellors, the other officers of the university were—1. The counsellors or representatives of the nations, who assisted the rector, and formed his council. Each nation elected one counsellor: the German nation was represented by two procurators, who were invested with judicial power over their own nation, independently of the rector. 2. The syndic or common agent of both universities, whose duty it was to defend their rights and privileges. He was elected annually from among the scholars, and was subject to the jurisdiction of the university at large. He received a salary of twelve lire, and latterly a third of all fines. 3. The notary, who was also common to both universities. 4. The treasurer, who was elected annually from the bankers of the city. 5. Two bedelli; one for each university.

The precise time when degrees, properly so called, began to be conferred, cannot be ascertained; but perhaps we shall not much err in asserting that they were nearly coeval with the university itself. The earliest teachers were designated dominus, magister, iudex, lord, master, judge; but these were names given to them as public lecturers, and were not titles of honour, carrying with them certain privileges, conferred by authority, and after examination. Magister was probably applied indiscriminately to any teacher, while dominus and iudex were designations assigned only to the teachers of the civil law. There appears to be no reason to doubt that the terms soon came to be used synonymously. Savigny states that, in the records of the university, Innerius is styled iudex or

Bologna, causidicus, but never doctor, and assigns the middle of the twelfth century as the date of this last title. The term doctor, here as in Paris, originally signified merely a teacher, and implied nothing more than that the person bearing it had obtained a license to teach in that particular school. Some writers have asserted that it was borrowed from the theological school of Paris, while others have reversed the transmission, and allege that it was borrowed by the Parisians from the Italian seminary. The truth probably is, that it was given independently at both places. Savigny supposes that it was in consequence of the privileges conferred on the masters and teachers by the edict of Frederick I., that they found it necessary to adopt measures to prevent the voluntary assumption of their office, and to establish a form of admission. If this supposition be admitted, it follows that degrees were conferred by public authority soon after 1158. The first doctors were no doubt those of the civil law, that being the branch of learning to which the Bolognese school was indebted for its early celebrity. At the close of the twelfth century we find doctors of the canon law, who soon obtained an equal rank with the civilians. In the thirteenth century, doctors of medicine, grammar, logic, philosophy, and the other arts, were added. The title or dignity of doctor was at first conferred by the doctors themselves by co-optation, that is, they admitted the candidate into their body by common consent. This admission or promotion conveyed to him the right of lecturing in the school of Bologna, of exercising jurisdiction over his pupils, and of voting in the admission of future candidates. By a papal bull, the doctors of Bologna, like those of Paris, afterwards obtained the right of lecturing anywhere. The system of self-election having led to frequent abuse, by the admission of unworthy persons, Honorius III., in the early part of the thirteenth century, interposed his authority, and placed the promotions under the control of the archdeacon of Bologna.

The following extract presents a curious feature in academical history. "Originally," says Mr. Malden, "scholars were forbidden to marry into the families of Bolognese citizens, without the license of the rector. Exemptions from this prohibition were granted, which were at last extended to all the descendants of all doctors. By the terms of this exemption, it is manifest that the doctors of the university had become closely connected with the families of the citizens. This connection prepared the way for the gradual encroachments of municipal selfishness; and at last the principal chairs in the university were granted only to Bolognese citizens. But the actual doctors profited by the example, and went a step farther, and took an oath not to grant degrees to any but members of their own families. This outrageous monopoly began to produce its natural effects, in the ruin of the university; and commotions and struggles ensued between the years 1295 and 1304, which ended in compelling the doctors to admit all Bolognese equally to degrees; but the rank of doctor, at least in the two legal colleges or faculties, was still confined to citizens of Bologna."

Degrees were conferred in the civil law, or in the canon law, or in both. In the early age of the university single degrees were more common; in later times double degrees prevailed. Six years' previous study was necessary for the canonist, and eight for the civilian. If the student of the canon law had delivered a course of lectures, it was reckoned equal to a year's study; and in like manner the course of the civilian was shortened one or two years, by three or four years' study of the canon law. The first step necessary for the candidate was to select a doctor who should present or recommend him to the archdeacon. He then underwent two examinations, the first of which (examen) was private, and the second (conventus) public. Previously to the first examination, two points of law were prescribed to him, which he was required to explain and defend, in presence of the chancellor and college of doctors. The doctor by whom he was presented alone examined him; the rest of the faculty having the power merely of asking questions and of stating objections, after making oath that no previous compact had been made with the candidate. The doctors were bound to treat the candidate lovingly as their own son, on pain of suspension from their functions for a year. The votes of the faculty were then taken, and if the examination was sustained, the candidate

became a licentiate, that is, he obtained a license to present himself for public examination.

The conventus or public examination, by which the degree of doctor was acquired, took place in the cathedral, in presence of the university, when the licentiate read a thesis, and an exposition of a legal question, which was criticised, not by the doctors, but by the scholars. This was followed by an address from the archdeacon, or from a doctor deputed by him, in which the new graduate was solemnly proclaimed. He was then presented with the insignia of his rank, and had his place in the cathedral assigned to him. It is probable that, in the earliest age of the university, this public examination by the scholars was the only one, and that the previous examination originated in an assumption of power by the doctors. The public examination frequently took place very soon after the private one, but sometimes a considerable interval was suffered to elapse, and thus the title of licentiate became a species of degree.

The candidate, before being received for examination, was required to swear, in presence of the rector, that he had studied for the period prescribed; before the private examination, that he had paid merely the requisite fees; and before the public examination, that he would promote the interest of the university and scholars, and if he remained in Bologna, would obey the rector, and comply with the statutes. At one time the commencing doctors took an oath to the magistrates of the city, that they would not lecture out of Bologna; but this oath was abolished in 1312, on the petition of the scholars, who purchased exemption from it with a sum of money. It is a curious point in the history of this university, that the female sex were admitted to its honours and offices. In early times degrees were conferred on learned women, who were even permitted to occupy professorial chairs. Novella d'Andrea read lectures on the canon law in the fourteenth century; Laura Bassi was professor of physics in the eighteenth century; and Clotilda Tambroni, who was professor of Greek, died in 1817.

The expense of graduation was considerable. The fees for the private examination amounted to sixty lire; those for the public examination to eighty. Besides the fees, it was usual for the licentiate to give clothes to many of those who took part in the solemn procession; a custom which was found so oppressive that Pope Clement V., in 1311, ordained that an oath should be exacted from each candidate that he would not expend more than 500 lire.¹

All doctors, in right of their degree, had the power of lecturing or teaching publicly; licentiates could not lecture without the permission of the rector. But even simple scholars, after five or six years of diligent study, might obtain from the rector a license to teach, on payment of a fee proportioned to the importance of the branch of law on which they proposed to lecture. The scholar who had lectured on an entire treatise, or who had delivered a formal interpretation of a point of law, was considered to have earned his first degree, and took the name of Bachelor. When degrees became so common that the doctors were not all necessarily obliged to teach, the jurisdiction over the scholars was confined to the legates, or those who actually lectured. All doctors who had at any time taught in the schools retained the right of voting in promotions.²

It is a remarkable feature in the constitution of the University of Bologna, that the Professors at an early period received fixed salaries. In the year 1279 the scholars made an agreement with a lecturer to deliver a course of lectures for a certain specified sum; and in the following year they petitioned the city to pay a sum to the canonist Garsias for a course of lectures on the Decretum, and their petition was granted. In 1289 two professorships, one of the civil law and another of the canon law, were established, with a fixed salary. The choice of the professors rested with the scholars, who elected annually, sometimes re-electing the same person, and sometimes choosing another. The number of endowed chairs continued to increase, so that in 1334 we find nineteen salaried lecturers in law, and twenty-three in arts. The salaries of the professors of the civil law, which were the highest, amounted to 495 lire each. The salaries which had hitherto been granted only for a year, now began to be considered permanent, and the professors to regard themselves as established functionaries. In 1420 there were twenty-

¹ Antony A. Wood mentions several instances of the expense and magnificence which attended the early taking of the higher degrees in England in the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I. About the year 1268, he says, when Alphonsus de Senis or Siena, an Italian, studied at Oxford, one Mr. Bonifacius de Salucis proceeded in the civil law, at whose inception there were such ceremonies and feasting used, that the like for that faculty was scarce before known here. The abbot and convent of Oseney gave him the free use of their monastery on that occasion. He adds, that a still greater solemnity was performed some years after, at Gloucester College, by the Benedictines, for one William de Broke, a monk at St Peter's monastery in Gloucester, who took the degree of D.D. in 1298, being the first of his order who had attained that dignity. He was accompanied by the abbot and whole convent of his own monastery, the abbots of Westminster, Reading, Abingdon, Evesham, and Malmesbury, numerous other priors and monks, and by a hundred noblemen and esquires on horses richly caparisoned. (Hist. and Antiq. of the Univ. of Oxford, i., pp. 65, 66.)

² The legates and non-legates of Bologna correspond to the regents and non-regents of Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge, except that the former terms were applied only to doctors, while the latter were applied equally to doctors and masters.

one teachers of law, of whom scarcely one is said to have been elected by the university. Besides the salaries given by the state to the doctors, there were six endowed lectureships, to which scholars only were eligible. The lecturers were appointed annually, by seventy-six electors, and were equally divided between the Ultramontane and Ultramontane scholars. Doctors, licentiates, and natives of Bologna were ineligible. This arrangement, according to Savigny, was acted upon in 1338; but in consequence of the tumult attending the election, it afterwards became customary for the universities to select twelve candidates, from whom were chosen by lot four lecturers on the civil law, and two on the decretals. According to Conringius, there were, in 1664, 126 professors in the school of Bologna, of whom forty-nine belonged to the faculties of law; and the corporation of the city was said to expend annually in their salaries nearly 40,000 crowns. The unsalaried professors received fees from their pupils; and in the flourishing ages of the university many of them acquired great wealth.

During the whole of the thirteenth century, the professors assembled their pupils in their own houses; in the fourteenth century public schools were founded, and were appropriated solely to the use of the doctors. The bachelors were allowed the use of them twice a week in the afternoon, if they were not occupied by a doctor. The courses of lectures were begun on the 19th of October, and continued for a year. The holidays amounted to about ninety, including two weeks at Easter and eleven days at Christmas.

The following are the other universities established in Italy previous to the year 1500:—Salerno, apparently in the tenth century, and probably the most ancient in Europe; Vicenza, A.D. 1204; Naples, 1224; Padua, 1223; Piacenza, 1248; Arezzo, 1255; Perugia, 1290; Macerata, 1290; Cesena, uncertain; Rome, 1303; Pisa, 1338; Siena, 1350; Pavia, 1361; Ferrara, 1391; Palermo, 1394; Cremona, 1413; Florence, 1438; Catania, 1445. Within the Germanic empire, which then included many provinces now incorporated into France, and also the Netherlands:—Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1365; Heidelberg, 1387; Cologne, 1388; Erfurt, 1392; Leipzig, 1409; Rostock, 1419; Louvain, 1426; Trier, 1454; Gräfswalde, 1456; Freyburg, 1457; Basle, 1459; Ingolstadt, 1472; Tübingen, 1477; Mayence, 1477. In Spain and Portugal:—Salamanca, 1240; Coimbra (originally established in Lisbon), 1290; Valladolid, 1346; Huesca, 1354; Valencia, 1410; Sigüenza, 1471; Saragossa, 1474; Avila, 1482; Alcala, 1499. In the Baltic States:—Upsala, 1476; Copenhagen, 1479.

ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES.

The English universities, like most of those which came into existence in remote times, were formed on the model of the university of Paris; and in the earlier period of their history bear a striking resemblance to the parent institution. Till 1836, England contained only two universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. The origin of both is involved in doubt and obscurity, and it is perhaps impossible to decide at how early a period schools and places of general education existed in either. The question of the comparative antiquity of the two seminaries was agitated with great keenness in the seventeenth century, but the industry of the antiquaries engaged on either side has not thrown much light on the subject. Some of the more eager advocates of the remote antiquity of Oxford contend that it was a seminary of learning immediately after the destruction of Troy; while the Cambridge antiquaries ascribe the origin of their university to one Cantaber, a Spaniard, by whom it was founded B.C. 375, and from whom it obtained the name Cantabrigia. But though such speculations may amuse and interest the curious, they cannot be admitted as historical facts. The universities of London and Durham are of very recent origin.

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

The honour of founding this celebrated university is usually assigned to Alfred the Great, who is said to have "built in this city three halls in the name of the Holy Trinity, for the doctors in grammar, philosophy, and divi-

nity." This opinion, though long maintained and strenuously supported, appears to be now generally abandoned. The ablest antiquaries of modern times seem to be agreed that, although the university may be traced to very high antiquity, and far beyond the age of satisfactory records, the illustrious monarch whose name was formerly associated with it as its founder or restorer, had really no share whatever in its establishment. It is at least certain that no document or well-authenticated history can be produced in which the name of Alfred appears as a benefactor of the university. Soon after the reign of Alfred—at least during the succeeding century—schools for the acquisition of learning appear to have been established in Oxford; but these were either of a private character, or were attached to the religious houses with which the city abounded. It is certain that Oxford was a place of study in the reign of Edward the Confessor (1041–1066); but even at the time of the conquest it does not appear to have enjoyed any greater pre-eminence than that which naturally arose from the number of its monastic establishments, and from the circumstance of its having been, during the preceding century, a favourite residence of the English monarchs. Its schools might, therefore, be more numerous and better attended than those in other towns possessing ecclesiastical establishments, and might possibly derive from royal favour some trifling privileges. When a number of the secular scholars resided in one house, it got the name of a hall or hostel; and governors or principals were appointed to superintend the discipline and domestic affairs of the house. The schools were divided into grammar-schools, sophistry-schools, schools for arts, medicine or physic-schools, law-schools, divinity-schools, &c., names which, but for the literary remains of the early ages, would seem to indicate something like a defined system of education. No traces, however, of a regular plan of education can be discovered before the foundation of the first college in the middle of the thirteenth century.

In the beginning of the twelfth century, Oxford is again mentioned as a place of education. Robert Pulcin, a theologian from Paris, expounded the holy Scriptures under the patronage of Henry I., and gave new life to the study of theology in England. He continued his labours under the protection of Henry II. till he was called to Rome, and became chancellor of the apostolic see. In the reign of Stephen, Vacarius, a Lombard by birth, who had studied the civil law at Bologna, formed a school for instruction in that branch of knowledge at Oxford; and it is reasonable to suppose, as Hallam observes, that a foreigner would not have chosen that city as the scene of his labours if he had not found a seminary of learning already established there. The introduction of this new science was opposed by the students of philosophy and theology, who prevailed upon the king to prohibit the lecturer from teaching, and to demand that all the books of law should be delivered up to him. This prohibition, however, was not carried into effect; since it appears from two decretals of Alexander III. in 1164 and 1170, that Vacarius remained in England in the reign of Henry II.; and there is evidence that the school subsisted for some time after his death. The difficulty and expense of obtaining copies of the original works on the civil law induced Vacarius to compile for the use of his pupils an abridgment of the Pandects and Code which, according to Savigny, was written in England about the year 1149. This opinion of Savigny is confirmed by Wood, who assigns 1149 as the date of the introduction of the civil law into Oxford, and refers to the same period, or to a time very little later, the introduction of the scholastic theology and the degree of doctor.¹ The study of the civil law, though honoured with the special patronage of the clergy, obtained but little

¹ It can scarcely be doubted that these last were introduced from Paris; and it may be suspected that Wood is a little too early in

Oxford. favour from the laity of England. The circumstance of its being introduced from Italy, and recommended by ecclesiastical authority, disposed all laymen to look upon it with suspicion, while its rigid enactments accorded ill with the more liberal principles of the common law. The attention even of the clergy was soon diverted from it by the introduction of the canon law, which must have been taught at Oxford soon after the publication of Gratian's Decretum. The Benedictines of St Maur mention the existence of an eminent school of the canon law at Oxford about the end of the twelfth century, to which many students repaired from Paris.

Patronised by the kings. Even in that rude age, education seems not to have been entirely neglected by the English monarchs. Henry I. is said to have extended special patronage to Oxford as a seminary of learning, and to have granted to the teachers and scholars, in their several capacities, some important privileges. In the reigns of his two immediate successors learning declined, but it again revived under the encouragement of Richard I. New halls and schools were established under his patronage, and money was issued from his exchequer for their support. To so flourishing a condition indeed did he raise Oxford, that in the early part of the succeeding reign (1201) it is said to have contained 3000 scholars. The first reference to any public instrument where the term university (universitas) is applied to Oxford, is the 3d John (1201), an earlier date than any extant application of the word to Paris. An unfortunate incident which occurred in 1209 interrupted this course of prosperity, and even threatened the ruin of the town as a seat of learning. A student, while engaged in some active exercise, accidentally killed a woman belonging to the town, and, dreading the consequences, fled from justice. The mayor and burgesses immediately surrounded the hall to which the supposed murderer belonged; and failing to apprehend him, seized three students entirely unconnected with the affair, and hanged them without proof or trial. The teachers and scholars, justly enraged at this barbarous act, unanimously quitted Oxford, and retired, some to Cambridge, and others to Reading. Not satisfied with this, they even applied to the pope, and obtained an interdict against the town, and against all persons who should settle in it for the purpose of teaching. The inhabitants finding themselves thus deserted by those on whom the prosperity of the city chiefly depended, waited upon the pope's legate, and obtained absolution, on conditions which induced the students to return to their former habitations. The king likewise bestowed on the students some new immunities, exempting them from any foreign jurisdiction, and even granting to the university the power of taking cognisance in causes where one party was a scholar or the servant of a scholar. (1214.) From this year Meiners dates the commencement of the university properly so called.

Privileges. Henry III. took advantage of a serious dispute which arose between the students and citizens of Paris in 1229, to advance the interests of Oxford, and invited the Parisian masters and scholars to settle there, promising them greater privileges than those which they had enjoyed in Paris. A thousand accordingly accepted his invitation; but presuming too much on the immunities which had been held out to them, they introduced a levity of manners, which gave rise to frequent tumults, and caused great alarm and disquiet in the town. The reign of this monarch is particularly memorable in the annals of the university. In the year 1244, he granted to it the first charter of privileges as a corporate body, and in 1255 confirmed and extended the privileges which he had formerly conferred. Previous to this period, the scholars and students lodged and

studied in halls rented from the townsmen; and this was one great source of the numerous quarrels which constantly took place between them. To remedy the evil, and also to encourage learning, several public-spirited individuals purchased or built large houses for the reception of the teachers and scholars, and thus set the example of appropriating funds for the support of those who had not the means of prosecuting their studies to advantage. Such was the origin of the English colleges, which at first modified, and at length entirely superseded the universities. Additional charters, some of fresh privileges, and others of general confirmation, were granted by Edward I. in 1275, Edward II. in 1315, Edward III. in 1327, and by succeeding kings. The English universities, it appears, solicited a recognition and renewal of their privileges at the beginning of every new reign. Till the passing of the University Act in 1854, their privileges depended upon the act of the 13th Elizabeth, 1570, "concerning the Incorporations of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the Confirmation of the Charters, Liberties, and Privileges granted to either of them." The Corpus Statutorum, or body of statutes, by which the University of Oxford was governed, was compiled, chiefly from existing statutes, by a committee appointed during the chancellorship of Archbishop Laud, and was solemnly ratified by the king, chancellor, and convocation in 1636. These statutes, however modified by subsequent interpretations, additions, or restrictions, determined the law and constitution of the university; and every member was bound by oath and subscription to their faithful observance. Various accounts are given of the number of students at Oxford in the reigns of the early Norman kings. Wood, in his Annals, says, that in the time of Henry III. they amounted to 30,000; and even when Merton College was founded (1264), the number is said to have been 15,000. It may readily be granted that these statements are greatly exaggerated; still they seem to imply that the real number was very great. Of the students, many were foreigners, from Paris and other places.

The University of Oxford was confirmed by papal authority, and received from the see of Rome those privileges which it claimed the sole power of bestowing. It obtained a confirmation of its privileges from Innocent IV. in 1252; and from Boniface VIII., in 1296, the doctors and masters received permission to become lecturers and regents in any university in Christendom, without further examination. Oxford is mentioned along with Paris, Bologna, and Salamanca, in the constitutions published by Clement V. after the council of Vienne in 1311. By these constitutions it was ordained that schools for Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee, should be erected in each of these studia; and that all prelates and ecclesiastical corporations in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, should be taxed for the maintenance of professors of these languages at Oxford. The influence of the Roman pontiff was never predominant in England; and though it was submitted to by the less able of the English kings, it is clear that his power by the more vigorous of the early monarchs, in matters relating to the universities, was little regarded, or rather that it was utterly disclaimed. The kings considered the universities as not amenable to ecclesiastical superintendence, and took them under their own peculiar authority. Thus Henry III. on going to Gascony, appointed the archbishop of York and two others as guardians of the university, to receive complaints during his absence, though, according to the canons, the government of it was vested in the bishop of Lincoln, as the bishop of the diocese, and the archbishop of Canterbury, the metropolitan of the province. Edward I. published a brief, which was confirmed by a parliament assembled at York, against

the interference of the preaching friars in matters connected with the university, although they were supported by papal bulls. Edward III., in the fortieth year of his reign, in consequence of petitions from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the one hand, and from the friars of the four mendicant orders on the other, made an ordinance, with the assent of parliament, by which, after removing a prohibition imposed by the universities upon the admission of young scholars into these orders, it was enacted, "that all bulls and processes issuing from the court of Rome, and procured by the friars against either of the universities, or any person in them, should thenceforth be absolutely null and void; and the friars were forbidden to use or allege them in justification of their proceedings." The same king, nine years after, abrogated statutes made by the chancellor, proctors, and heads of the university, cited the official persons before him, and removed them for contumacy, although they pleaded in justification the pope's bulls. Indeed, the whole tenor of the privileges conferred by the various kings upon the universities may be considered as proving that, constitutionally, the power of the king and parliament was held to be supreme, and that the interference of the pope was submitted to only by sufferance.

Our space will not allow us to pursue in detail the history of this university. Besides the unfortunate incidents already alluded to, others occurred which gave a temporary check to its prosperity. In the reign of Edward I. a violent dispute arose between the university and the bishop of Lincoln, in whose diocese Oxford was then included, concerning the limits of the bishop's jurisdiction in university matters, which ultimately led to the total emancipation of the learned body from ecclesiastical authority, under the sanction of a bull granted by Boniface VIII. in the year 1301. The plague which broke out in 1349 nearly ruined the university, all the colleges and halls having been deserted and shut up during its prevalence. The reign of Richard II. is distinguished by the appearance at this university of John Wycliffe, who was the first warden of Canterbury College, and whose lectures on divinity loosened the shackles of popish thralldom, which Henry VIII. afterwards burst asunder, from motives very different from those which animated the first of the reformers. The succeeding reigns present little that is remarkable in the annals of the university, except religious dissensions, which had nearly caused its dissolution. The reign of Henry VII. is entitled to the proud distinction of having fostered, with more than ordinary success, the revival of learning. Genuine scholarship had, during the preceding century, become exceedingly rare, and the Greek language had not only fallen into general disuse, but was affectedly held in contempt by a great body of the students, who formed themselves into an association, under the name of Trojans, to resist its cultivation. So strong indeed was the prejudice against this language that, when Erasmus went to Oxford for the purpose of teaching it, several leading men in the university read lectures against him in the schools, and endeavoured to attach ridicule both to the man and to the knowledge which it was his object to disseminate. Through the vigorous efforts of Cardinal Wolsey, the Greek language was again received into estimation, and a taste for elegant literature was introduced. In 1518, the cardinal founded seven lectures for theology, the civil law, physic, philosophy,

mathematics, Greek, and rhetoric, and appointed to all of them the men who were most distinguished for their abilities, and for their knowledge in these several branches of learning. After the commencement of the reformation under Henry VIII., when the monastic orders were dissolved and their property confiscated, and when the church in its unsettled state presented but few inducements to the study of theology, the number of scholars was very much reduced. In 1546 only thirteen degrees were conferred; and in 1552, though the students who had their names on the books were a thousand and fifteen, yet the greater part were absent, and had in effect quitted the university.

The changes which took place in the religion of the court during the reigns of Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth, affected considerably the prosperity of the university. The last-named sovereign granted to both universities an act of incorporation; and her successor, in 1603, conferred upon them the privilege of sending each two representatives to the national council. From the period of the Revolution the University of Oxford has continued to flourish; its revenues have been increased; and the system of education introduced at the beginning of the present century, and since greatly extended, has been still farther promoted by the recent University Act.

One of the distinguishing peculiarities of the English universities, is the existence of collegiate establishments, some of which were founded at a very early period. We have already mentioned similar establishments in the University of Paris; but the English colleges, being more richly endowed, have to a much greater extent engrossed the powers and privileges of the universities. Of the existing colleges of Oxford, three, University College, Balliol College, and Merton College, were founded before the end of the thirteenth century, and in the following century the number was increased to seven. The motive which led to these foundations was the same which has been mentioned in treating of the University of Paris:—to furnish the students with lodgings, to relieve the indigent from some portion of the expense of their education, and to provide more effectually for the discipline of the university. In Oxford, the chancellor and his deputy combined the powers of the rector and the two chancellors in Paris; and the inspection and control, chiefly exercised in the latter, through the distribution of the scholars into nations,¹ under the government of rector, procurators, and deans, was in the former more especially accomplished by collecting the students into certain privileged houses, subject to a principal, who was responsible for the conduct of the members. But the number of the colleges in which provision was made for the support of the members was, for many centuries, small in comparison to the halls or inns (Aulæ, Hospitia), in which the students lived chiefly at their own expense, and were merely furnished with cheap and convenient lodgings. At the commencement of the fourteenth century the number of halls was about three hundred, while the colleges amounted only to three. For the establishment of a hall, nothing more was necessary than that a few students, on a mutual agreement to live together, should hire a house, find security for a year's rent, and choose for principal a graduate of respectable character. The chancellor or his deputy could not refuse to sanction the establishment, and to admit the principal to his office. The

¹ "The division of the scholars into nations, which prevailed in all the universities of the continent, was unknown in England; probably because our insular situation prevented the influx of foreign students. There was a tendency at one time at Oxford to establish a similar distinction between the natives of the counties north and south of the Trent. For some time the proctors were chosen, one from each division, but the schism was healed. At Cambridge, by the composition between the scholars and the burgesses, in the fifty-fourth year of Henry III., conservators of the peace were to be elected annually at the beginning of the academic year, twenty-three in number (the original number of a jury), ten from the town, and thirteen from the university; and of these latter, five were to be English, three Scotch, two Welsh, and three Irish. This arrangement might easily have given rise to a division of the scholars into nations, each choosing its own conservators; but it was not attended by any such consequence." (Malden On the Origin of Universities, p. 108.)

xford. halls were in general held only on lease; but, by a privilege common to most universities, the rent was fixed every five years by sworn taxers, two masters, and two citizens; and houses once occupied by students could not be resumed by the proprietors so long as the rent was punctually paid. The halls were governed by peculiar statutes, and were liable to be visited and regulated by the university. The causes which occasioned a diminution in the numbers of the scholars, diminished also the number of the halls, though that of the endowed colleges continued to increase. At the commencement of the fifteenth century, while the students were diminishing, the colleges had risen to seven. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the number of halls had fallen to fifty-five, while the endowed colleges had increased to twelve. In 1546, the inhabited halls amounted only to eight; and in 1551, Wood remarks that "the ancient halls lay either waste, or were become the receptacles of poor religious people turned out of their cloisters." As the students fell off in number, the rents of the halls were taxed at a lower rate; and they became at last of so little value to the proprietors that they were willing to dispose of them for a trifling sum. The old colleges thus extended their limits by easy purchase; and the new colleges, of which six were founded during the sixteenth century, were built on sites either obtained gratuitously or for an insignificant price. Before this period the colleges had rarely admitted any students who were not on the foundation, and provided for by endowment; but they now began to receive independent members, and the diminution of the number of students in the university rendered it possible to receive nearly all of them. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century only one college has been founded; and three of the eight surviving halls have been changed by endowment into colleges, but one of these is now extinct.

Tiers. In addition to the want of endowments, it may freely be admitted, that the more effectual superintendence and tuition which were supplied in the colleges, in consequence of the greater number of graduates who were members of them, contributed to the downfall of the halls. It remains only to mention the reason which, in the most crowded state of the university, has prevented the former system from being restored. Before the period of their downfall, the establishment of a hall was easy, and the chancellor was not at liberty to refuse his sanction. A piece of university legislation effectually secured the monopoly to the colleges. The Earl of Leicester, when chancellor of the university, about 1570, "through the absolute potency he had," obtained from the university the right of nominating the principals of all halls, and consequently in effect a rejo upon the institution of any; and this right was vested by statute in his successors. The heads of colleges being in reality the governing body, have since prevented any interference with their monopoly, by the establishment of a new hall. From the middle of the sixteenth century till 1855, the University of Oxford consisted of nineteen colleges and five halls.

Regents. In the earliest period of the university, the scholars lodged, without domestic superintendence, in the houses of the citizens, as at Paris and Bologna, and attended such lectures as they chose. In the year 1231, it was ordained "that every clerk or scholar resident in Oxford must subject himself to the discipline and tuition of some master of the schools;" i.e., should enter himself as the pupil of one or other of the actual regents, while he was still left at liberty to select his own place of residence. At the commencement of the fifteenth century, however, it had become the established law, that all scholars should be members of some college, hall, or entry, under a responsible head. The scholars who frequented the lectures of the university, without attaching themselves to any college or hall, were

called Chamberdekins, as in Paris they were called Martinetts. In the foreign universities, it was only the students of the faculty of arts who were obliged to place themselves under collegiate superintendence; but in the English universities the graduates and under-graduates of every faculty were equally required to be members of a privileged house. It is necessary, however, to observe, that entrance at a college or hall did not imply entrance under any particular tutor. "Young students, and many in those days were mere boys, were placed by their friends under the care of tutors; but these were private tutors; and the universities did not interfere with the private arrangement. It was not till the time when Leicester was chancellor, that the university undertook to regulate who might be tutors; and it was not till the chancellorship of Laud, that it was made necessary to enter under a tutor resident in the same college or hall with the pupil. Laud, therefore, may be regarded as the author of the system of college tuition." In Oxford, according to its original constitution, as in all the older universities of the Parisian model, the business of instruction was not confided to a special body of privileged professors, but was conducted by the graduates at large. Every graduate had an equal right to teach, and even incurred the obligation of teaching publicly, for a certain period, the subjects of his faculty, as the condition on which he obtained his degree. Even the bachelor was obliged to give proof of his ability in teaching, by reading a short course of lectures under the superintendence of his faculty; and the doctor, after his promotion, immediately commenced (incipiebat) his duties as a public teacher (regebat). It was, however, necessary for the university to enforce this obligation of public teaching, during the term of necessary regency, only if a sufficient number of voluntary regents did not present themselves. When this was the case the period of necessary regency was shortened, and even a dispensation from actual teaching during its continuance commonly allowed. The regents, whose duty as public lecturers was dispensed with, still retained their privileges as members of the governing body. The period of necessary regency was finally limited to one year; but the masters were allowed to remain voluntary regents (regentes ad placitum) for two years. A lecturer might continue to teach as a voluntary regent, after his term of necessary regency had expired; or he might resume his regency at pleasure. Now that the sole effect of regency is to entitle the master to become a member of the house of congregation, all continue regents for two years. All professors and public lecturers, the masters of the schools, and public examiners, are regents; and the name has been extended to all resident doctors, to the heads of houses, and to the deans of colleges.

Before proceeding to give an account of the system of education Colleges, at present pursued in Oxford, it seems necessary for us to describe shortly the constitution of the various colleges of which the two English universities are composed. These may be regarded either as charitable foundations for the maintenance of a certain number of students and of resident graduates, or as houses of education in which young men desirous of obtaining degrees are lodged and placed under the superintendence of tutors. In the first point of view, each college is an independent corporation, wholly unconnected with the university, except in so far as its members are subject to the statutes; it is governed by its own laws, and is subject to the inspection of its own visitor, appointed by its charter of foundation. Every student must be entered in some college or hall, to the discipline of which he is subject. The commissioners, under the recent university act, authorised the erection of private halls, on certain specified conditions, and one has since been established. The terms colleges and halls, though bearing a different meaning in Oxford, are synonymous in Cambridge.

Each college consists of a Head, called by the various names of Heads. provost, master, rector, president, principal, or warden, of a body of fellows (socii), and generally of scholars also, besides various officers or servants. With the exception of one or two royal foundations, the heads of colleges are elected by the fellows, usually from their own

Oxford. number, possess superior authority in the discipline of the college considered as a place of education, and exercise an important influence in the government of the university. In most colleges the heads are clergymen, and are allowed to marry. Their incomes vary so much as to render it impossible to make a definite estimate of them. They arise generally from the produce of a double fellowship, and from canonries or college livings attached to the office. The office is tenable for life.

Fellows. The Fellows are the governing body of the college, and vary in number according to the extent of the colleges. They were either constituted by the original founder, or have been endowed by subsequent benefactors. In the great majority of colleges in both universities the fellows are necessarily graduates, either by statute or by common usage; having passed the lowest degree, that of B.A., or student in the civil law. By the commissioners under the University Act of 1854, the restrictions to founder's kindred, certain specified dioceses, archdeaconries, &c., have been removed, and the fellowships thrown open to all members of the university who have reached the requisite standing. The fellowships are of very unequal value. A few of the best at Oxford are said to be worth, in good years, from £600 to £700, while many do not exceed £100; and many at Cambridge fall far short of the latter sum. They are paid out of the college revenues, which are for the most part received in corn-rents, and vary with the price of that commodity. The senior fellowships are the most lucrative; but all confer upon their holders the right to apartments in the college, and usually entitle the holders to privileges as to commons or meals. The fellowships are tenable for life, unless the holder marries or inherits estates of a certain fixed value, or is presented to a living. At Oxford, in some colleges, graduates who have been elected to fellowships are required to pass a year of probation, during which they receive no income. A college may, by special vote, permit a fellow upon marriage to retain his fellowship, and several have already availed themselves of this permission.

Scholars. The scholars are placed under different regulations, and enjoy different advantages, in the different colleges. They are on the foundation, but their connection with the college is not so intimate as that of the fellows. They are always chosen from the undergraduates, and are often elected before they have commenced their residence at the university. In respect of discipline and education, they are on precisely the same footing as the independent students. The scholarships vary, in point of emolument, from £100 or £80 to £20, or less, per annum, together with some advantages in the way of board. Under the recent university act, many of the scholarships which were formerly restricted have been thrown open to public competition, and their emoluments have been increased. In some colleges the students corresponding to the scholars bear different names, as the demies (semicommunarii) of Magdalen, and the servitors of Christ Church, Oxford.

Exhibitioners. Besides the scholars, there are in nearly all the colleges students named Exhibitioners, who have exhibitions, or annual pensions, given in some instances by the colleges, in others by free and endowed schools, to young men proceeding to the universities, or to particular colleges. The number of these is great; and many of them are valuable.

Servitors. There are also several classes of inferior students, who are maintained either wholly or in part by the endowments. These poor students were, in former times, required to wait on the fellows, and to perform other menial offices in the college. They bear various names. At Oxford they are called Servitors, Bible-clerks, Postmasters; at Cambridge they are generally termed Sizars. In the latter university their position is more elevated than at Oxford.

Tutors. The Tutors who conduct the education of the students are selected from the fellows. These, with the officers, as the Dean, who is the highest connected with education, the Bursar, &c., are sometimes the only resident fellows.

Present constitution. The University of Oxford is a corporate body, known by the style or title of "The Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Oxford." Its privileges have been granted, or renewed, by a succession of Royal Charters from a very early period. All previous grants were confirmed by the Act 13, Elizabeth, and further ratified by Charles I., in 1635 and 1636. During the chancellorship of Archbishop Laud, the statutes were at last digested into one uniform code; and by this code, along with certain statutes subsequently enacted at various times, the university was governed till the passing of the University Act in 1854.

University Act. The object of this act is declared in the preamble to be, "to enlarge the powers of making and altering statutes and regulations, now possessed by the University of Oxford and the colleges thereof, and to make and enable to be made further provision for the government and for the extension of the said university, and for the abrogation of oaths now taken therein, and otherwise for maintaining and improving the discipline and studies, and the good government of the said university and colleges." The oaths for-

merly administered at matriculation and graduation have, in consequence, been abolished, and the oaths of secrecy, &c., previously taken by the members of the various colleges and halls, have been declared to be illegal. The statutes of the colleges have been revised and placed in accordance with the feelings and opinions of the present day; and a wide field has thus been opened up for young men ambitious of distinction. The restrictions by which many of the fellowships were formerly hampered have been removed, and these are now open to all members of the university. In some colleges a few of the fellowships have been abolished, and in others a few have been temporarily suspended; and funds have thus been obtained for establishing additional professorships, increasing the number of scholarships, and raising the emoluments of such as were formerly small. Important changes have also been made in the manner of electing exhibitioners. The introduction to a larger extent of the professorial system, if attendance on the lectures by the under-graduates is strictly enforced, cannot fail to be a valuable aid to the tutors.

The highest officer in the university is the Chancellor, who is Chancellor elected by the members of convocation, and now holds his appointment for life. In the thirteenth century the chancellor was nominated by the regents and non-regents, and confirmed by the bishop of Lincoln, who was then the diocesan of Oxford. After the reign of Edward III. he was elected and confirmed by the regents and non-regents only. Till 1484, the office was held only for one, two, or three years, and was always conferred on a resident ecclesiastic. Sir John Mason, who was elected in 1552, was the first lay chancellor. For nearly two hundred years the office has been conferred on noblemen of distinction, who have been members of the university. The duties of the chancellor are, to protect the privileges of the university, and to decide, either in person or by deputy, in any civil questions in which a member happens to be involved.

The Seneschallus, or High Steward, is appointed by the chancellor, with the approval of convocation, and holds his office for life. The high steward assists the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and proctors in the execution of their respective duties, and defends the rights, customs, and liberties of the university. If required by the chancellor, he hears and determines capital causes, according to the law of the land and the privileges of the university, when a scholar or privileged person is the party offending. He likewise holds the university court-leet, at the appointment of the chancellor or vice-chancellor, either by himself or deputy.

The vice-chancellor is in effect the supreme judicial and executive authority in the university; his court, in all matters of law, being governed by the common and statute law of the realm. He is annually nominated by the chancellor, from the heads of colleges; but the office is, in practice, held by rotation for four years. The vice-chancellor appoints four deputies, from the heads of colleges, who perform his duties in the case of illness, or necessary absence from the university. It is his duty also to make up and promulgate a register of the persons qualified to be members of the congregation of the university, and to make the necessary regulations for voting, &c.

The university possesses the right of returning two burgesses as its representatives in the House of Commons, who are elected by convocation, every member of which has a vote. The poll is held by the vice-chancellor, and may continue for five days. Candidates must be proposed, but it is not usual for the nomination to be seconded.

The proctors (procuratores) are two in number, who must have completed four years, and not have reached the sixteenth year from their regency. They are chosen from the several colleges separately, or halls conjointly, according to a cycle which passed convocation in 1856. The election is made by the common suffrage in colleges of the heads and fellows, and in halls of the principals and vice-principals; and, in either case, of all members of convocation being also members of congregation of the respective colleges or halls from which the proctor is to be chosen. The proctors, after taking the oaths of office, nominate each two members of the university, who must be of three years' standing from the time of taking their degree, to be their respective deputies, to whom the official oaths are likewise administered by the vice-chancellor. Their duties are, to preserve the peace of the university, in which they are assisted by their deputies, and have under their command the academical constabulary force; to repress disorders among the students, and to inflict summary academical punishments, as the imposition of tasks, confinement to college, &c. They have also an extensive police jurisdiction in the town. Their summary authority extends both to under-graduates and bachelors of arts.

The legislative government of the university is vested in three legislative bodies,—the Hebdomadal Council, Congregation, and Convocation; the last two of which are technically called "Houses."

The Hebdomadal Council consists of the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, the proctors, six heads of colleges or halls, six profes-

Oxford.

Oxford. sors of the university, and six members of convocation, of not less than five years' standing; the chancellor, or in his absence the vice-chancellor or his deputy, if a member of the council, being president. The heads of colleges and halls, professors, and members of convocation, are elected by congregation for six years; and all members of the council, with the exception of the chancellor, must be resident. The functions of the council are, to maintain the discipline, and transact the ordinary business of the university; to deliberate upon all matters relating to the preservation of its privileges and liberties; and to inquire into and consult respecting the due observance of statutes and customs. All letters of the chancellor, in the case of dispensations, which are addressed to convocation, must, previous to a recital in the "House," be sanctioned by the council. It possesses, moreover, the power of making rules for the regulation of its own proceedings; and the right, though no longer the exclusive right, of initiating measures to be submitted to congregation.

House of Congregation. The House of Congregation is composed of the chancellor, the high steward, the vice-chancellor, the heads of colleges and halls, the canons of Christ's Church, the members of the Hebdomadal Council, certain university officers, the professors, assistant, or deputy professors, the public examiners, &c., and resident masters of arts, the chancellor being president; and in his absence, the vice-chancellor or his deputy. Subject to any statute of the university thereon, congregation possesses the power to frame regulations for the order of its own proceedings; and all measures emanating from the Hebdomadal Council must be promulgated in it; and may be adopted, amended, or rejected, as the "House" may see fit. Congregation, as well as the Hebdomadal Council, enjoys the right of framing statutes, and of bringing them before convocation. On the promulgation of any statute, the members are allowed to speak thereon in English. In the sole instance of supplications for graces, but in no other, every member of the "House," in addition to his right of suffrage, has a suspending negative upon each grace for three times, as the grace is proposed in three distinct congregations; but previously to the fourth supplication, he is required to state privately to the vice-chancellor and proctors the ground and proof of his objection, which are subsequently submitted to the judgment of the house for approbation or rejection. All suffrages for or against graces and dispensations in congregation are to be whispered secretly into the ear of the proctor, by a majority of which, given in the word place or non-place, the fate of the measure is ultimately determined.

House of Convocation. The House of Convocation, which is, with some limitations, composed of regents and non-regents alike, extends its power to all subjects connected with the credit, interest, and welfare of the university. In the exercise, however, of one particular branch of its privileges, the enacting of new or the explaining of old statutes, some restriction is prescribed. No proposition to explain or amend a royal or Caroline statute (statutes enacted by Charles I.) can be received without royal permission. A proposition to enact any other new statute, or explain an old one, must be previously referred to the Hebdomadal Council, which, if it approve the proposition, draws up the terms in which it must be submitted to convocation.

In both houses the chancellor or vice-chancellor singly, and the two proctors jointly, are officially invested with an absolute negative upon all proceedings, except in elections. When the negative of these officers is not interposed (an interposition nearly as rare as the royal veto in Parliament), every question is decided by a majority. All elections, except for members of Parliament, are made by a private scrutiny, in which the vice-chancellor presides, and the two proctors are scrutators.

Professorships. The professorships are of two kinds; those instituted by the crown, and those established by private endowment. The regius professors are appointed by the crown, the others according to the will of the founders. The professors as such have, for two centuries at least, had little direct concern with academical instruction or discipline. Attendance on their lectures was not, except in a few merely formal instances, necessary for the attainment either of university rank or college enrolment; although, for the purpose of being admitted to holy orders, it was necessary for bachelors of arts to attend the lectures of the regius-professor of divinity for a short time, unless they obtained a dispensation. It is to be hoped that, under the new statutes, this defect will be greatly remedied.

The following is a list of the professorships, readerships, &c., with the date of their foundation:—

The Public Orator is chosen by convocation, and must be at least Public either a bachelor in the civil law or master of arts. He writes Orator. letters and addresses on public occasions, presents those on whom the honorary degree of master of arts is to be conferred, and delivers the annual Creweian oration alternately with the professor of poetry.

Every student admitted to the university is entered on the books Matricula-tion. of some college or hall. If there is room for him in the college, he may commence residence immediately on matriculation; but this is not necessarily required of him till two terms have elapsed. Lodging in the town is in no case allowed to men under twelve terms residence. There is no difference in respect of priority of degree, admission, &c., between gentlemen-commoners and commoners. The only privileges of the former consist in a particular dress, and in a separate table at the college dinner, with some trifling indulgences in particular colleges. The fees at matriculation are: for a servitor, or bible-clerk, 10s.; for a nobleman, or the eldest son of a peer, £8; for privileged persons not claiming immunity, £5; for all others, £2, 8s.

The student, on entering his college, is assigned to the superin-Tuition. tendence of some one of the tutors. This, however, in most of the colleges, is little more than a form, as the tutors, who are generally three, four, or five in number, usually divide among themselves the discipline and instruction of the college; and the student is equally under the superintendence of all. The instructions of the tutors are directed solely to the preparation of the students for taking a degree, and consist of catechetical lectures, mixed with reading and discussion, on a portion of some classical or mathematical book in common use at the university examinations. Of these lectures the students at first generally attend three or four daily. In the colleges which have a considerable number of undergraduates, divinity is usually taught by the dean, and mathematics by a separate tutor; but, with these exceptions, there is not much division of labour between the tutors in the same house. The subjects which form the academical education may be taken indifferently by any. Besides the class lectures, the tutors have from time to time meetings with their pupils separately, for the purpose of ascertaining more exactly their state of preparation for the public examination, consulting with them on the most effectual means of removing their peculiar difficulties, and arranging generally their plans of study. They also prescribe weekly exercises in composition, in Greek, Latin, and English. In this department, however, the college tutors are not the sole labourers. Although Private recognised neither by the universities, nor by any particular col-Tutors. lege, a very numerous class has long existed both at Oxford and Cambridge, who, under the denomination of Private Tutors, superintend and assist the studies of the undergraduates. Without interfering with the operation of the college lectures, they are occupied rather in securing for the student the best use of them,

Oxford. and, in the latter part of his course, in preparing him generally for his public examination. The fee of a private tutor at Oxford is £50 a year; at Cambridge, where the academic year is somewhat shorter, £40. The course of college lectures closes at the end of each term, with a formal examination of the students separately, by the Head and tutors. This summing up of the business of the term is called collections or terminals, and occupies from two days to a week, according to the size of the college or hall.

Terms. The academic year is divided into four terms: 1. Michaelmas, which extends from the 10th of October to the 17th of December; 2. Hilary, from the 14th of January to the day before Palm Sunday; 3. Easter, from the tenth day after Easter Sunday to the day before Whitsunday; 4. Trinity, from the first Wednesday after Whitsunday to the Saturday after the act, which is always on the first Tuesday in July. The year of academic residence thus includes nearly seven months. The following are the times requisite for obtaining the different degrees. The B.A. degree is the only one for which residence is indispensable.

Terms and fees. Bachelor of Arts (B.A.); twelve terms of actual residence, for all except the sons and the eldest sons of the eldest sons of peers and peeresses in their own right, baronets, and the eldest sons of baronets and knights, who are admissible to their degree after having completed two years' residence. Fee, £7, 10s.

Master of Arts (M.A.); Bachelors of Arts can proceed to their degree in the twenty-seventh term (in the privileged cases twenty-third) from their matriculation, provided they have kept their name on the books of some college or hall for twenty-six terms. Fee, £12.

Bachelor in the Civil Law (B.C.L.); for those proceeding through Arts, twelve terms, or three whole years, computed from the day of admission to the regency. If a candidate be not M.A., he may take his B.C.L. degree in the twenty-seventh term from his matriculation, provided he has resided twelve terms in some college or hall, and has undergone his examination for his B.A. and B.C.L. degree. Every B.C.L., after the expiration of the twenty-sixth term from his matriculation, may be admitted, on conforming to the usual declaration and subscriptions, to his M.A. degree, retaining the bachelor's degree of his faculty. Fee, £6, 10s.

Doctor in the Civil Law (D.C.L.); after proceeding through Arts, four years from the time at which the bachelor's degree was conferred; (if not, five years), shortened to four for those who intend to practise at Doctors' Commons. Fee £40.

Bachelor in Medicine (M.B.); three years, or twelve terms' residence, as in the case of candidates for degrees in arts, with whom they must undergo a public examination, after which three years further are necessary. Fee, £14.

Doctor in Medicine (M.D.); three whole years after taking the bachelor's degree. Fee, £40.

Bachelor in Divinity (B.D.); seven years from the regency. Fee, £14.

Doctor in Divinity (D.D.); four years after taking the bachelor's degree. Fee, £40.

Degree in Music are merely honorary. Fee for bachelor, £5; for doctor, £10.

Besides the above fees, every member of the university pays £1, 6s. annually, in four quarterly payments, as university dues. After graduation this payment may be compounded for. All under-graduates are called upon to pay fees on entering their names for their respective examinations, viz.:—for responsions, £1; the first public examination, £1, 1s.; the final examination, £1, 1s.; for admission into any second school, 10s.; for examination in the civil law, £1; and in medicine, £1. The fee for tuition varies at the different colleges, but seldom exceeds £20 per annum.

Degrees. By a statute passed in 1850, four schools were established, viz., literæ humaniores, mathematics, natural science, and law and modern history; and a certificate from two of these, of which the literæ humaniores must be one, is required for a degree.

Public Examiners. The examinations are conducted by 16 public examiners, 4 for the school of literæ humaniores, and 3 for each of the other schools; 7 moderators, and 4 masters of the schools; all chosen from among those who have taken the degree of Master of Arts, or Bachelor in Civil Law or Medicine. They are nominated by the vice-chancellor and proctors, and must be afterwards approved by congregation and convocation. Two masters of the schools must always be present at Responsions; and in the absence of the proctors, they are invested with procuratorial power.

Requirements for degrees in Arts. Candidates for degrees in Arts must undergo three examinations:—1. Responsions, i.e., the answering of questions publicly proposed by the masters of the schools (held three times in the year), and to be passed previous to the sixth term. Subjects: One Latin, one Greek author, or a portion of each; arithmetic to the extraction of the square root; algebra to simple equations, or two books of Euclid; a passage in English to be translated into Latin, with a paper of grammatical questions, and a paper of arithmetical or mathematical questions. There is also a viva voce examination.

2. The First Public Examination (held twice in the year), as early as the seventh or as late as the tenth term of standing. Subjects—Minimum: The four Gospels in Greek; one Greek and one Latin author, of which one must be a poet and the other an orator; a passage of English to be translated into Latin; a paper of grammatical questions, and a paper of mathematical or logical questions. Pass-men must bring up either logic or three books of Euclid and algebra. Honours are awarded at this examination in classics and pure mathematics. Candidates for classical honours are required especially to bring up poets and orators; and either logic or three books of Euclid and algebra. The highest honour cannot be obtained without logic. Philological and critical questions, as well as Greek and Latin translations, form an integral part of the examination. 3. The Public Examination (held twice a year) in two schools at least, as early as the twelfth, and twice a year) in two schools at least, as early as the twelfth. First School, for honours as late as the eighteenth, term of standing. First School, literæ humaniores, which must be passed first and by all. Subjects—Minimum: The four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, sacred history, the evidences and the thirty-nine articles, one philosopher, one historian. For Honours: In addition to the above, the Greek and Latin languages, Greek and Roman history, chronology, geography, antiquities, rhetoric and poetics, moral and political philosophy. Logic is indispensable in candidates for first or second class honours. For a degree one other school must be passed at the choice of the candidate, and honours are conferred in them also on the same principles.

When the examinations are concluded, the names of those who have honourably distinguished themselves, by passing a good examination in a wider range than that necessary for a mere degree, are distributed according to their position in the four schools. In each school the successful candidates are arranged in four classes according to merit. In a fifth class, which contains the pass-men, the number is given, but the names are withheld. The examinations for fellowships, scholarships, &c., are conducted in the same manner as those for honours; and colleges now generally set apart a proportion of their fellowships and scholarships for those who attain to the highest mathematical distinctions.

For degrees in divinity certain disputations are held in presence of the regius professor. Candidates for degrees in medicine are examined in the theory and practice of medicine, in anatomy, physiology, and pathology, &c., by the regius professor and two examiners; and for the highest degree, a dissertation on some medical subject is required. Candidates for the degree of D.C.L. must read in the presence of the regius professor a dissertation on some subject illustrating the civil law; and for degrees in music, candidates must undergo an examination, and compose a piece of music of four parts at least, with organ accompaniment. The first three degrees can be obtained only by those who have passed a bachelor's examination in arts.

In June 1857, a statute was passed by convocation, having for Extra-sea-its object the examination of candidates not being members of the demical university; the examinations to take place annually, and the examina-candidates to be examined in two classes:—1st, those of eighteen tions. years of age; and 2d, those of fifteen years of age. Each candidate who has satisfied the examiners receives a testimonial, and the seniors assume the title of "associate in arts." Each candidate pays an admission fee—for the junior examination, 5s.; for the senior, £1, 10s. The examiners, time, and plan of examination, and other particulars, are arranged by a delegacy appointed under the authority of the statute. In June last (1859) 399 seniors and 597 juniors were examined; of these 101 seniors and 167 juniors obtained honours; and 150 seniors and 165 juniors passed without honours, and 148 seniors and 265 juniors failed.

The expenses of an under-graduate vary so materially, according Expense. to the taste and habits of each individual, that it is impossible to present any satisfactory statement of them. The whole expenditure, exclusive of a private tutor's fee, an expense which is incurred only by those who are preparing for honours, of such commoners as live on the most economical scale, has been estimated from £150 to £250 a year. The ordinary college account, including university and college fees of all kinds, boarding, lodging, washing, coals, and servants, varies from £60 to £100 at different colleges, for commoners, and from £30 to £40 more for gentlemen-commoners. The students dine together in the college hall, sitting at different tables according to their ranks and degrees. Their remaining meals are taken in their own rooms. The university, as a corporation, possesses very little property except the libraries and public buildings; and of these the most important have been raised either by the munificence of individuals or by public subscription. The estates which have been bequeathed to it have been appropriated either to the endowment of certain professorships, or to the augmentation of the libraries.

For the Bodleian Library, Clarendon Press, &c., see LIBRARIES and OXFORD.

The following are the existing Colleges and Halls at Oxford, in the Order of their Foundation.

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

It is probable that Cambridge first became a seat of education in the seventh century, when, according to Bede, Sigebert, king of the East Angles, with the assistance of Bishop Felix, instituted in his kingdom a school for learning, in imitation of those which he had seen during his

exile in France. This school is supposed to have been fixed at Cambridge, which then bore the name of Cair-grant, and was one of the most celebrated towns in Britain, though the fact is not asserted by Bede. How long the school thus founded continued to flourish, we are not informed; but the complaint of Alfred that, in his youth, when he had leisure to be instructed, he could not find

Cambridge teachers, would lead to the inference that in his time no public seminaries existed. The merit of restoring, or probably of founding, the school which formed the nucleus of the future university, is ascribed to Edward the Elder, son of Alfred, who appears, from the chronicle of Hyde Abbey, to have erected, "at his own expense, halls for the students, and chairs and seats for the doctors;" at the same time appointing teachers, and adopting other necessary measures, which seemed to secure the stability of the institution. The importance of the town, however, rendered it liable to numerous vicissitudes, and exposed it to the ravages of the Danes and Saxons. In the year 1010 it was burnt and plundered by the Danes; and towards the end of the eleventh century, William the Conqueror destroyed a part of it, to make room for the fortress which he found it necessary to erect for the purpose of overawing the refractory monks of Ely. In all these reverses of fortune the scholastic establishments had their full share.

The reign of the succeeding monarch was not more favourable to the tranquillity of the town, and the schools were, therefore, for some time abandoned. Henry I., who is said to have been educated at Cambridge, conferred on the town some valuable privileges, and induced the wandering students to return to their former dwellings. In his reign (1109) Joffred, abbot of Croyland, "sent to his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, Gislebert, his fellow-monk, and professor of divinity, with three other monks who had followed him into England. These being well versed in philosophy and other sciences, went daily to Cambridge, and, having hired a public barn, made open profession of their sciences, and in a little time collected a great concourse of scholars. In the second year after their arrival, the number of their scholars from the town and country increased so much, that there was no house, barn, or church capable of containing them. For this reason they separated into different parts of the town, imitating the plan of the University of Orleans." An old building is still pointed out as the representative of the barn in which these missionaries taught. The number of students continued to increase, and the school gradually acquired celebrity, till 1174, when nearly the whole town was consumed by a fire "so merciless," says Fuller, "that it only stopped for want of fuel to feed its fury." From this disaster the seminary appears to have speedily recovered; and, in 1209, it received an accession of numbers from Oxford, in consequence of an act of severity on the part of King John, which has been already alluded to. This, according to Hallam, is the earliest authentic mention of Cambridge as a place of learning; though he admits the reasonableness of the conjecture, that the Oxford scholars would not have removed to a town so distant, if it had not already been the seat of academical instruction. Cambridge was not yet permitted to enjoy the tranquillity which is indispensable for the successful prosecution of study. In the year 1215, during the contentions between King John and his barons, the town was laid waste; and it shared the same fate afterwards in the civil war under Henry III. Previously to this last disaster, the king had extended his patronage to the rising seminary, in consequence of some of the Parisian scholars who had accepted his invitation having settled there, and had by public letters confirmed the authority of the academical officers, and checked the disorders which

from time to time manifested themselves. In these remote times, the students lodged in the houses of the citizens, or in halls or inns hired of them, under the superintendence of principals, who were responsible to the chancellor for the conduct of their pupils. The extravagant demands for rent gave rise to numerous disputes between the scholars and townsmen, and drew from the king, in 1231, a public letter ordaining that lodgings or hostels (hospitia) "should be taxed according to the custom of the university—namely, by two masters and two respectable and lawful men of the town, and let to the scholars according to their valuation." This order was repeated in letters-patent of the same king, with the addition that the valuation should be renewed every five years. A similar regulation prevailed at Oxford.

The most important of the public instruments of Henry III., relative to the university, besides those already mentioned, are, his letter addressed to the sheriff of the county (vice-comes), calling upon him "to repress the insubordination of the clerks and scholars, and to enforce obedience to the injunctions of the Bishop of Ely, either by imprisonment or banishment from the university, according to the discretion of the chancellor and masters;" his letter to the Bishop of Ely, ordering that "clerks who were contumacious and rebellious against the chancellor should be imprisoned or banished from the town;" and his letter addressed to the sheriff, in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, in which it is ordered that "when any clerk of the university of scholars studying at Cambridge, has been guilty of any misdemeanour, and has been convicted by the university, and sentenced to imprisonment, if the burgesses of the town are negligent in carrying the sentence into effect, or are unable to do so, the sheriff, on the warrant of the chancellor, is to cause such malefactor to be committed to prison, and kept in safe custody, until the chancellor demand his liberation." The mixture of jurisdictions implied in these documents is singular; the authority of the Bishop of Ely, as diocesan, is distinctly recognised; but delinquents are to be tried by the chancellor and masters, and the civil power of the sheriff is necessary to carry their sentence into execution. It likewise appears, from what has already been stated, that Cambridge, though not yet incorporated, was recognised as a university,¹ and received a support from the civil power which was not given to the continental universities. A more explicit recognition of the privileges of the university is found in a royal enactment of the 45th of Henry III. (1260), prohibiting "the king's justices from interfering in hearing and determining offences between scholars and laymen;" meaning by the latter term those who were not scholars.

The royal support thus given to the university was not sufficient to check the spirit of insubordination among the scholars, nor to prevent them from engaging in frequent conflicts with the townsmen. On one occasion the students from the north and south, arranged on opposite sides, espoused the cause of two of their countrymen who had quarrelled, and proceeding from words to blows, threw the university and town into the utmost disorder. The chancellor interfered, but academical authority was too weak; and the townsmen who were called to his aid, mixing in the fray, contributed only to increase the confusion. Public plunder, burning of records, and every species of horror

¹ Mr Dyer states (Privileges, i., 412, note), that he finds the term University applied to Cambridge in a public instrument of 1223. Hallam (Middle Ages, iii., 527, note) assigns the date of its first incorporation to the fifteenth of Henry III., or 1231; but in Hare's Register of the Charters, and other monuments of the liberties and privileges of the university, which is the authority on which the university relies, there is no charter of incorporation of this year, or indeed any of this monarch. It is probable, therefore, that Hallam has mistaken one of the public letters for a charter of incorporation. (Malden, pp. 93, 94.) "Wherever," says Dyer, "we choose to make our stand, whether at the diploma of Henry III., which is undoubtedly authentic, or any which preceded him, that are of doubtful authority, they all suppose the existence of a university, but say nothing of its creation; nor, indeed, from the meaning of the word, does it seem to have been necessary; the word was previously in use, and suited to a literary as well as any other body, so it was inseparably adopted, without annexing to the term any of that charm attached to it in later years." (Privileges, i. 385.)

Cambridge ensued. The king sent a delegate to inquire into the disputes, and to cause summary justice to be executed on some of the delinquents. Sixteen of the townsmen were hanged, and others belonging both to the university and town took refuge in the religious houses, or were committed to the common gaol. By this means peace was restored; but many of the scholars retired to Northampton, where they were allowed by the king to form themselves into a literary society.¹ These tumults were likewise increased by the tournaments which were held at Cambridge during the thirteenth century, and which not only interrupted the studies of the university during their continuance, but gave rise to animosities which did not easily subside. To remove this impediment to learning, Henry III. issued letters-patent, which were confirmed by Edward II., forbidding any tournament from being held within 5 miles of the town.

The most important document of Henry III. is the famous Composition (1270) between the scholars and burghers, confirmed by royal authority, which ordained that "a certain number of the scholars and the townsmen should be bound by oath to take the names of all the principal houses in the town, and of those who dwelt in them, so that no person should be lodged therein who could disturb the public peace." Offenders who could not be expelled by the authorities of the university and town, were to be denounced before the king and his council. The effects of this arrangement were beneficially felt by the university; and accordingly the current of its history was not disturbed by any violent agitations during the next century. In the year 1381, the hostility of the townsmen to the students displayed itself with great violence, which led to the destruction of the charters of the university, and those of Bennet College. After numerous other acts of violence, the tumult was suppressed by the Bishop of Norwich, and the principal leaders were punished. The mayor was deprived of his office, and the liberties of the town were declared forfeited, and bestowed on the vice-chancellor, in whom they were vested till the reign of Henry VIII., when the corporation was restored, though several of its former privileges were retained by the university.

The university obtained its first formal charter of privileges from Edward I. in the twentieth year of his reign (1291). This charter, besides confirming the letters of Henry III. and the Composition, conferred upon the university some new privileges, among which was one, that no one imprisoned by order of the chancellor should be liberated by the mayor and bailiffs under pretext of a king's brief formerly issued. Charters more and more ample were granted by Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., and Henry IV., in the beginning of their respective reigns, as we have already found to be the case with the University of Oxford. By these charters the university obtained the control over victuallers of all sorts, with power to punish regraters and forestallers, and to deliver scholastics and clerks from prison; and all causes in which they were concerned, relating to laws, letting of houses, &c., were made cognisable before the vice-chancellor or his commissary. The jurisdiction of this officer was extended to all cases, whether civil or criminal, except those of mayhem and felony, in which one of the parties was a master or scholar. The assize of bread, wine, and beer, with the supervision of weights and measures, which had formerly belonged to the magistrates of the town, were exclusively lodged in the university; and for these privileges the university was to pay into the exchequer a yearly tribute of ten pounds. The mayor and bailiffs of the town were sworn every

year, before the vice-chancellor, to keep the peace of the Cambridge university.

So far as the extant documents enable us to judge, Cambridge was not much troubled by papal bulls and rescripts; and was less exposed than the sister university to ecclesiastical interference at home. When Edward II., in the tenth year of his reign (1316), granted to the university a charter containing some additional privileges, he solicited a confirmation of them from the papal see. A bull was accordingly issued at Avignon, by John XXII., in the second year of his pontificate (1318), which, after confirming the privileges conferred by former popes and former kings of England, ordains "that there shall be thenceforth at Cambridge a studium generale, and that every faculty shall be maintained there; and that the college and masters of the said studium shall be accounted a university, and enjoy all the rights which any university whatsoever, lawfully established, can and ought to enjoy." From the date of this bull, Cambridge was recognised among the universities of Christendom.

We have already seen that the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely, as bishop of the diocese, was in ancient times distinctly acknowledged; but it was soon limited, partly by the concessions of the bishops themselves, and partly by papal authority. Hugh Balsham, the founder of St Peter's College, disclaimed (1275), by a public letter, any intention of derogating from the privileges of the university, or disturbing the jurisdiction of the chancellor, but required all suits to be brought before the chancellor, in the first instance, restricting himself to receiving appeals. In the following year the same bishop limited the jurisdiction of his archdeacon. Farther limitations in the power of the bishop were made in the early part of the reign of Edward III.; and in the thirty-sixth year of the same reign, letters-patent were granted, by which the scholars were protected from being summoned out of the university into any ecclesiastical court; and appeals to any ecclesiastical court whatever were prohibited in cases cognisable by the chancellor. These immunities were confirmed by royal letters to the Bishop of Ely in the 15th of Richard II. The university elected its chancellor and other principal officers, but the confirmation of the Bishop of Ely was anciently required. This confirmation was, however, dispensed with by a bull of Boniface IX. in 1401; and in 1430, Pope Martin V. appointed a commission to inquire whether the university by grant or custom was subject to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the chancellor, and exempted from that of all others; empowering his delegates, if they should find it so, to confirm, by his authority, that jurisdiction and exemption, which was accordingly done. The sentence of the delegates was ratified by a bull of Eugenius IV. in 1433. The university was thus relieved from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese, but not from that of the archbishop of the province. Two examples of metropolitan visitation are recorded, the one in 1309, and the other in 1401; but in neither case does the archbishop appear to have acted on his own authority. Dyer shows that the former visitation was undertaken by the authority of letters-patent from the king. The proceedings of the latter, which had special reference to the heresy of Wycliffe, were confirmed by act of Parliament. The right of visitation and inspection is vested in the sovereign.

In the reign of Henry V. the university obtained two remarkable privileges. The one was a public statute, ordaining that none should practice the art of medicine except those admitted into the universities, and approved by them; offenders were to be punished at the discretion

¹ Dyer's History, i. 62. This university lasted only four years. The students were ordered by the king to return to Cambridge in 1264.

Cambridge of the Privy Council. The other was a mandate from the archbishop, granted with the consent of the prelates of his province, that patrons should bestow ecclesiastical benefices only on graduates and students of the university. Some additional privileges were conferred by Edward IV. and Henry VII. The changes which took place in the religion of the state during the four succeeding reigns affected considerably the internal arrangements and prosperity of the university. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, granted to it an extensive charter; and by the Act of Parliament 13 Eliz. c. 29, for the incorporation of the two English universities, this and all preceding grants from Henry III. downwards were confirmed, and the university was declared to be incorporated by the name of the "Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Cambridge."

Colleges.

Our materials do not enable us to give so minute an account of the collegiate foundations of Cambridge, and of other religious houses for the residence of students, as we have already given respecting those of Oxford. In the early part of the thirteenth century, the halls or hostels are said to have been very numerous, and to have been crowded with students. This is indeed implied in the public letters of Henry III.; and it would appear from the terms of the Composition, that the hospitia, to which it referred, were liable to fluctuation and change. The principal houses were those of St Mary, St Bernard, St Thomas, and St Augustin, assigned to artists; and St Paulinus, St Nicholas, St Clement, and Hovens, to students of the civil and the canon law. Several of these houses were at length deserted, and sunk into decay; others, being purchased by patrons of literature, and obtaining charters of incorporation, are represented by the present colleges. Caius says there had been twenty hostels, of which seventeen remained in his time. All the existing colleges have been founded since the beginning of the reign of Edward I.; and of these Peter House, or St Peter's College, was founded so early as 1257; five were incorporated during the succeeding century, four in the fifteenth, six in the sixteenth, and one, Downing College, so late as 1800. The term hall is not restricted, as at Oxford, to houses without endowment, but is used indiscriminately with college; nor has residence in some college or hall ever been strictly enforced on undergraduates as at Oxford.

Incorporation.

The University of Cambridge was formally incorporated (13 Eliz., c. 29) by the name of the "Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Cambridge," and consists of seventeen colleges, or societies, devoted to the study of learning and science. Each college is a body corporate, bound by its own statutes, but is likewise controlled by the paramount laws of the university; each furnishing members both for the legislative and executive government of the whole. The statutes of Elizabeth have hitherto been the foundation of the existing government, and have formed the basis of all the subsequent legislation; indeed, no grace of the senate was considered valid which was inconsistent with these statutes, and certain nearly contemporary interpretations of them, or with king's letters, which had been accepted and acted on by the university. By the recent university act, it is provided that the statutes of Queen Elizabeth, "for the government and regulation of the university, or such or so much of them, or of any of them, as shall be then unrepealed by any statute made under the authority of this act, shall be repealed, but not so as to revive any statute of the university thereby repealed." The principal officers of the university have nearly the same offices and titles as at Oxford—namely, the chancellor, high steward, vice-chancellor, commissary, public orator, assessor, two preceptors, a librarian, a registrar, two moderators, professors, syndics, &c. The commissary is an officer under the chancellor, and appointed by him. He holds a court of record for all privileged persons and scholars under the degree of M.A. The duty of the assessor is to assist the vice-chancellor in his court in causis forensibus et domesticis. The Syndics are members of special committees of members of the senate, appointed by grace from time to time for specific purposes. The chancellor is always a nobleman, and is elected by the members of the senate. His office is biennial, or tenable for a longer period with the consent of the university. The other officers are elected nearly in the same

manner as at Oxford. Cambridge, like Oxford, is represented in Cambridge Parliament by two burgesses, who are chosen by the collective body of the senate.

In 1856 an act, identical in its object, and similar in its provisions, to that already mentioned in the case of Oxford, obtained the sanction of parliament and of the crown. The preamble of the act declares its object to be, "to enlarge the powers of making and altering statutes, ordinances, and regulations, now possessed by the University of Cambridge and the colleges thereof, and to make, and enable to be made, further provision for the government, and for the extension of the said university, and for the abrogation of oaths now taken therein, and otherwise for maintaining and improving the discipline, and studies, and good government of the said University of Cambridge, and the colleges thereof." The commissioners appointed under the act sanctioned a new body of statutes drawn up by the council of the senate and adopted by the senate at large, and have issued various ordinances in accordance with its spirit, which have been approved by the Privy Council, and now form the statutes of the university. The university system at Cambridge having been all along more open and liberal than that of Oxford, there were fewer restrictions as to the election to fellowships, scholarships, &c., to remove; but these have been dealt with in the same way, and, with the exception of a few scholarships attached to particular schools, have been thrown completely open. All oaths enforcing concealment of matters relating to the colleges, resistance to, or non-concurrence in, any change in the statutes of the university or colleges; and also the oath formerly exacted on graduation, have been declared to be illegal. Other changes have been introduced, which are included in the following account of the present constitution of the university.

The legislative government of the university is, by the recent act, vested in two bodies: the Council of the Senate, and the Senate itself.

The Council of the Senate consists of the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors of the university, and eight other members of the senate, chosen from the electoral roll, published by the vice-chancellor. Two of the heads of colleges, two of the professors, and four other members of the senate, are elected by the persons whose names are on the electoral roll, on the 7th of November in every other year; and they all hold office for four years.

It is the duty of the vice-chancellor, on or before the second Monday in October in every year, to make up, and cause to be promulgated, a list of the members of the senate, resident for fourteen weeks previously within one mile and a half of Great Saint Mary's Church; and such list, together with all officers of the university, after having been submitted to, and approved by, the senate, forms the electoral roll for the year ensuing. The regulations as to voting for election, resignation, and return of members of the council, and for keeping the number complete, are made by the vice-chancellor. The council has the power to make, from time to time, rules for the regulation of its own proceedings, and to revise the regulations of the vice-chancellor. The president of the council is the chancellor, or, in his absence, the vice-chancellor or his deputy. No business can be transacted unless five members are present; and all questions are determined by the majority of the votes of the members present, the president having a second, or casting vote, when the votes are equally divided. Every university grace must be approved by the council before it can be offered to the senate.

The senate consists of all masters of arts or law, or doctors in one or other of the three faculties—viz., divinity, law, and physics, having their names on the university register.

A few days before the beginning of each term, the vice-chancellor publishes a list of the several days on which a congregation or assembly of the senate will be held for transacting university business; these fixed days occur about once a fortnight; but in case of emergency, the vice-chancellor summons a congregation for the dispatch of extraordinary affairs; three days' notice of such congregations is required to be given. A congregation may be held without three days' previous notice, provided at least forty members of the senate be present at its assembling. An ordinary meeting is constituted by the presence of twenty-five members, including the proper officers, who are obliged to be present.

No degree is ever conferred without a grace of the senate for that purpose. After the grace has passed, the vice-chancellor is at liberty to confer the degree. The grace, in this instance, is termed a supplicat. Every degree must have been allowed, or passed, by the college to which the candidate belongs. It is signed by the master or preceptor of the college to which the candidate belongs, and the subscriber is made responsible for the assertion which it contains. Every member has a right to present any proposition, or grace, to the consideration of the senate; but previously to its being voted upon, it must be approved by the council. After passing the council it is read in the senate; and if the placiti exceed

Cambridge, the non-placets, it is considered a regular act of the senate. An assembly of the senate held out of term time is called a convocation, in which case a grace is immediately passed to convert the convocation into a congregation, when the business proceeds in the ordinary manner.

Professors. The professors, as at Oxford, take but a subordinate part in the public education of the university. Many of them deliver courses of lectures, which are in general better attended and more celebrated than those in the sister university; but these are on branches of learning or science of recent growth, and not on subjects included in the ancient and regular studies of the place. Attendance on their lectures is only to a limited extent required for the attainment of degrees. Students proceeding to the lower degrees in the civil law and medicine are required to present certificates of attendance on the lectures of particular professors of these departments of knowledge. The professors are paid from various sources, and few of them are richly endowed. The endowments of the oldest foundations, which were very small, have been supplemented by estates left for that purpose, and by having tithes and ecclesiastical benefits attached to them; the others are provided for from the university chest. By a supplementary act, passed in 1858, the stamp-duties on matriculation, and the taking of degrees, were wholly abolished, on condition of the university paying certain specified salaries to the professors of modern history, civil law, chemistry, anatomy, botany, mineralogy, and the Jacksonian professor of natural and experimental philosophy. Education is conducted chiefly by the tutors of the various colleges, assisted, as at Oxford, by private tutors.

The following table contains a list of the professorships, lectureships, &c., with the date of their establishment.—

Wages. The organisation of the collegiate bodies, and their rules of government at Cambridge, vary from those of Oxford only in a few unessential particulars. The three ranks of independent undergraduates in the former university are noblemen, fellow-commoners (so called originally from having their commons, or college dinner, at the same table with the fellows), and pensioners. Lodging in college is not enforced on undergraduates if there be not room within the walls of the building to accommodate them. It is chiefly to this circumstance that the great increase of students at Cambridge of late years is to be attributed, the members of the other university being necessarily limited by the amount of room for lodging them. With regard to members on the foundation,

the scholars of most colleges at Cambridge, being generally elected Cambridge, by free competition from among the under-graduate members, form a distinguished class among the students, rather than a body distinct from the independent members, and chosen without free competition, as was formerly the case at Oxford. A distinction exists between two different classes of fellowships in most houses at Cambridge, which is only partially known at Oxford, viz., between the foundation-fellowships and what are termed the bye-fellowships; the former being part of the original endowments, and generally open to all the world; the latter, founded by subsequent donations, and to some extent limited by local and other restrictions. In all the colleges, the governing body is composed of the foundation-fellows only; and they alone are generally elected to college office. It has been already stated, that the general usage at Cambridge is for each college to elect its fellows from among its own members, whether scholars or independent; the chief exceptions to this rule occur in the small colleges, when they are in want of some individual to fill the office of tutor, and no satisfactory candidate presents himself from their own number.

In general, it may be said that the Cambridge system is less strict in point of external discipline, and the under-graduates under rather less close control than at the sister university; on the other hand, that emulation and close attention to study are more favoured and encouraged. All the regulations, both of the colleges and university, tend in this direction. Open competition, and rank according to merit, form the cardinal principles of the academic constitution, as far as it relates to students, and the numerous college prizes give a powerful stimulus to exertion.

The academic year consists of three terms, viz., Michaelmas, Terms, beginning on the 1st of October, and ending on the 16th of December; Leat, beginning on the 13th of January, and ending on the Friday before Palm Sunday; and Easter or Midsummer, beginning on the Friday after Easter-day, and ending on the Friday after the last Tuesday but one in June. The time included in the three terms is nearly seven months. The mode of admission on the Admission boards of a college is either by a personal examination before the tutors and officers, or through a recommendatory certificate, specifying the age, qualifications, &c., of the candidate, signed by a master of arts of either university, and accompanied by a deposit called caution-money.¹ This is generally done before the end of Easter term; and if the certificate be deemed satisfactory, the name is at once entered on the boards of the college, and the student usually comes into residence in the beginning of October following, when the academic year commences. The following are the principal regulations necessary for proceeding to degrees.

The distinguishing characteristic of this university has, for Degrees, nearly two centuries, been the pursuit of mathematical studies, and of those branches of natural philosophy which depend on them. To these the lectures, both public and private, are prominently devoted, and thus present to the student the only means by which he can attain the honours and emoluments either of the university or of his college. The study of classical literature, on which the fame of the university originally rested, after having been long thrown into the shade by the preference given to mathematical science, has for many years been prosecuted to an extent not inferior to that in the sister university; and it is a curious fact that, notwithstanding this discouragement, Cambridge has produced the largest proportion of our most distinguished native philologists. Still, the encouragement now given to it has failed to raise it above a secondary position. The prizes for the encouragement of literature, free and open for competition to the whole university, amount to upwards of £1,500 annually, three-fourths of which are given for classics and English composition. The amount of the annual prizes in the different colleges is about £800, more than the half of which is given for the encouragement of classical literature. Original composition forms no part of the examination for honours, but it is made a leading feature in the competition for scholarships and other prizes.

Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), nine terms, of which two-thirds of each Terms for term must be in residence. Noblemen, sons of noblemen, the re- degrees. lations of the king, with their eldest sons, baronets and knights, are admissible after having kept seven terms. Fee, £7.

Master of Arts (M.A.), three years after taking a bachelor's degree. Fee, £12.

Bachelor in Divinity (B.D. or S.T.B.), must be M.A. of seven years' standing. Fee, £8.

¹ The caution-money for a nobleman is £50; for a fellow-commoner, £25; for a pensioner, £15; and for a sizar, £10. This money remains in the hands of the tutor or sponsor, and is not returned till a person takes his name off the boards. The fees paid to the Registrar for the common chest at matriculation are:—Nobleman, £15, 10s.; fellow-commoner, £10, 10s.; pensioner, £5, 10s.; sizar, £5. Before admission to the previous examination, every candidate is required to pay the sum of 50s. to the common chest; and in each college a quarterly payment is made by each member of it, according to his degree and condition, on a scale which differs in the several colleges. The terminal payments for tuition of persons in status pupillari in every college, are the following:—Nobleman, £13, 6s. 8d.; fellow-commoner, £10; pensioner, £6; sizar, £2; bachelor fellow-commoner, £2, 10s.; bachelor of arts, if in residence, £1, 10s.

Cambridge. Doctor in Divinity (D.D. or S.T.P.), must be B.D. of five, or M.A. of twelve years' standing. Fee, L.20.

Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), nine terms at least. AB.A. of four years' standing is also admissible to this degree.

Master of Laws (M.L.), three years after taking a bachelor's degree. Fee, L.7.

Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), five years after taking the M.L. degree. Fee, L.20.

Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.), must be of five years' standing, and must reside six terms in the university. Fee, if a B.A., L.2; if not, L.8.

Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), subject to the same regulations as an LL.D. Fee, L.10.

Bachelor in Music (Mus. B.), must enter his name in some college, and compose and perform an exercise in his art. Fee, L.8.

Doctor in Music (Mus. D.), generally a Mus. B., and his exercise is the same. Fee, when a candidate is Mus. B., L.10; when he has no degree, L.15.

Examinations. The system of public examinations at Cambridge differs in many respects from that which prevails at Oxford; and, as these examinations are intended to exhibit the result of the academical instruction, a short account of them is here necessary.

The first university or "previous" examination (popularly called the "Little go") takes place in the end of the Lent term of the second year from that in which the student commences his academical residence, and is conducted by eight examiners nominated by the colleges, and approved by the senate. The subjects of examination are one of the four Gospels, in the original Greek, Paley's Evidences of Christianity, and one of the Greek and one of the Latin classics, the Elements of Euclid, books i., ii., and iii., and arithmetic. Public notice of the subjects of examination in each year is issued in the Lent term of the year preceding. Every student is required to translate some portion of each of the subjects appointed, to construe and explain passages of the same, and to answer, both in writing and via voce, such plain questions in grammar, geography, and history, particularly the Old Testament history, as may arise immediately out of the subjects. After the examination, the students are arranged in two classes; those who have passed with credit, and those to whom the examiners have only not refused their certificate of approval. Rejected candidates are required to attend a supplementary examination in the following October. A certificate of having passed this examination is indispensable for proceeding to the degrees of B.A., M.B., and LL.B., and to honours in the four triposes. Additional subjects of examination in mathematics are prescribed for those students who intend to be candidates for honours in mathematics, or classics, or law; and no student is admitted to examination as a candidate for such honours, who has not passed an examination in these additional subjects to the satisfaction of the examiners. The names of those who have passed the general previous examination, and also the examination in the additional subjects, to the satisfaction of the examiners, are placed alphabetically in one class.

The examinations for the ordinary B.A. degree take place in January of each year, and are conducted by examiners appointed by the senate. It may be premised, that the course of study preparatory to the degree of B.A. is comprehended under the three heads of natural philosophy, theology, and moral philosophy and the belles lettres. The first comprises pure and mixed mathematics; the second, the evidences of Christianity, the Greek Testament, Butler's Analogy, Paley's Moral Philosophy; and the third comprehends the most celebrated Greek and Latin classics. Besides a constant attendance on lectures, the under-graduates are examined in their respective colleges yearly or half-yearly, on the subjects of their studies; and, according to the manner in which they acquit themselves in these examinations, their names are arranged in classes, and some of those who obtain the honour of a place in the first class receive prizes according to merit. By this course the students are prepared for those public examinations which the university requires candidates for the degree to pass.

The examination of the questionists¹ who are not candidates for honours, embraces the following subjects:—The Acts of the Apostles in the original Greek, one of the Greek and one of the Latin classics previously published, the History of the English Reformation, Euclid, books i., ii., iii., and iv.; and Props. 1-6 of book vi.; together with such parts of algebra, mechanics, and hydrostatics as are prescribed by the schedule. In order to be admitted to this examination, every candidate is required to have attended the lectures delivered during one term at least, by one or more of a specified list of professors; and to present a certificate of having passed an examination satisfactory to one of the professors whose lectures he has attended.

Of the six examiners, two confine themselves to mathematics,

two to classics, and two to moral philosophy. The examination Cambridge lasts six days, and is conducted entirely by printed papers. The questions proposed are of an elementary character, and presuppose but moderate attainments on the part of the questionists. The examiners are strictly enjoined to take care that the number of the questions to be answered, and the length of the passages to be translated, in any one paper, do not exceed what a person well prepared may be expected to answer and translate in the time allowed. The candidates who pass this examination satisfactorily are arranged in four classes according to merit; the names in each class being placed alphabetically. No candidate is approved by the examiners, unless he show a competent knowledge of all the subjects of examination. The candidates belonging to all the classes are admitted to their degree by the vice-chancellor, at a congregation held for that purpose, on the last Saturday in January.

The examination of candidates for mathematical honours, technically called the Mathematical Tripos, is confined to pure and mixed mathematics. It commences in every year on the Tuesday after the 30th of December, is conducted by two moderators and examiners, and continues for eight days; the first three days being assigned to the more elementary, and the last five to the higher parts of mathematics. After the first three days there is an interval of eight days; and on the seventh of these days the moderator and two examiners declare what persons have so acquitted themselves as to deserve mathematical honours. The candidates thus selected, and no others, are admitted to the examination in the higher parts of mathematics; and after that examination, the moderators and examiners arrange all the candidates who have been declared to deserve mathematical honours; those between whom they cannot assign a difference of merit being bracketed as equal. At the close of the examinations the names of those who have most distinguished themselves are arranged according to merit, classed in three divisions, viz., wranglers, senior optimes, and junior optimes, which constitute the three orders of honour. The highest of all is the senior wrangler, for the year, "the greatest of English academical honours."

The Classical Tripos examination was instituted for the purpose of conferring academical honours for proficiency in classical learning, and commences on the fourth Monday after the last Saturday in January. The examination is superintended by the regius professor of Greek, the public orator, the professor of law (if such professorship be established), together with the examiners for the classical tripos in the current and two preceding years. All students who have passed satisfactorily the general previous examination, and the additional examination in mathematics, are admissible to this examination. It is conducted by four examiners; and extends over six days. The candidates are required to translate into English passages selected from the best Greek and Latin authors, and to give explanatory answers to questions arising immediately out of those passages; to translate also passages from English into Greek and Latin, both in prose and verse. There is likewise a paper on ancient history and classical antiquities. The names of those who pass the examination with credit are, by an arrangement similar to that of the mathematical tripos, placed in three classes. Those who obtain such honours are entitled to admission to the degree of bachelor of arts.

For the purpose of encouraging the pursuit of other branches of science and learning besides mathematics and classics, the university, by a grace which passed the senate in 1848, instituted triposes of honour in the moral and natural sciences, analogous to the mathematical and classical triposes; and all students who pass with credit the examination in either of these triposes are entitled to admission to the degree of bachelor of arts. No student is admitted to the examinations who has not passed the examination in the additional subjects of the previous examination.

The Moral Sciences Tripos is placed under the management of Moral the board of moral science studies, consisting of the regius professor of laws, the professor of moral philosophy, the professor of modern history, and the professor of political economy, together with the examiners in the current and two preceding years. The subjects of examination are:—Moral philosophy, mental philosophy and logic, modern history, political economy, and general jurisprudence. The examination commences on the last Monday in November, and is conducted by two examiners nominated annually by the board. The names of the students who pass the examination with credit are placed, according to merit, in three classes; the places being determined by estimating the aggregate merits of each student in all the subjects of examination.

The Natural Sciences Tripos is placed under the management of Natural the board of natural science studies, consisting of the professor of sciences anatomy, the professor of chemistry, the professor of botany, the tripos.

¹ Questionist is the name given to a student during the last six weeks of preparation for taking his degree.

Cambridge. professor of geology, and the professor of mineralogy, together with the examiners in the current and two preceding years. The subjects of examination are:—Chemistry, botany, geology, mineralogy and zoology, with comparative anatomy and comparative physiology. The examination commences on the first Monday in December. The rules for conducting it, and also for the classification of the successful candidates, are the same as those of the moral sciences tripos.

Prizes. Besides the honour of occupying a high place in the tripos lists, Cambridge holds out to the ambitious student many strong inducements to exertion, in the prizes which are annually submitted for competition. Those to which the greatest degree of importance is attached are Smith's Prizes, the Chancellor's Medals, and the University Scholarships. The first are assigned to two commencing bachelors of arts, for proficiency in mathematics and natural philosophy; and as the competition takes place soon after the mathematical tripos, the adjudication of them forms a severe test of the accuracy of the previous decision. It sometimes happens that the judgment of the tripos examiners is reversed, and the second wrangler becomes first prizeman. The chancellor's medals are given to two commencing bachelors of arts, who must have been senior optimes at least in the mathematical tripos. For these there is also a separate competition, but it generally happens that the first medal is gained by the person whose name is at the head of the classical tripos.

Degrading. To check the practice of "degrading," or postponing for a year the degree of B.A., which had become common among the students, a statute as enacted in 1829, by which degraders are not allowed to present themselves for university scholarships, or any other academic honours, without special permission.

Divinity. The proceedings in divinity, laws, and medicine, are respectively superintended by the board of theological studies, the board of legal studies, and the board of medical studies. The Board of Theological Studies consists of the professors of divinity and the Christian advocate, together with the examiners for the theological examinations of the current and two preceding years. There are two examinations annually, which are open to those students only who have passed the examinations entitling to admission to the degree of B.A., or have passed the examinations and performed the exercises necessary for the degree of bachelor of laws or medicine. A master of arts must be of at least seven years' standing before he can be admitted to the degree of bachelor in divinity; and a doctor in divinity must be a bachelor in divinity of five years' standing.

Laws. The Board of Legal Studies consists of the professors of laws, moral philosophy, modern history, laws of England, and international law, along with the examiners for the degree of bachelor of laws in the current and two preceding years. Candidates must have passed the previous examination, and must have kept nine terms at least. They are subjected to an examination in portions of the Roman civil law, the constitutional and general law of England, international law, and general jurisprudence. A bachelor of law may take the degree of master of law by incepting, as in arts, at any time after the completion of three years from his inaugura-

tion. Bachelors of arts and masters of arts may also take the degree of master of law, by passing the same examination as candidates for the degree of bachelor of law. A master of law of five years' standing may proceed to the degree of doctor of law.

The Board of Medical Studies consists of the professors of physics, medicine, chemistry, anatomy, botany, medicine, and comparative anatomy and zoology, &c. Five years of medical study are required of candidates for the degree of bachelor of medicine, of which time six terms must be so spent in the university. In the case of bachelors of arts, four years of medical study are deemed sufficient. There are two examinations for the degree of M.B., the first of which may be passed after the completion of three years of study, and the second after the completion of the course. Candidates are required to produce certificates of diligent attendance on certain courses of lectures in succession; and also of having practised dissection and attended hospital practice. The examinations embrace all the branches of medical science, and are conducted by the professors of the various branches, along with two doctors of medicine nominated by the board and approved by the senate. All persons proceeding to the degree of doctor of medicine must produce certificates of having been engaged in medical study during five years, &c., with some modifications in favour of masters of arts, and students who have obtained honours in the natural sciences tripos.

The following table of average expense regularly incurred by the student, is calculated for one of the colleges. The difference is not much at any other college.

Cost of Living.

Amount.....L.69 2 10

Rent of rooms varies in the several colleges from L.4 to L.30.

In the year 1858, a statute was passed by the Senate, instituting examinations of candidates not being members of the university. The examinations take place annually, and are held in various cities and towns previously fixed. The candidates are divided into two classes:—1. Those under 16 years of age; and 2. Those under 18 years of age; and those who pass with credit, or satisfy the examiners, receive certificates to that effect. At the first examination 333 candidates appeared; and of these very nearly two-thirds succeeded in satisfying the examiners, and received certificates accordingly. Each candidate pays a fee of 20s.

The following are the existing Colleges and Halls at Cambridge, in the order of their Foundation.

The establishment of the University of London forms a new era in the history of academical institutions in this country; and thus demands from us as minute an account of its extensive, and perhaps too ambitious aims and objects as our limits will admit. It embraces in its constitution a portion of the ancient element, inasmuch as it is not limited to any particular spot, nor to buildings specially set apart for the instruction of its alumni. It differs, however, from the universities of the middle ages in this, that the regents in these, though sometimes forced to find accommodation for their pupils at a distance, were still under the direct control of the university. The University of London is separate and distinct from all the establishments which it has admitted to the enjoyment of its privileges, and receives for examination candidates educated in any portion of her Majesty's dominions at home or abroad. It thus ignores the advantages of academical training and habits; and recognises mere knowledge, wherever that has been acquired, irrespective of any disadvantages which may accompany the mode of acquiring it. It is, in fact, a great literary incorporation, legalised for the purpose of testing the qualifications of young men who present themselves as candidates for literary and scientific honours; and of conferring these honours on the candidates who are found to possess the necessary requirements. It is, besides, placed under the control of the executive government, and some of its most important regulations require the sanction of a secretary of state, or of the Lords of her Majesty's Treasury, and thus involves a principle which has not hitherto existed in any of our universities. In the latter respect, it bears some resemblance to the Royal University of France, with the important exception that its enactments are not imperative, but are left open for acceptance to any educational institutions which find it advantageous to adopt them. The experiment is a bold one, and it would be premature yet to express an opinion of its results. In the meantime the university goes on prosperously.

The University of London was created in 1836 by a royal charter of William IV., granted during "royal will and pleasure;" and was confirmed by a new charter, revoking the former and not so determinable, granted by Queen Victoria in 1837. The object of the university was declared, in the latter charter, to be "the advancement of

religion and morality, and the promotion of useful knowledge, by holding forth to all classes and denominations of her Majesty's subjects, without any distinction whatsoever, an encouragement for pursuing a regular and liberal course of education, by offering to persons who prosecute or complete their studies in the metropolis or in other parts of the United Kingdom, such facilities, and conferring on them such distinctions and rewards as may incline them to persevere in their laudable pursuits; and for the purpose of ascertaining by examination the persons who have acquired proficiency in literature, science, and art, by the pursuit of such course of education, and of rewarding them by academical degrees as evidence of their respective attainments, and marks of honour proportioned thereunto." The institution was incorporated under the style and title of the "University of London," and was to consist of a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows, nominated by the crown, with the usual provisions as to acquiring, holding, and disposing of property, and with the power, after due investigation and examination, to confer upon candidates the usual degrees in arts, laws, and medicine. In 1849 a supplementary charter was granted, confirmatory of the former, and extending some of its provisions, which continued in force till 1856. In this last mentioned year another charter was granted, whereby the others were revoked, and a more extended and definite constitution was given to the university. In addition to the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows, the university, as now incorporated, consists of all persons on whom it has conferred, or shall hereafter confer, "any of the degrees of Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Medicine, Master of Arts, Bachelor of Laws, Bachelor of Medicine, or Bachelor of Arts." All goods and property formerly belonging to the university have been transferred to the new incorporation; the degrees previously conferred have been sanctioned, and the bye-laws and regulations declared to be still in force.

The body politic and corporate thus consists of a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, fellows, and graduates. The number of fellows is thirty-six, exclusive of the chancellor and vice-chancellor; and consists of such persons as the crown shall from time to time appoint under the sign-manual, and such as shall be appointed by the members of the Senate from the graduates of the university, under the powers conferred by the charter.

The chief officers of the university are the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, the registrar, and the chairman of Convocation, with

London. The Queen as the visitor. The chancellor is appointed by the crown, and holds his office for life. The vice-chancellor is elected by the fellows from their own body, and remains in office for one year.

Senate. The business of the university is conducted by two courts,—the Senate and the Convocation. The Senate consists of the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows, and is invested with the entire management and superintendence of the affairs, concerns, and property of the university, with power to make and alter any by-laws and regulations which may appear to be necessary, with the exception of "imposing on any person any compulsory examination or test;" such by-laws and regulations being binding on all candidates for degrees after the common seal of the university has been affixed to them; and after they have been submitted to one of the principal secretaries of state, and been approved of, and countersigned by him. The Senate also appoints, and, if necessary, removes all examiners, officers, and servants of the university; and forms regulations for the examinations, and the conferring of degrees. The chancellor, if present, presides as chairman; in his absence the vice-chancellor; and, failing him, a fellow elected by the members present. All questions brought before the Senate are decided by a majority of the members present; the chairman having, in the case of equality, a second or casting vote. No question is decided unless six members are present.

Convocation. The Convocation consists of the graduates of the university, viz., all doctors of laws, doctors of medicine and masters of arts, all bachelors of law of two years' standing, all bachelors of medicine of two years' standing, and all bachelors of arts of three years' standing. Those graduates only are entitled to vote whose names appear in the register, kept by the officer appointed for that purpose; and for the registration of which a reasonable annual fee, sanctioned by the commissioners of the treasury is exacted. The functions of convocation are very limited. They elect their own chairman, who holds office for three years; have the power of nominating three persons for every fellow to be appointed in the manner already mentioned; of discussing any matter relating to the university, and declaring their opinion; but are not "entitled to interfere in, nor have any control over, the affairs of the university." The Senate is bound to convene a meeting of the Convocation at least once a year; and the chairman is empowered to convene an extraordinary meeting on a requisition signed by twenty or more members. Thirty members are necessary to constitute a meeting; and all questions are decided by a majority of votes; the chairman having, in the case of equality, a casting vote. All meetings of the Senate and Convocation take place in Burlington House.

Affiliated institutions. The university having no collegiate establishments under its immediate control, is empowered to receive into connection with itself such educational institutions in Great Britain, Ireland, and the British Colonies, as shall transmit to the Senate sufficient evidence that they furnish to young men in status pupillari such a course of instruction in one or more departments of knowledge as to justify their being taken on examination for degrees. The following institutions are already in connection with the university:—The universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the several colleges and houses of learning in these universities; the universities of Durham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews; the King's College of Aberdeen; the Marischal College, Aberdeen; the University of Dublin; the Queen's University in Ireland; the University of Sydney; University College, London; King's College, London; the Queen's College at Belfast; the Queen's College at Galway; the Queen's College at Cork; St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw; Stoneyhurst College; Manchester New College, London; St. Mary's College, Oiscott; St. Patrick's College, Carlow; St. Edmund's College, near Ware; Spring Hill College, Moseley, near Birmingham; the College, Regent's Park (late Stepney College); College of St. Gregory the Great, Downside, near Bath; Countess of Huntingdon's College at Chesnut; the Baptist College at Bristol; Alredale College, Undercliffe, near Bradford; Protestant Dissenters' College at Rotherham; Presbyterian College at Caermarthen; St. Kyran's College, Kilkenny; Huddersfield College; Lancashire Independent College; Wesleyan Collegiate Institution, Taunton; Western College, Plymouth; West of England Dissenters' Proprietary School, Taunton; St. Patrick's College, Thurles; New College, London; Owen's College, Manchester; Bedford Grammar Schools; Brecon Independent College; Horton College, Bradford; Hackney Theological Seminary; Trevecca College, Brecon; Springfield College, Ennis; Bishop Stortford Collegiate School; Working Men's College, London; the University of Toronto; Queen's College, Liverpool, &c. &c. It is in the power of the Senate, with the consent of one of the principal secretaries of state, to add to, alter, vary, and amend the list, by striking out any of the institutions included therein. Subject to the same sanction and approval, the Senate have the power to admit per-

sons not educated in any of the institutions connected with the university for matriculation, and as candidates for any of the degrees other than medical, on such conditions as shall from time to time be determined. The Senate are further called upon to report from time to time to one of the principal secretaries of state, what appear to them to be the medical institutions and schools from which, either singly or jointly with other medical institutions and schools in this country, or in foreign parts, it may be fit and expedient to admit candidates for medical degrees; such report to be approved of by the said secretary; and no persons to be admitted as candidates for degrees unless they shall satisfy the Senate that they have, in one or more of such institutions or schools, completed the requisite course of instruction. Of these medical institutions and schools, a large number are already in connection with the university.

The chancellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows, have the power, after examination, to confer the several degrees of bachelor, master, and doctor, in arts, laws, science, medicine, music; and also in such other departments of knowledge, except theology, as they by regulations in that behalf shall from time to time determine. The examinations are held at least once a year, and embrace such branches in the several departments of knowledge as the Senate consider necessary. All the examinations, including the matriculation examination, are conducted by means of printed papers, the examiners reserving to themselves the power of putting vice versa questions to any candidate for the purpose of ascertaining his competency to pass. In every case, with the exception of the matriculation examination and the scriptural examination, the successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, those being bracketed together between whom there is not, in the opinion of the examiners, a clear difference. Those of the first division are admissible to examination for honours. All the examinations take place annually, except that for matriculation, which is held twice a year; and for each a reasonable fee is exacted, subject to the sanction and approval of the Lords of the Treasury. In the case of failure no fee is returned; but it is available in the event of the candidate presenting himself at a subsequent examination. There are at present 26 examiners, all elected by the Senate:—14 in arts; 1 in laws; and 11 in medicine. No fellow is eligible as an examiner; and no examiner is eligible for re-election for more than four years consecutively.

Every candidate for the degree of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, or bachelor of medicine, is required to have passed the Matriculation Examination. This examination takes place in two years,—on the second Monday in January, and the first Monday in July; for admission to which it is necessary for each candidate to have transmitted to the registrar of the university a certificate, showing that he has completed his sixteenth year. The examination embraces the following subjects:—Mathematics, Arithmetic and Algebra; the ordinary rules of arithmetic,—fractions, extraction of the square root, addition, subtraction, &c., of algebraical quantities, proportion; Geometry; the first four books of Euclid, &c.; Natural Philosophy; mechanics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, pneumatics, acoustics, and optics; Chemistry; powers of matter, heat, combustion, the atmosphere, &c.; Classics; one Greek and one Latin subject, selected one year and a half previously by the Senate, from the works of certain Greek and Latin authors, and published; the classical papers containing simple and easy sentences of English to be translated into Latin, and also questions in grammar, history, and geography; The English Language; orthography, writing from dictation, &c.; Outlines of English History; the French or the German language. Simultaneously with the examinations in London, examinations are conducted in such provincial cities, towns, and colleges, as have obtained the sanction of the Senate. The candidates who have passed are arranged in three divisions, each in alphabetical order; and pass certificates, signed by the registrar, are given to those who apply for them. Fee for matriculation £2.

Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours in honours. Mathematics and natural philosophy, classics, chemistry, and natural history. The candidates who acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners are arranged in the order of proficiency, according to the several departments; and in determining their relative position, regard is had to the proficiency evinced by them in the same departments at the matriculation examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates of not more than twenty years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in mathematics, and the highest candidate in classics, receive each an exhibition of £30 a year for the next two years, on condition of their pledging themselves to proceed, within three years, either to the degree of B.A., or to the first examination for the degree of M.B. The highest candidates in chemistry and in natural history, if they possess sufficient merit, receive each a prize to the value of £10 in books or money.

London. Candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts are required to have passed the matriculation examination, and to pass two subsequent examinations. The first B.A. examination commences on the third Monday of July in London, and the pass examination is also held at the same time, under special arrangement, in other cities, towns, and colleges of the United Kingdom. No candidate, with the exception of those who have obtained honours either in classics, or in mathematics and natural philosophy at the preceding matriculation examination, can be admitted to this examination within one academic year of the time of his passing the matriculation examination; nor unless he has produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct.

Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Mathematics: Arithmetic and Algebra; Geometry: Plane Trigonometry; Latin and Roman History; The Latin Language; The English Language, Literature, and History; The French or the German Language. Candidates are not approved by the examiners, unless they show a competent knowledge in (1.) Latin and Roman history; (2.) English language, literature, and history; (3.) Mathematics; (4.) Either the French or the German language. Fee for the examination, £5.

Honours. Any candidate who has passed the first B.A. examination may be examined for honours (1.) in mathematics and mechanical philosophy; (2.) in Latin; and (3.) in English; and for prizes in the French and German languages and literature. The successful candidates in each department are arranged in the order of proficiency; and in determining their relative position, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in their respective departments at the first B.A. examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates not more than twenty-two years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in mathematics, and the highest candidate in Latin, each receive an exhibition of £40 a year for two years, on condition of declaring their intention of presenting themselves, within two years, at the second examination for the degree of B.A. On the same conditions, the highest candidate in English receives an exhibition of £30 a year for two years. The highest candidates in French and German receive each a prize to the value of £10 in books or money.

Second B.A. examination. This examination commences on the fourth Monday in October; and no candidate can be admitted to it within one academic year of the time of his passing the first B.A. examination; nor unless he have produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. The examination embraces the following subjects:—Mechanical and Natural Philosophy; Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics, Optics (geometrical), Acoustics, Optics (physical), Astronomy, Animal Physiology, Classics, Greek and Latin Languages. One Greek subject and one Latin prose subject, selected two years previously by the Senate, and published; papers containing passages of Greek and Latin to be translated into English, and passages of English to be translated into Latin, with questions in grammar, history, and geography: History: Logic and Moral Philosophy. Candidates are not approved by the examiners, unless they show a competent knowledge in (1.) Classics; (2.) Grecian history; (3.) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (4.) Animal physiology; (5.) Logic and moral philosophy. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; and a certificate under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each successful candidate. Fee for the examination, £5.

Honours. Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours in (1.) Mathematics and natural philosophy; (2.) Classics; (3.) Logic and moral philosophy; (4.) Chemistry; (5.) Animal physiology; and (6.) Vegetable physiology and structural botany. A list of the successful candidates, in the order of proficiency in each subject, is published by the examiners; and in determining the relative position of candidates, regard is had to the proficiency evinced by each at the second B.A. examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidates of not more than twenty-three years of age shall possess sufficient merit, the highest candidate in each of the first three branches receives £50 a year for the next three years, with the style of University Scholar. Under the same circumstances, the highest candidates in the other three branches receive each a prize to the value of £10 in books or money.

M.A. examination. The examination for the degree of master of arts commences on the first Monday in June. While in the two great English universities, this degree is conferred almost as a matter of course after the lapse of a certain period from the candidate taking the B.A. degree, in this university the examination is of a stricter and more extensive character than any of the preceding examinations. No candidate can be admitted to examination until after the expiration of one academic year from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.A. in this university, or in one of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, and Durham, nor unless he has shown evidence of having completed his twentieth year.

The examination embraces the following branches of knowledge,

and no candidate is approved by the examiners, unless he has shown a competent knowledge in one of these:—I. Classics. II. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. III. Logic and Moral Philosophy; Political Philosophy; History of Philosophy; Political Economy. The examination includes in Classics—The Greek and Latin classic authors; prose composition in Greek, Latin, and English; with ancient history, and the history of Europe to the end of the eighteenth century; in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy—The subjects required for the B.A. honour examination, with the addition of plane astronomy and physical astronomy; and in Branch III. the subjects already enumerated. The candidates who pass to the satisfaction of the examiners are arranged in the order of proficiency. The most distinguished candidate in each branch, if in the opinion of the examiners he possesses sufficient merit, receives a gold medal of the value of £20; and if the same candidate distinguishes himself the most in two or more of the branches, he receives a gold medal for each branch in which he distinguishes himself. Fee for the examination, £10.

Examinations in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, in the Scriptural Greek text of the New Testament, in the evidences of the Christian examination, and in Scripture history, take place once a year, and, like the others, are conducted entirely by means of printed papers. Each examiner has the power of putting a veto upon any question proposed; and no question is put bearing on any doctrinal point disputed among Christians; or such as to require an expression of religious opinion on the part of the candidates; nor is any answer or translation objected to on the ground of its expressing any peculiarity of doctrinal views.

No candidate is admitted to this examination unless he shall first have previously obtained the degree of B.A. in this university, mination. The subjects of examination are:—1. The Hebrew text of the Book of Genesis; 2. The Greek text of the Gospel of St Luke; 3. Paley's Evidences and Butler's Analogy; 4. Scripture history. Candidates who show a competent knowledge in any two out of the four subjects of examination are approved by the examiners.

No candidate is admitted to this examination unless he has passed further the first examination at least two years previously. The subjects of examination are:—1. The Hebrew text of one of the larger or two of the smaller historical books, and of one of the larger or two of the smaller prophetic or poetical books of the Old Testament; 2. The Greek text of one of the historical books, and of one of the larger or two of the smaller epistles of the New Testament; 3. The evidences of the Christian religion; 4. Biblical history, including the history of the books of Scripture. The passages are selected and published from time to time. Candidates who show a competent knowledge in any three out of the four subjects are approved by the examiners, and are alphabetically arranged in three classes according to their proficiency. The highest candidate in each class, in both examinations, receives books to the value of £5.

Candidates for the degree of bachelor of science are required to First B.Sc. have passed the matriculation examination, and to pass two subsequent examinations. Bachelors of arts of the university, and under-graduates of the university who have passed the first examination for the degree of bachelor of medicine, are admitted to the degree of B.Sc. on passing the second examination only. The first B.Sc. examination commences on the third Monday in May; and no candidate is admitted within one academic year of the time of his passing the matriculation examination, nor unless he has produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Mathematics; The same departments which are required for the first B.A. examination: Mechanical and natural philosophy; The same departments which are required for the second B.A. examination, with the addition of heat, electricity, and magnetism; Chemistry; Elementary substances and combinations: Botany and Vegetable Physiology; Zoology and Animal Physiology. The extent of acquirement in natural philosophy, chemistry, and biology, is such as may fairly be attained by attendance on a course of lectures on each of these subjects, extending through an academic session.

No candidates are approved by the examiners unless they show a competent knowledge in the fundamental principles of (1.) Mathematics; (2.) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (3.) Chemistry; (4.) Biology, including botany and vegetable physiology, and zoology and animal physiology. The successful candidates are alphabetically arranged in two divisions; and pass certificates, signed by the registrar, are given to those who apply for them. Fee for the examination, £5.

Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours, Honours. (1.) in mathematics and mechanical philosophy; (2.) in chemistry and natural philosophy, and in biology. A list of the successful candidates is published, arranged in the order of proficiency in each department. In determining the relative position of the candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the corresponding subjects at the pass examination. If, in

London. the opinion of the examiners, there are candidates of not more than twenty-two years of age who possess sufficient merit, the highest in each department receives an exhibition of £40 a year for the next two years, on condition of declaring his intention to present himself at the second B.Sc. examination within two years.

Second B.Sc. examination. This examination commences on the fourth Monday in October. Every candidate must have passed the first B.Sc. examination at least one academical year previously, or have obtained the degree of B.A., or have passed the first M.B. examination in the university, and must also have produced a satisfactory certificate of good conduct. The subjects of examination are the following:—(1.) Mechanical and natural philosophy; (2.) Chemistry (theoretical and practical); (3.) Animal physiology; (4.) Geology and Palaeontology; (5.) Logic and moral philosophy. The requirements in the first, third, and fifth branches are the same as those necessary for the second B.A. pass examination; and in Branch IV., the elementary portions of descriptive geology and the general stratigraphical distribution of organic remains. The candidates who pass are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order, and a certificate, under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. Fee for the examination, £5.

Honours. Any candidate who has passed may be examined for honours:—(1.) In mathematics and natural philosophy; (2.) In chemistry and biology; (3.) Geology and palaeontology; and (4.) In logic and moral philosophy. Candidates for honours in Branch I. are examined in the subjects which are required for the second B.A. honour examination; those for honours in Branch II. in the subjects of the previous examinations in a more advanced state; those for honours in Branch III. in descriptive geology, physical geology, and palaeontology; and those for honours in Branch IV. in the subjects required for the second B.A. honour examination. A list of the successful candidates in each branch, arranged in the order of proficiency, is published; and in determining their relative position, the examiners have regard to the proficiency in their several branches evinced by them at the pass examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, there are candidates of not more than twenty-three years of age who possess sufficient merit, the most distinguished candidate in each branch receives £50 a year for the next three years, with the style of university scholar.

D.Sc. examination. The examination for the degree of doctor of science takes place within the first fourteen days of June; and no candidate is admitted to it until after the expiration of two academical years from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.Sc. in the university. Every candidate is examined in some one of the following branches of knowledge, to be selected by himself; and no candidate is approved by the examiners unless he show a thorough practical knowledge of the principal subject, and a general acquaintance with the subsidiary subjects, specified as belonging to the branch so selected. The following are the branches required:—1. Mathematics; 2. Mechanical science; 3. Astronomy; 4. Inorganic chemistry; 5. Organic chemistry; 6. Electricity; 7. Magnetism; 8. Physical optics, heat, acoustics; 9. Animal physiology; 10. Comparative anatomy; 11. Zoology; 12. Vegetable physiology; 13. Systematic botany; 14. Geology; 15. Palaeontology; 16. Logic and moral philosophy. Fee for the examination, £10.

L.L.B. examination. The examination for the degree of bachelor of laws takes place within the last fourteen days of June. No candidate can be admitted to it until after the expiration of one academical year from the time of his obtaining the degree of B.A. in this university, or in one other of the universities of the United Kingdom, unless he shall have taken the degree of M.B. in this university. The following are the subjects of examination:—Stephen's Blackstone; the three portions of Dumont's edition of Bentham's Morals and Legislation, which contain the principles of legislation, the principles of a civil code, and the principles of a criminal code. The successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order.

Honours. An examination for honours subsequently takes place, to which all who have passed the previous examination are admissible. Candidates are examined in one or more of the following subjects:—Principles of legislation; conveyancing; law of the courts of equity; law of the courts of common law; Roman law; law of the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. Lists of the successful candidates are afterwards published; and, in fixing their relative position, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them at the previous examination. If, in the opinion of the examiners, any candidate possesses sufficient merit, the candidate who distinguishes himself most in the principles of legislation receives £50 a year for the next three years, with the style of university law scholar. Fee for the examination, £10.

L.L.D. examination. The examination for the degree of doctor of laws takes place within the first fourteen days of July. No candidate under the age of thirty is admissible until after the expiration of two academical years from the time of his obtaining the degree of L.L.B. For

persons above the age of thirty, no interval is required. There is required from candidates a practical professional knowledge of the law of the common law courts of England, and of one of the three following other branches of positive law according to the laws of England and Ireland:—1. Conveyancing; 2. Law of the courts of equity; 3. Law of the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. There is also required a knowledge of one of the seven following subjects:—1. Roman law; 2. Principles of international law; 3. Of civil law; 4. Of criminal law; 5. Of the law of evidence; 6. Of judicial organisation; 7. Of procedure. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit has been evinced, the candidate who distinguishes himself most receives a gold medal of the value of £20. Fee for the examination, £10.

Candidates for the degree of bachelor of medicine are required:—1. To have been engaged during four years in their professional studies at one or more of the institutions or schools recognised by the university; 2. To have spent one year at least of the four in one or more of the recognised institutions or schools in the United Kingdom; and, 3. To pass two examinations.

The first M.B. examination commences on the first Monday in First M.B. August. No candidate is admitted unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having completed his nineteenth year; 2. Of having taken a degree in arts in the university, or in a university the degrees granted by which are recognised by the senate of the university, or of having passed the matriculation examination; 3. Of having been a student during two years at one or more of the medical institutions or schools recognised by the university, subsequently to having taken a degree in arts, or passed the matriculation examination; 4. Of having attended a course of lectures on each of four of the subjects in the following list:—Descriptive and surgical anatomy; general anatomy and physiology; comparative anatomy; pathological anatomy; chemistry; botany; materia medica and pharmacy; general pathology; general therapeutics; forensic medicine; hygiene; midwifery and diseases peculiar to women and infants; surgery; medicine; 5. Of having dissected during nine months; 6. Of having attended a course of practical chemistry, comprehending practical exercises in conducting the important processes of general and pharmaceutical chemistry; in applying tests for discovering the adulteration of articles of the materia medica, and the presence and nature of poisons, and in the examination of mineral waters, animal secretions, urinary deposits, calculi, &c.; 7. Of having attended to practical pharmacy during a sufficient length of time to enable him to acquire a practical knowledge in the preparation of medicines. Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Anatomy, physiology, chemistry, botany, materia medica, and pharmacy; and are also required to translate passages from the Latin pharmacopoeia. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; those only who, in the opinion of the examiners, are admissible to the examination for honours, being placed in the first division.

Any candidate who has been placed in the first division may be examined for honours in any or all of the following subjects:—Anatomy and physiology (candidates may illustrate their answers by sketching the parts they describe), chemistry, materia medica, and pharmaceutical chemistry; structural and physiological botany. In determining the relative position of candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the same subjects at the pass examination. Candidates who pass the examinations and acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners, are arranged according to the several subjects and according to their proficiency in each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit is evinced, the candidates who distinguish themselves most in anatomy and physiology, in chemistry, and in materia medica respectively, receive each an exhibition of £30 a year for the next two years. Under the same circumstances the first and second candidates in each of the preceding subjects, and the most distinguished candidate in structural and physiological botany, receive each a gold medal of the value of £5. Fee for the examination, £5.

The second examination for the degree of bachelor of medicine commences on the first Monday in November. No candidate is admitted to it within two academical years of the time of his passing the first M.B. examination, nor unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having passed the first M.B. examination; 2. Of having, subsequently to having passed the first M.B. examination, attended a course of lectures on each of two of the subjects enumerated in No. 4 of the requirements for that examination, and for which he had not presented certificates previously; 3. Of having, subsequently to having passed the first M.B. examination, dissected during six months; 4. Of having conducted at least six labours; 5. Of having attended the surgical practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during twelve months, and lectures on clinical surgery; 6. Of having attended the medical

London. practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during other twelve months, and lectures on clinical medicine; 7. Of having, subsequently to the completion of his attendance on surgical and medical hospital practice, attended to practical medicine in a recognised hospital, infirmary, or dispensary during six months; 8. Of moral character.

Candidates are examined in the following subjects:—Physiology (the papers include questions in comparative anatomy), general pathology, general therapeutics, hygiene, surgery, medicine, midwifery, forensic medicine. The candidates are also required to translate passages of the Latin pharmacopoeia into English, and of the English pharmacopoeia into Latin. The candidates who have passed are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order; and a certificate, under the seal of the university and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. Those candidates only who, in the opinion of the examiners, are admissible to the examination for honours are placed in the first division.

Honours. Candidates who have been placed in the first division may be examined for honours in any or all of the following subjects:—Physiology and comparative anatomy, surgery, medicine, midwifery. In determining the relative position of candidates, the examiners have regard to the proficiency evinced by them in the same subjects at the pass examination. Candidates who pass the examinations, and acquit themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners, are arranged according to the several subjects and according to their proficiency in each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit be evinced, the candidates who distinguish themselves the most in physiology and comparative anatomy, in surgery and in medicine, receive each an exhibition of £50 a year for the next two years, with the style of university medical scholar. Under the same circumstances, the first and second candidates in each of the preceding subjects, and the most distinguished candidate in midwifery, receive a gold medal of the value of £5. Fee for the examination, £6.

M.D. examination. The examination for the degree of doctor of medicine commences on the fourth Monday in November. No candidate is admitted to the examination unless he has produced certificates to the following effect:—1. Of having taken the degree of bachelor of medicine in the university, or a degree in medicine or in surgery at a university the degrees granted by which are recognised by the senate of the university. Candidates who have not taken the degree in this university must produce a certificate of having completed their twenty-third year: 2. Of having attended, subsequently to having taken one of the above degrees in medicine, (a.) to clinical or practical medicine during two years in an hospital or medical institution recognised by the university; (b.) or, to clinical or practical medicine during one year in an hospital or medical institution recognised by the university, and of having been engaged during three years in the practice of his profession; (c.) or, if he have taken the degree of bachelor of medicine in the university, of having been engaged during five years in the practice of his profession. One year of attendance on clinical or practical medicine, or two years of practice, are dispensed with in the case of those candidates who, at the second M.B. examination, have been placed in the first division: 3. Of moral character, signed by two persons of respectability.

Candidates are examined in logic and moral philosophy, and medicine. Candidates who have taken a degree in arts in this or in any other university in the United Kingdom, are exempted from the examination in logic and moral philosophy. The subjects of examination in this branch are:—Names, notions, and propositions; syllogism, induction, and subsidiary operations; the senses, the intellect, the will, including the theory of moral obligation. The successful candidates are arranged in two divisions, each in alphabetical order, and a certificate under the seal of the university, and signed by the chancellor, is delivered to each. If, in the opinion of the examiners, sufficient merit be evinced, the candidate who distinguishes himself the most at the examination receives a gold medal of the value of £20. Fee for the examination, £10.

Candidates who commenced their professional studies in or before January 1839, and practitioners in medicine or surgery who obtained their licenses or commissions prior to 1840, are admitted to examination for the degrees of bachelor and doctor of medicine on different conditions, for which see Calendar.

University College and King's College, London, though not falling strictly within the scope of this article, deserve a passing notice, from the prominent position which they occupy as seminaries of education. With the exception of conferring degrees, they perform all the functions of universities.

University College. University College had its origin in a scheme for establishing a university in the metropolis, which was first promulgated by the author of The Pleasures of Hope in 1825, and was speedily adopted by the friends of education. The objects held out by the promoters of the scheme were three:—1. To furnish to the inhabitants of

London, at a moderate rate, and within easy reach, a complete education; thus enabling them to educate their sons, while continuing to reside under the parental roof, without incurring the additional expense and risks of residence at the old universities: 2. To afford the opportunity of receiving a university education to the various classes of society in England who, not being members of the Church of England, were excluded, in a greater or less degree, from Oxford and Cambridge: 3. To establish extended and systematic courses of education for professional pursuits, in laws and medicine, and for civil engineering. Within a few months after the scheme was announced, funds sufficient for setting the institution on foot were raised by subscriptions for £100 shares, and by donations of £50 each; and before the close of 1828 the classes in the faculties of arts, laws, and medicine were in full operation. The college being established on the principle of free admission to all sects and denominations, the department of theology was not included in the curriculum. The exclusion of theology from the course of instruction gave rise to a long and acrimonious opposition on the part of those who could bear no departure from the established order of things. Even the universities of Oxford and Cambridge shared in the alarm, and, supported by the church party, prevented the granting of a charter of incorporation till 1836. Students are admitted without reference to their religious opinions; and none of them live within the walls of the college. The academical discipline is thus confined to the class-room. The professors are dependent on the fees which they receive from their pupils; and, as in the Scottish and German universities, communicate their instructions by means of public lectures, accompanied by catechetical examinations. There are also public examinations at the end of the session, when prizes are awarded to the most distinguished students. The government is vested in five bodies:—1. The general meeting of the members of the corporate body—i.e., of the founders of the institution and the representatives of founders; 2. The council; 3. The senate; 4. The faculty of medicine; 5. The faculty of arts and laws. The council, the members of which are elected by the general meeting, consists of a president, vice-president, treasurer, and twenty-one other members; and has power to regulate the teaching of the various branches of literature and science, to accept endowments, appoint professors, tutors, &c., and to manage, generally, the affairs of the college. The college contains forty-one professorships: twenty-seven in the faculty of arts and laws, and fourteen in the faculty of medicine. In some cases two professorships are held by the same person. The session in arts commences in the middle of October, and terminates at the end of June. The medical session is divided into two terms—the winter term, commencing in the beginning of October and continuing till the end of March; and the summer term—extending from the beginning of May to the end of July.

King's College owes its origin chiefly to the opposition made to King's University College, on the ground of excluding theology from the college-curriculum of study. The friends of the Church finding that, notwithstanding their strenuous opposition, the other was being fast realised, commenced a movement in 1828 for establishing another college on principles which they approved. The ground on which it is situated, forming the east wing of Somerset House, was presented to the foundation by George IV. The funds for the erection and support of the institution were raised partly by shares and partly by donations; and a charter of incorporation was granted to it in 1829. The fundamental principle on which the college was established is the following:—"That every system of general education for the youth of a Christian community ought to comprise instruction in the Christian religion as an indispensable part, without which, the acquisition of other branches of knowledge will be conducive neither to the happiness of the individual nor to the welfare of the state." It was thus instituted professedly, although not exclusively, for the instruction of young men according to the tenets of the Church of England. Rooms are provided within the walls of the college for a limited number of matriculated students, who are placed under the superintendence of the consor. The government is vested in a council consisting of three classes:—The visitor, who is the Archbishop of Canterbury; the perpetual governors by virtue of their offices, as the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of York, Bishop of London, and other high functionaries; the governors for life, and those who are councillors simply. There are sixty-three professorships, lectureships, &c.; eight in divinity; twenty-three in general literature and science; twelve in applied sciences; seventeen in the medical department; and three in the military department. The year is divided into three terms:—Michaelmas term; Lent term; and Easter term. The chief distinction between the two institutions consists in the fact of there being professors of divinity attached to King's College. Both have received large benefactions, which are distributed in the form of scholarships, prizes, &c. By nothing, perhaps, is the recent institution of these colleges more distinctly marked than by the provi-

Durham. sion which has been made in them for the cultivation of modern languages and literature. Each of them furnishes instruction in English, French, Italian, and German; in several of the Eastern languages; and even Chinese is taught by an authorized professor.

History. The great and increasing population of the north of England, and its distance from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, had long pointed out the expediency of establishing in that part of the kingdom an institution which should secure to its inhabitants the advantages of a sound yet not expensive academical education. The first attempt which was made to establish such an institution at Durham was in 1649, during the time of the Commonwealth, and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, after the passing of the act for the abolition of deans and chapters. It was not, however, carried into effect till eight years after, when, in virtue of letters patent granted for the purpose, the houses formerly belonging to the deans and prebendaries were converted into a university to be called "the Mentor, or Provost, Fellows and Scholars of the College of Durham, of the foundation of Oliver, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland," &c. The same letters patent assigned to the university rent charges to the amount of £900 annually, for the support of the persons belonging to the foundation, and authorized them to purchase and enjoy lands and revenues to the amount of £6000 a year. These arrangements were never carried into effect. At the Restoration the dean and chapter resumed possession of their houses and lands; and the projected foundation totally disappeared. For nearly two centuries the scheme remained in abeyance; and it was not till during the incumbency of the late Bishop Van Mildert that it was again seriously entertained.

This munificent prelate, along with the dean and chapter, believing that the means of supplying the acknowledged deficiency might be provided from the resources of that body, without contravening the principles on which it was incorporated, agreed, by an act of chapter in 1831, to appropriate property producing £3000 per annum to the support of an academical institution in connection with the cathedral church; the bishop at the same time promising to provide eventually for the warden, the professor of divinity, and the professor of Greek, by attaching prebendal stalls to the two offices.

incorpora- In pursuance of this arrangement, an act of Parliament was obtained in 1832, empowering the dean and chapter to appropriate an estate at South Shields, "for the establishment and maintenance of a university for the advancement of learning, in connection with the cathedral church: such university to consist of such warden or principal, of such professors and readers in such branches of learning and science, of such tutors, students, and other officers and persons, and generally to be established and instituted, and continued according to such scheme and regulations as the said dean and chapter for the time being shall, with the consent of the Lord Bishop of Durham, order and prescribe." Under the authority of this act, the university was opened in 1833, and in July 1835, a statute was passed by the dean and chapter, and approved by the bishop, entrusting the ordinary management of the university under the bishop as visitor, and the dean and chapter as governors, to the warden, a senate, and a convocation. After a constitution and the studies of the university had been satisfactorily arranged, a royal charter was granted under the great seal on the 1st of June 1837, incorporating the persons therein described by the name of "the Warden, Masters, and scholars of the University of Durham," and granting to them "all the rights and privileges which are assumed to the university by the act of Parliament, or are incident to a uni-

versity established by royal charter." It consequently possesses and exercises the right of granting degrees in all the faculties.

The appointment of the ecclesiastical commission prevented the intentions of Bishop Van Mildert respecting the endowment of the university from being fully carried into effect, but by an order of her Majesty in council, 4th June 1841, it was provided that the office of warden should be permanently annexed to the deanery of Durham; a canonry in the cathedral church was annexed to each of the professorships of divinity and Greek; a professor of mathematics and astronomy, with an increased salary was appointed; provision was made for founding hereafter a professorship of Hebrew and the other Oriental languages; and, in addition to the six fellowships which had previously been established by the dean and chapter, eighteen other fellowships were founded. For providing funds for these purposes, certain estates were assigned to the university immediately; and power was reserved for making a farther endowment at a future period. This power has since been exercised by orders in council, conferring on the university an additional grant in money, and vesting in it certain landed estates formerly belonging to the deanery, or prebendal stalls.

In framing their plans for an efficient academical education, the founders of the university provided, not only for the delivery of able lectures, but also furnished the means of uniting a system of domestic discipline and superintendence with academical instruction. With this view they formed a college within the university, to which they gave the name of "University College," and placed it under the superintendence of the warden as master. The accommodation for students has been subsequently much enlarged by the addition of the Castle of Durham, which is held in trust for the university by the bishop. In pursuance of the same object, and with the special view of placing these advantages within the reach of persons of limited means, two halls have since been opened, "Bishop Hatfield's Hall" in 1846, and "Bishop Cousin's Hall" in 1851; and regulations have been framed for licensing and opening additional halls or houses. The rooms in these halls are let furnished, and the other arrangements are all made on an economical scale. Students in every faculty are received in the halls as well as in the colleges; and with a few exceptions, are eligible to the same endowments. The university thus embraces a college and two halls. Every student must reside in his college or hall, unless a dispensation to reside elsewhere has been granted by the warden.

The university consists of the visitor, governors, a warden or constitutional principal, a professor of divinity and ecclesiastical history, a professor of Greek and classical literature, a professor of mathematics and astronomy, two proctors, tutors, and readers in law, medicine, Hebrew, history and polite literature, natural philosophy, chemistry, registrar and librarian; with the graduates and scholars. The warden and the professors of divinity and Greek are appointed by the Bishop of Durham; the professor of mathematics and astronomy, and the other officers, are nominated by the dean and chapter. The business of the university is conducted by the warden and the Senate, and the Convocation. The Senate, which consists of the warden, the professors of divinity, Greek, and mathematics, the two proctors, and three other members of Convocation, transacts the ordinary business, and has the power to originate regulations and other measures relating to it, but such regulations and measures are not valid till they are confirmed by the convocation. The convocation, which, besides the survivors of a certain number of doctors and masters in the faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts, from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, appointed on the first establishment of the university, consists of all persons regularly admitted, since the opening of the university, to the degrees of doctor in divinity, the civil law, and medicine, and to the degree of master of arts, confirms or rejects any measures which are submitted to it by the senate, but has not the power to originate or amend.

By the regulations of the university, provision has been made for a regular course of general education similar to that which is study.

given at Oxford and Cambridge; and also for a course of theological study. The qualifications of the students are ascertained by examination, before admission, in the rudiments of the Christian religion, in the Greek and Latin languages, and in arithmetic and the elements of mathematics, the warden having, in special cases, a dispensing power of admission in the case of failure; and their proficiency during the continuance of the course is tested by public examinations held annually, particularly at the end of the third year for the degree of bachelor of arts, and at the end of the fourth year for the degree of master. In 1837, an important extension of the benefits of the university was made by the establishment of a course of instruction for students in mining and civil engineering, suggested by the extensive public works in the neighbourhood. The students in this department must pass an examination, on admission, in the Latin language, or in some modern foreign language approved by the senate, in arithmetic, and the elements of mathematics. The full course of study for mining students extends over three academical years at least, and for engineer students over four academical years at least, of which, in both cases, three terms at least must be kept in the university; and includes the several subjects which relate to the theory and practice of mining and civil engineering. The students during their course are subjected to two examinations; and if these are passed satisfactorily, are admitted, by grace of the university, to the academical rank of mining engineer or civil engineer. With the view of giving additional facilities for students in medicine, regulations were made in 1852, by which it is provided that such students, if they reside three terms at Durham, may pursue the remainder of their studies, either there or in some school in connection with the university. In conformity with these resolutions, the Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine was received into connection with the university, and degrees in medicine are now conferred. The regular course of academical and theological instruction is confined to the members of the university, and is conducted by the professors and tutors, who give lectures daily.

There are twenty-four university fellowships, of which eight may be held by laymen. The ten senior fellowships are of the annual value of £1,150, and the others of £1,120. They are filled up by the warden, the members of the Senate, and the four senior fellows who are resident, and are vacated by marriage, or by holding preferment, office, or property, real or personal, producing £300 a year or upwards. There are also twenty university scholarships of the annual value of £30 each, besides ten others founded by private benefactors, of nearly the same value; and four medical scholarships of £25 a year. Prizes of various kinds are given for the encouragement of merit. Public lectures on various branches of literature and science are also delivered from time to time, which are open, under certain regulations, to persons who are not members of the university.

Degrees are conferred by the warden and convocation, but every grace for a degree must be allowed by the dean and chapter before it is proposed in convocation. The academical year consists of three terms, of not less than eight weeks each, called Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. Michaelmas term commences not earlier than the 10th of October, and Easter term ends not later than the 30th June. No religious test is exacted till a student proceeds to his degree. For the terms and exercises requisite for proceeding to the different degrees, and for the university and college expenses, see Durham University Calendar for 1859.

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, Scotland contained no academical institution in which the higher branches of knowledge were taught. The Scottish youth who wished to obtain a more liberal education than the seminaries of the country afforded, were under the necessity of seeking it in distant universities; in some of which colleges were early endowed for their reception. Soon after the middle of the thirteenth century, Dervorguilla, daughter of Alan, Earl of Galloway, and mother of John Balliol, king of Scotland, founded and endowed a college at Oxford for Scottish students; and, in 1326, the Scottish College in the University of Paris was founded and endowed for a similar purpose by David Murray, bishop of Moray. The inconvenience and risk attending the removal of the youth to foreign schools were long felt; and the discerning part of the community were not insensible of the great advantages

which the country would derive from the establishment of an institution within its own limits, where the higher branches of education, in science, philosophy, and theology might be obtained. One of the men who cherished these sentiments was Henry Wardlaw, bishop of St Andrews, who adopted measures to remedy the evil. Having ascertained that his sovereign James I., at that time a prisoner in England, approved of his scheme, he resolved, with the consent and approbation of the Estates of the kingdom, to erect a general study in the ecclesiastical metropolis. The Foundation lectures were begun in 1411; and the bishop, with the concurrence of the Prior of St Andrews and the Archdeacon of Lothian, immediately granted to the masters and students the privileges belonging to a university. Benedict XII. issued a bull of confirmation on the 28th of August 1413, instituting a studium generale, or university, for instruction in theology, the canon and the civil law, medicine, and the liberal arts; and conveying to the bishop the power of conferring degrees in these faculties, thereby investing him with the power and dignity of chancellor. The pope on the same day signed five other bulls, securing the rights and privileges of the university, which were ratified by James I. in 1432. The king at the same time granted to the members of the university exemption from all the exigible tributes of his kingdom; an immunity which was confirmed by four of his successors on the throne.

The university was formed on the model of those of Constit. Paris and Bologna. The members, or supposts, as they were called, were divided into four nations, those of Fife, Angus, Lothian, and Albany, the last including all students who did not belong to any of the other three districts. The supposts, at a congregation or general meeting, elected annually four procurators to watch over their interests, and four entrants, or electors, by whom the rector was chosen. The government was vested in the rector, of whom it was required, as a necessary qualification, that he should be a graduate in one of the faculties, and should also be in holy orders. The university was represented in the rectorial court by twelve assessors, three selected from each nation. With the advice and consent of his assessors, the rector possessed supreme judicial power in all causes, civil and criminal, relating to members of the university, with the exception of crimes which inferred the highest punishment. As in other cases which have already been mentioned, the privileges and powers possessed by the university excited the jealousy of the magistrates of the city; till a concordat was entered into by the contending parties, by which their respective jurisdictions were defined and adjusted. The members of the university were divided into faculties, at the head of each of which was a dean, who presided at the meetings of the masters for regulating the course of study, for examinations, and the conferring of degrees. The university was well supplied with teachers even at its commencement. Before the papal bulls were issued, it included a professor of divinity, four lecturers on the canon law, and three who taught the arts or philosophy. The revenues of the institution were at first extremely limited, and for some time consisted chiefly of small sums received from the students at their admission and graduation; but the persons appointed to conduct the different departments of study generally enjoyed endowments from other sources. During the first twenty years of its existence, great inconvenience was suffered from the want of public buildings; and the schools were held in the different religious houses, which in consequence claimed to be considered as constituent parts of the university. In 1430 a Padagogium was erected for the schools of the faculty of arts, and for chambers for the students of that faculty; while the studies of the faculties of theology and law continued to be conducted in other buildings. The congregations of the university were held for at least 130 years in the Augustinian priory.

St Andrews. The university was liberally patronised by James I. after his return from his long captivity in England; and being conducted by an active and devoted priesthood, it soon acquired the confidence and respect of the country, and attracted students from all parts of the kingdom. To provide more effectually for their instruction, James Kennedy, the successor of Wardlaw in the see of St Andrews, established in 1450 the College of St Salvador, which was sanctioned by Pope Nicholas V. about the year 1455, and in favour of which new grants were made by the same prelate, and by Pope Pius II. in 1458. The college was to consist of thirteen persons, all of whom were to live within its walls; a prepositus or provost, who was to be a doctor of divinity; a licentiate and a bachelor of the same faculty; four masters of arts; and six poor scholars. The provost was required to lecture in theology once a week, the licentiate twice, and the bachelor every readable day; the duty of preaching at stated times to the people being also imposed on the two former. Two of the masters of arts were to be annually chosen as regents, the one to teach logic, and the other physics and metaphysics, according to the method of the schools and the statutes of the university. The masters of arts and poor scholars were to be elected by the provost, licentiate, and bachelor. The benevolent founder granted as an endowment the rectorial tithes of four adjoining parishes, constituting the three principal masters of the college rectors of three of them, and reserving the fruits of the fourth as a common fund for the maintenance and support of all members of the foundation, together with their attendants and servants. About the year 1468, Pope Paul II., in consideration of the rising reputation of the college, honoured it with the privilege of conferring degrees in theology and the arts; thereby constituting it a separate university, though with limited powers.

St Leonard's College. In 1512, John Hepburn, prior of the Augustinian monastery, and Alexander Stewart, archbishop of St Andrews, founded the College of St Leonard, which was in the same year confirmed by a royal charter from James IV., accompanied, as in the case of the university and the College of St Salvador, with an exemption to its members and property from all national imposts. The prior granted to this new erection the revenues of the hospital of St Andrews, for the support of the principal master; four chaplains, two of whom were to be regents; six graduates in arts, who were to be diligent students of theology; and twenty scholars, students of philosophy. The principal, who was to be nominated by the prior from the canons of the chapter, was constituted professor of divinity, and was invested with absolute jurisdiction over all the members of the college. In conjunction with the prior, he was to appoint the regents; and candidates for the scholarships, after satisfactory examination by him, certified to the prior, were nominated by the latter, who was enjoined to be influenced in the disposal of his patronage by merit alone, and not by individual solicitation. As in the case of St Salvador's, all the members were to live within the walls of the college, and were bound to conform to certain regulations as to dress, amusements, and general conduct. Delinquencies were to be severely punished; and the power of visiting the college and reforming its abuses was retained by the prior and the chapter of the convent.

St Mary's College. Notwithstanding the superior advantages of the two endowed colleges, there were still in the university professors and students who belonged to neither, and who continued to frequent the Pedagogium, although they were supported by but slender funds. The disadvantages to which they were subjected in their competition with the rival colleges induced Archbishop Alexander Stewart to make preparations for giving to the pedagogium a colle-

giate form, which were frustrated by his premature death on the field of Flodden. The design was resumed by his successor, James Beaton, who, in 1537, founded St Mary's College, or, as it was sometimes called, the New College and in the same year procured for it the confirmation of Paul III. It was founded for all the faculties; and by its charter of erection obtained the power of conferring degrees, thus forming a third independent university. But the college was not finally erected till 1554, when Archbishop Hamilton, under the authority of a papal bull, obtained in the year preceding, extended its constitution, and endowed it with the tithes of six parishes. It was to consist of thirty-six persons; a prefect or principal, who was to be a doctor or licentiate in divinity, and who was to have jurisdiction over all members on the foundation; two professors of divinity, the one a licentiate and the other a bachelor; a professor of the canon law, who was to be in priest's orders; eight students of divinity, whose appointments were tenable for six years, and who, besides attending regularly the lectures of the professors, were themselves required to lecture; three professors or regents of philosophy, who were to teach logic, ethics, physics, mathematics, and the other liberal arts; a professor of rhetoric and one of grammar, who were to be masters of arts; sixteen poor scholars, students of philosophy, who were to be well acquainted with grammar and Latin; a provisor, a janitor, and a cook. The defence and propagation of the Catholic faith being the declared object of the erection of this as well as the other colleges, the principal and professors had certain extra-academical duties assigned to them. The principal was required to lecture on the sacred Scriptures every Monday, the licentiate five times a week, and the canonist to deliver the same number of lectures on the canon law. Appropriate duties were assigned to the other members. The rector of the university, with the principal of St Salvador's College, and some of the highest ecclesiastics of the city, were to elect the principal and the professors of divinity and of the canon law; and they again were to fill up all other vacancies as they occurred in the college. The rector was empowered to visit the college annually, and to see that discipline was duly enforced. The college was to be exempted from all public burdens. All vacations were to be disallowed, and absentees for a month in the year, without permission from the principal, were to forfeit their appointments. Nothing, probably, is more remarkable in the establishment of the colleges of St Andrews, than the success of the founders in obtaining for them the most celebrated teachers. Men who had distinguished themselves in the foreign universities were urgently invited as professors, and appear to have willingly embraced the opportunity to diffuse among their countrymen the learning which they had themselves acquired elsewhere.

The constitutions of the university and the three colleges remained unaltered till the Reformation, with the exception of the appointment of a professor of humanity in each of the colleges of St Salvador and St Leonard, answering to the grammaticus in St Mary's. During the agitation of the great and vital religious controversy, the academical exercises were interrupted; and in the year 1559 the faculty of arts were under the necessity of discontinuing the public exhibitions usual at graduation. Immediately after the establishment of the Reformation, the laws and practice of the university were accommodated to the change which had taken place in the religious establishment of the country; but the mode of teaching, and the academical exercises, so far as related to philosophy and the arts, continued nearly on their former footing. The students who entered Course of a college at the same time formed a class, and were placed under study. The superintendence and tuition of a regent, by whom their studies were conducted during the whole course. The regular period of the course was four years, but it was more usually finished in three years and a half. The session commenced on the 1st of October, and continued till the end of July, the months of August and September being allowed as a vacation. The regent assembled his

¹ So early as the days of Augustin, the month of September, as the season of the vintage, appears to have been allowed as a vacation in schools. Valestiana, p. 65, as quoted by Dr McCrie, Life of Melville, I. 244.

St Andrews. class three hours every day, and read and explained to them the books of Aristotle, beginning with dialectics or logic, then advancing to ethics, next to physics, and concluding with metaphysics, which was considered the highest branch of philosophy, and mathematics, which included arithmetic. During their course the students were frequently exercised in disputations and declamations, both privately in their class and publicly before the college and university. The principal frequently read lectures on the higher branches of philosophy, which were attended by all the students of the college.

Degree. In the middle of the third year, the students who obtained from their regent and the principal of their college an attestation of regular attendance and good conduct, were allowed to propose themselves as candidates for the degree of bachelor. In the presence of three regents, annually selected from each college as examiners, the candidates determined a question in logic or morals, and answered such questions as were proposed to them on any of the branches of study with which they had been occupied. Those who acquitted themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners were confirmed bachelors by the dean, the rest were sent to a lower class. A similar form was observed in the act of laureation at the end of the course; except that, on this occasion, the candidates were examined on the whole circle of the arts, and were required to defend a thesis which had been previously affixed to the gates of the different colleges. They were then divided into classes, and their names arranged according to merit, with a certain preference to persons of rank. When the examinations were concluded, the degree of master of arts was solemnly conferred by the chancellor, in nomine Patris, Filii et Spiritus Sancti. Certain fees were paid by the graduates, according to their rank, to the purser of the university and of the faculty, to the dean, and to other officers. Small annual fees seem originally to have been paid by the students to their regents.

Course of study. Soon after the establishment of the Reformation, the leaders of that great revolution proposed a scheme for new-modelling the universities, which, though not adopted by the Legislature, will remain a lasting monument of the enlightened and patriotic views of its compilers.¹ After several other ineffectual attempts, a commission was appointed in 1579, on the petition of the General Assembly, with full powers to consider the foundations in the University of St Andrews, to alter the constitution and form of study, and to introduce such improvements as might appear necessary. The commissioners, finding that all the colleges had departed from their original foundations, agreed upon a new course of instruction, which was laid before the ensuing meeting of Parliament, and ratified on the 11th of November 1579. St Salvator's College was to consist of a principal, and four professors or regents of humanity and philosophy. The first regent was to teach the Greek grammar, and to exercise the students in Latin composition during the first, and in Greek during the second half-year. The second regent, who was also considered as professor of humanity, was to teach the principles of rhetoric, and the practice of it as exemplified in the best Greek and Latin authors. This class was to spend an hour at least every day in composition; and during the last half-year, the students were to declaim once a month in Greek and Latin alternately. It was the duty of the third regent to teach, in the original language, part of the Logic of Aristotle, with the Ethics and Politics; and the Offices of Cicero in Latin. The fourth regent was to teach the necessary parts of the Physics, and the doctrine of the Sphere. Each regent was confined to his own department. Professors of mathematics and law were also established, who were to lecture at least four times every week; and the principal of the college was to act as professor of medicine. Similar arrangements were made in St Leonard's College; with this difference, that no classes of mathematics and law were established in it, and the principal was to lecture on the philosophy of Plato. St Mary's College was appropriated solely to the study of theology, and the languages connected with it. The course of study was to be completed in four years, under the instruction of a principal and four professors, each of the professors having under his care only the students of one year. It embraced, in the first year, the elements of Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac; during the next eighteen months, the same languages, with critical explanations of the Pentateuch and historical books of the Old Testament; and during the remaining eighteen months, the prophetic books were examined in the same manner. During the whole four years, the

fourth professor was to explain the New Testament, by comparing the original with the Syrian version, and the principal was to lecture on systematic divinity. The students were required to attend the lectures of three professors every day during the continuance of their theological course. Such was the form of instruction drawn up by Melville and recommended by Buchanan, which has been well characterized by Dr McCrie as "the most liberal and enlightened plan of study which had yet been established in any European university." This destination of the colleges continued till 1621, when, by an act of the Legislature, their original constitutions were restored, "in all their heads, articles, and clauses," so far as was consistent with the reformed religion, with the single exception that St Mary's should be confined to the faculty of divinity. Professorships of mathematics and medicine were instituted in 1668 and 1721. We have not the means of ascertaining the precise number of students who belonged to the university at one time. In ordinary cases it appears not to have exceeded 200, and it did not fall much short of that number during the latter half of the sixteenth century. Fewer had attended it during the first half, and still fewer previously to that period.

The three colleges continued without further alteration till the Union of year 1747, when, in consequence of the inadequacy of the provision St Salvator's for the principals and professors of the two colleges of philosophy, tor's and a union of them was effected by parliamentary enactment, which St Leonard's enabled them to consolidate their endowments, and to make provision for a more extended course of instruction. By this statute the United College of St Salvator and St Leonard was to consist of a principal, a professor of Greek, three professors of philosophy, professors of humanity, civil history, mathematics, and medicine, and sixteen bursars on the original foundations. The same statute regulates the patronage of the professorships and bursaries, and makes provision for the disposal of the funds of the college.

In the present position of the Scottish universities (September 1860), it is impossible to offer a complete account of the constitution of any one of them. A feeling had long prevailed that they were failing to supply the increasing demands of the intelligence of the day, and that some improvement in their constitution, as well as additional means of obtaining instruction in the more modern departments of literature and science, were imperatively required. The system of instruction pursued in them, though well suited to the wants of the community a century ago, had ceased to meet the requirements of the present age. In consequence of this a royal commission for visiting the Scottish universities was appointed in 1826, which, after an extensive and minute inquiry, issued in 1831 an elaborate report containing many valuable suggestions for their improvement. In this able document a separate constitution was sketched out for each; and additional professorships suggested where these were deemed necessary. But public expectation was excited only to be disappointed. Not a single suggestion contained in the report was carried into effect; and with the exception of the institution of a few chairs, chiefly medical, in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Marischal College, Aberdeen, the universities have, till the present year, remained in the same condition. Meanwhile, the demand for renovation continued to gather strength, and being increased by the improvements so happily effected in Oxford and Act of Cambridge, at last induced the government to take up the question; 1858. and accordingly, in 1858, an act was passed "to make provision for the better government and discipline of the universities of Scotland, and improving and regulating the course of study therein; and for the union of the two universities and colleges of Aberdeen."

The act appoints twelve noblemen and gentlemen as commissioners, with ample powers to carry its provisions into effect; and these are at present occupied in preparing and issuing ordinances to regulate the proceedings of each university separately. In all the universities the act has come into operation, but in none of them have the necessary details been arranged. One object of the act is to introduce a uniform system of government and instruction in all the universities, and accordingly the same constitution is provided for all. In each there are three governing bodies, namely, the Senatus Academicus,² the University Court, and the General Council; and the chief officers are the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, and the rector.

The Senatus Academicus consists of the principal³ and professors, Senatus possesses and exercises the powers previously belonging to it in so Academicus.

¹ See First Book of Discipline, "Of the Erection of Universities."

² This designation was applied to the meetings of the governing body of the Scottish universities at an early period. It was assumed by the meetings of the rector and dean of faculty, with the principal, professors and regents of the university of Glasgow, as early as the year 1621, and perhaps earlier.

³ By the act of 1858, laymen are rendered admissible to the offices of principal in the universities of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh, this having previously been the case in the United College, St Andrews, and in Marischal College, Aberdeen. The office is no

St Andrews. far as these are not altered by the act, superintends and regulates the teaching and discipline of the university, and administers its property and revenues, subject to the control and review of the University Court. The principal is president, and has both a deliberative and a casting vote. One third of the senatus form a quorum.

University Court. The University Court consists of the rector, principal, and assessors nominated by the chancellor, rector, General Council, and Senatus Academicus respectively. The rector is president, with a deliberative and a casting vote. The rector and the assessor nominated by him continue in office for three years, and the other assessors for four years; and no principal or professor of any university is eligible to the office of rector or assessor, except in the case of the assessor elected by the Senatus Academicus. The following are the powers vested in the University Court:—

Powers of University Court. 1. To review all decisions of the Senatus Academicus, except as otherwise expressly regulated. 2. To improve the internal arrangements of the university, after due communication with the senatus, and with the sanction of the chancellor; all proposed improvements to be submitted to the University Council for consideration. 3. To require the professors to attend to their duties. 4. To fix and regulate the fees payable in the several classes. 5. Upon sufficient cause shown, and after due investigation, to censure a principal or professor, or to suspend him in whole or in part from office and emoluments for not longer than one year, or to require him to retire on an allowance, or to deprive him of office, and provide for the interim teaching of his class; no such sentence to have effect till approved by the queen in council. 6. To inquire into and control the pecuniary affairs of the university, including funds mortified for bursaries and other purposes. The patronage of all professorships at present vested in the senatus, or in any member or officer thereof, is transferred to the University Court. During the subsistence of the commission, the powers of the University Court are to be exercised in subordination thereto; but after the expiry of the commission, any of the rules, statutes, and ordinances, framed and passed by the commissioners, may be altered or revoked by the University Court, with the written consent of the chancellor, and the approval of the queen in council.

General Council. The General Council consists of the chancellor, the members of the University Court, the professors, all masters of arts of the university, all doctors of medicine of the university who have, as matriculated students, attended classes in any of the faculties for four complete sessions, and all persons who, within three years after the passing of the act, shall have proved to the commissioners that they have attended the university for four complete sessions, or for three complete sessions and some other Scottish university for one session, provided that during two of these sessions they have studied in the faculty of arts. No person can be a member of the council till twenty-one years of age, nor so long as he is an enrolled student in any class in the university. Each member must also register his name in a book kept for that purpose, and pay a small annual fee fixed by the commissioners. The council meets twice a year towards the commencement and before the close of each session, on such days as are fixed by the commissioners, subject thereafter to alteration by the council, with the approval of the University Court. The council has the power to suspend its proceedings from one hour to a later hour of the same day, but not from either of the stated annual days to a future day. The chancellor, whom failing, the rector, or principal, or senior professor, presides, with a deliberative and a casting vote. The council elects the chancellor and an assessor to the University Court, has the power to consider all questions affecting the prosperity of the university, and to make representations on such questions to the University Court, who are required to consider the same, and return to the council their deliberation thereon; but possesses no legislative power.

Chancellor. The chancellor is elected by the members of the General Council, and holds the office for life. He is the fountain of honour, and all degrees proceed from him. In the election of chancellor or of assessor by the General Council, where more than one person is nominated for the same office, it is the duty of the president of the meeting, by means of a show of hands, to ascertain and declare which of the persons nominated has a majority of votes; and if no poll is demanded, the president declares such person to be duly elected. If a poll is demanded, a poll is taken by means of schedules transmitted through the post, to all the members, which are to be signed and returned to the registrar within twenty-one days after the day of meeting.

Vice-chancellor. The vice-chancellor is appointed by the chancellor, and, in his absence, may discharge his office in so far as regards the conferring of degrees, but in no other respect.

The rector is elected by the votes of the matriculated students, and continues in office for three years. He is the ordinary president of the University Court, in which he has a deliberative and a casting vote.

The act likewise provides assistants for the professors of Latin, Greek, mathematics, and natural philosophy, to aid them in more efficiently conducting their classes. The question as to the superiority of the tutorial system, as it exists in Oxford and Cambridge, or of the professorial system, as followed in the German universities and in Scotland, has been often agitated; and the opinion is now becoming prevalent, that a combination of both is greatly to be preferred to either singly. This is not the place for adducing arguments; but it may be safely affirmed that, for students reared as the great majority of those who attend the Scottish universities are, something more than the lectures of the professors is necessary to enable them to advance satisfactorily in their studies. This acknowledged defect has now been supplied; and the blame will attach to the professors, if the introduction of the tutorial system does not prove to be the greatest advance which has yet been made in university education in Scotland. The professors must not be relieved of any portion of their public duties,—the whole class must attend their lectures as formerly,—while the assistants should be employed in giving additional instructions to those students whose previous preparation is defective, and in taking part in the drudgery of correcting exercises; the least interesting of a professor's duties, but one without which no system of lecturing can be made effective.

The University of St Andrews consists of a chancellor, rector, two principals, and twelve professors and students. The University Court consists of the rector, the senior principal, an assessor nominated by the chancellor, an assessor nominated by the rector, an assessor elected by the General Council, and an assessor elected by the Senatus Academicus, with four as a quorum. The rector is elected by a general poll of all the matriculated students. The meetings of the General Council are held on the last Thursday of March and the last Thursday of November. The Senatus Academicus consists of the two principals and twelve professors; the senior principal being president, and having both a deliberative and a casting vote. The length of the session, course of study, class fees, revenues, bursaries, &c., are at present under the consideration of the Universities Commissioners.

The Dean of the Faculty of Arts is chosen annually by the Dean. members of the faculty, who are the principal and professors of the United College. He presides in the meetings of the faculty, and communicates with the senatus respecting applications for degrees.

In the original charters of all the Scottish universities, the four Faculties, Faculties of Arts, Laws, Medicine, and Divinity, are either expressly enumerated, or, as is the case with Glasgow, are implied in the expression quasi alia licita facultate; and in all of them, with the exception of St Andrews, is instruction given in these faculties. Here there are professors of medicine and chemistry, but there is no medical school; and there is no representative of the faculty of laws. The only faculties therefore which are in operation, are the faculty of arts in the one college, and that of divinity in the other.

The curriculum of arts extends over four sessions, and includes Curricula-attendance on the classes of Latin, Greek, mathematics, logic (in- lum of cluding rhetoric and metaphysics), moral philosophy and political arts. economy, and natural philosophy.

In the United College the session or annual term of attendance Session. for the Latin and Greek classes begins at present on or about the 20th of October; for the other classes, on the first Thursday of November; and closes on the last Friday of April. In St Mary's College it commences about the end of November, and terminates in the beginning of April.

The revenue of the university, as distinct from the colleges, is Revenue. small; and the endowments of the colleges have been much curtailed by the augmentations of the stipends of those parishes the tithes of which were granted to them by the original founders. The revenue of the United College is derived partly from the funds of the original foundations, from the donations of private individuals, and from property purchased by the college itself. St Mary's College was originally endowed with tithes only, to which additions were made by James VI. and William III. Both colleges receive an annual grant from Parliament.

There are 57 bursaries connected with the United College, vary- Bursaries ing in value from about £30 to £5. Of these, 25 are open to public competition; the others are in the gift of private patrons or public bodies. There is also a Ramsay fellowship of the value of from £100 to £120, tenable for four years by a student who

Glasgow. has completed his curriculum in arts. The aggregate annual value of the funds is about £800. In addition to the bursaries, five valuable prizes of £25, £20, £15, £14, and £10, are assigned by public competition at the end of each session. In St Mary's College there are 12 divinity bursaries in the gift of the college, of the average aggregate value of £160, which are awarded by public competition, besides 3 which are in the gift of private patrons; and 4 of the aggregate annual value of £90, which are administered by the Presbytery of Perth.

The number of matriculated students in 1859-60 was, in arts, 110, and in divinity, 35. The number of graduates was 102; namely, in arts, 9 (A.M. 6; A.B. 3); in divinity, 0; in laws, 0; in medicine, 93.

Discipline. As none of the students live within the college walls, the discipline in the Scottish universities is limited chiefly to the class-room. Delinquents are punished by admonition or fine; and on a repetition of the offence, or when the offence is of a grave character, are brought before the Senatus Academicus, which possesses the power of rustrication and expulsion. Regular attendance on the classes is strictly enforced, and various means are used to stimulate the industry of the students. At the close of the session prizes are awarded to those who are most distinguished in their respective classes. The students in arts wear a particular dress, which varies with the rank of the wearer, according as he is a priscus, secundus, or tertius. The students of both colleges are required to attend divine worship in the college church, except such as obtain dispensations from the principals and professors.

The following table contains the several professorships, with the patronage.

United College.

St Mary's College.

UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.

Foundation. In the year 1450, Pope Nicholas V., at the solicitation of William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow, issued a bull establishing a Studium Generale or University, "for theology, the canon and the civil law, the arts, and every other lawful faculty," in the city of Glasgow; and granting to it all the rights and privileges belonging to the University of Bologna. The Archbishop of Glasgow was constituted chancellor, with the same authority as was possessed by the heads of the Italian university, and particularly with the power of conferring degrees and licenses on candidates duly examined.

History. No mention is made of medicine, as in the original erection of the University of St Andrews; but it is implied in the expression, "quavis alia licita facultate." In the following year a body of statutes for its government was prepared by the bishop and his chapter, which, with the papal bull, was confirmed in 1453 by a royal charter from James II. The king likewise exempted the members from taxes and all civic burdens; and in the same year various privileges were conferred by the bishop, similar to those granted by Bishop Wardlaw to the University of St Andrews.

In the original constitution of the university, that of Bologna seems to have been imitated as far as circumstances would permit. It consisted of a chancellor, rector, deans of faculties, procurators, regents, masters, and scholars; and was placed by the bishops beyond the control of the

civil magistrates. The supreme power was vested in the scholars who had been matriculated, and whose names remained on the album; and these, in their comitia or congregations, enacted, amended, or repealed the statutes. The supposts, or members of the university, were distributed into four nations, each having a procurator, elected annually from its own number, who was invested with considerable trust and power. The supposts, assembled in comitia, also elected the rector through the medium of intrants as at St Andrews, and at the same time chose four deputies to form the rectorial council. The rector, acting with the advice of his council, exercised supreme judicial and executive power over all the members of the university: he was invested with jurisdiction in all minor civil cases in which supposts were concerned; graver offences were specially reserved for the decision of the bishop himself. Permission was given to the supposts to bring their causes either before the rector or the bishop, and liberty of appeal to the latter was allowed to any one who thought himself aggrieved by the sentence of the former. In 1461 an ecclesiastical jurisdiction was conceded to the rector; and such a concession implies that this officer was necessarily a person in holy orders. All houses and lodgings for the supposts within the city were subjected to regulations similar to those established by Gregory IX. in the University of Paris. The magistrates and other officers of the city took a yearly oath to observe and defend the privileges and liberties of the university.

This university, at its first erection, was entirely unendowed, and for a considerable time possessed no funds, with the exception of small perquisites paid at promotions to degrees. Its meetings were held in the chapter-house of the Blackfriars, or in the cathedral; and the teachers were furnished with schools in the religious houses. In 1458, the faculty of arts commenced building a Padagogium, at the expense of their common purse; but this design was superseded by the liberality of the first Lord Hamilton, who, in the following year, conveyed to the principal and the other regents of the faculty, for their use and accommodation, a tenement in the High Street, together with four acres of land. The donor required that the principal and regents should, on their admission to office, promise on oath to commemorate himself and his wife as the founders of the college. The annals of the university furnish scarcely any information respecting the means of instruction which it provided, and the mode in which that instruction was conveyed. In the higher faculties, the teaching seems to have been confined to occasional lectures. More attention appears to have been paid to the inferior branches of science. The records mention the admission of a regent of philosophy within two years after the erection of the university. It may readily be assumed that the want of salaries to the professors was the principal reason why the higher branches of knowledge were neglected; and even the instruction which the university diffused was furnished by men who derived their emoluments from other sources. The professors of divinity, and of the canon and the civil law, depended for their support on the benefices which they held as ecclesiastics in various parts of the country.

By Lord Hamilton's deed of bequest, the faculty of arts College obtained the nucleus of the college property; but it is not quite clear that the name of a college was then, for the first time, conferred upon it. Two sets of records are preserved, commencing with the origin of the university, one volume of which is entitled "Annales Collegii Facultatis Artium in Universitate Glasguensi;" and if this title was prefixed to it so early as 1451, the college must have existed before the charter of Lord Hamilton. It is not, however, till 1462 that express mention is made of the Collegium Facultatis Artium; and it may be questioned if even at that time the college was co-extensive with the faculty, and not rather a

Glasgow. select body, which assumed the government of the whole faculty, like the colleges of faculties at Bologna. The exact imitation of all the customs of Bologna makes the latter supposition probable. It is at least clear that at this early period the term "college" had no reference to a building for common habitation or common maintenance.

The university remained in this state for about a hundred years, during which time it appears, from the language of certain grants, that the university and the college of the faculty of arts were frequently confounded. In the year 1557, two years before the Reformation, James Beaton, archbishop of Glasgow, conveyed to the Padagogium, or university, and to the masters and regents in the same, an ecclesiastical benefice, which, from the accompanying restrictions, was clearly intended for the benefit of the whole university. Similar instances might be adduced. At what precise period the two terms ceased to be used synonymously, and the existence of a separate college to be recognised, does not appear.

From its peculiar constitution, the University of Glasgow necessarily suffered more from the change of religion at the Reformation than the other learned seminaries of Scotland. The professors in the higher branches being all supported by their livings in the church, and adhering to the old religion, successors could not be appointed to them, owing to the total want of salaries. It likewise suffered materially from the fraudulent alienation and unjust seizure of its slender revenues. This evil was in some degree remedied in 1563 by Queen Mary, who granted certain houses and lands for the benefit of the college or university, and specially for the maintenance of five bursars. In 1572 the magistrates of Glasgow granted a charter, which was confirmed by act of Parliament, conveying to the college certain church property for the support of a professor of divinity, who was to be principal or provost, two regents of philosophy, and twelve poor students. The whole founded persons were to eat and sleep within the college, and they and all students were required to sign the Confession of Faith. It might be supposed that these gifts would have been sufficient to place the college on a respectable footing; but it appears that even then the whole funds did not exceed £300 Scots, or £25 sterling.

Five years afterwards, James VI., by the advice of the Regent Morton, new-modelled the constitution, and made a very considerable addition to the revenue. The charter then granted forms the basis of the present constitution, and is known by the name of Nova Erectio. According to it, the college was to consist of a principal and three regents, to each of whom certain salaries were assigned, four poor students, and servants. The principal, who was to have the ordinary jurisdiction over the members of the college, and to reside there constantly, was to be a proficient in sacred learning, and was required to lecture at least one hour a day for five days in the week. He was to be nominated by the crown; and, failing an appointment by the crown within thirty days, the election devolved upon the chancellor, rector, dean of faculty, and five clergymen, including the minister of Glasgow. The regents were to be elected by the rector, dean, and principal, and were appointed each to a particular department of learning—a principle which had never before been adopted in Scotland, and was afterwards abandoned even in Glasgow,—instead of conducting the students through all the branches of instruction included in the course. The electors were invested with a visitatorial power over the regents, and might remove them; and, on the other hand, the rector, the dean of faculty, and the regents, might visit and admonish the principal. The principal, if negligent after three admonitions, was removable by the rector, dean, and regents. The rector, dean, and minister of Glasgow were to inspect and audit the accounts four times in the year, and to direct the surplus revenue to be applied to the necessary uses of the college. It is obvious that the intention of this charter was to place the college under the effectual superintendence of the university. In 1581, Archbishop Boyd granted to the college an additional endowment

for the support of a fourth regent, who is believed to have been the professor of Greek. About the same time a new body of statutes was framed by royal authority, which has hitherto regulated both the university and college.

The course of instruction prescribed by the Nova Erectio is an Course of additional proof of the enlightened views entertained by the early leaders of the Church of Scotland on the subject of public education; but having already alluded to this subject in connection with the University of St Andrews, our limits will not permit us to give it in detail. It may be sufficient to say, that it embraced every improvement which the learning and experience of Andrew Melville had been able to devise. Small fees, varying with the rank and standing of the students, were to be paid at matriculation to the rector and beadle. New students, as well as those who had attended the former year, were to be examined in the beginning of October; and the examination of candidates for the degree of master of arts was to be held on the third week of August. After due examination, the dean and others were to decide on the qualifications of the several candidates, and to arrange their names according to merit. The examiners were to be the dean, principal, professors, and the master of the grammar-school, all of whom were sworn to be faithful and impartial. Degrees were to be solemnly conferred by the chancellor. Honoraria were to be paid to the regents, according to the rank and fortune of the students. Sons of the nobility and barons of Scotland were to pay annually at least £3; those of the second rank, who, though inferior to the barons, possessed means sufficiently ample, were to pay £2; those of the third rank to pay £1; the poor were to be admitted free of all charge.

The constitution founded on the Nova Erectio has at different times been extended and improved by commissions of visitation. One appointed by the General Assembly in 1639, and renewed in subsequent years, recognised in 1640 a class of humanity, and instituted a separate professorship of divinity. In 1642 another professorship of divinity was established by the university, and distinct departments of study were assigned to the principal and the other two professors of this branch. A professorship of medicine, which had existed for some time, was declared to be unnecessary. By the same commission, strict regulations were made respecting the study of Greek and Latin, the performance of public exercises, and the regularity of attendance. The most material change effected on the constitution of James VI. was this:—"On the understanding that it was a disadvantage to students to change their masters annually, it was required that every master, instead of continuing to teach the same branch, should educate his own scholars through all the four classes;"¹ four years being the curriculum necessary for graduation in arts.

In 1727 a royal visitation made several important regulations, which have ever since remained in force. It declared the right of electing a rector to be in all the matriculated members, moderators, or masters and students; revised the system of teaching introduced by the charter of Nova Erectio; and assigned permanent professors to the three classes of philosophy. The Semi Class was set apart for logic and metaphysics, the Bachelor Class for moral philosophy and natural philosophy, and the Magistral Class for physics and experimental philosophy. Besides the professors of humanity, Greek, and philosophy, the visitation recognised professors of divinity, law, medicine, botany, anatomy, oriental languages, mathematics, and history, requiring them to teach whenever five or more scholars presented themselves. The same commission defined the powers of the faculty meetings, and sanctioned certain privileges which had been assumed by them in contradiction to the statutes, and which by this time had passed into usage. As the meetings of the faculty were composed only of professors, this interpretation tended to give the college greater power of self-government, and to remove it from the control of the officers of the university.

The exclusive rights thus granted to the college were submitted to the Court of Session in the years 1771 and 1772. The court declared that the whole revenue and property of the college belonged to the principal and masters, and were not subject to the control of the rector and his assessors. At the same time it recognised the visitors appointed by the charter of foundation, and their right to audit the college accounts and to dispose of the surplus revenue. The right of election to professorships, which the charter intimated to the rector, dean, and principal, was found to be in the rector, dean, and faculty meeting, or, in other words, in the professors themselves. The distinctive privilege of professors of the University, and of the College of Glasgow, was finally made in 1807, in a lawsuit which arose out of the appointment of

¹ This mode of conducting academical education was long followed in all the universities of Scotland; and, chiefly from the influence of Dr Reid, who gave it a decided preference, continued to prevail at Aberdeen till 1800. (Commissioners' Report, p. 221.)

Glasgow. a regius professor of natural history. The incumbent claimed a right to participate in all the powers and privileges of the faculty, and to be admitted as a member of the college, which was resisted by that body. The Court of Session recognised the rank of the incumbent as a professor in the university, but decreed that he was not a member of the college, and therefore not entitled to share in its property, or to vote in any of its meetings. This decision was acquiesced in by the crown; and, in all subsequent appointments to regius professorships, restrictions have been introduced which were intended to be in conformity with the deliverance of the court. By the act of 1858, the distinction between the two classes of professors has been abolished. All are henceforth to "be deemed to be professors of the university and college," exercising the same rights and functions, but without participating in the income and emoluments already appropriated to existing chairs.

Government of the university. Under the act of 1858, the government of the university is vested in the senatus academicus, the university court, and the general council. The senatus academicus consists of the principal and twenty-two professors; the university court, of the rector, the principal, the dean of faculties, an assessor nominated by the chancellor, an assessor nominated by the rector, an assessor elected by the general council, and an assessor elected by the senatus academicus; with five as a quorum. The restrictions in the elections, and the period of service, are the same as those already mentioned. The general council meets twice a year, on the Friday immediately preceding the 2d of May, and on the Friday immediately preceding the first Tuesday of November.

Election of rector. In the election of the matriculated students vote in four nations: the Natio Glottiana, consisting of all students born within the county of Lanark; the Natio Transforthona, consisting of all students born in any of the counties lying to the north of the Firth of Forth, including Argyll, Stirling, and Dumfries; the Natio Rothesiaca, consisting of all students born in the counties of Bute, Renfrew, and Ayr; the Natio Londoniensis, consisting of the students not included in any of the other nations. In the case of an equal number of nations voting for two or more candidates, the rector is chosen from among the candidates by the chancellor intimating his choice personally, or by letter addressed to the senatus academicus within twenty-one days; and failing such intimation, he is chosen by the principal from among the candidates.

Dean of Faculties. The dean of faculties is elected annually by the senate on the 1st of May; but the same person generally continues in office for two years. The duties of the office, as originally constituted, were to exercise a superintendence over the studies, and, in conjunction with the masters, to judge of the qualifications of applicants for degrees. Along with the rector and the minister of Glasgow, he was called upon to inspect and audit the accounts four times in the year. The rector, dean, and minister of Glasgow, have been relieved of their visitatorial duties by the recent act.

Faculties. In the original deed of foundation, the faculties of theology, the canon and the civil law and arts, are expressly enumerated; and medicine and music, though not specified, are implied in the clause quavis aia licita facultate. Soon after the erection of the university, some efforts were made to teach the canon and the civil law, and professors of theology are occasionally mentioned; but till the Reformation there seems to have been no regular course of instruction, except in the faculty of arts. The university now contains four faculties: those of arts, divinity, laws, and medicine. The faculty of laws is confined to the single professor of the civil law; the other faculties have the usual complement of professors. The curriculum of arts extends over four sessions, and comprises the classes of Latin, Greek, logic and rhetoric, mathematics, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy. The session at present opens on the first Monday of November, and closes on the last day of April.

Revenue. The revenues of the university and college, which are very considerable, are derived from estates, tithes, and bequests; and, with some unimportant exceptions, are administered by the principal and professors. The university also receives a grant from parliament.

Bursaries. Connected with the university are 38 foundations for bursaries, the benefits of which extend to about 81 students. Of these bursaries 55 belong to the faculty of arts, 23 to that of divinity, 2 to medicine, and 1 to laws, and are tenable for from two to six years. They are nearly all in the gift of private patrons or public bodies. Their aggregate annual value is £1,480; the highest being £1,100, and the lowest £5. Besides the bursaries, the principal and professors possess the right of nominating students, natives of Scotland, who have attended two sessions in the University of Glasgow, or one session there, and two in some other Scottish university, to ten exhibitions in Balliol College, Oxford, founded by John Snell, Esq. in 1677. The election is vested in the Master and Fellows of Balliol College. Two of these are hereafter to be filled up annually by an examination held at Glasgow. They are of the annual value of £116, 10s. each, and are tenable for five years.

The number of matriculated students during the session 1859-60 was 1127. The number who graduated in 1859 was 62; namely, in arts, 23 (A.M. 8; A.B. 15); divinity, 1; laws, 5; medicine, 30; masters in surgery, 3. The students in arts wear an academical dress.

The following table contains a list of the professorships, with the date of foundation and the patronage:—

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.

Another proof of the great impulse which had been given to education in Scotland during the fifteenth century is the foundation.

furnished by the institution of a third university towards its close. William Elphinstone, one of the most eminent and enlightened prelates of his time, who was consecrated bishop of Aberdeen in 1487, prevailed upon his patron James IV. to solicit from the pope the erection of a university in Old Aberdeen, for the purpose of extending the advantages of education to the northern districts of his kingdom. The University of Aberdeen was accordingly founded in 1494, by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., issued on the representation of James IV. The papal edict authorised the erection of a studium generale et universitas studii generalis, in the city of Old Aberdeen, for teaching divinity, the canon and the civil law, medicine, and the liberal arts; and conferred upon it all the privileges and immunities which were enjoyed by the Universities of Paris and Bologna. The university was to consist of a chancellor, who was to be the Bishop of Aberdeen, a rector, and doctors of faculties, and was invested with the power of conferring degrees, which were to be held as valid throughout Christendom. Two years after, on the publication of the deed of erection, the king granted a charter in favour of the university, bestowing upon it certain ecclesiastical funds for the support of its members, and granting to it all the rights, liberties, and advantages which his ancestors had given to St Andrews and Glasgow. Its privileges were finally established by a papal bull issued in 1500. In erecting this new seminary, the model of Paris, where Bishop Elphinstone had read lectures on the canon law, seems to have been mainly followed. The supposts were divided into four nations, who seem to have elected their procurators (procuratores nationum); but they took no further part in elections, nor in the government of the university, the procurators acting as their representatives.

King's College.

In 1505, Bishop Elphinstone, for the purpose of increasing the revenues of the new university, and enlarging the number of its members, founded and endowed a College, or Collegiate Church, in honour of the Trinity and the Virgin Mary, which was in the following year confirmed by the

Aberdeen. head of the church, and soon after by the reigning monarch. The college was to consist of thirty-six ordinary members, the chief of whom was to be a doctor or licentiate of divinity, who was to be styled principal, and to whom all the members were to yield obedience. Next to him were doctors or licentiates of the canon and the civil law and medicine; a master of arts, who was to be regent and sub-principal; and another, who was to teach the elements of literature. Besides these there were five masters of arts, students of divinity, who were to retain their appointments for a limited number of years; and thirteen poor scholars of respectable talents and proficiency, who were to be students of arts. All the members, with the exception of the doctor of medicine, were to be ecclesiastics, and were required to live within the college. The rector of the university, if not a member of the college, and if he was, the dean of the faculty of arts, and the official of Aberdeen, were constituted visitors, with power to remedy whatever was found defective. In the following year, Pope Julius II., at the request of the bishop, conferred on the chancellor, with a separate provision in case of a vacancy in the see, the power of granting the degrees of doctor, master, bachelor, and licentiate in the faculties of theology, the canon and the civil law, and medicine; thereby investing the college, temporarily at least, with the privileges of a university.

History. A new erection, increasing the number of the members of the college, improving their comforts, and introducing a more efficient system of instruction, which had been prepared by Bishop Elphinstone, but left unexecuted at his death in 1514, was officially published by his successor, Bishop Dunbar, in 1531. By this new charter, which, though modified by time and circumstances, has hitherto regulated, in a great degree, the form and practice of the university, the members of the seminary were to be forty-two. The first class consisted of four doctors; a doctor of divinity, who was to be principal, and whom all the other members were respectfully to obey; and doctors of the canon and the civil law, and medicine, or licentiates if doctors could not be found. In the second class were eight masters of arts, the first of whom, learned in philosophy and the arts, was to be sub-principal; the second was to be skilled in poetry, grammar, and rhetoric; and the remaining six, from whom the regents were to be elected, were to be students of divinity, and to retain their appointments for six years, until promoted to the degree of doctor therein. The next class was formed of students of law, who were to study the civil law, and to attend the lectures delivered on that subject. All these, with the exception of the doctor of medicine, were to belong to the priesthood, and were occasionally to say mass for the founders. There were, besides, thirteen students of arts, retaining their endowments for three years and a half, the usual curriculum in that faculty; and eight prebendaries, who were to attend to sacred music, one of them being styled cantor, and another sacrist, and six boys for the choir. For all these, with the exception of the mediciner, grammarian, civilist, and canonist, who were furnished with manses, accommodation was to be provided within the college. The revenues were placed under the charge of a procurator or factor, who was to be appointed by the principal officers of the college.

The principal was to be elected by the rector of the university, the procurators, doctors, sub-principal, regents in arts, humanist, theological students, cantor and sacrist, and to be admitted by the chancellor. His duties were to govern the college, to preside in its meetings, to direct the

regents in the delivery of their lectures, and to punish such as were deficient in their duty, to profess every day in philosophy and the arts, and to give lectures in divinity to the people six days in the year. The doctors, who were to be appointed by nearly the same electors, were likewise to be admitted by the chancellor, and to lecture to the students, each on the subjects belonging to his faculty. The election and admission of the sub-principal and humanist were to be conducted in a similar manner. The former was required to lecture in philosophy and the arts quotlibet legibili die, to instruct the students in manners and virtue, to preside at public disputations among the students, to inflict fines on such as absented themselves from divine worship, and, along with the principal, to take a general superintendence of the affairs of the college. The students of theology and the arts were to be elected by the sub-principal, the regents and the doctors of faculties, and admitted by the principal. The theological students were required to apply themselves to the study of their science, and to be qualified within three years to take their bachelor's degree. Their places, when vacant, were to be filled up from the students of arts. The college was exempted from all civic burdens.

From this statement it appears that the northern seminary closely resembled in its constitution the Colleges of St Andrews and Glasgow. The connection between the college and the university is distinctly marked in the charter of foundation, in which it is recommended that the permanent and higher offices should be supplied from the inferior members if they were qualified, if not, from the members of the university of Aberdeen; and failing these, recourse was to be had to other universities. As at Oxford, Cambridge, and St Andrews, however, the university has disappeared, and the incorporated and endowed college only remains. The college is co-extensive with the university, or rather the university is confined to the limits of the college; nor is any distinction between them preserved, as has hitherto been the case at Glasgow.

The college remained in nearly the same state for more than a century, not, however, escaping the deterioration which seems to be incident to all exclusive bodies. In 1619, Bishop Forbes obtained a commission of visitation, by which the abuses that had gradually been engendered were reformed, and the original foundation, with some exceptions, restored. By the introduction of the reformed religion, some of the offices were rendered unnecessary; and accordingly the General Assembly, in 1639, ordered those of the canonist and cantor to be abolished. After the abolition of episcopacy, Charles I. resolved to apply part of the revenues of the different sees to the support of the universities, and appointed a commission to inquire into the state of those of Old and New Aberdeen; the result of which was his executing a charter, uniting them as one university, under the name of "King Charles' University of Aberdeen." The colleges, however, continued distinct, and are separately recognised in the Act of 1641, by which the grant of the rents of the bishopric of Aberdeen was ratified; nor do they appear ever to have acted together as one university. Bishop Elphinstone's seminary has since retained the name of King's College.¹

From the period of its institution down to the earlier part of the last century, various improvements were introduced by royal and parliamentary commissions. The General Assembly also extended its jurisdiction to the college; and the chancellor of the university and the ordinary visitors appear to have watched over its interests. In what manner the rector and his assessors were elected, and how frequently their visitations took place, are unknown for a period of 129 years after the institution of the college. Subsequently this court appears to have been efficient, and to have been instrumental, in several instances, in giving effect to improved plans of education. The senate, consisting of the regular officers of the college, likewise applied themselves to the same laudable object, and from time to time introduced such alterations as a change of circumstances or the advancement of knowledge rendered neces-

¹ It would perhaps be difficult to fix the exact date at which this was, locally at least, applied to the College at a very early period, signature is attached to the new erection, dates the dedication of his History to the Archbishop of St Andrews, "Ex Regali Collegio Aberdonensi, ad Kalendas Maias, Anno salutis Christianae sexto et vigesimo supra millesimum quinquagesimum."

designation was given to Bishop Elphinstone's Foundation. That is proved by the fact that Hector Boecius, the first principal, whose signature is attached to the new erection, dates the dedication of his History to the Archbishop of St Andrews, "Ex Regali Collegio Aberdonensi, ad Kalendas Maias, Anno salutis Christianae sexto et vigesimo supra millesimum quinquagesimum."

Aberdeen. History. About the year 1620, a professorship of divinity was instituted by the college, and was confirmed two years after by royal charter. Weekly discourses on catechetical doctrine were established; and in 1764 a professorship of oriental languages was founded, for which an endowment out of the bishops' rents was afterwards obtained. In 1753 the teaching of the elements of Latin was abolished, and the scholarship of the class raised to the standard of the other universities. In the same year, the senate, taking into consideration the whole state of the college, approved of certain statutes intended to regulate the length of the session, the management of the bursaries, and the plan of instruction. On this last head, after mature deliberation, it was determined, chiefly, it is alleged, through the influence of the celebrated Dr Reid, who was at that time one of the regents, that the old system of the same regent conducting the students through the whole course should be continued, as at once more beneficial to the students, and more advantageous to the cause of literature and science. And it is a curious fact, that the system thus sanctioned by high authority prevailed till the year 1800, when the practice of the other universities was introduced.

Marischal College.

History. Marischal College, in New Aberdeen, was founded as a college of arts by George Earl Marischal, under royal authority, in 1593; and in the same month received the sanction of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. In July following it was ratified by an act of Parliament, which granted to it all the privileges and jurisdiction appertaining to "ane frie college" within the realm, but, contrary to the ancient practice, subjected all its members to the jurisdiction of the magistrates of the city, in all things done or committed by them beyond the walls of the college; in consequence, perhaps, of the magistrates having furnished the site for the buildings. The college was designated an Academy, or Seminary of Learning (Academia—publicum Gymnasium), and was to consist of a chancellor, rector, dean of faculty, principal (Gymnasiarcha), three regents, six alumni, and two inferior persons to manage the internal affairs of the seminary. The principal was to superintend the whole establishment, and to exercise jurisdiction over all its members; being invested with the power of censuring the regents, and of expelling them from the college, with the concurrence of the rector and dean, after three admonitions. He was to be well instructed in sacred literature and in the learned languages, particularly in Hebrew and Syriac, and was required occasionally to teach divinity, anatomy, physiology, the principles of geography, chronology, and astronomy, and the elements of Hebrew grammar and construction; duties presupposing an extent of acquirement which the founder must have had some difficulty in obtaining. He was also invested with the power of conferring degrees in arts on such as he deemed worthy of the distinction. The first regent was required to teach the elements of arithmetic and geometry, and the sciences of ethics and politics; the second was to teach the principles of logic, and to exercise the students in writing and declaiming in Latin and Greek; and the third, who was the lowest, was appointed to teach Greek, combining with it, during the first six months, Latin composition, afterwards the writing of Greek, and adding a short account of the elementary principles of logic. It thus appears that, from the commencement of the college, the regents had particular professions assigned to them; and that it originally consisted solely of regents or professors in the faculty of arts. It was expressly ordained that no regent should undertake a new professorship. The Earl Marischal reserved to himself and his heirs the patronage of the professorships; the examination and admission of the persons nominated being vested in the chancellor if he were a clergyman, the rector, dean, the principal of King's College, and three clergymen, including the minister of Aberdeen. By the forfeiture of the Marischal family in 1716, the patronage devolved upon the crown. The election of the bursars was likewise retained by the founder, and their

admission vested in the members of the college. No vacation was allowed; and, that the members of the college might devote themselves exclusively to their respective duties, they were prohibited from holding any public office, and even from acting as rector or dean of faculty.

The chancellor, rector, and dean, were instructed to visit the college three times a year, for the purpose of correcting whatever might be found wrong in doctrine or discipline. The rector was to be elected by all the students, through the medium of procurators appointed by them when divided into four nations, to have jurisdiction over the college, and to preside in its meetings, after taking the oath of office. The dean of faculty was to be elected by the senate and the minister of Aberdeen; his duties being to preside at examinations, to administer the oath of fidelity to the examiners, and to take cognizance of the doctrine and diligence of the regents. He was invested with all the privileges which were understood to belong to the dean of the faculty of arts in the University of St Andrews, or in any other university. A charter of confirmation and Novodamus was granted by William Earl Marischal in 1623, ratifying the deed of foundation by his predecessor, but withdrawing certain lands and revenues which had been originally assigned to the college. Such was the condition of the college, till it was united with King's College, as forming an integral portion of "King Charles' University of Aberdeen," a union which seems never to have been recognised by the members; and which, independently of the "general act rescissory," was formally rescinded by a new confirmation of its original rights and privileges granted by the Scottish Parliament in 1661. Neither in the charter of foundation, nor in any of the other charters or acts of parliament relating to the college, is it recognised as a separate university; nor is allusion made to any faculty except that of arts. The members have nevertheless, without any apparent legal right, conferred degrees in divinity, laws, and medicine, since before the middle of last century.

Notwithstanding the precautions of the founder, innovations were soon made on the constitution of the college. A few years after its institution, another regent was appointed, additional members were admitted, and each professor, in conformity with the general practice, conducted his students through the whole course. In 1700 the privy council of Scotland assigned the Greek department to one professor; and in 1763 the system was finally altered by the senate. A professorship of mathematics was founded about 1613, and in 1616 a professorship of divinity. From this time the principal seems to have confined himself to the superintendence of the business and discipline of the college. The state of the college was the subject of frequent visitations appointed by the king, the privy council, and the parliament, by means of which, and by the interposition of the senate, a system of instruction differing but little from that which has hitherto prevailed, was at a comparatively early period introduced.

For somewhat more than a century, the advantage of having in Attempts the north-east of Scotland a complete university, fully equipped in all the faculties, instead of two incomplete colleges, has forced itself upon public attention. In 1747—the year in which the union of the St Andrews Colleges was effected—1754, 1770, and 1786, negotiations for a similar union also took place between the colleges, but led to no definite result. The commission appointed in 1826, and which issued their report in 1831, recommended an entire amalgamation or fusion of the colleges, and the institution of a complete university, with the faculties of arts and divinity at King's College, and those of laws and medicine at Marischal College. In 1835, a bill, founded partly on the report of this commission, providing for the same comprehensive fusion of the colleges, with a different distribution of the faculties, was brought into parliament by the member for Aberdeen; but, in consequence of strong opposition, was withdrawn. This failure was followed by the appointment of a royal commission, specially for investigating the state of the Aberdeen colleges, which recommended a partial union. From this time the question of union remained dormant till 1853, when, on the suggestion of King's College, a scheme of complete fusion of the two establishments, their property, functions, and privileges, was prepared by members of the two colleges, which at first met with the approval of a large majority of both incorporations, of the town council of Aberdeen, &c. &c., and was favourably viewed by

Aberdeen. Her Majesty's Government. As on former occasions, public clamour was excited; some of those who had been favourable to the scheme changed their views; and the scheme itself was, without much consideration, condemned. The call for university reform still continued; and, accordingly, the members of King's College proceeded to effect certain internal improvements, which, though acceptable to the great majority of their graduates, were held up to ridicule by the people of Aberdeen. They eagerly desired reform, but it must be the gift of the legislature, and not of King's College. In 1856, for the first time since the abortive charter of Charles I., the question of union was taken up by the crown officers, and a bill was introduced into parliament by the Lord Advocate Moncreiff; but difficulties having arisen as to special points, the measure was, like its predecessors, withdrawn. In 1857 a third royal commission was appointed to inquire into the expediency of uniting the two colleges; and they, while reporting "that a complete union or fusion would prove the most advantageous mode of settlement," recommended a form of partial union, which was speedily rejected by all parties as impracticable.

Act of 1858. In this state of matters, the general measure for the improvement of the Scottish universities was introduced into the House of Commons by the Lord Advocate Inglis in 1858, one object of which was to unite the colleges of Aberdeen. The latter part of the bill was met with uncompromising local opposition in all its stages in parliament; and the ordinance issued by the commissioners appointed by the act, fixing the site of the different faculties, and the number of professors in the faculty of arts, was carried by appeal to the court of last resort. The act has now finally become law; and university reform has been obtained, though not in the form most acceptable to the people of Aberdeen.

Distribution of faculties. By the Act of 1858, King's College and Marischal College have been united and incorporated into one university and college in all time coming, under the style and title of the "University of Aberdeen," to take rank among the universities of Scotland, as from 1494, the date of the original University of Aberdeen, and all the funds, properties, and revenues, formerly pertaining or belonging to King's College or to Marischal College, now pertain and belong to the University of Aberdeen. The classes in the faculties of arts and divinity have been fixed at King's College; and those in laws and medicine at Marischal College.

Chancellor. The present chancellors of King's College and of Marischal College are to be joint chancellors for life, and the survivor to be sole chancellor during his survivorship; the chancellor thereafter to be appointed by the general council.

Rector. The rector is elected by the matriculated students voting in four nations, called respectively the Mor, Bushan, Moray, and Angus Nations, by each of which a procurator is chosen, and the procurators elect the rector. In the case of equality in the votes of the procurators, the chancellor of the university has a casting vote, provided he intimate his choice personally, or by letter addressed to the Senatus Academicus, within twenty-one days from the day of election; and failing such intimation, then the principal has the casting vote.

General Council. The General Council consists of the members already mentioned, and meets twice a year; at present on the Wednesday next after the second Tuesday of April, and the Wednesday next after the second Tuesday of October.

University Court. The University Court consists of the rector, the principal, an assessor nominated by the chancellor, an assessor nominated by the rector, an assessor elected by the general council, and an assessor elected by the Senatus Academicus; with four members as a quorum. The rector and his assessor continue in office three years, and the other assessors four years.

Senatus Academicus. The Senatus Academicus consists of the principal and twenty-one professors; seven in the faculty of arts, four in divinity, one in laws, and nine in medicine.

Revenue. The revenue of both colleges, now of the university, arises from certain properties acquired under the foundation charters, from others acquired subsequently to the dates of these charters, and from royal grants. A large portion of the original grants to King's College consisted of tithes, which, being subject to the burden of supporting the parochial clergy, have been nearly exhausted. The university possesses 77 foundations for bursaries, the benefit of which extends to 287 students. About 142 of these are unrestrictedly open to public competition; in the case of 11 a preference is, ceteris paribus, given to certain names; the patronage of the rest is vested in public bodies and private patrons.

Bursaries. The bursaries vary from £50 to £5 and under, and are tenable for four years. Their aggregate annual value amounts to £3889. No bursary assigned by competition is of lower value than £10. There are also 19 divinity bursaries of the aggregate value of £225, and one in medicine of £23. There are, besides, valuable prizes,—two of £60 each, and one of £20,—which are annually assigned to distinguished students at the end of their curriculum.

The curriculum in arts extends over four years, and includes attendance on Latin, Greek, English literature, mathematics, natural history, logic, natural philosophy, and moral philosophy. All bursaries, and all candidates for degrees, must attend these Curricular branches in a certain prescribed order. The fee for the junior term in classes in Latin, Greek, mathematics, and natural philosophy, is £3, 3s.; and for the senior classes, £1, 1s. Those for natural history and moral philosophy are £3, 3s.; for English literature, £1, 1s., and for logic, £2, 2s. The classes of English literature and logic are conducted by the same professor. The matriculation fee is £1.

The session at present commences on the first Monday of November, the previous week being occupied in deciding, by comparative trial, the vacant bursaries in the gift of the university, and in ascertaining the competency of the bursars presented by private patrons, and terminates on the first Friday of April. A scarlet gown is worn as an academical dress by all students in arts; and those of them who belong to the Established Church are required to attend the college chapel.

The number of matriculated students during session 1859-60 was 713: in arts, 416; in divinity, 91; in laws, 17; and in medicine, 189. The number who graduated was 143; in arts, 51; in divinity, 0; in laws, 2; and in medicine, 90. The fees for graduation are: for the degree of A.M., £4, 4s.; of M.B., £21; and for M.D., £6, 6s., in addition to the previous fee for M.B.; and exclusive of any stamp duty, which may for the time be exigible.

The following is a table of the professorships, with the date of foundation and the patronage.

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.

The University of Edinburgh owes its origin to James VI. Foundation. In 1582, "the wise monarch" granted a charter, empowering the lord provost, magistrates, and council of the city to repair and build houses for the reception and habitation of professors and students of the liberal arts, humanity, philosophy, divinity, medicine, law, and any other liberal sciences (quarumcunque aliarum liberalium scientiarum). The same charter constitutes the municipal authorities, with the advice of the ministers (cum avisamento ministrorum), electors of all the professors, with the power of dismissing them should they find it necessary; and, with strange inconsistency, prohibits all persons not admitted by the patrons from professing or teaching any of the sciences within the liberties of the city. The king, who was ambitious of being commemorated as the founder and greatest benefactor of this literary establishment, inserted in the charter an imposing list of ecclesiastical properties for its support, which, however, were found to possess little more than a nominal value. Even the ground on which the college was built (the Kirk-of-Field) could only be obtained by purchase from a menial servant of the king, who had acquired a title to it; and, in like manner, the other royal benefactions proved in a great measure delusive. The plan of the seminary was thus most extensive; and the patrons, being unfettered by the minute prescriptions contained in the

Edinburgh. foundation charters of the older universities, had fewer difficulties to encounter in adapting it to the existing state of philosophy and science.

History. The design of founding a college in the metropolis had been contemplated by the magistrates within two years after the Reformation; but their endeavours were thwarted by the bishops, who were jealous of the reputation and prosperity of the seminaries placed under their immediate and official protection. In 1562 the town supplicated from Queen Mary a gift of certain ecclesiastical property within the city, to be applied, among other things, for "collegis for leirning and upbringing of ye youth;" but received an evasive answer. Renewing their application the following year, they obtained a grant of "the Kirk-of-Field, to big ane schule;" but seem to have been prevented from carrying their design into effect. It was not till 1579 that successful measures were adopted. In this year the magistrates, encouraged by the ministers and other public-spirited individuals in the city, commenced building apartments for the accommodation of professors and students, and three years after obtained from the crown the charter of erection and confirmation. The chief promoter of the design was James Lawson, the successor of Knox as minister of Edinburgh, by whose recommendation Robert Rollock, one of the regents of St Andrews, and a man of high intellectual endowments, was selected in 1583 to fill the arduous situation of first and indeed sole regent in the new institution. The college was accordingly opened in October 1583, under the newly appointed regent; the number of students, who, as in the other universities, probably all belonged to the faculty of arts, was eighty-four. Rollock was engaged only for a year, with a promise of continuance and promotion if he conducted himself faithfully, and complied with the rules and injunctions of the patrons. His salary was to be L.40 Scots, or L.3, 6s. 8d., with a quarterly allowance of L.30 Scots for board, in addition to the fees to be paid by the students. According to the contract, he was to receive, "for a year's education to the sons of burgesses, L.2 Scots, and to others at least L.3 Scots; a small sum, apparently, but not disproportionate to the scale on which the professor was maintained. This rate of fees continued till 1695, when the town council ordained that the sons of gentlemen not burgesses of Edinburgh should pay L.8 Scots a year, and the sons of burgesses half that sum.

A second regent was appointed soon after the opening of the college; and in 1586, the town council, "having sufficient proof and experience of the lyfe and conversation" of Rollock, "and of his qualification and learning," constituted him principal master, with all the emoluments of the appointment, committing to him all the authority vested in the principal of any college in the universities of the realm, and subjecting to his jurisdiction the regents established or to be established, with all other members of the college. He was required to attend to their doctrine and conversation, and to punish delinquents; but the council reserved to themselves the right of deposition, and of enacting statutes for the regulation of the seminary. A third regent was appointed in the same year, a fourth in 1589, and in 1597 a regent of humanity. Till 1620 the principal was regarded as professor of divinity, and his prelections were confined to that department. In this year a second professor of divinity was appointed; but several of the succeeding principals continued to read theological lectures. Those of Dr Leighton were published after his death.

The charter of erection was soon (1584) followed by another, in which the king, gratified by the success of the new seminary, conveyed to the magistrates and council certain property for its support. In 1612 another charter was granted by the king, ratifying those which had previously been given; and in 1621, an act of the Scottish parliament was passed, confirming various grants of property

which had been made to the town of Edinburgh for the support of the institution. This act, as exhibiting the only constitution which the college possesses, deserves particular notice. After detailing the establishment of the college, and the purposes for which it was instituted, the grants made for carrying these into effect, the expense incurred by the city in erecting the buildings, and various bequests made by well-disposed persons for the support of the professors, the act declares the anxious desire of the king for the increase of learning within the borough, his willingness to confirm the former grants made to the college, and to extend to it all the immunities enjoyed by any other college within the realm, and ratifies and approves the infestments previously granted by his majesty under his great seal, "togidder with the erection of the said gryit ludging, manss, and hous of the Kirk-of-Field, in ane college for profession of theologie, philosophie, and humanitie." The ratification concludes by declaring that the college shall "in all tyme to cum be callit King James College," and conferring on the magistrates as patrons, and the rectors, regents, bursars, and students, "all liberties, fredoms, immunities, and privileges, appertening to ane free colledge, and that in als ample forme and laire maner as any colledge hes or bruikis within this his majestie's realme." It is true that the term university is not applied to the seminary, either in this act or in the royal charter of 1582; but its rights and privileges are recognised and guarded by subsequent acts of the Scottish parliament. It is thus, like Trinity College, Dublin, a college with the powers of a university.

From the first institution of the college, the town council, with the advice of the ministers and some eminent lawyers, regulated the mode of teaching, the discipline, the fees, and the accommodation of the students. Students were admitted on application to a magistrate, under whose authority they were enrolled; as in other universities, they were matriculated by the rector or principal. It was the intention of the founders that all the students should lodge within the walls of the college, and wear an academical dress. The annual rent of a chamber to a stranger student, having a bed to himself, was L.4 Scots; for which sum the town furnished seats, beds, tables, and shelves. Students whose parents were burgesses paid no rent, but furnished the rooms at their own expense. The increase of numbers gradually put a stop to this practice. So lately, however, as the year 1710, the English dissenters offered to contribute L.1000 a year, for the support of a hospitium, on condition that their students might participate in the benefit.

The system of instruction originally pursued in the university Course of did not differ materially from that of the other Scottish universities. Each of the four regents conducted his students, during the four years they remained under his care, over the entire curriculum of literature and philosophy, while the prelections of the principal were confined to theology. During the first year, about six months were spent chiefly in the study of the Greek and Roman classics, accompanied by frequent exercises in translation and original composition. The remainder of the session was occupied in the study of the Dialectics of Ramus, without, however, discontinuing the reading of Greek and Latin authors, and committing to memory and reciting large portions of the ancient poets and orators. In the second year, besides being exercised in Greek themes and versions, the students proceeded in the study of logic, rhetoric, and some part of mathematics. The philosophical works of Aristotle were not neglected; and in the later months of the session, the practice of oratory was encouraged by public declamations. The third session, carrying forward the public studies and classical learning, introduced the youth to the knowledge of some branches of natural history and philosophy, and gave every one an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the elements of the Hebrew tongue. In the fourth session, ethics, physics, and metaphysics formed the principal object of study; but great part of the time was occupied in the practice of disputation. The regent prescribed the subject, and every candidate was matched with an antagonist, with whom it was necessary for him to carry on a debate in presence of his teacher. The regents were required to exercise a habitual inspection of their charge, both in the public

Edinburgh. class and in the hours of recreation in the fields. The principal was bound to maintain a daily superintendence, presiding at the public devotions, and keeping a watchful eye over all the regents, students, and officers of the establishment, so that, when admonition or discipline was required, it might not be omitted or postponed till insubordination and irregularity became inveterate or scandalous. Every Lord's day was partly employed in the religious instruction of the students in their private classes, and chiefly in the public solemnities of divine worship. This course of study, which must have obtained the sanction of the patrons, goes far to justify the powers which had been vested in them by the charter of erection; and when carried into effect by the energy of the regents, readily accounts for the celebrity which the metropolitan university early acquired. The practice of each regent teaching the same class during the whole period of the course was discontinued in 1708, in consequence of a regulation by the parliamentary commission of visitation appointed in 1690. Since that time every professor has been limited to one particular department.

Peculiar constitution. "The most striking circumstance," say the royal commissioners of 1826, "in the establishment of the University of Edinburgh, is, that it is not erected into an independent seminary, but is subjected, in all essential points, to the provost, magistrates, and council of the city. To them is committed the superintendence of it, the appointment of the professors, and the privilege of removing them when so strong a step seemed expedient. The whole body is enjoined to obey the regulations emanating from the council; and even the powers of the principal are limited by the same authority. In fact, to the college, as a college, nothing seems to be given but immunities and privileges common to the other universities, and which do not seem to have any reference to its internal administration. No senatus academicus, or college meeting, with special authority to regulate the course of education, is recognised. Everything specified is granted with a view to the magistrates and council; and in the only clause which may seem to imply that the college received a separate and independent jurisdiction, the mode in which it is introduced evinces that this could not have been the case." Accordingly, the council always claimed and exercised the privileges which were conferred on them by the charter.

The number of professors, which in 1620 was seven, including the principal, was raised in 1708 to fifteen, one of whom was professor of Greek, the study of that language being required of all students of arts after the Reformation. The present number is thirty-four. The right of instituting new professorships was vested in the patrons; and the promptitude which they showed in adopting the best measures for the advancement of academical instruction was deserving of great credit. Some years ago the clergy of the city put forward their claim to a voice in the election of professors, on the ground that, in the original charter, the right of appointment was to be exercised cum oramento ministrorum. The claim was for some time keenly agitated, and steps were taken to enforce it; but on application being made to the Court of Session in the case of a particular election, the court refused to grant an interdict, and the question was accordingly dropped. Eleven professorships have at various times been founded by the crown, of nine of which it has retained the patronage; but the exercise of this power was disputed by the council, as an infringement of their sole right of control, and a protest was regularly taken that it should not hurt or prejudice their rights. In the case of some of the professorships, certain public bodies have been admitted to a share of the patronage, in consequence of contributing a part of the salaries of the professors. The professor of botany holds two commissions, one from the crown, and another from the town council.

The right of the patrons to interfere in regulating the course of study was of late years disputed by the principal and professors, and the subject was brought before the Court of Session for adjudication. The court decided that the sole government of the university in all points, even in regulating the conditions of graduation, the course of study, and method of instruction, was vested in the town council; and this decision was affirmed by the House of Lords. The council, however, had the discretion to leave matters of discipline and ordinary detail to the principal and professors; and the regulations which were from time to time made by them were considered valid unless disallowed by the patrons.

For a considerable period the college was limited to the faculty of arts; but the other faculties were successively recognised as the course of instruction was extended. The medical school, which has for many years been so famous, had its origin so recently as the end of the seventeenth century, there being no professor of medicine previously to the year 1685. The school of law is still more modern. The class of public law was instituted in 1707, of civil law in 1710, of Scottish law generally in 1722, and that of the theory and practice of conveyancing in 1825.

By the will of General Reid, dated 1806, a large bequest was made to the senate for endowing a professorship of music, adding to the library, and otherwise promoting the general interests of the university. This bequest, when it became available to the university on the death of the testator's daughter, amounted, after deduction of legacy-duty and expenses, to £62,000. A professorship of music was accordingly instituted in 1839; a splendid hall and classroom have since been built, and an annual concert established.

From what has already been stated, it will appear that the constitution of the University of Edinburgh differed essentially from that of other universities. Indeed it could not be said to have any independent or well-defined constitution; the patrons being invested with the powers generally given to the universities themselves. No power was conferred upon it by the charter as an independent corporation, nor was any provision made for the appointment of public officers. There was no mention made of a chancellor; and although in early times the name was occasionally assumed by the provost of the city, that must be regarded as an unauthorised assumption. The case, in regard to the offices of rector and dean of faculty, was nearly the same. "This important office" (the office of rector), say the commissioners, "has been much less efficient in Edinburgh than in the other universities: and the existence of the office itself has been, apparently at least, suspended." It was held by several persons, though with frequent intervals, till 1640, when the council resolved to elect a rector annually, with six assessors, two members of council, two ministers, and two professors. But in the beginning of last century the office of rector was permanently annexed to that of lord provost, who, as head of the council, already possessed all the authority which could be deputed to the rector, and consequently the office had become obsolete even in name. "It is, accordingly, explicitly asserted, that no chancellor or vice-chancellor, rector or dean of faculty, exercises any authority or jurisdiction over the principal, professors, or students in the University of Edinburgh." The business of the college was managed by a section of the town council, under the name of the college committee, who took charge of the revenue, communicated with the senate, and exercised a general superintendence over the seminary.

The principal occupied an anomalous position; he held the same Principal rank as the cognominal officers in the other universities, but apparently without any of the powers which were exercised by the others. Notwithstanding the stipulations made by the patrons to Rollock when he was promoted to the office, his authority seems to have been extremely limited. The principal had long ceased to teach a class, and he had not for a considerable period taken an active part in superintending the instruction of any of the classes. He presided in the meetings of the senate, and was the official organ of the university in communicating with the crown, the patrons, and the public. Beyond this he does not appear, so far as we have been able to ascertain, to have possessed any real power or authority. The late Dr John Lee was both principal and professor of divinity.

By the act of 1858 the constitution of the University of Edinburgh has been, in every respect, assimilated to that of the other Scottish universities; the control previously exercised over it by the town council has been abolished; and the patronage which formerly belonged to the council has been vested in seven curators, of whom four are elected by the council, and three by the University Court.

The university is now governed by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, a rector, with the three courts—the Senatus Academicus, the University Court, and the General Council. The chancellor is elected by the General Council, and appoints the vice-chancellor. The rector is elected by a general poll of the matriculated students, and continues in office for three years. The University Court consists of the rector; the principal; an assessor nominated by the Court; the lord-provost of Edinburgh; an assessor nominated by the lord-provost, magistrates, and town council; an assessor nominated by the rector; an assessor elected by the General Council; and an assessor elected by the Senatus Academicus; with five as a quorum. The period of office and the restrictions are the same as in the case of the other universities. The constitution of the General Council is the same as in the other universities; and meets twice a year, on the first Tuesday after the 14th of April, and on the last Friday of October.

The Senatus Academicus consists of the principal and thirty-four Faculties. Professors, classified under the four faculties of arts, divinity, laws, and medicine. There are nine professors in the faculty of arts, four in that of divinity, four in that of laws, and fourteen in that of medicine. The professor of natural history belongs to the faculty of medicine. The professors of agriculture, music, and technology have not yet been attached to any of the faculties. Each faculty appoints from their number a dean, who presides at their meetings, and forms the medium of communication between them and the Senatus. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the faculties

Edinburgh, merely perform certain duties under the Senate, without whose sanction their proposals and regulations cannot be carried into effect.

Curriculum. The curriculum of arts, qualifying for a degree, extends over four sessions, and includes attendance on Latin, Greek, mathematics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy, and rhetoric. At the close of the third year of the regular curriculum, candidates are admitted to that part of the examination which relates to classical proficiency; and those who avail themselves of this permission, are examined in mathematics and philosophy at the close of the fourth year. The examinations take place in April, and are conducted by means of printed papers. Present fee, 1l. 3s. 3d.

Medical school. The celebrity of Edinburgh as a school of medicine seems to demand from us a general statement of the course of study necessary for obtaining medical degrees. The degrees to be granted under the Act of 1858 are divided into three classes, designated respectively Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.), Master in Surgery (C.M.), and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). The preliminary branches of education are—I. English, Latin, arithmetic, with the elements of mathematics and mechanics; and, II. No candidate can be admitted to a professional examination who has not passed a satisfactory examination on at least two of the following subjects, in addition to the subjects mentioned above: Greek, French, German, higher mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy. These examinations to take place, as far as possible, before he has entered on his medical curriculum. The examinations are conducted by examiners in arts, along with the medical examiners. III. A regular degree in arts in any one of the universities of England, Scotland, or Ireland, or in any colonial or foreign university specially recognised for this purpose, exempts the candidate from all preliminary examinations. IV. No candidate can be admitted to a degree who has not been engaged in medical and surgical study for four years; the medical session of each year being constituted by at least two courses, of not less than 100 lectures each, or by one such course, and two courses of not less than 50 lectures each; with the exception of the clinical courses, in which lectures must be given at least twice a week during the prescribed periods. V. No candidate can be admitted to examination who has not given sufficient evidence by certificate—(1.) That he has studied each of the following departments of medical science, namely, Anatomy, Chemistry, Materia Medica and Pharmacy, Institutes of Medicine or Physiology, Practice of Medicine, Surgery, Midwifery and the Diseases peculiar to Women and Children, General Pathology or Morbid Anatomy, Practical Chemistry, Practical Midwifery, Clinical Medicine, Clinical Surgery, Medical Jurisprudence, Botany, Natural History, including Zoology. (2.) That he has attended, for at least two years, the medical and surgical practice of a general hospital accommodating not fewer than eighty patients, and possessing a distinct staff of physicians and surgeons. (3.) That he has been engaged, for at least three months, in compounding and dispensing drugs at the laboratory of an hospital or dispensary under a legalised practitioner. (4.) That he has attended, for at least six months, the out-practice of an hospital, or the practice of a dispensary, or of a legalised practitioner. VI. Every candidate must deliver, before the 31st day of March of the year in which he proposes to graduate, to the dean of the faculty of medicine—(1.) A declaration, in his own handwriting, that he has completed his 21st year, and that he will not be, on the day of graduation, under articles of apprenticeship to any surgeon or other master; (2.) A statement of his studies, as well in literature and philosophy as in medicine, accompanied with proper certificates; (3.) A thesis, composed by himself, to be approved by the medical faculty. VII. Candidates are examined, both in writing and vis-a-vis—first, on chemistry, botany, and natural history; secondly, on anatomy, institutes of medicine, and surgery; and, thirdly, on materia medica, pathology, practice of medicine, clinical medicine, clinical surgery, midwifery, and medical jurisprudence. VIII. Students may be admitted to examination on the first division of those subjects at the end of their second year; and on the subjects of the second division, at the end of their third year; or on both divisions at the end of the third year. The examination on the third division cannot take place till the candidate has completed his fourth annus medicus. IX. The studies of candidates for the degrees of bachelor of medicine and master in surgery are subject to the following regulations:—(1.) One of the four years of medical and surgical study must be in the University of Edinburgh. (2.) Another of such four years must be either in the University of Edinburgh, or in some other university entitled to give the degree of doctor of medicine. (3.) Attendance during at least six winter months on the medical or surgical practice of a general hospital which accommodates at least eighty patients, and during the same period on a course of practical anatomy, may be reckoned as one of such four years. (4.) One year's attendance on the lectures of teachers of medicine in the hospital schools of London, or in the school of the College of Surgeons in Dublin, or of such teachers of medicine in Edinburgh or elsewhere as shall from time to time be

recognised by the University Court, may be reckoned as one of such four years. (5.) Candidates may, to the extent of four of the departments of medical study required by section V., sub-section (1), attend in such year or years as may be most convenient to them, the lectures of the teachers of medicine specified in sub-section (4). (6.) Candidates, not students of the university, availing themselves of the permission to attend the lectures of extra-academical teachers in Edinburgh, must, at the commencement of each year, enrol their names in a book to be kept by the university for that purpose, paying a fee of the same amount as the matriculation fee paid by students of the university, and having, in respect of such payment, a right to the use of the library of the university; and must also pay, for attendance on such lectures, a fee of the same amount as that exigible by medical professors in the university. (7.) No teacher can be recognised who is at the same time a teacher of more than one of the prescribed branches of study, except in those cases where professors in the university are at liberty to teach two branches. (8.) It is in the power of the University Court to recognise extra-academical teachers, attendance on whose lectures shall be accepted for graduation in the university; and also, if they see cause, to withdraw or suspend such recognition. X. The degree of master in surgery cannot be conferred on any candidate who does not also at the same time obtain the degree of bachelor of medicine. XI. The degree of doctor of medicine may be conferred on any candidate who has obtained the degree of bachelor of medicine, and is of the age of 24 years, and has been engaged, subsequently to his having obtained the degree of bachelor of medicine, for at least two years in attendance on an hospital, or in the military or naval medical service, or in medical or surgical practice. Provided always, that the degree of doctor of medicine shall not be conferred on any person unless he be a graduate in arts of one of the universities of England, Scotland, or Ireland, or of such other universities as are above specified, or unless he shall, before or at the time of his obtaining the degree of bachelor of medicine, or within three years thereafter, have passed a satisfactory examination in Greek, and in logic or moral philosophy, and in one at least of the following subjects: French, German, higher mathematics, and natural philosophy. XII. The examinations are conducted by the professors in the faculty of medicine in the university, with the addition of three persons appointed annually, by the University Court, from among the Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, and the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, or persons otherwise fully qualified in the judgment of the University Court; such three persons to be eligible for re-election, and each of them to receive a sum of 1l. 10s. for each year in which he shall act as examiner. The examinations take place in May, June, and July, and the successful candidates are admitted to their degrees on the first lawful day of August. Present fee, including stamp, 1l. 2s.

The year is divided into two sessions. The winter session commences on the first Tuesday of November, and closes in the end of April, the theological session being somewhat shorter; and the summer session, during which a few classes of the medical faculty are taught, begins on the first Monday of May, and terminates at the end of July. Each student pays a matriculation fee of 1l. 1s.

The revenues of the university consist chiefly of a certain proportion of 1l. 25s. 0d., payable by the city for the support of the university and schools, and of a grant from government, which amounts for the present year to 1l. 27s. 6d. There are 49 foundations for bursaries attached to the university, the benefit of which is extended to 106 students. Their aggregate annual value amounts to 1l. 17s. 3d. Three are of the annual value of 1l. 10s.; the others vary from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 6d., and under. They are nearly all in the gift of private patrons or public bodies.

The professors exercise no superintendence over the students, Discipline except within the walls of the college. Delinquents are brought before the senate, and admonished by the principal; or, if guilty of a grave breach of discipline, are expelled. The students wear no academical dress, nor are they required to attend any particular place of worship. Accommodation for 200 is provided in one of the churches in the immediate neighbourhood of the college.

The number of matriculated students in 1859-60 was 1464; in arts, 647; divinity, 85; laws, 236; medicine, 496. Graduates in arts, 45 (A.B. 23, and A.M. 22); in divinity, 0; in laws, 16; in medicine, 57.

The following table contains a list of the professorships, with the date of their foundation, and the patronage:—

IRISH UNIVERSITIES.

UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN.

Ireland is represented by her native historians as being, in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, the university of Europe; and the manuscript remains of Irish literature belonging to that period, which are still preserved in various libraries, strongly corroborate the statement. During the three succeeding centuries, little is known of the state of learning; and the subjugation of the country by Henry II. in the twelfth century seems to have extinguished the feeble spark which still burned. Soon after the beginning of the fourteenth century, a university was established by a bull from John XXII., in connection with the cathedral church of St Patrick's, which continued for some time to support a sickly existence.

The present university was founded in 1591, through the exertions of Archbishop Loftus, who prevailed on the corporation of Dublin to appropriate for its support the ground and buildings of the dissolved monastery of All-Hallows, on Hoggin Green, in the eastern suburbs of the city, at that time valued at £20 per annum. A charter was soon after obtained from Queen Elizabeth, incorporating the university under the name of "The Provost, Fellows, and Scholars of the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, founded by Queen Elizabeth, near Dublin;" and empowering it to accept such lands and contributions for its maintenance as any of her charitable subjects should bestow, to the amount of £400 a year. This was the extent of the royal bounty; no funds were provided for the erection of buildings, or for the support of the members of the college. The liberality of the Irish gentry was appealed to by cir-

cular letters from the lord-deputy, and a sufficient sum of money was by this means raised to enable the archbishop to commence the buildings. The first stone was laid on the 13th of March 1591, and the college was opened for the reception of students January 9, 1593. The whole income of the university, including voluntary and temporary contributions, amounted in 1594 to the sum of £174, 18s., and in 1601 it was increased by certain allowances granted by the queen to £544, 13s. 4d. Such was the foundation of the University of Dublin; and on this scanty provision it had to struggle for existence, often reduced, by the non-payment of rents, to the very brink of dissolution, till the beginning of the reign of James I., when it was endowed by that monarch with lands in the province of Ulster, which have since become valuable, besides a pension of £388, 15s. English, paid annually from the exchequer.

By the charter of foundation, the body corporate was Original to consist of a provost, three fellows, and three scholars, with power to increase their number as the funds of the college permitted. To the provost and fellows was entrusted the power of enacting statutes for themselves, and of appointing such acts and exercises as they might consider necessary to qualify for degrees. To them also belonged the duties of tuition, the scholarships being intended as foundations for the maintenance of the poorer students. The provost and fellows constituted the only university convocation or senate recognised by the charter, and with them resided exclusively the power of conferring degrees. The fellows were to elect their provost on every vacancy of this office; and fellowships were tenable for seven years only after taking the degree of M.A. William Cecil, Lord Burghley, was nominated by the charter the first chancellor of the university, with a provision, that on all future occasions, the election of chancellor, vice-chancellor, and proctors, should belong to the provost and fellows.

In this, the original constitution of the university, many obvious defects soon began to show themselves. The election of a provost was a continual source of discord; and the authority of this officer being by the charter scarcely greater than that of the other fellows, was insufficient for the preservation of discipline in the college. The three fellows nominated by the charter were ecclesiastics, whose sacred duties prevented them from engaging in the actual labours of instruction; and accordingly, when the business of education really commenced, it was found necessary to obtain additional aid. The poverty of the society not admitting of their endowing permanent fellowships, an expedient was resorted to which afterwards led to an important alteration in the constitution of the college. About the year 1600 four masters, afterwards increased to seven, were appointed as lecturers of the junior classes, and, about 1610, were regularly constituted, by statute, probationer or junior fellows; from these the senior fellowships, instituted by charter, were filled up on every vacancy. About 1615, the number of senior fellows was fixed by statute at seven, and the number of probationer fellows at nine; the scholars, as at present, amounted to seventy. The junior fellows were to have no part in the government of the college, and were to be considered in every respect as scholars, except that they were recognised as college tutors, and employed in instructing others. This increase in the number of the fellows and scholars was most probably made soon after the income was augmented by the grants of King James I. Though productive of beneficial effects to the college, by increasing the number of its instructors, it was at first the occasion of some very serious difficulties. The junior fellows claimed for themselves an express right by the charter to have a voice in the government and elections of the college; which was resisted by the governing body, on the ground that the title of fellows had been conferred on them, not as a matter of right, but

by courtesy and honoris causa, and that their rights, as determined in the charter, were those of scholars only. Accordingly, Bishop Bedell's statutes, framed in 1627, provided against the difficulty, by dividing the scholars into nine socii scholares, or probationer fellows, and seventy scholares discipuli, or scholars, commonly so called, as being still in statu pupillari.

The dissensions to which we have already alluded continued to increase, and at last rendered the interference of the legislature absolutely necessary. Accordingly Archbishop Laud, who had been elected chancellor of the university in 1633, and had lately completed a revision of the statutes of Oxford, as chancellor of that university, undertook to remodel the statute-book which had hitherto been in use in the University of Dublin. The new charter and statutes, after encountering the most violent opposition, were read and published in the chapel of the university on Trinity Monday, June 5, 1637, and the oaths prescribed to the provost, fellows, and other officers, administered by the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin, the new visitors of the college. The opposition was not however quieted by the promulgation of the statutes. After Laud had fallen from his power, and was no longer able to protect his favourites, a vigorous prosecution was commenced in the Irish Parliament against Bishop Chappel, the provost, by whose assistance the work of reformation had been carried into effect; but the rebellion of 1641, and the subversion of the British monarchy which so soon followed, diverted the attention of Parliament to more important matters. The clamour appears to have subsided during the commonwealth, when the university became nearly extinct, and it was not revived after the restoration. The Laudian constitution, with some slight modifications, has continued till the present day; and to it the university owes much of its celebrity and usefulness.

The alterations made by the new charter in the constitution and government of the university were important, and had special reference to the dissensions which had been occasioned in the body by its former mode of government. The election of provost, and the power of enacting and repealing statutes, were taken from the fellows, and reserved to the crown. Fellowships, which had hitherto expired at the end of seven years after taking a master's degree, were made tenable for life. The nine probationer fellows were admitted members of the corporation, under the name of "junior fellows;" but the entire control, both as to discipline and finance, was vested in the provost and seven senior fellows, subject to the jurisdiction of visitors nominated by the crown, in whom the right of ultimate appeal was vested. In cases not provided for by the statutes, the provost and senior fellows were empowered to make new statutes not repugnant to those granted by the king, which new statutes were to be confirmed by the visitors, and to remain in force till the enacting body should think proper to rescind them. The election of officers, as chancellor, proctors, &c., was continued in the provost and fellows, the chancellor being permitted to nominate the vice-chancellor. The number of visitors was reduced from eight to two—viz., the chancellor, or, in his absence, the vice-chancellor, and the Archbishop of Dublin. A special clause provided that no person should profess or teach the liberal arts in any other place in Ireland, without a special license from the crown. The changes since made in the statutes have consisted principally in the repeal of certain clauses which were found to be inconvenient; the augmentation of salaries; the foundation of professorships; the transference of certain powers from the crown to the board; the opening up of some offices (formerly restricted to fellows), to all members of the university; and the regulation of the library: but few alterations have been made affecting the constitution of the college, except the foundation of additional junior fellowships by different sovereigns, whereby

their number was increased from nine to seventeen. By a statute of Queen Victoria, dated on the 6th of May 1840, the statute of Charles I., enjoining celibacy on the fellows was repealed, and provision made for founding ten new Victoria fellowships, so that the number now is twenty-seven. The addition to the fellowships, according to this statute, was to be made by the annual election, at the accustomed time and place, of one new fellow in 1840, and in each of the next succeeding nine years, over and above the vacancies which might occur in the subsisting body. Of the ten additional fellows, only the four seniors for the time being were to be appointed tutors; but the remaining six were to enjoy "all the other rights, profits, and emoluments, and perform all other the duties and functions of junior fellows, and to be eligible to all other offices to which any junior fellows may now be elected or appointed." After the year 1849, when the number of additional fellows was completed, though no vacancy occurred in the body of fellows, there was still an annual election of one, who succeeded to the first vacancy, unless there were at the same time two or more such persons so elected, in which case the senior of them succeeded to the first vacancy. It was also ordained, "that after the year 1849, there should be no more than two persons elected, whether as fellows or candidate fellows, in any one year, whatever number of vacancies might occur in the body." By a Queen's letter recently obtained, the board are empowered to suppress four of the junior fellowships, by not electing to more than one, whenever it shall happen that two or more vacancies occur at once. The number of junior fellows will thus be ultimately reduced to twenty-three.

James I., by his charter in 1613, granted to the provost, fellows, and scholars, the right of returning two representatives to the Irish Parliament. The Act of Union in 1800 restricted this number to one; but by the Irish Reform Bill, the original number was restored, and the right of election extended to all members of the university of twenty-one years of age, who at that time had, or who should thereafter obtain, a fellowship or scholarship, the degree of master of arts, or any higher degree.

The entire government of the university is vested in the following officers: the chancellor, who is elected by the senate from a list of three names submitted by the provost and senior fellows, and whose office is tenable for life; the vice-chancellor, nominated for life by the chancellor, and having the power to appoint a vice-chancellor in special cases; the provost, appointed by the crown; the vice-provost, an annual officer, who is usually the first of the seven senior fellows; two proctors, chosen annually, one from the senior, and the other from the junior fellows, for regulating the forms for taking degrees; a senior lecturer, who takes charge of all matters connected with the public examinations; two deans and a censor, whose duty it is to superintend the performance of religious duties, and to inspect the details of moral discipline; a librarian with two assistants; a registrar, who performs the duty of secretary to the board; a registrar for the electors admitted under the reform act; an auditor; six university preachers; five evening preachers; and twenty-eight examiners; besides which there are special courts of examiners for moderatorships. The ordinary affairs of the college are managed by a board, consisting of the provost and senior fellows, who hold a meeting every Saturday. The provost must be in holy orders, and a doctor, or at least a bachelor in divinity, and not less than thirty years of age. The fellows are all bound to enter into priest's orders, except five; one of whom is elected Medicus by the provost and senior fellows; of the others, two are elected Juristas juris civilis, and two Juristas juris Anglici.

The senate of the university consists of the chancellor, or, in his absence, of the vice-chancellor, or pro-vice-chancellor, for the time being, and of all masters of arts, and doctors in the three faculties, who have their names upon the college books. The Caput Senae-Caput tus Academici is a council consisting of the chancellor, vice-chancellor, the provost, or, in his absence, the vice-provost, and the senior master non-regent, who is elected by the senate. The chancellor, vice-chancellor, and the provost are members of the caput ex officio. Every grace must first be submitted to the provost and senior fellows, and afterwards pass the caput, before it can be proposed

Dublin. to the senate of the university in public congregation, and each member of the caput has a negative voice.

system of instruction. The system of instruction is conducted by means of professors' and tutors' lectures, and periodical examinations. According to the statutes of Laud, all professorships were to be held by fellows. The provost was to appoint from the body of fellows, senior and junior, such a number as he thought fit, to be college tutors; and the fees paid by pupils, together with the emoluments of lectureships, professorships, and other offices, were to constitute the salaries of the fellows. At this period, the only professorship in the university was that of divinity, which however was not recognised as the regius professorship till the year 1761. Two professorships, of jurisprudence and medicine, were appointed by statute, and the fellows who devoted themselves to these professions were exempted from the obligation of entering into holy orders. The increase of students, by augmenting the duties as well as the emoluments of the tutors, has now broken in upon the original spirit of the statutes; and the increased value of the college lands has supplied the means of assigning to the senior fellows ample salaries without subjecting them to the necessity of acting as tutors. Some annual offices, with several professorships, which were formerly held exclusively by senior fellows, have recently been given up by them; and the emoluments thus set free, as well as the portion of fees on degrees, appropriated to the provost and senior fellows, have been transferred to the general funds of the college, on condition "that the same be employed for the advancement of learning and education." By recent regulations, some of the junior fellows now hold offices incompatible with that of tutor, and have consequently resigned their pupils; so that the number of tutors is limited to eighteen. It was not till the latter end of last century that the principle was recognised of having professors in the university who were not fellows. In 1761 a statute was passed, which obliged the regius professor of divinity, on his appointment to that office, to resign his fellowship; and in the same year the regius professorship of feudal and English law was founded upon the same condition, if filled by a fellow. In 1774, Provost Andrews bequeathed to the college an endowment for a professor of astronomy. A school of medicine was established by act of parliament in 1785, consisting of three professorships not tenable with fellowships; and besides these, two professorships of modern languages were founded in 1776. These, with the professorships of political economy, moral philosophy, biblical Greek, and most of the more recently founded professorships, can be held by persons who are not fellows.

The following is a table of the professorships and lectureships, with the date of foundation:—

The professorial system is in Dublin more largely combined with the tutorial than in either Oxford or Cambridge; and in late years has been worked with considerable energy. The education of the students in arts is intrusted exclusively to the junior fellows, whether

tutors or non-tutors. The lectures for which resident students are liable are of two kinds—tutors' lectures, and honour lectures. The former are intended more particularly for those students whose previous preparation has not been carefully attended to, and who desire merely to pass on to graduation without seeking the distinctions of college life; while the latter are adapted to the wants of those whose scholarship is of a higher order, and who strive for the prizes which the university holds out with so liberal a hand. In order to secure small classes and efficient teaching, the resident students are divided into batches of about twenty-five, each batch being under the daily tuition (during term) of two of the fellows, one for classics, and the other for science. The University professors, and Erasmus Smith's professors, also lecture three times a week to certain classes of alumni.

The academic year is divided into three terms, Michaelmas, Terms, Hilary, and Trinity. Those of Michaelmas and Hilary are followed each by a short recess; that of Trinity by a vacation of three months. Terms are kept, during the under-graduate course, either by residence and attendance on lectures, as at Oxford and Cambridge, or by answering at the examinations held for the purpose at the beginning of each term. Students of divinity, law, engineering, and medicine, are required to attend the lectures of the professors, and therefore reside either in the college or in the city. The under-graduate course consists of four years, in each of which the students are distinguished by the titles of junior and senior Freshmen, and junior and senior Sophisters. After taking his first degree, the student becomes successively a junior, middle, and senior Bachelor, when he is admitted to the degree of master of arts. A bachelor in divinity must be M.A. of seven years' standing; a doctor in divinity must be B.D. of five, or a master of arts of twelve. A bachelor in laws must have taken the degree of bachelor in arts, and must have completed two years in the study of law in the university (attending the prelections of the regius professor of civil law, and of the professor of feudal and English law); or must have passed an examination in the theory and practice of jurisprudence; or must have practised for six years in the law courts. A doctor in laws must be LL.B. of five years' standing. A bachelor in medicine must be B.A., and must have spent four years in the study of medicine; a doctor in medicine must be M.B. of three years' standing. A bachelor in music must be matriculated in arts, and must compose and perform a solemn piece of music before the university; a doctor in music must be Mus. B. of five years, and perform a similar exercise. The fees for B.A., are (for a pensioner) £8, 17s. 6d.; for M.A., £9, 16s. 6d.; for B.D., £13, 15s.; for D.D., £26; for LL.B., £11, 15s.; for LL.D., £22; for M.B., £11, 15s.; and M.D., £22.

The students are arranged in four ranks:—1. Noblemen, sons of Ranks, noblemen, and baronets, styled nobles, filii nobilium, and equites, the two first of whom are entitled to the degree of B.A. per spectalem gratiam. 2. Fellow-commoners, who are entitled to the degree of B.A., with one term-examination less than pensioners. These two classes pay a high annual stipend, and high fees for B.A., and dine at the same table with the fellows in the commons hall. 3. Pensioners, who constitute the great body of the students. 4. Sizars, who have their commons free, and are exempted from annual fees. The number of sizars is limited to thirty, and admission is obtained after a very strict examination, held annually to supply vacancies, the endowment (about £37 per annum) being tenable for four years. There are sizarships for classics, for mathematics, for Hebrew, and for the Irish language; classics, however, forming an element in the course prescribed for each. Each of the above ranks is distinguished by a particular dress. The mode of admission is by an examination, held in the public theatre of the college, once in every month, except August and September. The examinations in July, October, and November are public, the others private. The examiners for entrance are the junior fellows.

At the entrance examinations, candidates are tested in Latin and English composition; arithmetic; algebra (first four rules and fractions); English history; modern geography; and any two Greek and two Latin books, of their own selection, from the following course:—

Greek.—Homer, Iliad, books i., ii., iii.; New Testament, Gospels of Luke and John, and Acts of the Apostles; Euripides, Phœnissæ; Sophocles, Ajax; Plato, Apologia Socratis; Lucian, Walker's Selections; Xenophon, Anab. books i., ii., iii.

Latin.—Virgil, Æneid, books i., ii., iii., vi.; Horace, Odes; Horace, Satires and Epistles; Sallust; Livy, books iii. and iv.; Terence, Andrian and Heautontimorumenos.

Those who desire to compete for honours at entrance are examined on a subsequent day in passages from classical Greek and Latin authors not previously indicated; and also in general questions in grammar and history, and in Greek prose and Latin verse composition. Besides the honour of "first place" at entrance, prizes of the value of five pounds, and of two pounds, are awarded for excellence in each of the following subjects:—Greek verse,

Dublin. Latin verse, Greek prose, Latin prose, English literature and composition, and English history and modern geography. Premiums are also given for Hebrew. Those who enter after 21st March, and propose to go on with the junior freshman class, must pay a year in advance, instead of half a year, and their names must be on the college books on or before July.

Sizarship. The examination for sizarships is held annually, on days fixed by the Board, between Trinity Sunday and the end of Trinity term. This examination is conducted by papers. The course for classical sizarships is as follows:—Homer, Iliad; Demosthenes, Public Orations; Euripides, the four plays edited by Porson; Xenophon; Horace; Virgil; Lyric, books I.-x., both inclusive. Cicero's Orations; Terence; also Greek and Latin grammar; ancient geography; Greek and Roman history; English prose composition; and Greek and Latin composition, prose and verse.

The following is a table of the half-yearly charges for undergraduates and bachelors, including tuition, but exclusive of rooms and commons:—

Tutors. Every student at his admission must select one of the eighteen junior fellows who act as tutors, to be his instructor, and the guardian of his interests during his academic life. A student is not necessarily taught by his own tutor; for in the lectures described hereafter the undergraduates are, by an agreement among the tutor fellows, assigned to lecturers according to the tastes of individual fellows, and the convenience of the university authorities. Each class numbers about twenty-five. The tutors during term deliver lectures on the following subjects:—Mathematics, for the junior and senior freshman classes; logic and metaphysics, for senior freshmen; mathematical physics, for junior sophisters; experimental physics, for junior and senior sophisters; history and political economy, for junior sophisters; ethics, for senior sophisters; classics, for the four undergraduate classes. Besides these, there are special lectures for the candidates for honours, by the honour examiners and their sub-lecturers, on the subjects of the extra honour course, in all the above departments; also for candidate moderators, by the university professors, and Erasmus Smith's professors; and in Hebrew for all students. Courses of lectures are also delivered to resident bachelors of arts, on subjects suited to their state of advancement and their prospects.

Courses. Freshmen are also required to attend weekly catechetical lectures. The course for all students is as follows:—First year, mathematics, Greek, Latin; second year, mathematics, logic and metaphysics, Greek, Latin; third year, logic and metaphysics, physics, Greek, Latin; fourth year, astronomy, ethics, mathematical physics, experimental physics, classics; but, in this fourth year, professional students are compelled to take only three of these courses, astronomy, ethics, and any one of the others which they themselves may prefer. Non-professional students must take four. An extended course of studies is prescribed for those who aspire to academic honours. These honours are awarded three times in the year during the first three years of the course, prizes of L.4 and L.2 being given at the Michaelmas examination, and parchment certificates on the other occasions. The limit to the number of first honours is one-fortieth of the entire class, and of second honours double the former. In the fourth year, the same system is continued, except that at the Michaelmas examination, senior and junior moderatorships, with gold and silver medals, are substituted for money prizes, the number awarded being decided as above. Moderatorships are attainable in (1.) mathematics and mathematical physics; (2.) classics; (3.) logic and ethics; (4.) experimental and natural science (including physics, chemistry and mineralogy, geology and palaeontology, zoology and botany); (5.) history, political science, and English literature. At the examinations, senior and junior freshmen are accountable for the science taught in all the preceding terms from the beginning of the course; senior and junior sophisters, for the science taught from the beginning of the third or junior sophister year; but, except for honours at the degree examination, the science of the freshmen classes is not carried beyond the second year. To keep his class, a pensioner must have credit each year for one examination and one term of lectures, or for two out of the three examinations of his class, one of which must be the third or October examination, if he is either a senior freshman or a senior sophister. A senior sophister who may not have

secured credit for his October examination, may qualify himself for his degree by answering in the same business at any subsequent examination of senior sophisters; and a senior freshman may repair the like omission in the same way at the first examination of the senior sophister year.

Each term commences with an examination, not only of the examinations of that immediately preceding, but, with the exceptions already stated, of the substance of most of those which had been previously gone over. These examinations are of peculiar importance in the University of Dublin, from their effect upon the students generally, and because they constitute, to a very large proportion of those who graduate there, the only university education they receive. We have already alluded to that peculiarity of discipline by which residence is not enforced on undergraduates. Any student, unless he be a scholar, is permitted, at his own discretion, to prepare himself for the examinations without residing in the college or in the city; and on his being represented by his tutor as a resident in the country, no other academic duties are required of him. The expense of residence would be an insuperable obstacle to many who are at present in the university; and therefore, by the admission of non-resident students, some part of the advantages of a university education is extended to a large number of individuals by whom, if residence were enforced, not even that part would be attainable. Thus, while five or six hundred students annually receive at Dublin all the advantages that residence and college discipline can communicate, about an equal number are induced to study, and are furnished with the means of attaining one at least of the objects proposed by a university education, namely, the power of acquiring knowledge. The examiners are the fellows. The students of the same class or year assemble together for examination, and are separated into divisions not exceeding forty, to each of which one examiner is assigned for each subject of that year's course. The examination of each class occupies four or more days—the first two days being devoted to the determination of judgments, and the remaining two or more to the separate examination of honour-men. The examiners of the first two days select from their divisions such as they deem qualified to become candidates for honours or prizes, and return their names to the senior lecturer. The examination of those who have not been selected for honours is then concluded; but on a third day the candidates selected for honours in science are examined by a separate court of examiners; on a fourth day, the candidates for honours in classics; and, on future days, those who seek honours in the other subjects of the term, each subject being assigned a separate day, and the examination, as in the former case, being conducted partly ex officio, and partly by written papers. At the conclusion of each examination, lists of the successful candidates for prizes, honours, or moderatorships, are made out by the senior lecturer, who is required to insert them in his book, and also to have them affixed to the college gates, and published in the newspapers. The successful candidates of each rank are arranged according to the order of their standing on the college books, excepting only the senior moderators, who, at the degree examination, are placed according to the order of merit.

The Comitia, or commences, for conferring degrees, are held Comitia, three times a year—on Shrove Tuesday, on the last Wednesday in Trinity term, and on the last Wednesday in Michaelmas term. The grace of the house for a degree in any faculty must first be granted by the provost and senior fellows before it can be proposed to the caput. Those who have been admitted to a degree at the Board are then presented to the vice-chancellor and the whole university, at a public congregation, by the regius professor of the faculty in which the degree is to be taken; or if it be a degree in arts, by one of the proctors. If no member of the caput objects, the presenting officer supplicates the congregation for their public grace, and collects their suffrages; if the placit be the majority, the candidates kneel before the vice-chancellor, who confers the degree, according to a formula fixed by the university statutes.

There are two classes of scholarships, for merit (1.) in classics; Scholar (2.) in science. The examination for classical scholarships is held annually on Friday and Saturday of Ascension week, and on Monday and Tuesday of the week following; and that for science scholarships on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of Ascension week. The examiners are the provost and senior fellows. Scholarships are open to all students, being or becoming members of the Established (i.e., Episcopal) Church, and are tenable till the holder is entitled to the degree of master of arts. Students of higher standing are also permitted to become candidates, but an extended course of reading is required of them. The course appointed includes all the classics read for entrance, and in the extended course for undergraduates, to the end of the second examination of the

¹ In all the examinations, whether for pass or prizes, scholarships, sizarships, and such like, in which relative merit is to be ascertained, the judgments are given in numbers.

Dublin. junior sophister year; or, should the candidate be of higher standing than that of junior sophister (reckoned from the time of his entrance), to the end of the last examination which he might have answered had he proceeded regularly with his class. Candidates are also examined on part of the Aristotelian logic. The examination is conducted partly viva voce, and partly by papers. The scholars have their commons free of expense, and their rooms for half the charge paid by pensioners; they pay half fees for tuition, but are exempted from college charges or decrements, and receive from the college an annual salary. The number of these foundation scholars is seventy. But besides these there are non-foundation scholarships (founded in 1854), open to students of all religious denominations. The course, emoluments, and tenure of office are the same as in the other scholarships, but the holders of the non-foundation scholarships are not members of the corporation, and do not enjoy the university franchise. The entire value of a scholarship is rather more than £50 per annum. There are also Biblical scholarships, Bedell scholarships (for Irish language), queen's scholarships, and royal scholarships, connected with certain endowed schools.

Fellowship examination. The fellowship examination, when a vacancy occurs, is held by the provost and senior fellows (who may call in three of the junior fellows, being professors, to assist in the examination), on the Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday after Ascension day; and on Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of the week following. The examination continues from nine to twelve A.M., and from two to five P.M. each day; and is conducted partly viva voce, and partly by papers, and in the English language. The income of a senior fellow, arising from various sources, is generally estimated at from £1200 to £1500 per annum; but it necessarily fluctuates according to the offices held. The emoluments of the majority of the junior fellows are derived entirely from tuition. The average income is about £600, but some of the highest are much above that sum.

Church patronage. The college has at its disposal twenty-one lucrative benefices in the northern dioceses, and the vacancies are supplied by the fellows, if they choose to accept of the presentation. By the late act for regulating the Established Church in Ireland, the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin were empowered to select a benefice, not exceeding the annual value of £1000, out of each of the ten extinguished bishoprics; to which benefices, when vacant, they are to nominate a fellow or ex-fellow of the college. The incomes of the senior fellows arise partly from certain fees, and partly from the college lands. The provost derives his income partly from the general funds of the college, and partly from lands appropriated to his use. His whole income is about £3500 per annum.

Studentships. To encourage meritorious students, and to make some provision for those who, after graduation, desire to devote their time and energies to the cultivation of some branch of learning, which they may be called on to teach in the university, in the event of their becoming fellows or lecturers, fourteen studentships were founded by royal statute in 1859. These are open to candidates of all religious denominations, and are tenable for a period not exceeding seven years. The salary, which is fixed by the provost and senior fellows, is not to exceed £100 per annum. Full power is vested in the provost and senior fellows to make all arrangements as to the election of candidates, the subjects of examination, and the number of studentships to be filled up every year. They have decided that two students shall be elected annually, one from the senior moderators in classics, and one from the senior moderators in mathematics and physics. If any individual holding a studentship be elected a fellow, his studentship thereupon becomes vacant.

Divinity, Engineering. The divinity and engineering schools connected with Trinity College are specially worthy of notice, from the thoroughly practical nature of the system pursued in them, and from the energy with which that system is carried into operation. For details, see the Dublin University CALENDAR.

The number of first-year students matriculated in 1858-9 was 11 fellow commoners and 247 pensioners. Students on the books, December 1859, about 1400.

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY.

Foundation. In the year 1845, an act passed the Imperial Parliament "to enable her Majesty to endow new colleges for the advancement of learning in Ireland;" and in the end of the same year letters patent were issued, incorporating three such colleges, one in Belfast, one in Cork, and one in Galway, under the title of "Queen's Colleges." At the same time a president and vice-president were appointed to each college, and the six gentlemen thus selected were formed into the "Board of Queen's Colleges," for the purpose of drawing up the statutes, and arranging the system of education to be pursued in them. In August 1849, the

professors were nominated, and the colleges were opened for the reception of students on the 30th October following.

The patent constituting the "Queen's University in Ireland," of which the institutions in Belfast, Cork, and Galway were to be affiliated colleges, was not issued till 1850. The seat of this university is in the city of Dublin, where all meetings of the senate for conferring degrees, and for other purposes, are held in a place fixed by warrant of the Lord Lieutenant. The control and government of the university are vested in a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and Chancellor; a senate of not more than twenty persons, three of whom and senate, are the presidents of the three colleges, for the time being, the other members to be nominated by the sovereign, and to be removable at pleasure. The vice-chancellor is elected by the members of the senate from their own number; the appointment, however, being subject to the approval of the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for the time being. His term of office is one year.

And, proceeds the patent, "we reserve to ourselves and Visitors, our successors, and to those whom we or they may think fit to appoint for the purpose, to be the visitors of the said Queen's University in Ireland, with full power and authority to do all those things which pertain to visitors, as often as to us and our successors shall seem fit." A visitation is held every three years, or oftener, if necessary.

The chancellor and senate of the university have power to appoint and direct the examination for all degrees, to confer such degrees, to sign certificates for the same, and also to make such arrangements as may be expedient for examination for such university scholarships and prizes as may be hereafter founded. They have also power, with the approbation of the lord-lieutenant, to make such alterations in the course of studies as shall seem fit to them from time to time; but the several colleges are not in any way "under the jurisdiction or control of the university senate, further than as regards the regulations for qualifications for the several degrees in the faculties of arts, medicine, and law, the said colleges being only subjected to the charters, statutes, rules, ordinances, issued and approved, or hereafter to be issued and approved" by the sovereign.

Each college is formed into a body politic and corporate under the The college name and title of "The president, vice-president, and professors of leges. the Queen's College," Belfast, Cork, and Galway, respectively. The number of professors was at first fixed at twelve, but by a patent granted in 1849, leave was given to increase this staff to not more than thirty. The affairs of each college are managed by a council, consisting of the president, vice-president, and the four deans of faculty; viz. the dean of the literary division of the faculty of arts, the dean of the science division of the faculty of arts, the dean of the faculty of medicine, and the dean of the faculty of law; the dean being elected by the professors of each faculty from among themselves. The college council has power to make regulations for the government of the college in cases not provided for by the statutes, rules, and ordinances; also to arrange the courses of instruction to be pursued in the college, and to prescribe the matriculation, scholarship, and other examinations of the college; also to make regulations for the maintenance of discipline and good conduct among the students, in cases not provided for by the statutes, rules, or ordinances, and to fix the penalties and punishments which shall be attached to the violation of the same. The library and the museum, and the offices connected with each, are under the charge of the council, and the common funds for the maintenance, cleaning, heating, and lighting of the buildings are managed by it.

Upon the president are devolved those duties which usually fall President to the head of such an establishment. He is the mouthpiece of the college to the public—the medium of communication with the government—he presides at all college meetings—reports annually to the lord-lieutenant on the state of his college—he appoints the porters and servants, and regulates their duties—he visits the classrooms, and remonstrates, when necessary, with negligent professors—he grants leave of absence to professors, and other officers of the college—he makes arrangements for the holding of visitations, and can call extraordinary meetings of the visitors, when necessary.

The vice-president, besides the usual duties of such an office, Vice-president has power to visit, at any time, any class-room, or hall, or office, in sident. the college; he exercises a constant supervision over all departments, and especially has charge of the maintenance of discipline and order.

Each professor, on his appointment, makes a declaration, that in Professors all his engagements in the college he will refrain from making

Dublin. any statement derogatory to the truths of revealed religion, or disrespectful to the religious convictions of any portion of his class.

Scholarships. There are thirty junior scholarships of L.24 each, which are awarded by examination to matriculated students of the faculty of arts, ten to students of the first year, ten to those of the second, and ten to those of the third. Besides which, there are two scholarships of L.20 each, awarded to engineering students, of the first and second year respectively; and four of L.15 each in the department of agriculture, two to students of the first year, and two to those of the second. Of the ten junior scholarships of each year, five are set apart for the literary division of the course, and five for the science division.

Students. There are six junior scholarships of L.20 each in the faculty of medicine, and three of the same value in that of law, two of the former and one of the latter being appropriated to students of the first, second, and third year respectively. All these scholarships are awarded by examination at the beginning of each session, and are tenable for only one year, but former holders of them are admissible for re-election by examination, in each successive year of the course. The junior scholars in arts, medicine, and law take charge of the rolls of the classes, note the attendance of students at lecture, and assist the professors in the arrangements for lectures; they pay the same fees on behalf of the college as other matriculated students, but a moiety of the class fees is remitted during their term of office.

Deans of residence. There are ten senior scholarships of L.40 each, which are tenable for one year, and which are open to bachelors of arts of the Queen's University. Seven of these are given to the faculty of arts (one to classics and ancient history, one to modern languages and modern history, one to mathematics, one to natural philosophy, one to metaphysics and economical science, one to chemistry, and one to natural history); two to the faculty of medicine (one to anatomy and physiology, and one to therapeutics and pathology), and one to the faculty of law. The senior scholars assist the professors in the matriculation and class examinations, and in conducting the business of the special departments of literature or science to which their scholarships severally belong.

Terms. Every matriculated student under twenty-one years of age must reside during the college terms either with parents or guardians, or with some friend or relative, to whom he shall be committed by his parents or guardians, and who shall be approved of by the president, or in some boarding-house, licensed and approved of by the president. Clergymen of the different religious denominations are appointed by the Queen, as deans of residence, to visit the boarding-houses, and take the superintendence of the moral and spiritual training of the students of their respective creeds. No clergyman is allowed to hold the office of dean of residence, unless he be approved of by the bishop, moderator, or constituted authority of his church.

Admission. The college session is divided into three terms:—The first extends from the middle of October to the end of December; the second from the beginning of January to the beginning of April; the third, from the middle of April to the end of the first week in June.

System of instruction. The mode of admission to the Queen's Colleges is by an examination held annually at the beginning of the first term. The students in the faculties of arts, law, and medicine, are examined in the English, Greek, and Latin languages, and the elements of history and mathematics. The examinations, both matriculation and others, are conducted partly viva voce, and partly in writing. Besides the above general matriculation examination, there is an additional matriculation examination in the second week of November, for those students who have not presented themselves at, or who have not passed, the general examination.

All matriculated students are ranged in the following classes:—
I. Those intending to proceed to the degree of A.B. and A.M.
II. Those intending to proceed to the degree of M.D.
III. Those intending to proceed to the diploma of elementary law.
IV. Those intending to proceed to the degrees of LL.B. and LL.D.
V. Those intending to proceed to the diploma of civil engineering.
VI. Those intending to proceed to the diploma of agriculture.

For each of these classes there is a special course of study prescribed. Candidates for the degree of A.B. must attend three sessions at any one of the Queen's colleges. In their first year they must study the Greek and Latin languages, three terms; the English language, one term; the modern languages, three terms; and mathematics, three terms. SECOND YEAR, logic, one term; chemistry, three terms; zoology and botany, three terms; the higher mathematics, or Greek and Latin, three terms. THIRD YEAR, natural

philosophy, three terms; history and English literature, three terms; Colonial, physical geography, one term; metaphysics, two terms; jurisprudence and political economy, one term each. There are also special courses for the other departments, which will be found in the college calendar. The education in the Queen's Colleges is carried on by lectures, and by daily oral examinations in the class-room. There are general class examinations at the end of each session, in the subjects on which lectures have been delivered during that session. There are also supplementary examinations in the same subjects at the commencement of the following session, one or other of which must be passed before the student gets credit as having completed the session.

After completing the course of three years, candidates for the degree of A.B. are obliged to pass an extended examination in classics, mathematics, and some modern language, besides some departments of science chosen by each student from a specified list of subjects.

Bachelors of arts are admissible to the degree of master of arts at the expiry of one year from the time of their obtaining their junior degree, provided they have attended, for at least two terms subsequent to graduation, a course of lectures on some one of the subjects of the course of study which they may have selected. The degree is conferred after an examination in any one of four courses—(1.) Greek and Latin classic authors, prose composition in Greek, Latin, and English; a modern foreign language. (2.) English philology and criticism, logic, metaphysics, or (in place of metaphysics, at the option of the candidate) political economy and jurisprudence. (3.) Mathematical and physical science. (4.) Experimental natural sciences.

The degrees of M.D. and LL.B. are obtained on examination at the end of the fourth year from entrance. LL.D. may be gained by examination three years after LL.B. All these degrees are bona fide tests of merit, ascertained by a searching examination.

For an arts' student proceeding to the degree of A.B. and A.M., Fees. the aggregate of fees for the first year is L.8. 10s.; for the second, L.8. 5s.; and for the third, L.5. 5s. The fees for other courses vary according to the number of classes required. The above charges include the fee for graduation.

The officers of the colleges are paid partly by a government endowment, and partly from the fees of the students. The salary of the president is L.800; of the vice-president (who is also a professor), L.500, besides fees; the professors of Greek, Latin, history, and English literature, mathematics, natural philosophy, logic, and metaphysics, L.250 each, besides the class fees. The professors of natural history, modern languages, mineralogy, geology, anatomy and physiology, L.200 each; the others L.150 or L.100, and all of course with class fees besides. The sum of money granted by parliament for the university in 1860 was L.2371; and for the colleges, L.4800.

The following are the number of the students (matriculated and non-matriculated) attending the three colleges in 1859-60.

COLONIAL UNIVERSITIES.

The following is a list of the universities and colleges established Colonial in the British colonies. In Canada West are the University of Toronto, under the government of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and ties. a council consisting of twenty-four members; and, in affiliation with it, University College, with a president, a vice-president, and ten professors. The University of Trinity College, Toronto, with a council and seven professors; the University of Queen's College, Queenstown, conducted by a board of trustees and thirteen professors; and Victoria College, Cobourg, with a senate, a board of trustees, and seventeen professors and tutors. In Canada East are McGill's College, Montreal, an incorporation consisting of the governors, principal, and fellows, and conducted by twenty-four professors; and the University of Bishop's College, Lennexville, with a president, vice-president, chancellor, vice-chancellor, a board of trustees, and four professors. All these institutions have the power of conferring degrees. Besides these, there are in Toronto, Toronto School of Medicine, in affiliation with the university; Roxa's College, a divinity school belonging to the Free Church of Scotland; Canadian Congregational Theological Institute; Divinity Hall of the United Presbyterian Synod, &c. &c. There are, besides, King's College at Fredericton, New Brunswick; and King's College at Windsor, and Dalhousie College at Halifax, Nova Scotia; all having the privilege of conferring degrees. A university has been established at Sydney, in New South Wales, and another at Melbourne, in Victoria or Port Phillip.

FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES.

UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE.

University of France, before the revolution, contained twenty-three universities, of which the most important have already been described. The others were those of Aix, Angers, Avignon, Besançon, Bourges, Bordeaux, Caen, Cahors, Dijon, Douai, Nantes, Orange, Pau, Perpignan, Poitiers, Pont-à-Mousson, Reims, Strasbourg, and Valence. These venerable institutions disappeared during the revolution, and the public education of the country was for some time left without any legislative support. After several unsuccessful attempts to establish a national system, an Imperial University was instituted by Napoleon I. in 1808, which, with some modifications, has survived the various changes of government which the country has since undergone. The University of France embraces the whole system of national education, and includes all the institutions for imparting instruction which are spread over the whole kingdom, from the lowest schools up to the imperial lyceums and the academies. The term is thus to be considered as synonymous with the French national system of education. The university is placed under the control of the minister of public instruction as president, with a vice-president, secretary, and a council consisting of twenty-nine members, to some of whom special duties of supervision are assigned. Subordinate to this council are the inspectors-general of the university, who are required to examine once a year the institutions of every description, each within a certain district assigned to him, and to transmit a report to the council. The university is composed of seventeen academies, each of which comprehends two, three, or more of the departments into which the kingdom is divided, and contains one or more imperial lyceums. The presiding officer of each academy is the rector, who is appointed by the minister of public instruction, and is assisted by a secretary and a staff of inspectors. The governing body of each academy has the superintendence of all the communal colleges, institutions, pensions (boarding schools), normal schools, or schools for the education of teachers, and primary schools within the district which the seminary comprehends. Besides the superintending body, the academy includes the teaching corps, or faculties; namely, the faculties of letters, sciences, medicine, law, and theology, all of which, however, do not actually exist in every academy. The faculties contain a variable number of professors, one of whom is dean, and a committee of whom examine candidates for degrees. The degrees conferred are those of Bachelor, Licentiate, and Doctor; and for the attainment of each a definite course of study is prescribed. There are, however, certain institutions which are not subject to the jurisdiction of the university; as the Imperial College of France, the Museum of Natural History, the Ecole des Chartes, School of Oriental Languages, the French Institute, and societies of all kinds for the advancement of knowledge.

The imperial lyceums, which represent the great public schools in this country, and receive pupils between the ages of seven and seventeen, are supported chiefly by the government; and the salaries of the professors are paid from the budget of the minister of public instruction. In each there is a regular staff of professors, and a course of instruction qualifying for the degree of bachelor of letters is afforded. The students are divided into two classes, the internes and externes, or boarders and day-scholars. The communal colleges, which represent the better class of our initiatory schools, are supported principally by the communes in which they are situated; some of them have endowments, but the majority depend chiefly for their support on the fees paid by the students. The professors or teachers receive small salaries.

There are six faculties of Catholic theology: at Aix, Bordeaux, Lyon, Paris, Rouen, and Toulouse (those at Aix, Rouen, and Toulouse not being in operation); and two of Protestant theology: one of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confession, at Strasbourg; and another, of the Calvinist or Helvetic Confession, at Montauban, under the academy of Toulouse. The faculties of law are nine: at Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg, and Toulouse. There are three faculties of medicine: at Paris, Montpellier, and Strasbourg; twenty-two preparatory schools of medicine and pharmacy: at Marseille, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Rouen, Clermont, Dijon, Lille, Arras, Amiens, Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Reims, Poitiers, Tours, Limoges, Rennes, Nantes, Angers, and Toulouse; and superior schools of pharmacy at Paris and Strasbourg. The faculties of sciences and letters are in operation in all the academies, with the exception of that recently instituted at Chambéry.

In order to become a student in the faculty of law or theology, a person must have taken the degree of bachelor of letters; and a course of three years in either faculty is requisite to obtain the degree of bachelor; for the degree of doctor, four years; and to obtain the degree of doctor in divinity, the candidate must defend a final and general thesis. Candidates for the degree of doctor in medicine must have taken the degree of bachelor of letters, and also of sciences, and must complete a course of four years. The faculties of law and medicine at Paris are greatly distinguished.

The following table contains a list of the Academies which constitute the University of France, the number of territorial departments included in each academical district, the faculties, professors, and annual public expenditure on each academy, and the number of imperial lyceums and communal colleges which are under the supervision of each academy:—

Had space permitted, it would have been very desirable to give a short account of some of the great German universities; but, while admitting their claim to a notice in detail, we are reluctantly constrained to satisfy ourselves with the following statistical table, which embraces all the continental universities. The returns from which it has been compiled were obtained through the kindness of Lord John Russell, her Majesty's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and may, it is believed, be relied on. We have pleasure in recording this additional proof of the interest which his Lordship has uniformly manifested in everything connected with the advancement of knowledge and social progress. We regret that no returns have been received from Russia, Spain, or Tuscany.

List of the Continental Universities (exclusive of that of France), with the date of Foundation, the number of Students and Professors, the Yearly Expenditure, &c., generally for Session 1858-59.

UNIVERSITIES.

COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.

Colleges—Continued.

To render our account of the seminaries for higher education as complete as possible, we have added, from the American Almanac for 1859, a list of the Colleges and Professional Schools in the United States. We have subjoined, from the same source, lists of the medical, theological, and law schools.

Colleges.

Remarks.

The Colleges marked thus (*) are under the direction of the Episcopate; thus (†), Episcopalian; thus (‡), Methodist; thus (§), Catholic. With respect to the Colleges which are unmarked, the prevailing religious influence of those that are in the New England States is Congregationalism; of most of the others, Presbyterianism.

By instructors in the above table is meant those connected with the undergraduates; and by students, except the Roman Catholic institutions and a few of the colleges in the Southern and Western States, is meant undergraduates, or members of the four collegiate classes; not including such as are pursuing a professional education, or such as are members of a preparatory department. Some of the colleges above enumerated are not in full operation, and scarcely deserve a place in the table.

The above table shows the condition of the colleges near January 1858. Returns have not been received from several of the colleges to so late a date.

Medical Schools.