a place set apart for horse and chariot races among the Romans. The Greeks called such a place a hippodrome (ἱππόδρομος). At Rome, the circi were also used for popular meetings of various kinds, and are therefore described by the poets as localities in which friends and acquaintances who did not often meet had opportunities of seeing one another, and where persons might form new friendships. But the principal destination of a circus was, and remained to the latest times, horse and chariot races, together with other gymnastic and athletic exercises, which were designated by the name ludii circenses, or simply circenses, and of which the Romans were at all times passionately fond. These amusements of the circus did not materially differ from the Greek agonès or contests, celebrated at Olympia, Delphi, and elsewhere; and were certainly of a nobler kind than the frightful gladiatorial fights of the amphitheatres, though sometimes a circus also was polluted by these inhuman exhibitions.

The most ancient, largest, and most celebrated circus at Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine. Tradition assigns its construction to king Tarquinius Priscus, and it cannot have been older than the cloaca, by which the ground was drained and made fit for buildings. It occupied the whole length of the valley, now called La via de Cerchi. In the course of time this place was adorned in a variety of ways, and in the end it became one of the grandest and most magnificent structures of ancient Rome. At first the patricians and equites (for the plebeians were originally not admitted) viewed the games from temporary platforms (spectacula, fori, or foruli) which each had to make for himself; but afterwards a permanent building was constructed with regular tiers of seats all around the place, except on the side where the horses and chariots entered, and where in B.C. 329 stalls for horses and chariots (carceres) were erected. In B.C. 198 it was adorned with gilt statues; and other ornaments continued to be added until the time of Julius Cæsar, who made this circus about three stadia in length, and 400 feet in breadth. He further surrounded the whole of the inner area with a canal (euripus) 10 feet broad and as many feet deep. The podium and the lowest tier of seats were of stone, and the upper ones of wood. The circumference of the whole amounted to eight stadia; and the number of spectators said to have found room in this enormous structure is variously stated between 150,000 and 260,000. In the centre of the area was a low wall (spina) running lengthways down the course, and this spina was adorned by Augustus with a great obelisk. The same emperor also built the *pudicinum* or emperor's seat. Claudius caused the carceres, which had been built of tufa and wood, to be made of marble. At each end of the spina there were three wooden pillars (*metae*) of a conical shape, which were gilt by the emperor Claudius. The subsequent emperors likewise did much to enhance the magnificence of the circus; but it reached its height in the reign of Trajan, when, as Pliny observes, the long flanks of the circus rivalled the beauty of temples. This emperor enlarged the circus so much that it was capable of containing the whole Roman people; and we afterwards hear of 383,000 or even 485,000 spectators. Constantine brought to Rome the splendid obelisk which now stands before the north portico of the Lateran church, to adorn the Circus Maximus. This is the only remnant of the most ancient Roman race-course, although if excavations were made many valuable treasures of art would no doubt be discovered.

The circus next in importance at Rome was the *Circus Flaminius*. It was outside the city on the spot which had previously been called the *prata Flaminia*, where the plebeians used to meet for deliberation before the building of the circus, and where they, no doubt, celebrated the plebeian games. It is generally believed that this circus was built by Caius Flaminius, who was defeated by Hannibal, at the Thrasyrene Lake, B.C. 217; at any rate we have no distinct allusion to it until the year B.C. 211. From the neighbouring temple of Apollo, it is sometimes called *Circus Apollinaris*. The traces of this circus, which can still be recognised, are somewhat more numerous than those of the Circus Maximus, although here, too, everything is built over; but the foundations of the church S. Caterina de' Funari, and of many other buildings in the neighbourhood, belong to the Circus Flaminius.

Besides these two, several other circi were built during the imperial period, as—1. The *Circus Agonalis*, in which only Greek games or contests (*agones*) were held, and the site of which can still be recognised on the Piazza Navona. It was built by the emperor Alexander Severus in the form of a Greek stadium. 2. The *Circus Vaticanus*, commenced by Caligula and completed by Nero. To it belonged the obelisk now standing on the area in front of St Peter's. A few remnants of its walls have been discovered, which show that it must have been destroyed at an early period. 3. The *Circus of Sallust*, situated in the gardens called the gardens of Sallust. It was constructed in such a manner that it could be used also for naumachiae. Its site is still marked by considerable ruins. The obelisk belonging to it has been removed by Pope Pius VI. to the area in front of the Church della Trinita de' Monti. 4. The *Circus of Flora*, on the Quirinal hill, or between it and the Mons Pincius, is not often mentioned, and seems not to have been used for horse or chariot races. 5. The *Circus of Hadrian* is supposed to have been commenced by Nero, and to have been completed by Hadrian. It was situated in the garden of Domitia, an aunt of Nero, where Hadrian built his mausoleum, and was probably intended for funeral games in honour of those whose remains were deposited in the mausoleum. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some interesting remains of this circus were discovered. 6. The *Circus of Caracalla* is to us the most important of all; for, though it was surpassed by others in splendour and magnitude, important remains of it still exist which give us an idea of the construction of such edifices in general. They are to be found outside the Porta S. Sebastiano, and still bear the name of "Il Circo," or "La Giostra di Caracalla." In all discussions upon ancient circuses, this one must be our guide, as it is more perfectly preserved than any other. It is very minutely described and figured in the work of Bianconi, *Descr. de' Cerchi, ed. Fea*.

All the circuses we have here noticed differed greatly in their length as well as in their breadth. Their original destination was often departed from; and especially the Circus Maximus, from its size, was often used as a place for hunting wild beasts, and for combats between whole troops of cavalry and infantry. It was on this account that Caesar ordered the curipus to be made to protect the spectators in the lowest row against the infuriated beasts, and especially against the elephants. Besides this curipus, which Nero filled up again, the spectators in the lower seats were protected by iron railings. The most splendid part of the whole building was the spina, which was adorned with statues and altars, and in almost every case had an obelisk imported from Egypt.

As the Circensian games were so much enjoyed by the Romans, we may easily imagine that many other cities imitated them; and hence we find circi mentioned, at Azani, Anagnia, Alexandria in Egypt, Rhodes, Athens, Gaza, Jerusalem, and in Gaul at Nismes, Narbonne, and in the country of the Belgae.

For a full description of the architectural detail of a circus, see the work of Bianconi above referred to, and Mr A. Rich in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Rom. Art, article *Circus*. See also AMPHITHEATRE.

(Circus)

CIENCESTER, or CICESTER, a parliamentary borough and market-town of England, county of Gloucester, and 16 miles S.E. of the town of that name; 88 miles by road, and 95 by the Great Western railway from London. It occupies the site of Corinium, Corinium, or Duro-corovium, the capital of the Dobuni and an important military station of the Romans, situated at the junction of three Roman roads. In 878 it was taken by the Danes; and was the seat of a great council held by Canute in 1020. A magnificent abbey for Black Canons, of which some remains still exist, was founded here in 1117 by Henry I. Numerous Roman remains have at various times been discovered here; and traces of the ancient walls, two miles in circuit, are still to be seen. It returns two members to parliament; and, not being incorporated, is governed by two high constables and 14 wardsmen, who are elected annually. Pop. (1851) 6096; electors (1851-2) 434. It stands on the river Churn, is connected by a branch with the Thames and Severn canal, and consists of four principal streets of generally well built houses, but is a place of no trade. The church is a fine old structure of the fifteenth century, with an embattled tower 134 feet high, a fine decorated porch, several lateral chapels, and many interesting monuments. It has a free grammar-school, three hospitals, alms-houses, savings-bank, museum, public library, dispensary, breweries, and a carpet factory. Market-days Monday and Friday. An agricultural college has been lately established in the vicinity, with chapel, lecture rooms, library, museum, laboratories, &c., and an experimental farm of 500 acres.